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Atom - Wikipedia

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href="#Istoria_teoriei_atomice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Istoria teoriei atomice</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Istoria_teoriei_atomice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Istoria teoriei atomice subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Istoria_teoriei_atomice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atomii_în_filosofie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atomii_în_filosofie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Atomii în filosofie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atomii_în_filosofie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primele_teorii_bazate_pe_dovezi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primele_teorii_bazate_pe_dovezi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Primele teorii bazate pe dovezi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primele_teorii_bazate_pe_dovezi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mișcarea_browniană" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mișcarea_browniană"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Mișcarea browniană</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mișcarea_browniană-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descoperirea_electronului" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descoperirea_electronului"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Descoperirea electronului</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descoperirea_electronului-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descoperirea_nucleului" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descoperirea_nucleului"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Descoperirea nucleului</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descoperirea_nucleului-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descoperirea_izotopilor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descoperirea_izotopilor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Descoperirea izotopilor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descoperirea_izotopilor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modelul_Bohr" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modelul_Bohr"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Modelul Bohr</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modelul_Bohr-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legăturile_chimice_explicate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legăturile_chimice_explicate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Legăturile chimice explicate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legăturile_chimice_explicate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evoluțiile_ulterioare_în_fizica_cuantică" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evoluțiile_ulterioare_în_fizica_cuantică"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Evoluțiile ulterioare în fizica cuantică</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evoluțiile_ulterioare_în_fizica_cuantică-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descoperirea_neutronului" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descoperirea_neutronului"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Descoperirea neutronului</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descoperirea_neutronului-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fisiune,_fizica_energiilor_înalte_și_materia_condensată" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fisiune,_fizica_energiilor_înalte_și_materia_condensată"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Fisiune, fizica energiilor înalte și materia condensată</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fisiune,_fizica_energiilor_înalte_și_materia_condensată-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particulele_subatomice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particulele_subatomice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.12</span> <span>Particulele subatomice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particulele_subatomice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nucleul" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nucleul"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.13</span> <span>Nucleul</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nucleul-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norul_de_electroni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norul_de_electroni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.14</span> <span>Norul de electroni</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norul_de_electroni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proprietăți" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proprietăți"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Proprietăți</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proprietăți-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Proprietăți subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proprietăți-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proprietăți_nucleare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proprietăți_nucleare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Proprietăți nucleare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proprietăți_nucleare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Masa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Masa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Masa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Masa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forma_și_mărimea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forma_și_mărimea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Forma și mărimea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forma_și_mărimea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dezintegrare_radioactivă" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dezintegrare_radioactivă"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Dezintegrare radioactivă</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dezintegrare_radioactivă-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Momentul_magnetic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Momentul_magnetic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Momentul magnetic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Momentul_magnetic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nivelul_de_energie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nivelul_de_energie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Nivelul de energie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nivelul_de_energie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Valența_și_comportamentul_legăturilor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Valența_și_comportamentul_legăturilor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Valența și comportamentul legăturilor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valența_și_comportamentul_legăturilor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stări_de_agregare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stări_de_agregare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Stări de agregare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stări_de_agregare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identificarea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identificarea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Identificarea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identificarea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Originea_și_starea_actuală" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Originea_și_starea_actuală"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Originea și starea actuală</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Originea_și_starea_actuală-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Originea și starea actuală subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Originea_și_starea_actuală-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formarea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formarea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Formarea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formarea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pământul" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pământul"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Pământul</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pământul-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forme_rare_și_teoretice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forme_rare_și_teoretice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Forme rare și teoretice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forme_rare_și_teoretice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Elemente_supergrele" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elemente_supergrele"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Elemente supergrele</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elemente_supergrele-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Materie_exotică" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Materie_exotică"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Materie exotică</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Materie_exotică-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Note_de_completare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Note_de_completare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Note de completare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Note_de_completare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Note_bibliografice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Note_bibliografice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Note bibliografice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Note_bibliografice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliografie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliografie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliografie</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliografie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lectură_suplimentară" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lectură_suplimentară"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Lectură