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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Discovery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrain_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrain_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Terrain features </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Terrain_features-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Terrain features subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Terrain_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hydrothermal_vents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrothermal_vents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Hydrothermal vents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrothermal_vents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_seeps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_seeps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Cold seeps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_seeps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Biodiversity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exploitation_of_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploitation_of_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Exploitation of resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploitation_of_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_abyssal_plains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_abyssal_plains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 List of abyssal plains </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_abyssal_plains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Abyssal plain</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" > 47 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%87%D9%84_%D8%B3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%82" title="سهل سحيق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سهل سحيق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abissal_d%C3%BCz%C9%99nlik" title="Abissal düzənlik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Abissal düzənlik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF" title="গহন সমভূমি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গহন সমভূমি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Абісальныя раўніны – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Абісальныя раўніны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D1%8A%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Абисално дъно – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Абисално дъно" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plana_abissal" title="Plana abissal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Plana abissal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyss%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_plo%C5%A1ina" title="Abyssální plošina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Abyssální plošina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiefseeebene" title="Tiefseeebene – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tiefseeebene" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C3%BCssaalne_tasandik" title="Abüssaalne tasandik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Abüssaalne tasandik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llanura_abisal" title="Llanura abisal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Llanura abisal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordoki_abisal" title="Ordoki abisal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ordoki abisal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="دشت مغاکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دشت مغاکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaine_abyssale" title="Plaine abyssale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Plaine abyssale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1_aibh%C3%A9iseach" title="Má aibhéiseach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Má aibhéiseach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaira_abisal" title="Chaira abisal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Chaira abisal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%AC%ED%95%B4%EC%A0%80_%ED%8F%89%EC%9B%90" title="심해저 평원 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="심해저 평원" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A2%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AC_%D5%B6%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AE%D6%84%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Աբիսալ նստվածքներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աբիսալ նստվածքներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अतल मैदान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अतल मैदान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abisalna_ravnica" title="Abisalna ravnica – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Abisalna ravnica" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dataran_abisal" title="Dataran abisal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dataran abisal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piana_abissale" title="Piana abissale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Piana abissale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="აბისალური ვაკეები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აბისალური ვაკეები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Абиссальды жазық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Абиссальды жазық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plenn_abisal" title="Plenn abisal – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Plenn abisal" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D1%82%D2%AF%D0%B7%D0%B4%D2%AF%D0%BA%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%80%D2%AF" title="Абиссаль түздүктөрү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Абиссаль түздүктөрү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abis%C4%81lais_l%C4%ABdzenums" title="Abisālais līdzenums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Abisālais līdzenums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Абисална рамнина – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Абисална рамнина" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyssale_vlakte" title="Abyssale vlakte – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Abyssale vlakte" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B7%B1%E6%B5%B7%E5%B9%B3%E5%8E%9F" title="深海平原 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="深海平原" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyphavsslette" title="Dyphavsslette – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dyphavsslette" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djuphavsslette" title="Djuphavsslette – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Djuphavsslette" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abissal_tekisliklar" title="Abissal tekisliklar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Abissal tekisliklar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3wnina_abisalna" title="Równina abisalna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Równina abisalna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan%C3%ADcie_abissal" title="Planície abissal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Planície abissal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Абиссальная равнина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Абиссальная равнина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subbissu" title="Subbissu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Subbissu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Abyssal plain" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abisalna_ravnina" title="Abisalna ravnina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Abisalna ravnina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djuphavssl%C3%A4tt" title="Djuphavsslätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Djuphavsslätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF" title="கடலடிச் சமவெளி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கடலடிச் சமவெளி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Абиссаль тигезлек – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Абиссаль тигезлек" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3" title="ที่ราบก้นสมุทร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ที่ราบก้นสมุทร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abisal_ova" title="Abisal ova – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Abisal ova" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abissal_d%C3%BCzl%C3%BCk" title="Abissal düzlük – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Abissal düzlük" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Flat area on the deep ocean floor</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic_basin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Oceanic_basin.svg/220px-Oceanic_basin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Oceanic_basin.svg/330px-Oceanic_basin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Oceanic_basin.svg/440px-Oceanic_basin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1001" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption>Diagrammatic cross-section of an <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">oceanic basin</a>, showing the relationship of the abyssal plain to a <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf#Topography" title="Continental shelf">continental rise</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trench</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oceanic_divisions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Oceanic_divisions.svg/220px-Oceanic_divisions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Oceanic_divisions.svg/330px-Oceanic_divisions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Oceanic_divisions.svg/440px-Oceanic_divisions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1114" data-file-height="835" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zone</a> in relation to other major <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">oceanic zones</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:auto;border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:gainsboro;"> Aquatic layers</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left; line-height:100%; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0;"> <dl><dd>   <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a> <dl><dd>   <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a> <dl><dd>   Epipelagic</dd></dl></dd> <dd>   <a href="/wiki/Aphotic_zone" title="Aphotic zone">Aphotic</a> <dl><dd>   <a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></dd> <dd>   <a href="/wiki/Bathypelagic_zone" title="Bathypelagic zone">Bathypelagic</a></dd> <dd>   <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">Abyssopelagic</a></dd> <dd>   <a href="/wiki/Hadal_zone" title="Hadal zone">Hadopelagic</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd>   <a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal</a></dd> <dd>   <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></dd></dl></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:gainsboro;"> <a href="/wiki/Stratification_(water)" title="Stratification (water)">Stratification</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left; line-height:100%; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0;"> <dl><dd>   <a href="/wiki/Pycnocline" title="Pycnocline">Pycnocline</a> <dl><dd>   <a href="/wiki/Isopycnal" title="Isopycnal">Isopycnal</a></dd> <dd>   <a href="/wiki/Chemocline" title="Chemocline">Chemocline</a> <dl><dd>   <a href="/wiki/Nutricline" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutricline">Nutricline</a></dd> <dd>   <a href="/wiki/Halocline" title="Halocline">Halocline</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd>   <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a> <dl><dd>   <a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:gainsboro;"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left; line-height:100%; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0;;text-align:center; line-height:140%; padding:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Ocean stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-right:0.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aquatic_layer_topics" title="Template:Aquatic layer topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aquatic_layer_topics" title="Template talk:Aquatic layer topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic_layer_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic layer topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> An abyssal plain is an underwater <a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plain</a> on the deep <a href="/wiki/Ocean_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean floor">ocean floor</a>, usually found at depths between 3,000 and 6,000 metres (9,800 and 19,700 ft). Lying generally between the foot of a <a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">continental rise</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</a>, abyssal plains cover more than 50% of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s surface.