suplimentară</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lectură_suplimentară-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legături_externe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legături_externe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Legături externe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legături_externe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Cuprins" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Comută cuprinsul" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Comută cuprinsul</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Atom</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Mergeți la un articol în altă limbă. Disponibil în 220 limbi" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-220" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">220 limbi</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – germană (Elveția)" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="germană (Elveția)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%89%B6%E1%88%9D" title="አቶም – amharică" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አቶም" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="amharică" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – aragoneză" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="aragoneză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mot" title="Mot – engleză veche" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Mot" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="engleză veche" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%E1%BB%8Dm" title="Atọm – obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Atọm" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Obolo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="ذرة – arabă" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ذرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="درة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="درة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%87" title="ذره – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ذره" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81" title="পৰমাণু – asameză" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পৰমাণু" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="asameză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomu" title="Átomu – asturiană" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Átomu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturiană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – azeră" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azeră" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85" title="آتوم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آتوم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – bașkiră" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="bașkiră" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – balineză" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="balineză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atuoms" title="Atuoms – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Atuoms" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Атам – belarusă" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Атам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="belarusă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Атам – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Атам" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – bulgară" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgară" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%B2%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="အဲစ်တမ် – Pa&#039;O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အဲစ်တမ်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa&#039;O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81" title="পরমাণু – bengaleză" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরমাণু" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengaleză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – bretonă" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="bretonă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – bosniacă" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniacă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atong" title="Atong – bugineză" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="Atong" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="bugineză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Ugi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tom" title="Àtom – catalană" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Àtom" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngu%C3%B2ng-c%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Nguòng-cṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Nguòng-cṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – cecenă" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="cecenă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – cebuană" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="cebuană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%BB" title="ᎠᏓᎻ – cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᏓᎻ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%95" title="گەردیلە – kurdă centrală" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گەردیلە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="kurdă centrală" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – corsicană" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="corsicană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – cehă" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="cehă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8A" title="Атомъ – slavonă" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Атомъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="slavonă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – ciuvașă" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="ciuvașă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – galeză" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="galeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – daneză" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="daneză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – germană" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="germană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – sorabă de jos" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="sorabă de jos" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%86%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF" title="Άτομο – greacă" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Άτομο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="greacă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tum" title="Àtum – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Àtum" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – engleză" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="engleză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – spaniolă" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="spaniolă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aatom" title="Aatom – estonă" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aatom" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estonă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – bască" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="bască" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomu" title="Átomu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Átomu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%85" title="اتم – persană" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اتم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi" title="Atomi – finlandeză" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Atomi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finlandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aadom" title="Aadom – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Aadom" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – feroeză" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="feroeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atome" title="Atome – franceză" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Atome" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="franceză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="articol bun"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – frizonă nordică" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="frizonă nordică" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – frizonă occidentală" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="frizonă occidentală" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamh" title="Adamh – irlandeză" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Adamh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="irlandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – chineză gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="chineză gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomm" title="Atomm – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Atomm" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atam" title="Atam – gaelică scoțiană" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Atam" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="gaelică scoțiană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – galiciană" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galiciană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumingue%27a" title="Tumingue&#039;a – guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tumingue&#039;a" data-language-autonym="Avañe&#039;ẽ" data-language-local-name="guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%A3%E0%AB%81" title="અણુ – gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="અણુ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breneen" title="Breneen – manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Breneen" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwayar_Zarra" title="Kwayar Zarra – hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kwayar Zarra" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngi%C3%A8n-ch%E1%B9%B3%CC%81" title="Ngièn-chṳ́ – chineză