<a href="#cite_note-CRS2008-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vino1997-2">[2]</a> They are among the flattest, smoothest, and least explored regions on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Weaver-3">[3]</a> Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">oceanic basins</a> (the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_hill" title="Abyssal hill">abyssal hills</a>). The creation of the abyssal plain is the result of the spreading of the seafloor (plate tectonics) and the melting of the lower <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a>. Magma rises from above the <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a> (a layer of the upper <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a>), and as this <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> material reaches the surface at mid-ocean ridges, it forms new oceanic crust, which is constantly pulled sideways by spreading of the seafloor. Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>, mainly <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>. Much of this sediment is deposited by <a href="/wiki/Turbidity_current" title="Turbidity current">turbidity currents</a> that have been channelled from the <a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">continental margins</a> along <a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">submarine canyons</a> into deeper water. The rest is composed chiefly of <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediments" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagic sediments">pelagic sediments</a>. Metallic <a href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">nodules</a> are common in some areas of the plains, with varying concentrations of metals, including <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>. There are also amounts of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon, due to material that comes down and decomposes. Owing in part to their vast size, abyssal plains are believed to be major reservoirs of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. They also exert significant influence upon ocean <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycling</a>, dissolution of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">atmospheric CO2 concentrations</a> over <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">time scales</a> of a hundred to a thousand years. The structure of abyssal <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> is strongly influenced by the rate of <a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">flux of food</a> to the seafloor and the composition of the material that settles. Factors such as <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trawling" title="Trawling">fishing practices</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_nourishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean nourishment">ocean fertilization</a> have a substantial effect on patterns of <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">euphotic zone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CRS2008-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Animals absorb dissolved oxygen from the oxygen-poor waters. Much dissolved oxygen in abyssal plains came from polar regions that had melted long ago. Due to scarcity of oxygen, abyssal plains are inhospitable for organisms that would flourish in the oxygen-enriched waters above. <a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep sea coral reefs</a> are mainly found in depths of 3,000 meters and deeper in the abyssal and <a href="/wiki/Hadal_zone" title="Hadal zone">hadal zones</a>. Abyssal plains were not recognized as distinct <a href="/wiki/Physiographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiographic">physiographic</a> features of the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">sea floor</a> until the late 1940s and, until recently, none had been studied on a systematic basis. They are poorly preserved in the <a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">sedimentary record</a>, because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process. Due to darkness and a water pressure that can reach about 750 times atmospheric pressure (76 megapascal), abyssal plains are not well explored. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oceanic_zones">Oceanic zones</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Oceanic zones">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic zone</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pelagiczone.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pelagiczone.svg/220px-Pelagiczone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="632" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pelagiczone.svg/330px-Pelagiczone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pelagiczone.svg/440px-Pelagiczone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="522" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Pelagic zones</figcaption></figure> The ocean can be conceptualized as <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">zones</a>, depending on depth, and presence or absence of <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>. Nearly all <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">life forms</a> in the ocean depend on the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> activities of <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and other marine <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> to convert <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> into <a href="/wiki/Total_organic_carbon" title="Total organic carbon">organic carbon</a>, which is the basic building block of <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>. Photosynthesis in turn requires energy from sunlight to drive the chemical reactions that produce organic carbon.<a href="#cite_note-PNAS2009-5">[5]</a> The stratum of the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a> nearest the surface of the ocean (<a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>) is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic zone</a>. The photic zone can be subdivided into two different vertical regions. The uppermost portion of the photic zone, where there is adequate light to support photosynthesis by phytoplankton and plants, is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Euphotic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphotic zone">euphotic zone</a> (also referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone#Epipelagic_(sunlight)" title="Pelagic zone">epipelagic zone</a>, or surface zone).<a href="#cite_note-Csirke_1997_4-6">[6]</a> The lower portion of the photic zone, where the light intensity is insufficient for photosynthesis, is called the <a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">dysphotic zone</a> (dysphotic means "poorly lit" in Greek).<a href="#cite_note-Britann-7">[7]</a> The dysphotic zone is also referred to as the mesopelagic zone, or the twilight zone.<a href="#cite_note-enchantedlearning-8">[8]</a> Its lowermost boundary is at a <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a> of 12 °C (54 °F), which, in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> generally lies between 200 and 1,000 metres.<a href="#cite_note-Buesseler-9">[9]</a> The euphotic zone is somewhat arbitrarily defined as extending from the surface to the depth where the light intensity is approximately 0.1–1% of surface sunlight <a href="/wiki/Insolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Insolation">irradiance</a>, depending on <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">season</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> and degree of water <a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">turbidity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Csirke_1997_4-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Britann-7">[7]</a> In the clearest ocean water, the euphotic zone may extend to a depth of about 150 metres,<a href="#cite_note-Csirke_1997_4-6">[6]</a> or rarely, up to 200 metres.<a href="#cite_note-enchantedlearning-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">Dissolved substances</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)" title="Suspension (chemistry)">solid particles</a> absorb and scatter light, and in coastal regions the high concentration of these substances causes light to be attenuated rapidly with depth. In such areas the euphotic zone may be only a few tens of metres deep or less.<a href="#cite_note-Csirke_1997_4-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-enchantedlearning-8">[8]</a> The dysphotic zone, where light intensity is considerably less than 1% of surface irradiance, extends from the base of the euphotic zone to about 1,000 metres.<a href="#cite_note-Buesseler-9">[9]</a> Extending from the bottom of the photic zone down to the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Aphotic_zone" title="Aphotic zone">aphotic zone</a>, a region of perpetual darkness.<a href="#cite_note-enchantedlearning-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buesseler-9">[9]</a> Since the average depth of the ocean is about 4,300 metres,<a href="#cite_note-NOAA2008-10">[10]</a> the photic zone represents only a tiny fraction of the ocean's total volume. However, due to its capacity for photosynthesis, the photic zone has the greatest biodiversity and <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> of all oceanic zones. Nearly all primary production in the ocean occurs here. Life forms which inhabit the aphotic zone are often capable of <a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">movement upwards through the water column</a> into the photic zone for feeding. Otherwise, they must rely on <a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">material sinking from above</a>,<a href="#cite_note-CRS2008-1">[1]</a> or find another source of energy and nutrition, such as occurs in <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemosynthetic">chemosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> found near <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a>. The aphotic zone can be subdivided into three different vertical regions, based on depth and temperature. First is the <a href="/wiki/Bathyal_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyal zone">bathyal zone</a>, extending from a depth of 1,000 metres down to 3,000 metres, with water temperature decreasing from 12 °C (54 °F) to 4 °C (39 °F) as depth increases.<a href="#cite_note-Morelle2008-11">[11]</a> Next is the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zone</a>, extending from a depth of 3,000 metres down to 6,000 metres.<a href="#cite_note-Morelle2008-11">[11]</a> The final zone includes the deep oceanic trenches, and is known as the <a href="/wiki/Hadal_zone" title="Hadal zone">hadal zone</a>. This, the deepest oceanic zone, extends from a depth of 6,000 metres down to approximately 11,034 meters, at the very bottom of the Mariana Trench, the deepest point on planet Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Vino1997-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Morelle2008-11">[11]</a> Abyssal plains are typically in the abyssal zone, at depths from 3,000 to 6,000 metres.<a href="#cite_note-CRS2008-1">[1]</a> The table below illustrates the classification of oceanic zones: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Zone </th> <th>Subzone (common name) </th> <th>Depth of zone </th> <th>Water temperature </th> <th>Comments </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">euphotic</a> (epipelagic zone) </td> <td>0–200 metres </td> <td>highly variable </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">disphotic</a> (mesopelagic zone, or twilight zone) </td> <td>200–1,000 metres </td> <td>4 °C or 39 °F – highly variable </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Aphotic_zone" title="Aphotic zone">aphotic</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bathyal_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyal zone">bathyal</a> </td> <td>1,000–3,000 metres </td> <td>4–12 °C or 39–54 °F </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal</a> </td> <td>3,000–6,000 metres </td> <td>0–4 °C or 32–39 °F<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> </td> <td>water temperature may reach as high as 464 °C (867 °F) near <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a><a href="#cite_note-Haas2007-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Andrea2008-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kosch2008-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill2008-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Karst2009-17">[17]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hadal_zone" title="Hadal zone">hadal</a> </td> <td>below 6,000 metres<a href="#cite_note-Jame-18">[18]</a> </td> <td>1–2.5 °C or 34–36 °F<a href="#cite_note-ucsd-19">[19]</a> </td> <td>ambient water temperature increases below 4000 metres due to <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_heating#Adiabatic_heating_and_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic heating">adiabatic heating</a><a href="#cite_note-ucsd-19">[19]</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">Mantle convection</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png/220px-Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png/330px-Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png/440px-Tectonic_plate_boundaries.png 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="429" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a> is formed at a <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridge</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> is <a href="/wiki/Subducted" class="mw-redirect" title="Subducted">subducted</a> back into the <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trenches</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png/220px-Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png/330px-Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png/440px-Earth_seafloor_crust_age_1996_-_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1624" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption>Age of oceanic crust (red is youngest, and blue is oldest)</figcaption></figure> Oceanic crust, which forms the <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> of abyssal plains, is continuously being created at mid-ocean ridges (a type of <a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">divergent boundary</a>) by a process known as <a href="/wiki/Igneous_rock#Decompression" title="Igneous rock">decompression melting</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson1993-20">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">Plume</a>-related decompression melting of solid mantle is responsible for creating ocean islands like the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawaiian islands">Hawaiian islands</a>, as well as the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges. This phenomenon is also the most common explanation for <a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">flood basalts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">oceanic plateaus</a> (two types of <a href="/wiki/Large_igneous_province" title="Large igneous province">large igneous provinces</a>). Decompression melting occurs when the upper <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> is <a href="/wiki/Partial_melting" title="Partial melting">partially melted</a> into <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> as it moves upwards under mid-ocean ridges.