hakka" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngièn-chṳ́" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="chineză hakka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BB%C4%80toma" title="ʻĀtoma – hawaiiană" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="ʻĀtoma" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="hawaiiană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9D" title="אטום – ebraică" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אטום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="ebraică" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmaanu" title="Parmaanu – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Parmaanu" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – croată" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croată" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – sorabă de sus" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="sorabă de sus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B2m" title="Atòm – haitiană" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Atòm" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="haitiană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – maghiară" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="maghiară" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4" title="Ատոմ – armeană" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ատոմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="armeană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%A7" title="Հիւլէ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Հիւլէ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – indoneziană" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indoneziană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumeind" title="Frumeind – islandeză" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumeind" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – italiană" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italiană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – japoneză" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japoneză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atam" title="Atam – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Atam" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/ratni" title="ratni – lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="ratni" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – javaneză" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="javaneză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ატომი – georgiană" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ატომი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="georgiană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – karakalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="karakalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelkim" title="Abelkim – kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Abelkim" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisi%C5%8B_t%CA%8B" title="Sisiŋ tʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Sisiŋ tʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kumoring</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – kazahă" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="kazahă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%BC" title="បរមាណូ – khmeră" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="បរមាណូ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="khmeră" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%81" title="ಪರಮಾಣು – kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಮಾಣು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90" title="원자 – coreeană" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coreeană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%DB%81%D9%95" title="کنہٕ – cașmiră" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کنہٕ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="cașmiră" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – kurdă" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="kurdă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – cornică" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="cornică" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – kârgâză" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="kârgâză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomus" title="Atomus – latină" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Atomus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latină" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – luxemburgheză" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="luxemburgheză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoeam" title="Atoeam – limburgheză" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Atoeam" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="limburgheză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – liguriană" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="liguriană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atum" title="Atum – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Atum" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atome" title="Atome – lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Atome" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B9" title="ປະລະມານູ – laoțiană" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປະລະມານູ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="laoțiană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomas" title="Atomas – lituaniană" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Atomas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituaniană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoms" title="Atoms – letonă" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Atoms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letonă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – madureză" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="madureză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Атомсь – moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Атомсь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B4ma" title="Atôma – malgașă" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Atôma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="malgașă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – macedoneană" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macedoneană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%81" title="അണു – malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അണു" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – mongolă" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongolă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%82" title="अणू – marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अणू" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – malaeză" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malaeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – malteză" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="malteză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – mirandeză" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="mirandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="အက်တမ် – birmană" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အက်တမ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="birmană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nantzintetl" title="Nantzintetl – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Nantzintetl" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – napolitană" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="napolitană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – germana de jos" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="germana de jos" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="परमाणु – nepaleză" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="परमाणु" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="nepaleză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="अणु – newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अणु" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – neerlandeză" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="neerlandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – norvegiană nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norvegiană nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="articol bun"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – norvegiană bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvegiană bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atome" title="Atome – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Atome" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B4me" title="Atôme – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Atôme" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B2m" title="Atòm – occitană" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Atòm" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="occitană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buxusa" title="Buxusa – oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Buxusa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%81" title="ପରମାଣୁ – odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପରମାଣୁ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – osetă" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="osetă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%82" title="ਪਰਮਾਣੂ – punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਰਮਾਣੂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomu" title="Átomu – pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Átomu" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – pidgin nigerian" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="pidgin nigerian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Naijá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etem" title="Etem – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Etem" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – poloneză" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="poloneză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tom" title="Àtom – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Àtom" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85" title="ایٹم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایٹم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%85" title="اټوم – paștună" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اټوم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="paștună" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81tomo" title="Átomo – portugheză" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Átomo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portugheză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B1uku" title="Iñuku – quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Iñuku" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – rusă" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="rusă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%83" title="परमाणुः – sanscrită" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="परमाणुः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="sanscrită" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="sakha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tomu" title="Àtomu – sardiniană" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Àtomu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="sardiniană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tumu" title="Àtumu – siciliană" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Àtumu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="siciliană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BD%D9%85" title="ائٽم – sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ائٽم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoma" title="Atoma – sami de nord" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Atoma" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="sami de nord" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – sârbo-croată" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="sârbo-croată" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablkim" title="Ablkim – tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Ablkim" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%94" title="පරමාණු – singhaleză" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරමාණු" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="singhaleză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B3m" title="Atóm – slovacă" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Atóm" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovacă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85" title="ایٹم – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="ایٹم" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – slovenă" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="slovenă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – somaleză" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="somaleză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi" title="Atomi – albaneză" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Atomi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albaneză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – sârbă" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="sârbă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi" title="Atomi – sranan tongo" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Atomi" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="sranan tongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sranantongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – sundaneză" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="sundaneză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – suedeză" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="suedeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomu" title="Atomu – swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Atomu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C5%AFm" title="Atům – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Atům" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81" title="அணு – tamilă" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tamilă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A3%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81" title="పరమాణువు – telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పరమాణువు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – tadjică" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="tadjică" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1" title="อะตอม – thailandeză" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อะตอม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thailandeză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A3%E1%89%B6%E1%88%9B%E1%89%B5" title="ኣቶማት – tigrină" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ኣቶማት" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="tigrină" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – turcă" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turcă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athomu" title="Athomu – tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Athomu" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – tătară" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="tătară" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – tuvană" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="tuvană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85" title="ئاتوم – uigură" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئاتوم" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="uigură" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="articol bun"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – ucraineană" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ucraineană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%DB%81%D8%B1" title="جوہر – urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جوہر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – uzbecă" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="uzbecă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80tomo" title="Àtomo – venetă" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Àtomo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="venetă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="articol de calitate"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%C3%AAn_t%E1%BB%AD" title="Nguyên tử – vietnameză" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nguyên tử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnameză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoom" title="Atoom – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Atoom" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taum" title="Taum – volapuk" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Taum" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="volapuk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%B4me" title="Atôme – valonă" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Atôme" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="valonă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomo" title="Atomo – waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Atomo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xarefulwoon" title="Xarefulwoon – wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Xarefulwoon" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – chineză wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="chineză wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атом – calmucă" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Атом" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="calmucă" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Хальмг</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ატომი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ატომი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9D" title="אטאם – idiș" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אטאם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="idiș" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom – yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Atom" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yenzswj" title="Yenzswj – zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Yenzswj" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%B1%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%BD%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8E" title="ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ – tamazight standard marocană" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="tamazight standard marocană" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – chineză" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chineză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%A2n-ch%C3%BA" title="Goân-chú – chineză min nan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Goân-chú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="chineză min nan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90" title="原子 – cantoneză" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="原子" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantoneză" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IChwe" title="IChwe – zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IChwe" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9121#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Modifică legăturile interlinguale" class="wbc-editpage">Modifică legăturile</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Spații de nume"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Vedeți conținutul paginii [a]" accesskey="a"><span>Articol</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Discu%C8%9Bie:Atom" rel="discussion" title="Discuții despre această pagină [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Discuție</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">română</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Vizualizări"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Atom"><span>Lectură</span></a></li><li id="ca-ve-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit" title="Modificați această pagină cu EditorulVizual [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Modificare</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="collapsible vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit" title="Modificați codul sursă al acestei pagini [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Modificare sursă</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=history" title="Versiunile anterioare ale paginii și autorii