<a href="#cite_note-White2001-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-22">[22]</a> This upwelling magma then cools and solidifies by <a href="/wiki/Conduction_(heat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conduction (heat)">conduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> of heat to form new <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a>. <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(geology)" title="Accretion (geology)">Accretion</a> occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic plate</a>, usually associated with <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a>. The age of oceanic crust is therefore a function of distance from the mid-ocean ridge.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The youngest oceanic crust is at the mid-ocean ridges, and it becomes progressively older, cooler and denser as it migrates outwards from the mid-ocean ridges as part of the process called <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">mantle convection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-University_of_Winnipeg-24">[24]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a>, which rides atop the <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a>, is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite <a href="/wiki/Plate_boundaries#Types_of_plate_boundaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Plate boundaries">plate boundaries</a>. Oceanic crust and tectonic plates are formed and move apart at mid-ocean ridges. Abyssal hills are formed by stretching of the oceanic lithosphere.<a href="#cite_note-Buck1998-25">[25]</a> Consumption or destruction of the oceanic lithosphere occurs at <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trenches" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic trenches">oceanic trenches</a> (a type of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent boundary</a>, also known as a destructive plate boundary) by a process known as <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a>. Oceanic trenches are found at places where the oceanic lithospheric slabs of two different plates meet, and the denser (older) slab begins to descend back into the mantle.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> At the consumption edge of the plate (the oceanic trench), the oceanic lithosphere has thermally contracted to become quite dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction.<a href="#cite_note-Olson1-27">[27]</a> The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old.<a href="#cite_note-DSDP-28">[28]</a> The overall process of repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent_cycle" title="Supercontinent cycle">Supercontinent cycle</a>, first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Canadians" title="Canadians">Canadian</a> <a href="/wiki/Geophysicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Geophysicist">geophysicist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologist</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Tuzo_Wilson" title="John Tuzo Wilson">John Tuzo Wilson</a>. New oceanic crust, closest to the mid-oceanic ridges, is mostly basalt at shallow levels and has a rugged <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>. The roughness of this topography is a function of the rate at which the mid-ocean ridge is spreading (the spreading rate).<a href="#cite_note-Small1992-29">[29]</a> Magnitudes of spreading rates vary quite significantly. Typical values for fast-spreading ridges are greater than 100 mm/yr, while slow-spreading ridges are typically less than 20 mm/yr.<a href="#cite_note-White2001-21">[21]</a> Studies have shown that the slower the spreading rate, the rougher the new oceanic crust will be, and vice versa.<a href="#cite_note-Small1992-29">[29]</a> It is thought this phenomenon is due to <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faulting</a> at the mid-ocean ridge when the new oceanic crust was formed.<a href="#cite_note-Buck2005-30">[30]</a> These faults pervading the oceanic crust, along with their bounding abyssal hills, are the most common tectonic and topographic features on the surface of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Buck1998-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Buck2005-30">[30]</a> The process of seafloor spreading helps to explain the concept of <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a> in the theory of plate tectonics. The flat appearance of mature abyssal plains results from the blanketing of this originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained sediments, mainly clay and silt. Much of this sediment is deposited from turbidity currents that have been channeled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water. The remainder of the sediment comprises chiefly dust (clay particles) blown out to sea from land, and the remains of small <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">marine plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">animals</a> which sink from the upper layer of the ocean, known as <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediments" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagic sediments">pelagic sediments</a>. The total sediment deposition rate in remote areas is estimated at two to three centimeters per thousand years.<a href="#cite_note-Kuenen1946-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSDP1972-32">[32]</a> Sediment-covered abyssal plains are less common in the Pacific Ocean than in other major ocean basins because sediments from turbidity currents are trapped in oceanic trenches that border the Pacific Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-Underwood1986-33">[33]</a> Abyssal plains are typically covered by deep sea, but during parts of the <a href="/wiki/Messinian_salinity_crisis" title="Messinian salinity crisis">Messinian salinity crisis</a> much of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>'s abyssal plain was exposed to air as an empty deep hot dry salt-floored sink.<a href="#cite_note-Krijgsman1996-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clauzon1996-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vandijk1998-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery">Discovery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Discovery">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">Bathymetry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marianatrenchmap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Marianatrenchmap.png/220px-Marianatrenchmap.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Marianatrenchmap.png/330px-Marianatrenchmap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Marianatrenchmap.png/440px-Marianatrenchmap.png 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="984" /></a><figcaption>Location of the <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a></figcaption></figure> The landmark scientific <a href="/wiki/Challenger_expedition" title="Challenger expedition">expedition</a> (December 1872 – May 1876) of the British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> survey ship <a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(1858)" title="HMS Challenger (1858)">HMS Challenger</a> yielded a tremendous amount of <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">bathymetric</a> data, much of which has been confirmed by subsequent researchers. Bathymetric data obtained during the course of the Challenger expedition enabled scientists to draw maps,<a href="#cite_note-Murray1891-38">[38]</a> which provided a rough outline of certain major submarine terrain features, such as the edge of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental shelves">continental shelves</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a>. This discontinuous set of data points was obtained by the simple technique of taking <a href="/wiki/Sounding_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Sounding line">soundings</a> by lowering long lines from the ship to the seabed.<a href="#cite_note-Murray_Deepsea-39">[39]</a> The Challenger expedition was followed by the 1879–1881 expedition of the <a href="/wiki/USS_Jeannette_(1878)" title="USS Jeannette (1878)">Jeannette</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_DeLong" class="mw-redirect" title="George Washington DeLong">George Washington DeLong</a>. The team sailed across the <a href="/wiki/Chukchi_Sea" title="Chukchi Sea">Chukchi Sea</a> and recorded <a href="/wiki/Meteorological" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteorological">meteorological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical">astronomical</a> data in addition to taking soundings of the seabed. The ship became trapped in the <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">ice pack</a> near <a href="/wiki/Wrangel_Island" title="Wrangel Island">Wrangel Island</a> in September 1879, and was ultimately crushed and sunk in June 1881.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The Jeannette expedition was followed by the 1893–1896 Arctic <a href="/wiki/Nansen%27s_Fram_expedition" title="Nansen's Fram expedition">expedition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Norwegians" title="Norwegians">Norwegian</a> explorer <a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Fridtjof Nansen</a> aboard the <a href="/wiki/Fram_(ship)" title="Fram (ship)">Fram</a>, which proved that the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> was a deep oceanic basin, uninterrupted by any significant land masses north of the <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasian</a> continent.<a href="#cite_note-Aber2006-41">[41]</a> <a href="#cite_note-Krishfield-42">[42]</a> Beginning in 1916, Canadian physicist <a href="/wiki/Robert_William_Boyle" title="Robert William Boyle">Robert William Boyle</a> and other scientists of the Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation Committee (<a href="/wiki/ASDIC" class="mw-redirect" title="ASDIC">ASDIC</a>) undertook research which ultimately led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a> technology. <a href="/wiki/Echo_sounding" title="Echo sounding">Acoustic sounding</a> equipment was developed which could be operated much more rapidly than the sounding lines, thus enabling the <a href="/wiki/German_Meteor_expedition" title="German Meteor expedition">German Meteor expedition</a> aboard the German research vessel <a href="/wiki/Meteor_(1915)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteor (1915)">Meteor</a> (1925–27) to take frequent soundings on east-west Atlantic transects. Maps produced from these techniques show the major Atlantic basins, but the depth precision of these early instruments was not sufficient to reveal the flat featureless abyssal plains.<a href="#cite_note-Maurer1933-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stocks1935-44">[44]</a> As technology improved, measurement of depth, <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a> became more precise and it became possible to collect more or less continuous sets of data points. This allowed researchers to draw accurate and detailed maps of large areas of the ocean floor. Use of a continuously recording <a href="/wiki/Fishfinder" title="Fishfinder">fathometer</a> enabled Tolstoy & Ewing in the summer of 1947 to identify and describe the first abyssal plain. This plain, south of <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a>, is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Sohm_Abyssal_Plain" title="Sohm Abyssal Plain">Sohm Abyssal Plain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tolstoy1949-45">[45]</a> Following this discovery many other examples were found in all the oceans.<a href="#cite_note-Heezen1951-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heezen1954-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Koczy1954-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heezen1962-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heezen1963-50">[50]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Challenger_Deep" title="Challenger Deep">Challenger Deep</a> is the deepest surveyed point of all of Earth's oceans; it is at the south end of the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a> group. The depression is named after HMS Challenger, whose researchers made the first recordings of its depth on 23 March 1875 at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110310200116/http://www.19thcenturyscience.org/HMSC/HMSC-Reports/1895-Summary/htm/doc878.html">station 225</a>. The reported depth was 4,475 <a href="/wiki/Fathom" title="Fathom">fathoms</a> (8184 meters) based on two separate soundings. On 1 June 2009, sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the <a href="/wiki/Simrad_Optronics" title="Simrad Optronics">Simrad</a> EM120 <a href="/wiki/Multibeam_echosounder" title="Multibeam echosounder">multibeam sonar bathymetry</a> system aboard the <a href="/wiki/RV_Kilo_Moana_(T-AGOR-26)" class="mw-redirect" title="RV Kilo Moana (T-AGOR-26)">R/V Kilo Moana</a> indicated a maximum depth of 10971 meters (6.82 miles). The sonar system uses <a href="/wiki/Phase_(waves)" title="Phase (waves)">phase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitude</a> bottom detection, with an accuracy of better than 0.2% of water depth (this is an error of about 22 meters at this depth).<a href="#cite_note-Moana1-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moana2-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terrain_features">Terrain features</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Terrain features">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hydrothermal_vents">Hydrothermal vents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hydrothermal vents">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase-diag2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Phase-diag2.svg/220px-Phase-diag2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Phase-diag2.svg/330px-Phase-diag2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Phase-diag2.svg/440px-Phase-diag2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>In this <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">phase diagram</a>, the green dotted line illustrates the <a href="/wiki/Water_(molecule)#Density_of_water_and_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (molecule)">anomalous behavior of water</a>. The solid green line marks the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> and the blue line the <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a>, showing how they vary with pressure.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></div> A rare but important terrain feature found in the bathyal, abyssal and hadal zones is the hydrothermal vent. In contrast to the approximately 2 °C ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 °C up to as high as 464 °C.<a href="#cite_note-Haas2007-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Andrea2008-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kosch2008-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill2008-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Karst2009-17">[17]</a> Due to the high <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">barometric pressure</a> at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical fluid</a> at such temperatures. At a barometric pressure of 218 <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmospheres</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">critical point</a> of water is 375 °C. At a depth of 3,000 meters, the barometric pressure of sea water is more than 300 atmospheres (as salt water is <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">denser</a> than fresh water). At this depth and pressure, seawater becomes supercritical at a temperature of 407 °C (see image). However the increase in salinity at this depth pushes the water closer to its critical point. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents, <a href="/wiki/Black_smoker" class="mw-redirect" title="Black smoker">black smokers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">submarine volcanoes</a> can be a <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid#Submarine_volcanoes" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical fluid</a>, possessing physical properties between those of a <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> and those of a <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Haas2007-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Andrea2008-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kosch2008-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill2008-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Karst2009-17">[17]</a> Sister Peak (Comfortless Cove Hydrothermal Field, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Abyssal_plain&params=4_48_S_12_22_W_">4°48′S 12°22′W / 4.800°S 12.367°W / -4.800; -12.367</a>, elevation −2996 m), Shrimp Farm and Mephisto (Red Lion Hydrothermal Field, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Abyssal_plain&params=4_48_S_12_23_W_">4°48′S 12°23′W / 4.800°S 12.383°W / -4.800; -12.383</a>, elevation −3047 m), are three hydrothermal vents of the black smoker category, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near <a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a>. They are presumed to have been active since an earthquake shook the region in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-Haas2007-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Andrea2008-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kosch2008-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill2008-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Karst2009-17">[17]</a> These vents have been observed to vent <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase-separated</a>, vapor-type fluids. In 2008, sustained exit temperatures of up to 407 °C were recorded at one of these vents, with a peak recorded temperature of up to 464 °C. These <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamic</a> conditions exceed the critical point of seawater, and are the highest temperatures recorded to date from the seafloor. This is the first reported evidence for direct <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magmatic</a>-<a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">hydrothermal</a> interaction on a slow-spreading mid-ocean ridge.<a href="#cite_note-Haas2007-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Andrea2008-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kosch2008-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hill2008-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Karst2009-17">[17]</a> The initial stages of a vent chimney begin with the deposition of the mineral anhydrite. Sulfides of copper, iron, and zinc then precipitate in the chimney gaps, making it less porous over the course of time. Vent growths on the order of 30 cm (1 ft) per day have been recorded.[11] An April 2007 exploration of the deep-sea vents off the coast of Fiji found those vents to be a significant source of dissolved iron (see iron cycle). Hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean typically form along the mid-ocean ridges, such as the East Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. These are locations where two tectonic plates are diverging and new crust is being formed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_seeps">Cold seeps</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cold seeps">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_seep_community.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cold_seep_community.jpg/220px-Cold_seep_community.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cold_seep_community.jpg/330px-Cold_seep_community.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cold_seep_community.jpg/440px-Cold_seep_community.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tube_worm_(body_plan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tube worm (body plan)">Tubeworms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alcyonacea" title="Alcyonacea">soft corals</a> at a <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seep</a> 3000 meters deep on the <a href="/wiki/Florida_Platform" title="Florida Platform">Florida Escarpment</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eelpout" title="Eelpout">Eelpouts</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Squat_lobster" title="Squat lobster">galatheid crab</a>, and an <a href="/wiki/Alvinocarididae" title="Alvinocarididae">alvinocarid shrimp</a> are feeding on chemosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Mytilidae" title="Mytilidae">mytilid</a> <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></div> Another unusual feature found in the abyssal and hadal zones is the <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seep</a>, sometimes called a cold vent. This is an area of the seabed where seepage of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a>-rich fluid occurs, often in the form of a deep-sea <a href="/wiki/Brine_pool" title="Brine pool">brine pool</a>. The first cold seeps were discovered in 1983, at a depth of 3200 meters in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Paull1984-53">[53]</a> Since then, cold seeps have been discovered in many other areas of the <a href="/wiki/World_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="World Ocean">World Ocean</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Canyon" title="Monterey Canyon">Monterey Submarine Canyon</a> just off <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Bay" title="Monterey Bay">Monterey Bay</a>, California, the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Japan" title="Sea of Japan">Sea of Japan</a>, off the Pacific coast of <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>, off the Atlantic coast of Africa, off the coast of Alaska, and under an <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelf" title="Ice shelf">ice shelf</a> in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nsf-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biodiversity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Coastal habitats</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">Mangrove forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_ecosystem" title="Ocean surface ecosystem">Ocean surface</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epipelagic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic zone">Epipelagic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Open ocean</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Sea floor</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamounts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template talk:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">Deep sea communities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_creature" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea creature">Deep sea creature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea fish">Deep sea fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></div> Though the plains were once assumed to be vast, <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a>-like habitats, research over the past decade or so shows that they teem with a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Microbial" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial">microbial</a> life.<a href="#cite_note-Scheck2010-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jorg2007-56">[56]</a> However, ecosystem structure and function at the deep seafloor have historically been poorly studied because of the size and remoteness of the abyss. Recent <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanographic</a> expeditions conducted by an international group of scientists from the <a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life</a> (CeDAMar) have found an extremely high level of biodiversity on abyssal plains, with up to 2000 species of bacteria, 250 species of <a href="/wiki/Protozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Protozoan">protozoans</a>, and 500 species of <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">worms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molluscs" class="mw-redirect" title="Molluscs">molluscs</a>), typically found at single abyssal sites.<a href="#cite_note-NOAA-57">[57]</a> New species make up more than 80% of the thousands of seafloor invertebrate species collected at any abyssal station, highlighting our heretofore poor understanding of abyssal diversity and evolution.<a href="#cite_note-NOAA-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-Glover2002-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martinez2010-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-Snelgrove2010-60">[60]</a> Richer biodiversity is associated with areas of known <a href="/wiki/Phytodetritus" title="Phytodetritus">phytodetritus</a> input and higher organic carbon flux.<a href="#cite_note-Lambshead2003-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abyssobrotula_galatheae" title="Abyssobrotula galatheae">Abyssobrotula galatheae</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of cusk eel in the <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a> <a href="/wiki/Ophidiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophidiidae">Ophidiidae</a>, is among the deepest-living species of fish. In 1970, one specimen was <a href="/wiki/Trawl" class="mw-redirect" title="Trawl">trawled</a> from a depth of 8370 meters in the <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_Trench" title="Puerto Rico Trench">Puerto Rico Trench</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ellis-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-fishbase-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-nielsen-64">[64]</a> The animal was dead, however, upon arrival at the surface. In 2008, the <a href="/wiki/Hadal_snailfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadal snailfish">hadal snailfish</a> (Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis)<a href="#cite_note-Pseudoliparis-65">[65]</a> was observed and recorded at a depth of 7700 meters in the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Trench" title="Japan Trench">Japan Trench</a>. In December 2014 a type of snailfish was filmed at a depth of 8145 meters,<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> followed in May 2017 by another sailfish filmed at 8178 meters.