lor. [h]" accesskey="h"><span>Istoric</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Unelte" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Unelte</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Unelte</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">mută în bara laterală</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">ascunde</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="Mai multe opțiuni" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Acțiuni </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Atom"><span>Lectură</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-ve-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit" title="Modificați această pagină cu EditorulVizual [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Modificare</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="collapsible vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit" title="Modificați codul sursă al acestei pagini [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Modificare sursă</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=history"><span>Istoric</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Ce_se_leag%C4%83_aici/Atom" title="Lista tuturor paginilor wiki care conduc spre această pagină [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Ce trimite aici</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Modific%C4%83ri_corelate/Atom" rel="nofollow" title="Schimbări recente în legătură cu această pagină [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Schimbări corelate</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Trimite_fi%C8%99ier" title="Încărcare fișiere [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Trimite fișier</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Pagini_speciale" title="Lista tuturor paginilor speciale [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Pagini speciale</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;oldid=16447958" title="Legătură permanentă către această versiune a acestei pagini"><span>Legătură permanentă</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="ro" dir="ltr"><table class="infocaseta"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="antet default" style="background-color:#F5F5DC;color:#000000;">Atom</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Helium_atom_QM.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/220px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/330px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Helium_atom_QM.svg/440px-Helium_atom_QM.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="667" /></a></span><br /><div style="margin-top: 3px"></div><span>Ilustrație a atomului de <a href="/wiki/Heliu" title="Heliu">heliu</a>, reprezentând <a href="/wiki/Nucleu_atomic" title="Nucleu atomic">nucleul atomic</a> (roz) și distribuția <a href="/wiki/Orbital_atomic" title="Orbital atomic">norului electronic</a> (negru). Nucleul (dreapta-sus) de heliu-4 prezintă în realitate simetrie sferică și se aseamănă cu norul electronic, dar aceasta nu se întâmplă și pentru nuclee mai complicate. Bara neagră reprezintă un <a href="/wiki/Angstrom" class="mw-redirect" title="Angstrom">angstrom</a> (10<sup>-10</sup>&#160;m sau 100&#160;pm).</span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="" style="text-align:center;background-color:#F5F5DC;color:#000000;">Clasificare</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="" style="text-align:center;;">Cea mai mică diviziune recunoscută a unui <a href="/wiki/Element_chimic" title="Element chimic">element chimic</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="" style="text-align:center;background-color:#F5F5DC;color:#000000;">Proprietăți</th></tr><tr><th style=";"><a href="/wiki/Mas%C4%83_atomic%C4%83" title="Masă atomică">Masa</a></th><td colspan="1" class="" style=";">de la <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">6973167000000000000♠</span>1.67<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−27</sup></span> la <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">6975452000000000000♠</span>4.52<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−25</sup>&#160;kg</span></td></tr><tr><th style=";"><a href="/wiki/Sarcin%C4%83_electric%C4%83" title="Sarcină electrică">Sarcina electrică</a></th><td colspan="1" class="" style=";">zero (neutru) sau diferită de zero pentru <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ioni</a></td></tr><tr><th style=";"><a href="/wiki/Diameter" title="Diameter">Diametru</a></th><td colspan="1" class="" style=";">de la 62&#160;pm (<a href="/wiki/Heliu" title="Heliu">He</a>) la 520&#160;pm (<a href="/wiki/Cesiu" title="Cesiu">Cs</a>)</td></tr><tr><th style=";"><a href="/wiki/Particul%C4%83_subatomic%C4%83" title="Particulă subatomică">Componente</a></th><td colspan="1" class="" style=";"><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electroni</a> și un <a href="/wiki/Nucleu_atomic" title="Nucleu atomic">nucleu</a> compact format din <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protoni</a> și <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutroni</a></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r16573438">.mw-parser-output .infocaseta{background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:var(--color-base,#000)}.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}</style> <p>Un <b>atom</b> este cea mai mică unitate constitutivă a <a href="/wiki/Materie" title="Materie">materiei</a>&#160;comune&#160;care are proprietățile unui <a href="/wiki/Element_chimic" title="Element chimic">element chimic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Orice <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lichid" title="Lichid">lichid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz">gaz</a>&#160;și <a href="/wiki/Plasm%C4%83" title="Plasmă">plasmă</a> este compus din atomi neutri sau <a href="/wiki/Ionizare" title="Ionizare">ionizați</a>. Atomii sunt foarte mici; dimensiuni tipice sunt în jur de 100&#160;pm (a zecea miliardime dintr-un metru).<sup id="cite_ref-Ghosh02_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghosh02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Atomii nu au limite bine definite și există diferite moduri de a defini dimensiunea, care dau fiecare valori diferite, dar apropiate ca valoare. </p><p>Conform <a href="/wiki/Ipoteza_De_Broglie" title="Ipoteza De Broglie">ipotezei De Broglie</a>, atomii sunt suficient de mici&#160;încât încercarea de a le prezice comportamentul folosind fizica clasică&#160;&#8212; de exemplu, ca și cum ar fi niște bile de biliard&#160;&#8212; dă predicții vizibil incorecte din cauza&#160;<a href="/wiki/Mecanic%C4%83_cuantic%C4%83" title="Mecanică cuantică">efectelor cuantice</a>. Prin dezvoltarea fizicii, modelele atomice au încorporat&#160;principii cuantice&#160;pentru a explica și prezice mai bine acest comportament. </p><p>Fiecare atom este format dintr-un <a href="/wiki/Nucleu_atomic" title="Nucleu atomic">nucleu</a> și din unul sau mai mulți <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electroni</a> legați de nucleu. Nucleul este format din unul sau mai mulți <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protoni</a> și, de obicei, dintr-un număr similar de <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutroni</a>. Protonii și neutronii se numesc <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleoni</a>. Peste 99,94% din masa unui atom este concentrată în nucleu. Protonii au&#160;<a href="/wiki/Sarcin%C4%83_electric%C4%83" title="Sarcină electrică">sarcină electrică</a>&#160;pozitivă, electronii au sarcină electrică negativă, iar neutronii nu au sarcină electrică. Dacă numărul de protoni este egal cu cel de electroni, atunci atomul este neutru din punct de vedere electric. Dacă un atom are mai mulți sau mai puțini electroni decât protoni, atunci acesta are o sarcină totală negativă, respectiv pozitivă, și se numește&#160;<a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>. </p><p>Electronii unui atom sunt atrași de protonii din nucleul atomic de această <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">forță electromagnetică</a>. Protonii și neutronii din nucleu sunt atrași unul de celălalt printr-o altă forță, <a href="/wiki/For%C8%9B%C4%83_nuclear%C4%83" title="Forță nucleară">forța nucleară</a>, care de obicei este mai puternică decât forța electromagnetică de respingere ce acționează între protonii încărcați pozitiv. În anumite circumstanțe, forța electromagnetică de respingere poate deveni mai puternică decât forța nucleară, și nucleonii pot fi astfel scoși din nucleu, lăsând în urmă un element diferit: <a href="/wiki/Radioactivitate" title="Radioactivitate">dezintegrarea nucleară</a> rezultă în <a href="/wiki/Transmuta%C8%9Bie_nuclear%C4%83" title="Transmutație nucleară">transmutație nucleară</a>. </p><p>Numărul de protoni din nucleu definește <a href="/wiki/Element_chimic" title="Element chimic">elementul chimic</a>&#160;căruia îi aparține atomul: de exemplu, toți atomii de <a href="/wiki/Cupru" title="Cupru">cupru</a> conțin 29 de protoni. Numărul de neutroni definește <a href="/wiki/Izotop" title="Izotop">izotopul</a>&#160;elementului.<sup id="cite_ref-leigh1990_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-leigh1990-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Numărul de electroni influențează proprietățile&#160;<a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetice</a>&#160;ale&#160;unui atom. Atomii se pot atașa de unul sau mai mulți alți atomi prin <a href="/wiki/Leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_chimic%C4%83" title="Legătură chimică">legături chimice</a> pentru a forma <a href="/wiki/Compus_chimic" title="Compus chimic">compuși chimici</a>, cum ar fi <a href="/wiki/Molecul%C4%83" title="Moleculă">moleculele</a>. Capacitatea atomilor de a se asocia și disocia este responsabilă pentru cele mai multe dintre modificările fizice observate în natură, și este subiectul disciplinei <a href="/wiki/Chimie" title="Chimie">chimie</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Istoria_teoriei_atomice">Istoria teoriei atomice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=1" title="Modifică secțiunea: Istoria teoriei atomice" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Istoria teoriei atomice"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atomii_în_filosofie"><span id="Atomii_.C3.AEn_filosofie"></span>Atomii în filosofie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=2" title="Modifică secțiunea: Atomii în filosofie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Atomii în filosofie"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ideea că materia este alcătuită din unități discrete este o idee foarte veche, care apare în multe culturi antice, cum ar fi Grecia și India. Cuvântul „atom” a fost inventat de vechii filosofi greci. Cu toate acestea, aceste idei își aveau fundamentul mai mult în raționamentele filozofice și teologice, decât în dovezi și experimente. Ca urmare, vederile lor asupra felului cum arată și cum se comportă atomii erau incorecte. Ele nu puteau nici să convingă pe toată lumea, astfel încât atomismul era doar una dintr-o serie de ipoteze concurente cu privire la natura materiei. Abia în secolul al XIX-lea, ideea a fost îmbrățișată și rafinată de către oamenii de știință, atunci când știința emergentă a chimiei a produs descoperiri pe care numai conceptul de atomi le putea explica. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primele_teorii_bazate_pe_dovezi">Primele teorii bazate pe dovezi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=3" title="Modifică secțiunea: Primele teorii bazate pe dovezi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Primele teorii bazate pe dovezi"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Daltons_symbols.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif/220px-Daltons_symbols.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif/330px-Daltons_symbols.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daltons_symbols.gif/440px-Daltons_symbols.gif 2x" data-file-width="1067" data-file-height="928" /></a><figcaption>Diverși atomi și molecule, așa cum au fost descrise de&#160;<a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a>&#160;în&#160;<i>Un nou sistem de filosofie chimică</i>&#160;(1808).</figcaption></figure> <p>La începutul anilor 1800, <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> a folosit conceptul de atomi pentru a explica de ce <a href="/wiki/Element_chimic" title="Element chimic">elementele</a> reacționează întotdeauna în raporturi de numere întregi mici (<a href="/wiki/Legea_propor%C8%9Biilor_multiple" title="Legea proporțiilor multiple">legea proporțiilor multiple</a>). De exemplu, există două tipuri de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oxid_de_staniu&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Oxid de staniu — pagină inexistentă">oxid de staniu</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q205123" class="extiw" title="d:Q205123"><span title="oxid de staniu la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>: unul este 88,1% staniu și 11,9% oxigen, iar celălalt este 78,7% staniu și 21,3% oxigen (<a href="/wiki/Oxid_de_staniu_(II)" title="Oxid de staniu (II)">oxid de staniu (II)</a>&#160;și, respectiv,&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dioxid_de_staniu&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dioxid de staniu — pagină inexistentă">dioxid de staniu</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129163" class="extiw" title="d:Q129163"><span title="dioxid de staniu la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>). Acest lucru înseamnă că 100 g de staniu se vor combina fie cu 13,5 g, fie cu 27 g de oxigen. 13,5 și 27 sunt în raport de 1:2, un raport de numere întregi mici. Acest model comun în chimie i-a sugerat lui Dalton că elementele care reacționează în număr întreg <a href="/wiki/Multiplu" title="Multiplu">multiplu</a> de unități discrete&#160;— cu alte cuvinte, atomi. În cazul oxizilor staniului, un atom de staniu se va combina cu unul sau doi atomi de oxigen.<sup id="cite_ref-From_AtomosToAtom_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-From_AtomosToAtom-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dalton credea și că teoria atomică ar putea explica de ce apa absoarbe gaze diferite în proporții diferite. De exemplu, el a constatat că apa absoarbe <a href="/wiki/Dioxid_de_carbon" title="Dioxid de carbon">dioxidul de carbon</a> mult mai bine decât absoarbe <a href="/wiki/Azot" title="Azot">azotul</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dalton_1803_paper_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dalton_1803_paper-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Ipoteza lui&#160;Dalton se datora diferențelor de masă și configurație între particulele gazelor respective și moleculele de dioxid de carbon (CO<sub>2</sub>) sunt mai grele și mai mari decât moleculele de azot (N<sub>2</sub>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mișcarea_browniană"><span id="Mi.C8.99carea_brownian.C4.83"></span>Mișcarea browniană</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=4" title="Modifică secțiunea: Mișcarea browniană" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Mișcarea browniană"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>În 1827, <a href="/wiki/Botanic%C4%83" title="Botanică">botanistul</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist)" title="Robert Brown (botanist)">Robert Brown</a> a folosit un microscop pentru a privi granule de praf plutind în apă și a descoperit că ele se mișcau haotic, fenomen care a devenit cunoscut sub numele de „<a href="/wiki/Agita%C8%9Bie_termic%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Agitație termică">mișcare browniană</a>”. Acest lucru a fost considerat a fi cauzat de faptul că moleculele de apă lovesc granulele. În 1905,&#160;<a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>&#160;a dovedit realitatea acestor molecule și mișcării lor prin producerea primei analize de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Fizic%C4%83_statistic%C4%83" title="Fizică statistică">fizică statistică</a>&#160;a <a href="/wiki/Agita%C8%9Bie_termic%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Agitație termică">mișcării browniene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-adp322_8_549_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adp322_8_549-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lee_hoon1995_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lee_hoon1995-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Fizicianul francez <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Jean Perrin</a>&#160;s-a folosit de munca lui Einstein pentru a determina experimental masa și dimensiunile atomilor, confirmând astfel în mod concludent&#160;<a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">teoria atomică a lui Dalton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-e31_2_50_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e31_2_50-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descoperirea_electronului">Descoperirea electronului</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=5" title="Modifică secțiunea: Descoperirea electronului" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Descoperirea electronului"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Gold_foil_experiment_conclusions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Gold_foil_experiment_conclusions.svg/170px-Gold_foil_experiment_conclusions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Gold_foil_experiment_conclusions.svg/255px-Gold_foil_experiment_conclusions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Gold_foil_experiment_conclusions.svg/340px-Gold_foil_experiment_conclusions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="504" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=Experimentul_Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Experimentul Geiger–Marsden — pagină inexistentă">Experimentul Geiger–Marsden</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1648751" class="extiw" title="d:Q1648751"><span title="Experimentul Geiger–Marsden la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup></b><br /> <i>Sus:</i>&#160;Rezultatele așteptate: particulele alfa care trec prin modelul cozonacului cu stafide al atomului cu deviere neglijabilă.<br /> <i>Jos:</i>&#160;Rezultatele observate: o mică parte din particulele au fost deviate de sarcina pozitivă concentrată în nucleu.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fizicianul <a href="/wiki/Joseph_John_Thomson" title="Joseph John Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>&#160;a măsurat masa razelor catodice, arătând că ele sunt formate din particule, dar că acestea sunt de circa 1800 de ori mai ușoare decât cel mai ușor atom, cel de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Hidrogen" title="Hidrogen">hidrogen</a>. Prin urmare, ei nu erau atomi, ci o nouă particulă, prima particulă&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Particul%C4%83_subatomic%C4%83" title="Particulă subatomică">subatomică</a></i>&#160;ce a fost descoperită, și pe care el a numit-o inițial „<i>corpuscul</i>”, și mai târziu&#160;<i>electron</i>, după particulele postulate de către <a href="/w/index.php?title=Johnstone_Stoney&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Johnstone Stoney — pagină inexistentă">Johnstone Stoney</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q734412" class="extiw" title="d:Q734412"><span title="Johnstone Stoney la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> în 1874. El a arătat și că ele sunt identice cu particulele emanate de materialele&#160;<a href="/wiki/Efect_fotoelectric" title="Efect fotoelectric">fotoelectrice</a>&#160;și de cele radioactive.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomson_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomson-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> S-a recunoscut rapid că acestea sunt chiar particulele care transportă&#160;<a href="/wiki/Curent_electric" title="Curent electric">curenții electrici</a> în firele de metal, și care poartă sarcina electrică negativă în atomi. Thomson a primit în 1906 <a href="/wiki/Premiul_Nobel_pentru_Fizic%C4%83" class="mw-redirect" title="Premiul Nobel pentru Fizică">Premiul Nobel în Fizică</a> pentru acest lucru. Astfel, el a răsturnat credința că atomii sunt particulele finale, indivizibile, de materie.