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> These are, to date, the deepest living fish ever recorded.<a href="#cite_note-Morelle2008-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Keller2010-68">[68]</a> Other fish of the abyssal zone include the fishes of the family <a href="/wiki/Ipnopidae" title="Ipnopidae">Ipnopidae</a>, which includes the abyssal spiderfish (<a href="/wiki/Bathypterois_longipes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathypterois longipes">Bathypterois longipes</a>), tripodfish (<a href="/wiki/Bathypterois_grallator" title="Bathypterois grallator">Bathypterois grallator</a>), feeler fish (<a href="/wiki/Bathypterois_longifilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathypterois longifilis">Bathypterois longifilis</a>), and the black lizardfish (<a href="/wiki/Bathysauropsis_gracilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathysauropsis gracilis">Bathysauropsis gracilis</a>). Some members of this family have been recorded from depths of more than 6000 meters.<a href="#cite_note-McGrouther-69">[69]</a> CeDAMar scientists have demonstrated that some abyssal and hadal species have a cosmopolitan distribution. One example of this would be protozoan <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminiferans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Akimoto-70">[70]</a> certain species of which are distributed from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Other faunal groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">polychaete</a> worms and <a href="/wiki/Isopoda" title="Isopoda">isopod</a> crustaceans, appear to be endemic to certain specific plains and basins.<a href="#cite_note-NOAA-57">[57]</a> Many apparently unique <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a> worms have also been recently discovered on abyssal plains. This suggests that the deep ocean has fostered <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">adaptive radiations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NOAA-57">[57]</a> The taxonomic composition of the nematode fauna in the abyssal Pacific is similar, but not identical to, that of the North Atlantic.<a href="#cite_note-Lambshead2003-61">[61]</a> A list of some of the species that have been discovered or redescribed by CeDAMar can be found <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100905112108/http://www.cedamar.org/Species-List">here</a>. Eleven of the 31 described species of <a href="/wiki/Monoplacophora" title="Monoplacophora">Monoplacophora</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">mollusks</a>) live below 2000 meters. Of these 11 species, two live exclusively in the hadal zone.<a href="#cite_note-Schwabe2008-71">[71]</a> The greatest number of monoplacophorans are from the eastern Pacific Ocean along the oceanic trenches. However, no abyssal monoplacophorans have yet been found in the Western Pacific and only one abyssal species has been identified in the Indian Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-Schwabe2008-71">[71]</a> Of the 922 known species of <a href="/wiki/Chiton" title="Chiton">chitons</a> (from the <a href="/wiki/Polyplacophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyplacophora">Polyplacophora</a> class of mollusks), 22 species (2.4%) are reported to live below 2000 meters and two of them are restricted to the abyssal plain.<a href="#cite_note-Schwabe2008-71">[71]</a> Although genetic studies are lacking, at least six of these species are thought to be eurybathic (capable of living in a wide range of depths), having been reported as occurring from the <a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">sublittoral</a> to abyssal depths. A large number of the polyplacophorans from great depths are <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivorous</a> or <a href="/wiki/Xylophagy" title="Xylophagy">xylophagous</a>, which could explain the difference between the distribution of monoplacophorans and polyplacophorans in the world's oceans.<a href="#cite_note-Schwabe2008-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peracarid" class="mw-redirect" title="Peracarid">Peracarid</a> crustaceans, including isopods, are known to form a significant part of the macrobenthic community that is responsible for scavenging on large food falls onto the sea floor.<a href="#cite_note-CRS2008-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Debroy2004-72">[72]</a> In 2000, scientists of the Diversity of the deep Atlantic benthos (DIVA 1) expedition (cruise M48/1 of the German research vessel RV Meteor III) discovered and collected three new species of the <a href="/wiki/Asellota" title="Asellota">Asellota</a> <a href="/wiki/Suborder" class="mw-redirect" title="Suborder">suborder</a> of <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> isopods from the abyssal plains of the <a href="/wiki/Angola_Basin" title="Angola Basin">Angola Basin</a> in the South <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schmid2002-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lowry-75">[75]</a> In 2003, De Broyer et al. collected some 68,000 peracarid crustaceans from 62 species from baited traps deployed in the <a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotia_Sea" title="Scotia Sea">Scotia Sea</a>, and off the <a href="/wiki/South_Shetland_Islands" title="South Shetland Islands">South Shetland Islands</a>. They found that about 98% of the specimens belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Amphipoda" title="Amphipoda">amphipod</a> <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">superfamily</a> <a href="/wiki/Lysianassidae" title="Lysianassidae">Lysianassoidea</a>, and 2% to the isopod family <a href="/wiki/Cirolanidae" title="Cirolanidae">Cirolanidae</a>. Half of these species were collected from depths of greater than 1000 meters.<a href="#cite_note-Debroy2004-72">[72]</a> In 2005, the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Agency_for_Marine-Earth_Science_and_Technology" title="Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology">Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology</a> (JAMSTEC) remotely operated vehicle, <a href="/wiki/Kaik%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaikō">KAIKO</a>, collected sediment core from the Challenger Deep. 432 living specimens of soft-walled foraminifera were identified in the sediment samples.<a href="#cite_note-Todo2005-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roach-77">[77]</a> Foraminifera are single-celled <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> that construct shells. There are an estimated 4,000 species of living foraminifera. Out of the 432 organisms collected, the overwhelming majority of the sample consisted of simple, soft-shelled foraminifera, with others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leptohalysis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leptohalysis (page does not exist)">Leptohalysis</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reophax&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reophax (page does not exist)">Reophax</a>. Overall, 85% of the specimens consisted of soft-shelled <a href="/wiki/Allogromiids" class="mw-redirect" title="Allogromiids">allogromiids</a>. This is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20% of the total. Small organisms with hard calciferous shells have trouble growing at extreme depths because the water at that depth is severely lacking in calcium carbonate.<a href="#cite_note-Turekian1975-78">[78]</a> The giant (5–20 cm) foraminifera known as <a href="/wiki/Xenophyophorea" title="Xenophyophorea">xenophyophores</a> are only found at depths of 500-10,000 metres, where they can occur in great numbers and greatly increase animal diversity due to their bioturbation and provision of living habitat for small animals.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower oceanic trenches (>7,000 m) and on the abyssal plain, the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep may represent independent taxa from those shallower ecosystems. This preponderance of soft-shelled organisms at the Challenger Deep may be a result of selection pressure. Millions of years ago, the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now. Over the past six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment of that ancient biosphere were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment. Those species that were able to adapt may have been the ancestors of the organisms currently endemic to the Challenger Deep.<a href="#cite_note-Todo2005-76">[76]</a> Polychaetes occur throughout the Earth's oceans at all depths, from forms that live as <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> near the surface, to the deepest oceanic trenches. The robot ocean probe <a href="/wiki/Nereus_(underwater_vehicle)" title="Nereus (underwater vehicle)">Nereus</a> observed a 2–3 cm specimen (still unclassified) of polychaete at the bottom of the Challenger Deep on 31 May 2009.<a href="#cite_note-Roach-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guam-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHOI-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHOI2-82">[82]</a> There are more than 10,000 described species of polychaetes; they can be found in nearly every marine environment. Some species live in the coldest ocean temperatures of the hadal zone, while others can be found in the extremely hot waters adjacent to hydrothermal vents. Within the abyssal and hadal zones, the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents and cold seeps have by far the greatest biomass and biodiversity per unit area. Fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids, these areas are often home to large and diverse communities of <a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">thermophilic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halophile" title="Halophile">halophilic</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophilic</a> <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> (such as those of the sulfide-oxidizing genus <a href="/wiki/Beggiatoa" title="Beggiatoa">Beggiatoa</a>), often arranged in large <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">bacterial mats</a> near cold seeps. In these locations, chemosynthetic archaea and bacteria typically form the base of the food chain. Although the process of chemosynthesis is entirely microbial, these chemosynthetic microorganisms often support vast ecosystems consisting of complex multicellular organisms through <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MMS3-83">[83]</a> These communities are characterized by species such as <a href="/wiki/Vesicomyidae" title="Vesicomyidae">vesicomyid clams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mytilidae" title="Mytilidae">mytilid</a> <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limpet" title="Limpet">limpets</a>, isopods, <a href="/wiki/Giant_tube_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant tube worm">giant tube worms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcyonacea" title="Alcyonacea">soft corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eelpout" title="Eelpout">eelpouts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squat_lobster" title="Squat lobster">galatheid crabs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alvinocarididae" title="Alvinocarididae">alvinocarid shrimp</a>. The deepest seep community discovered thus far is in the <a href="/wiki/Japan_Trench" title="Japan Trench">Japan Trench</a>, at a depth of 7700 meters.<a href="#cite_note-Morelle2008-11">[11]</a> Probably the most important ecological characteristic of abyssal ecosystems is energy limitation. Abyssal seafloor communities are considered to be food limited because <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> production depends on the input of <a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">detrital</a> <a href="/wiki/Biotic_material" title="Biotic material">organic material</a> produced in the euphotic zone, thousands of meters above.<a href="#cite_note-Smith2003-84">[84]</a> Most of the organic flux arrives as an <a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">attenuated rain</a> of small particles (typically, only 0.5–2% of net primary production in the euphotic zone), which decreases inversely with water depth.<a href="#cite_note-Buesseler-9">[9]</a> The small particle flux can be augmented by the <a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">fall of larger carcasses</a> and downslope transport of organic material near continental margins.<a href="#cite_note-Smith2003-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exploitation_of_resources">Exploitation of resources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Exploitation of resources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Offshore_drilling" title="Offshore drilling">Offshore drilling</a></div> In addition to their high biodiversity, abyssal plains are of great current and future commercial and strategic interest. For example, they may be used for the legal and illegal disposal of large structures such as ships and <a href="/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">oil rigs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ammunition" title="Ammunition">munitions</a>. They may also be attractive sites for <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">deep-sea fishing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon_exploration" title="Hydrocarbon exploration">extraction of oil and gas</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">minerals</a>. Future deep-sea <a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">waste disposal</a> activities that could be significant by 2025 include <a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">emplacement of sewage and sludge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>, and disposal of <a href="/wiki/Dredging" title="Dredging">dredge spoils</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Glover2003-85">[85]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Fish_stocks" title="Fish stocks">fish stocks</a> dwindle in the upper ocean, deep-sea <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">fisheries</a> are increasingly being targeted for exploitation. Because <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea fish">deep sea fish</a> are long-lived and slow growing, these deep-sea fisheries are not thought to be sustainable in the long term given current management practices.<a href="#cite_note-Glover2003-85">[85]</a> Changes in primary production in the photic zone are expected to alter the standing stocks in the food-limited aphotic zone. Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water occasionally results in significant <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a> resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated <a href="/wiki/Drill_cuttings" title="Drill cuttings">drill cuttings</a>, but also from <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">oil spills</a>. While the <a href="/wiki/Blowout_(well_drilling)" title="Blowout (well drilling)">oil blowout</a> involved in the <a href="/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill" title="Deepwater Horizon oil spill">Deepwater Horizon oil spill</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> originates from a <a href="/wiki/Wellhead" title="Wellhead">wellhead</a> only 1500 meters below the ocean surface,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> it nevertheless illustrates the kind of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_disaster" title="Environmental disaster">environmental disaster</a> that can result from mishaps related to <a href="/wiki/Offshore_drilling" title="Offshore drilling">offshore drilling</a> for oil and gas. Sediments of certain abyssal plains contain abundant mineral resources, notably <a href="/wiki/Manganese_nodule" title="Manganese nodule">polymetallic nodules</a>. These potato-sized <a href="/wiki/Concretion" title="Concretion">concretions</a> of manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt, and copper, distributed on the seafloor at depths of greater than 4000 meters,<a href="#cite_note-Glover2003-85">[85]</a> are of significant commercial interest. The area of maximum commercial interest for polymetallic nodule mining (called the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pacific_nodule_province&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pacific nodule province (page does not exist)">Pacific nodule province</a>) lies in <a href="/wiki/International_waters" title="International waters">international waters</a> of the Pacific Ocean, stretching from 118°–157°, and from 9°–16°N, an area of more than 3 million km2.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_2008_4-87">[87]</a> The abyssal <a href="/wiki/Clarion-Clipperton_Fracture_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone">Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone</a> (CCFZ) is an area within the Pacific nodule province that is currently under exploration for its mineral potential.<a href="#cite_note-Lambshead2003-61">[61]</a> Eight commercial contractors are currently licensed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Seabed_Authority" title="International Seabed Authority">International Seabed Authority</a> (an <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organization">intergovernmental organization</a> established to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of <a href="/wiki/Territorial_waters" title="Territorial waters">national jurisdiction</a>) to explore nodule resources and to test mining techniques in eight <a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">claim areas</a>, each covering 150,000 km2.<a href="#cite_note-Smith_2008_4-87">[87]</a> When mining ultimately begins, each mining operation is projected to directly disrupt 300–800 km2 of seafloor per year and disturb the <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">benthic fauna</a> over an area 5–10 times that size due to redeposition of suspended sediments. Thus, over the 15-year projected duration of a single mining operation, nodule mining might severely damage abyssal seafloor communities over areas of 20,000 to 45,000 km2 (a zone at least the size of <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Smith_2008_4-87">[87]</a> Limited knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> of <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">deep sea communities</a> prevents accurate assessment of the risk of species <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinctions</a> from large-scale mining. Data acquired from the abyssal North Pacific and North Atlantic suggest that deep-sea ecosystems may be adversely affected by mining operations on decadal time scales.<a href="#cite_note-Glover2003-85">[85]</a> In 1978, a dredge aboard the <a href="/wiki/GSF_Explorer" class="mw-redirect" title="GSF Explorer">Hughes Glomar Explorer</a>, operated by the American mining <a href="/wiki/Consortium" title="Consortium">consortium</a> <a href="/wiki/GSF_Explorer#Leasing" class="mw-redirect" title="GSF Explorer">Ocean Minerals Company</a> (OMCO), made a mining track at a depth of 5000 meters in the nodule fields of the CCFZ. In 2004, the <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea (<a href="/wiki/Ifremer" class="mw-redirect" title="Ifremer">IFREMER</a>) conducted the Nodinaut expedition to this mining track (which is still visible on the seabed) to study the long-term effects of this physical disturbance on the sediment and its benthic fauna. Samples taken of the superficial sediment revealed that its physical and chemical properties had not shown any recovery since the disturbance made 26 years earlier. On the other hand, the biological activity measured in the track by instruments aboard the crewed <a href="/wiki/Submersible" title="Submersible">submersible</a> <a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe" title="Bathyscaphe">bathyscaphe</a> <a href="/wiki/Nautile" title="Nautile">Nautile</a> did not differ from a nearby unperturbed site. This data suggests that the benthic fauna and nutrient fluxes at the water–sediment interface has fully recovered.<a href="#cite_note-Khripounoff2006-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_abyssal_plains">List of abyssal plains</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: List of abyssal plains">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_submarine_topographical_features" title="List of submarine topographical features">List of submarine topographical features</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landforms#Coastal_and_oceanic_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="List of landforms">List of oceanic landforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_submarine_topographical_features" title="List of submarine topographical features">List of submarine topographical features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Oceanic ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CRS2008-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CRS2008_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRS2008_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRS2008_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRS2008_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRS2008_1-4">e</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCraig_R._SmithFabio_C._De_LeoAngelo_F._BernardinoAndrew_K._Sweetman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Craig R. Smith; Fabio C. De Leo; Angelo F. Bernardino; Andrew K. Sweetman; Pedro Martinez Arbizu (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720075942/http://cmbc.ucsd.edu/Students/Current_Students/SIO277/Smith%20et%20al.%20TREE%202008.pdf">"Abyssal food limitation, ecosystem structure and climate change"</a> (PDF). Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 23 (9): 518–528. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2008.05.002">10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18584909">18584909</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cmbc.ucsd.edu/Students/Current_Students/SIO277/Smith%20et%20al.%20TREE%202008.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Abyssal+food+limitation%2C+ecosystem+structure+and+climate+change&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=518-528&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2008.05.002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18584909&rft.au=Craig+R.+Smith&rft.au=Fabio+C.+De+Leo&rft.au=Angelo+F.+Bernardino&rft.au=Andrew+K.+Sweetman&rft.au=Pedro+Martinez+Arbizu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcmbc.ucsd.edu%2FStudents%2FCurrent_Students%2FSIO277%2FSmith%2520et%2520al.%2520TREE%25202008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbyssal+plain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vino1997-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vino1997_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vino1997_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN.G._Vinogradova1997" class="citation book cs1">N.G. Vinogradova (1997). "Zoogeography of the Abyssal and Hadal Zones". The Biogeography of the Oceans. Advances in Marine Biology. 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Weaver; J. Thomson; P. M. Hunter (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101224060317/http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/issue_pdf/frontmatter_pdf/31/1.pdf">Geology and Geochemistry of Abyssal Plains</a> (PDF). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-632-01744-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-632-01744-7"><bdi>978-0-632-01744-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/issue_pdf/frontmatter_pdf/31/1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 December 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geology+and+Geochemistry+of+Abyssal+Plains&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=Blackwell+Scientific+Publications&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-632-01744-7&rft.au=P.P.E.+Weaver&rft.au=J.+Thomson&rft.au=P.+M.+Hunter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsp.lyellcollection.org%2Fcgi%2Fissue_pdf%2Ffrontmatter_pdf%2F31%2F1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbyssal+plain" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmithPatersonLambsheadGlover2008">Smith et al. 2008</a>, p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-PNAS2009-5"><a href="#cite_ref-PNAS2009_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.L._Smith_JrH.A._RuhlB.J._BettD.S.M._Billett2009" class="citation journal cs1">K.L. Smith Jr; H.A. Ruhl; B.J. Bett; D.S.M. Billett; R.S. Lampitt; R.S. 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Retrieved 5 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zootaxa&rft.atitle=A+new+species+of+Parabradya+Lang%2C+1944+%28Copepoda%3A+Harpacticoida%3A+Ectinosomatidae%29+from+the+abyssal+plain+of+the+Angola+Basin&rft.volume=1432&rft.pages=1-21&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11646%2Fzootaxa.1432.1.1&rft.au=Seifried+S.&rft.au=Plum+Ch.&rft.au=Schulz+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.luciopesce.net%2Fpdf4%2Fbradya2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbyssal+plain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithPatersonLambsheadGlover2008" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Craig R.; Paterson, Gordon; Lambshead, John; Glover, Adrian G.; Gooday, Andrew; Rogers, Alex; Sibuet, Myriam; Kitazato, Hiroshi; Galéron, Joëlle; Menot, Lenaïck (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080723124448/http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Pubs/TechStudy3.pdf">"Biodiversity, species ranges, and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province: predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining"</a> (PDF). International Seabed Authority Technical Study: No.3. Kingston, Jamaica: International Seabed Authority. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-976-95217-2-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-976-95217-2-8"><bdi>978-976-95217-2-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/236437700">236437700</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Pubs/TechStudy3.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 23 July 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biodiversity%2C+species+ranges%2C+and+gene+flow+in+the+abyssal+Pacific+nodule+province%3A+predicting+and+managing+the+impacts+of+deep+seabed+mining&rft.btitle=International+Seabed+Authority+Technical+Study%3A+No.3&rft.place=Kingston%2C+Jamaica&rft.pub=International+Seabed+Authority&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F236437700&rft.isbn=978-976-95217-2-8&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Craig+R.&rft.au=Paterson%2C+Gordon&rft.au=Lambshead%2C+John&rft.au=Glover%2C+Adrian+G.&rft.au=Gooday%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Rogers%2C+Alex&rft.au=Sibuet%2C+Myriam&rft.au=Kitazato%2C+Hiroshi&rft.au=Gal%C3%A9ron%2C+Jo%C3%ABlle&rft.au=Menot%2C+Lena%C3%AFck&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isa.org.jm%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2FEN%2FPubs%2FTechStudy3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbyssal+plain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart2007" class="citation book cs1">Stewart, Robert H. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/PDF_files/book.pdf">Introduction to Physical Oceanography</a> (PDF). College Station: Texas A&M University. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/169907785">169907785</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Physical+Oceanography&rft.place=College+Station&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F169907785&rft.aulast=Stewart&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foceanworld.tamu.edu%2Fresources%2Focng_textbook%2FPDF_files%2Fbook.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbyssal+plain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillen_E.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Willen E. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ode.2004.10.002">"A new species of Paranannopus Lang, 1936 (Copepoda, Harpacticoida, Pseudotachidiidae) with atrophic mouthparts from the abyssal of the Angola Basin"</a>. Organisms Diversity & Evolution. 5 (Supplement 1): 19–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ode.2004.10.002">10.1016/j.ode.2004.10.002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organisms+Diversity+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=A+new+species+of+Paranannopus+Lang%2C+1936+%28Copepoda%2C+Harpacticoida%2C+Pseudotachidiidae%29+with+atrophic+mouthparts+from+the+abyssal+of+the+Angola+Basin&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=Supplement+1&rft.pages=19-27&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ode.2004.10.002&rft.au=Willen+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.ode.2004.10.002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbyssal+plain" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYasuhara_M.Cronin_T.M.Martinez_Arbizu_P.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Yasuhara M.; Cronin T.M.; Martinez Arbizu P. (2008). "Abyssal ostracods from the South and Equatorial Atlantic Ocean: biological and paleoceanographic implications". Deep-Sea Research Part I. 55 (4): 490–497. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008DSRI...55..490Y">2008DSRI...55..490Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.dsr.2008.01.004">10.1016/j.dsr.2008.01.004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deep-Sea+Research+Part+I&rft.atitle=Abyssal+ostracods+from+the+South+and+Equatorial+Atlantic+Ocean%3A+biological+and+paleoceanographic+implications&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=490-497&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.dsr.2008.01.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008DSRI...55..490Y&rft.au=Yasuhara+M.&rft.au=Cronin+T.M.&rft.au=Martinez+Arbizu+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbyssal+plain" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abyssal_plain&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonterey_Bay_Aquarium_Research_Institute2009" class="citation web cs1">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (3 November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/11/091102171559.htm">"Deep-sea Ecosystems Affected By Climate Change"</a>. ScienceDaily. Retrieved 18 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ScienceDaily&rft.atitle=Deep-sea+Ecosystems+Affected+By+Climate+Change&rft.date=2009-11-03&rft.au=Monterey+Bay+Aquarium+Research+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2009%2F11%2F091102171559.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbyssal+plain" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV Alvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tectonic_plates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tectonic_plates" title="Template:Tectonic plates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Tectonic_plates" title="Template talk:Tectonic plates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tectonic_plates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tectonic plates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Tectonic_plates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Tectonic plates</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates#Major_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">Major plates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_plate" title="African plate">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_plate" title="Antarctic plate">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_plate" title="Eurasian plate">Eurasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Australian_plate" title="Indo-Australian plate">Indo-Australian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_plate" title="Australian plate">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_plate" title="Indian plate">Indian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_plate" title="North American plate">North American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_plate" title="Pacific plate">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_American_plate" title="South American plate">South American</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px;padding:1.0em;"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="World map indicating tectonic plate boundaries"><img alt="World map indicating tectonic plate boundaries" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg/120px-Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg/180px-Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg/240px-Tectonic_plates_boundaries_World_map_Wt_180degE_centered-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4903" data-file-height="2996" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates#Minor_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">Minor plates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amurian_microplate" title="Amurian microplate">Amurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_plate" title="Arabian plate">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_plate" title="Burma plate">Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_plate" title="Caribbean plate">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_plate" title="Caroline plate">Caroline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_plate" title="Cocos plate">Cocos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_plate" title="Indian plate">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazca_plate" title="Nazca plate">Nazca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hebrides_plate" title="New Hebrides plate">New Hebrides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okhotsk_microplate" title="Okhotsk microplate">Okhotsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Sea_plate" title="Philippine Sea plate">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotia_plate" title="Scotia plate">Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_plate" title="Somali plate">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_plate" title="Sunda plate">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangtze_plate" title="Yangtze plate">Yangtze</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates#Microplates" title="List of tectonic plates">Microplates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_plate" title="Adriatic plate">Adriatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_plate" title="Aegean Sea plate">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_sub-plate" title="Anatolian sub-plate">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balmoral_Reef_plate" title="Balmoral Reef plate">Balmoral Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banda_Sea_plate" title="Banda Sea plate">Banda Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird%27s_Head_plate" title="Bird's Head plate">Bird's Head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capricorn_plate" title="Capricorn plate">Capricorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coiba_plate" title="Coiba plate">Coiba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conway_Reef_plate" title="Conway Reef plate">Conway Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorer_plate" title="Explorer plate">Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futuna_plate" title="Futuna plate">Futuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_microplate" title="Galápagos microplate">Galápagos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gon%C3%A2ve_microplate" title="Gonâve microplate">Gonâve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorda_plate" title="Gorda plate">Gorda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_plate" title="Greenland plate">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halmahera_plate" title="Halmahera plate">Halmahera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_plate" title="Iberian plate">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_plate" title="Juan de Fuca plate">Juan de Fuca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_plate" title="Juan Fernández plate">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerguelen_Plateau" title="Kerguelen Plateau">Kerguelen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermadec_plate" title="Kermadec plate">Kermadec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lwandle_plate" title="Lwandle plate">Lwandle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_plate" title="Madagascar plate">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malpelo_plate" title="Malpelo plate">Malpelo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manus_plate" title="Manus plate">Manus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoke_plate" title="Maoke plate">Maoke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_plate" title="Mariana plate">Mariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molucca_Sea_plate" title="Molucca Sea plate">Molucca Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niuafo%27ou_plate" title="Niuafo'ou plate">Niuafo’ou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Andes_plate" title="North Andes plate">North Andes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Bismarck_plate" title="North Bismarck plate">North Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Galapagos_microplate" title="North Galapagos microplate">North Galápagos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawa_plate" title="Okinawa plate">Okinawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama_plate" title="Panama plate">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelso_plate" title="Pelso plate">Pelso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Mobile_Belt" title="Philippine Mobile Belt">Philippine Mobile Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivera_plate" title="Rivera plate">Rivera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rovuma_plate" title="Rovuma plate">Rovuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangihe_plate" title="Sangihe plate">Sangihe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles_microcontinent" title="Seychelles microcontinent">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shetland_plate" title="Shetland plate">Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Sea_plate" title="Solomon Sea plate">Solomon Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Bismarck_plate" title="South Bismarck plate">South Bismarck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sandwich_plate" title="South Sandwich plate">South Sandwich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timor_plate" title="Timor plate">Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tisza_plate" title="Tisza plate">Tisza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga_plate" title="Tonga plate">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trobriand_plate" title="Trobriand plate">Trobriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_microplate" title="Victoria microplate">Victoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodlark_plate" title="Woodlark plate">Woodlark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates#Ancient_tectonic_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">Ancient plates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_plate" title="Baltic plate">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellingshausen_plate" title="Bellingshausen plate">Bellingshausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charcot_plate" title="Charcot plate">Charcot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmeria_(continent)" title="Cimmeria (continent)">Cimmeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farallon_plate" title="Farallon plate">Farallon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_plate" title="Insular plate">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermontane_plate" title="Intermontane plate">Intermontane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izanagi_plate" title="Izanagi plate">Izanagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kula_plate" title="Kula plate">Kula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lhasa_terrane" title="Lhasa terrane">Lhasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agulhas_Basin" title="Agulhas Basin">Malvinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moa_plate" title="Moa plate">Moa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_plate" title="Phoenix plate">Phoenix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshiroda_plate" title="Kshiroda plate">Kshiroda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge#List_of_mid-ocean_ridges" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Oceanic ridges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Ridge" title="Aden Ridge">Aden Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlsberg_Ridge" title="Carlsberg