<sup id="cite_ref-nobel1096_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nobel1096-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Thomson a și postulat, incorect, că masa redusă a electronilor încărcați negativ este distribuită prin tot atomul printr-o mare uniformă de sarcini pozitive. Acest lucru a devenit cunoscut ca <a href="/wiki/Modelul_atomic_Thomson" title="Modelul atomic Thomson">modelul „cozonacului cu stafide”</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descoperirea_nucleului">Descoperirea nucleului</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=6" title="Modifică secțiunea: Descoperirea nucleului" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Descoperirea nucleului"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>În 1909, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a> și <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Marsden&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Ernest Marsden — pagină inexistentă">Ernest Marsden</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q714452" class="extiw" title="d:Q714452"><span title="Ernest Marsden la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, sub conducerea lui <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>, au bombardat o folie metalică cu <a href="/wiki/Particul%C4%83_alfa" title="Particulă alfa">particule alfa</a> pentru a observa cum se împrăștie ele. Ei se&#160;așteptau ca toate particulele alfa să treacă direct prin folie, cu minime devieri, deoarece modelul lui Thomson spunea că sarcina în cadrul atomului este atât de difuză încât câmpurile lor electrice nu ar putea afecta prea mult particulele alfa. Cu toate acestea, Geiger și Marsden au constatat că unele particule alfa sunt deviate la unghiuri mai mari de 90°, ceea ce în mod normal ar fi trebuit să fie imposibil potrivit modelului Thomson. Pentru a explica acest lucru, Rutherford a propus că sarcina pozitivă a atomului este concentrată într-un nucleu mic aflat în centrul atomului.<sup id="cite_ref-pm21_669_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pm21_669-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descoperirea_izotopilor">Descoperirea izotopilor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=7" title="Modifică secțiunea: Descoperirea izotopilor" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Descoperirea izotopilor"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>În timp ce experimenta cu produsele&#160;<a href="/wiki/Radioactivitate" title="Radioactivitate">dezintegrării radioactive</a>, în 1913 <a href="/wiki/Radiochimie" title="Radiochimie">radiochimistul</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a> a descoperit ceea ce părea să fie mai mult decât un singur tip de atom pe fiecare poziție în tabelul periodic.<sup id="cite_ref-npc1921_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npc1921-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Termenul <a href="/wiki/Izotop" title="Izotop">izotop</a> a fost inventat de către <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Todd" title="Margaret Todd">Margaret Todd</a> ca nume potrivit pentru diferiți atomi care aparțin aceluiași element. J. J. Thomson a creat o tehnică de separare a tipurilor de atom prin munca sa de gaze ionizate, care ulterior a condus la descoperirea <a href="/w/index.php?title=Raportul_de_izotopi_stabili&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Raportul de izotopi stabili — pagină inexistentă">izotopilor stabili</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17148629" class="extiw" title="d:Q17148629"><span title="raportul de izotopi stabili la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-prsA_89_1_1913_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prsA_89_1_1913-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modelul_Bohr">Modelul Bohr</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=8" title="Modifică secțiunea: Modelul Bohr" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Modelul Bohr"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif/220px-Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Bohr_atom_animation_2.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Modelul Bohr al atomului, cu un electron face „salturi cuantice” instantanee&#160;de la o orbită la alta. Acest model este învechit.</figcaption></figure> <p>În 1913, fizicianul <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> a propus un model în care electronii unui atom sunt presupuși a orbita în jurul nucleului, dar că pot face acest lucru numai într-o mulțime finită de orbite, și ar putea sări între aceste orbite numai în salturi discrete de energie corespunzătoare absorbției sau radiației unui foton.<sup id="cite_ref-stern20050516_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stern20050516-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Această cuantificare a fost folosită pentru a explica de ce orbitele electronilor sunt stabile (având în vedere că, în mod normal, sarcinile accelerate, inclusiv prin mișcare circulară, pierd energie cinetică care emisă sub formă de radiații electromagnetice, vezi <i><a href="/wiki/Radia%C8%9Bie_de_sincrotron" title="Radiație de sincrotron">radiația de sincrotron</a></i>) și de ce elemente absorb și emit radiații electromagnetice în spectre discrete.<sup id="cite_ref-bohr19221211_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bohr19221211-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mai târziu în același an, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a> a furnizat noi dovezi experimentale în favoarea teoriei lui&#160;<a href="/wiki/Modelul_atomic_Bohr" title="Modelul atomic Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>. Aceste rezultate au rafinat modelul lui&#160;<a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a>&#160;și modelul lui&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antonius_van_den_Broek&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Antonius van den Broek — pagină inexistentă">Antonius van den Broek</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2072482" class="extiw" title="d:Q2072482"><span title="Antonius van den Broek la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, care avansa ideea că atomul conține în <a href="/wiki/Nucleu_atomic" title="Nucleu atomic">nucleu</a> un număr de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarcina_nuclear%C4%83_eficace&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sarcina nucleară eficace — pagină inexistentă">sarcini nucleare</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q909960" class="extiw" title="d:Q909960"><span title="sarcina nucleară eficace la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;pozitive egal cu numărul (atomic) din tabelul periodic. Până la aceste experimente, <a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83r_atomic" title="Număr atomic">numărul atomic</a> nu era cunoscut drept cantitate fizică și experimentală. Faptul că este egal cu sarcina atomică rămâne modelul atomic acceptat astăzi.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legăturile_chimice_explicate"><span id="Leg.C4.83turile_chimice_explicate"></span>Legăturile chimice explicate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=9" title="Modifică secțiunea: Legăturile chimice explicate" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Legăturile chimice explicate"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_chimic%C4%83" title="Legătură chimică">Legăturile chimice</a> dintre atomi erau acum explicate, de <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Newton_Lewis" title="Gilbert Newton Lewis">Gilbert Newton Lewis</a> în 1916, ca interacțiuni între electronii care îi compun.<sup id="cite_ref-jacs38_4_762_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacs38_4_762-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Cum se cunoștea în mare măsură că&#160;<a href="/wiki/Proprietate_chimic%C4%83" title="Proprietate chimică">proprietățile chimice</a> ale elementelor se repetă în conformitate cu o&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tendin%C8%9Be_periodice&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Tendințe periodice — pagină inexistentă">lege periodică</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2622089" class="extiw" title="d:Q2622089"><span title="tendințe periodice la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> în 1919, chimistul american <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> a sugerat că acest lucru ar putea fi explicat prin faptul că electronii dintr-un atom sunt legați sau grupați într-un fel. Se credea că grupurile de electroni ocupă o mulțime de&#160;<a href="/wiki/%C3%8Enveli%C8%99_electronic" title="Înveliș electronic">învelișuri electronice</a>&#160;în jurul nucleului.<sup id="cite_ref-jacs41_6_868_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacs41_6_868-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evoluțiile_ulterioare_în_fizica_cuantică"><span id="Evolu.C8.9Biile_ulterioare_.C3.AEn_fizica_cuantic.C4.83"></span>Evoluțiile ulterioare în fizica cuantică</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=10" title="Modifică secțiunea: Evoluțiile ulterioare în fizica cuantică" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Evoluțiile ulterioare în fizica cuantică"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Experimentul_Stern-Gerlach" title="Experimentul Stern-Gerlach">Experimentul Stern–Gerlach</a>&#160;din 1922 a furnizat dovezi suplimentare ale naturii cuantice a atomului. Atunci când un fascicul de atomi de argint a fost trecut printr-un câmp magnetic de formă specială, fasciculul a fost divizat în funcție de direcția momentului cinetic al atomului, denumit <i>spin</i>. Cum această direcție este aleatoare, era de așteptat ca raza să se răspândească într-o linie. În schimb, fasciculul a fost împărțit în două părți, în funcție de orientarea spinului atomic, în sus sau în jos.<sup id="cite_ref-fop17_6_575_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fop17_6_575-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>În 1924, <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">Louis de Broglie</a> a avansat ipoteza că toate particulele se comportă până la un punct ca niște unde. În 1926, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>&#160;a folosit această idee pentru a dezvolta un model matematic al atomului, care descria electronii ca <a href="/w/index.php?title=Form%C4%83_de_und%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Formă de undă — pagină inexistentă">forme de undă</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1165717" class="extiw" title="d:Q1165717"><span title="formă de undă la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> tridimensionale, mai degrabă decât ca particule punctiforme. O consecință a folosirii formelor de undă pentru a descrie particulele a fost că este matematic imposibil să se obțină valori precise atât pentru&#160;<a href="/wiki/Punct_(geometrie)" title="Punct (geometrie)">poziția</a>&#160;cât și pentru&#160;<a href="/wiki/Impuls" title="Impuls">impulsul</a> unei particule la un moment dat în timp; acest lucru a devenit cunoscut ca <a href="/wiki/Principiul_incertitudinii" title="Principiul incertitudinii">principiul incertitudinii</a>, și a fost formulat de <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a>&#160;în 1926. În acest concept, pentru o anumită precizie în măsurarea unei poziții se poate obține o gamă largă de valori probabile pentru impuls, și vice-versa.