Ridge">Carlsberg Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indian_Ridge" title="Central Indian Ridge">Central Indian Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile_Ridge" title="Chile Ridge">Chile Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocos_Ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocos Ridge">Cocos Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise" title="East Pacific Rise">East Pacific Rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explorer_Ridge" title="Explorer Ridge">Explorer Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gakkel_Ridge" title="Gakkel Ridge">Gakkel Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands#Geology" title="Galápagos Islands">Galápagos Spreading Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorda_Ridge" title="Gorda Ridge">Gorda Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Ridge" title="Juan de Fuca Ridge">Juan de Fuca Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Mid-Atlantic Ridge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Knipovich" title="Nikolai Knipovich">Knipovich Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolbeinsey_Ridge" title="Kolbeinsey Ridge">Kolbeinsey Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland_Plain" title="Greenland Plain">Mohns Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge#Iceland" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Reykjanes Ridge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific%E2%80%93Antarctic_Ridge" title="Pacific–Antarctic Ridge">Pacific–Antarctic Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_American%E2%80%93Antarctic_Ridge" title="South American–Antarctic Ridge">South American–Antarctic Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Indian_Ridge" title="Southeast Indian Ridge">Southeast Indian Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Indian_Ridge" title="Southwest Indian Ridge">Southwest Indian Ridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge#List_of_ancient_oceanic_ridges" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Ancient oceanic ridges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegir_Ridge" title="Aegir Ridge">Aegir Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Ridge" title="Alpha Ridge">Alpha Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic%E2%80%93Phoenix_Ridge" title="Antarctic–Phoenix Ridge">Antarctic–Phoenix Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kula%E2%80%93Farallon_Ridge" title="Kula–Farallon Ridge">Kula–Farallon Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Labrador_Ridge" title="Mid-Labrador Ridge">Mid-Labrador Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific%E2%80%93Farallon_Ridge" title="Pacific–Farallon Ridge">Pacific–Farallon Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific%E2%80%93Kula_Ridge" title="Pacific–Kula Ridge">Pacific–Kula Ridge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates" title="List of tectonic plates">List</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Plate_tectonics" title="Category:Plate tectonics">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Plate_tectonics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Plate tectonics">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Structure_of_Earth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Earthsinterior" title="Template:Earthsinterior"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Earthsinterior" title="Template talk:Earthsinterior"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Earthsinterior" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Earthsinterior"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Structure_of_Earth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure of Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Shells</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Mantle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_mantle" title="Upper mantle">Upper mantle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithospheric_mantle" title="Lithospheric mantle">Lithospheric mantle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">Asthenosphere</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_mantle" title="Lower mantle">Lower mantle</a> (aka <a href="/wiki/Mesosphere_(mantle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesosphere (mantle)">Mesosphere</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's core">Core</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_outer_core" title="Earth's outer core">Outer core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_inner_core" title="Earth's inner core">Inner core</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Global discontinuities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić (crust–mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_zone_(Earth)" title="Transition zone (Earth)">410 discontinuity (upper mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_zone_(Earth)" title="Transition zone (Earth)">660 discontinuity (upper mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core%E2%80%93mantle_boundary" title="Core–mantle boundary">D’’ discontinuity (lower mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core%E2%80%93mantle_boundary" title="Core–mantle boundary">Core–mantle boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_core#Discovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner core">Inner-core boundary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional discontinuities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_discontinuity" title="Conrad discontinuity">Conrad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithosphere%E2%80%93asthenosphere_boundary" title="Lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary">Gutenberg (upper mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehmann_discontinuity" title="Lehmann discontinuity">Lehmann (upper mantle)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q570554#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div 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href="/wiki/Category:Coastal_and_oceanic_landforms" title="Category:Coastal and oceanic landforms">Coastal and oceanic landforms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Submarine_topography" title="Category:Submarine topography">Submarine topography</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oceanic_plateaus" title="Category:Oceanic plateaus">Oceanic plateaus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oceanographical_terminology" title="Category:Oceanographical terminology">Oceanographical terminology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Aquatic ecology</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a 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[\"CITEREFBruce_C._HeezenMarie_TharpMaurice_Ewing1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruce_C._HeezenMaurice_EwingD.B._Ericson1951\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBöggemann_M.Purschke_G.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaitlyn_H._Kennedy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCatherine_Brahic2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCensus_of_Diversity_of_Abyssal_Marine_Life_(CeDAMar)\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCenter_for_Marine_Biodiversity_and_Conservation\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopher_SmallDavid_T._Sandwell1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClauzonSucGautierBerger1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCondie1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig_R._SmithFabio_C._De_LeoAngelo_F._BernardinoAndrew_K._Sweetman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCsirke1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Broyer,_C.Nyssen,_F.P._Dauby2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElizabeth_Keller2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis,_R.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEncyclopædia_Britannica2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnrico_Schwab2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFF.F._Koczy1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrank_ScheckenbachKlaus_HausmannClaudia_WylezichMarkus_Weitere2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGad_G.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeoff_C._BrownC._J._HawkesworthR._C._L._Wilson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerald_SchubertDonald_Lawson_TurcottePeter_Olson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGill_Adrian_E.1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlover,_A.G.Smith,_C.R.Paterson,_G.L.J.Wilson,_G.D.F.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGooday_A.J.Kamenskaya_O.E.Cedhagen_T.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGooday_A.J.Malzone_G.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGooday_A.J.Nomaki_H.Kitazato_H.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaase,_K._M.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHans_MaurerTheodor_Stocks1933\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvan_TolstoyMaurice_Ewing1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJ.K._Lowry1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_S._Aber2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanussen_D.Tendal_O.S.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeananda_Col2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_MurrayA.F._Renard1891\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_Roach2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJosh_Hill2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJørgensen_BBBoetius_A.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK.L._Smith_JrH.A._RuhlB.J._BettD.S.M._Billett2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFK._AkimotoM._HattoriK._UematsuC._Kato2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarl_K._TurekianJ._Kirk_CochranD.P._KharkarRobert_M._Cerrato1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarsten_M._HaaseSven_PetersenAndrea_KoschinskyRichard_Seifert2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKen_O._BuesselerCarl_H._LamborgPhilip_W._BoydPhoebe_J._Lam2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrijgsman_WGarcés_MLangereis_CGDaams_R1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrishfield\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevinThomas1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLonny_LippsettAmy_E._Nevala2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacdonaldJohn_AmosTimothy_CroneSteve_Wereley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarjorie_Wilson1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark_McGrouther2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkhaseva_E.L.Schulz_K.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_B._UnderwoodCharles_R._Norville1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinerals_Management_Service2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonterey_Bay_Aquarium_Research_Institute2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurschBrenkeWägele2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMühlenhardt-Siegel_U.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFN.G._Vinogradova1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaval_Historical_Center1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNielsen,_J.G.1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNozawa_F.Kitazato_H.Tsuchiya_M.Gooday_A.J.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP.P.E._WeaverJ._ThomsonP._M._Hunter1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP_John_D_LambsheadCaroline_J_BrownTimothy_J_FerreroLawrence_E_Hawkins2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_V.R._SnelgroveCraig_R._Smith2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaull,_C._K.Hecker,_B.Commeau,_R.Freeman-Lynde,_R._P.1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPedro_Martínez_ArbizuHorst_Kurt_Schminke2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhilip_Henry_Kuenen1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFR.S._WHITET.A._MINSHULLM.J._BICKLEC.J._ROBINSON2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRebecca_Morelle2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabbatini_A.Morigi_C.Negri_A.Gooday_A.J.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmid,_C.Brenke,_N.J.W._Wägele2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchrödl_M.Linse_K.Schwabe_E.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwabe_E.Bohn_J.M.Engl_W.Linse_K.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSebastian_S.Raes_M.De_Mesel_I.Vanreusel_A.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeifried_S.Plum_Ch.Schulz_M.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithPatersonLambsheadGlover2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFT.A._DaviesA.S._Laughton1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTheodor_StocksGeorg_Wust1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_of_Hawaii_Marine_Center2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFW._Roger_BuckAlexei_N._B._Poliakov1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFW._Roger_BuckLuc_L._LavierAlexei_N.B._Poliakov2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWHOI_Media_Relations2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillen_E.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYasuhara_M.Cronin_T.M.Martinez_Arbizu_P.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuko_TodoHiroshi_KitazatoJun_HashimotoAndrew_J._Gooday2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_DijkBarberisCantarellaMassa1998\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Aquatic layer topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 57,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 4,\n 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