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Acest model a fost în măsură să explice observațiile comportamentului atomic pe care modelele anterioare nu le puteau explica, cum ar fi anumite șabloane structurale și <a href="/wiki/Linie_spectral%C4%83" title="Linie spectrală">spectrale</a>&#160;ale unor atomi mai mari decât hidrogenul. Astfel, s-a renunțat la modelul planetar al atomului în favoarea unuia care descria zone&#160;<a href="/wiki/Orbital_atomic" title="Orbital atomic">orbitale atomice</a>&#160;în jurul nucleului unde un anumit electron este cel mai probabil să fie observat.<sup id="cite_ref-brown2007_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown2007-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-harrison2000_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison2000-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descoperirea_neutronului">Descoperirea neutronului</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=11" title="Modifică secțiunea: Descoperirea neutronului" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Descoperirea neutronului"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dezvoltarea <a href="/wiki/Spectrometrie_de_mas%C4%83" title="Spectrometrie de masă">spectrometriei de masă</a> a permis măsurarea cu precizie sporită a masei atomilor. Dispozitivul folosește un magnet pentru a îndoi traiectoria unui fascicul de ioni, și cantitatea de deformare este determinată de raportul între masa unui atom și sarcina sa. Chimistul <a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Aston" title="Francis William Aston">Francis William Aston</a>&#160;a folosit acest instrument pentru a arăta că izotopii au mase diferite. <a href="/wiki/Mas%C4%83_atomic%C4%83" title="Masă atomică">Masa atomică</a> a acestor izotopi variază cu multipli întregi ai unei valori, denumită&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Regula_numerelor_%C3%AEntregi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Regula numerelor întregi — pagină inexistentă">regula numerelor întregi</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2920462" class="extiw" title="d:Q2920462"><span title="regula numerelor întregi la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-pm39_6_449_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pm39_6_449-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Explicația pentru acești izotopi diferiți aștepta descoperirea <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutronului</a>, o particulă fără sarcină, cu o masă similară cu a <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protonului</a>, de către fizicianul <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>&#160;în 1932. Izotopii au fost atunci explicați ca elemente cu același număr de protoni, dar număr diferit de neutroni în nucleu.<sup id="cite_ref-chadwick1935_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chadwick1935-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fisiune,_fizica_energiilor_înalte_și_materia_condensată"><span id="Fisiune.2C_fizica_energiilor_.C3.AEnalte_.C8.99i_materia_condensat.C4.83"></span>Fisiune, fizica energiilor înalte și materia condensată</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=12" title="Modifică secțiunea: Fisiune, fizica energiilor înalte și materia condensată" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Fisiune, fizica energiilor înalte și materia condensată"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>În 1938, chimistul German <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a>, un student al lui Rutherford, a direcționat neutronii asupra unor atomi de uraniu pentru a obține <a href="/wiki/Element_transuranian" title="Element transuranian">elemente transuranice</a>. Experimentele lui chimice au demonstrat, în schimb, producerea de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Bariu" title="Bariu">bariu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hahn_meitner_strassmann_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hahn_meitner_strassmann-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Un an mai târziu, <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> și nepotul ei <a href="/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch" title="Otto Robert Frisch">Otto Robert Frisch</a>&#160;au confirmat că rezultatul lui Hahn a fost de fapt prima&#160;<i>fisiune nucleară</i>&#160;experimentală.<sup id="cite_ref-nature143_3615_239_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature143_3615_239-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-schroeder_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> În 1944, Hahn a primit <a href="/wiki/Premiul_Nobel" title="Premiul Nobel">premiul Nobel</a>&#160;pentru Chimie. În ciuda eforturilor lui Hahn, contribuțiile lui Meitner și Frisch nu au fost recunoscute.<sup id="cite_ref-pt50_9_26_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pt50_9_26-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>În 1950, dezvoltarea unor&#160;<a href="/wiki/Accelerator_de_particule" title="Accelerator de particule">acceleratoare de particule</a> și <a href="/wiki/Detector_de_particule" title="Detector de particule">detectoare de particule</a>&#160;îmbunătățite&#160;au permis oamenilor de știință să studieze efectele atomilor în mișcare la energii înalte.<sup id="cite_ref-kullander2001_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kullander2001-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Neutronii și protonii s-au dovedit a fi <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadroni</a>, adică compuși din particule mai mici numite <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarkuri</a>. A fost dezvoltat&#160;<a href="/wiki/Modelul_standard" title="Modelul standard">modelul standard al fizicii particulelor</a>, care până acum a explicat cu succes proprietățile nucleului în ceea ce privește aceste particule sub-atomice și forțele care guvernează interacțiunile lor.<sup id="cite_ref-npp1990_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npp1990-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particulele_subatomice">Particulele subatomice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=13" title="Modifică secțiunea: Particulele subatomice" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Particulele subatomice"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deși cuvântul <i>atom</i> denumea inițial o particulă care nu poate fi împărțită în particule mai mici, în utilizarea științifică modernă atomul este compus din diferite <a href="/wiki/Particul%C4%83_subatomic%C4%83" title="Particulă subatomică">particule subatomice</a>. Particulele constituente ale unui atom sunt <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electronii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protonii</a> și <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutronii</a>; toate trei sunt <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermioni</a>. Ca excepție, atomul de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Hidrogen" title="Hidrogen">hidrogen-1</a> nu are neutroni, iar&#160;<a href="/wiki/Hidron" title="Hidron">ionul hidron</a>&#160;nu are electroni. </p><p>Electronul este de departe cel mai puțin masiv din aceste particule, la <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">6969911000000000000♠</span>9.11<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−31</sup>&#160;kg</span>, cu <a href="/wiki/Sarcin%C4%83_electric%C4%83" title="Sarcină electrică">sarcină electrică</a>&#160;negativă și cu&#160;dimensiune care este prea mică pentru a fi măsurată folosind tehnicile disponibile.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Este cea mai ușoară particulă cu masă de repaus pozitivă măsurată. În condiții normale, electronii sunt legați de nucleul încărcat pozitiv prin atracția creată între sarcinile electrice de semn opus. Dacă un atom are mai mulți sau mai puțini electroni decât numărul său atomic, atunci el devine încărcat negativ sau, respectiv, pozitiv în ansamblu; un atom încărcat electric se numeste&#160;<a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>. Electronii au fost cunoscuți încă de la sfârșitul secolului al XIX-lea, mai ales datorită lui&#160;<a href="/wiki/Joseph_John_Thomson" title="Joseph John Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>. </p><p>Protonii au o sarcină pozitivă și o masă de 1836 de ori mai mare ca a electronului, la <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">6973167260000000000♠</span>1.6726<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−27</sup>&#160;kg</span>. Numărul de protoni dintr-un atom se numește <a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83r_atomic" title="Număr atomic">număr atomic</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1919) a observat că azotul, sub bombardament de particule alfa, radiază ceea ce părea a fi nuclee de hidrogen. În 1920, el acceptase faptul că nucleul de hidrogen este o particulă distinctă în interiorul atomului, și l-a numit <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>. </p><p>Neutronii nu au sarcină electrică și au o masă liberă de 1839 de ori mai mare ca masa electronului,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> sau <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">6973167490000000000♠</span>1.6749<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−27</sup>&#160;kg</span>, fiind cea mai grea dintre cele trei particule constituente, dar el poate fi redus prin <a href="/w/index.php?title=Energie_de_leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_nuclear%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Energie de legătură nucleară — pagină inexistentă">energia de legătură nucleară</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6750062" class="extiw" title="d:Q6750062"><span title="energie de legătură nucleară la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. Neutronii și protonii (cunoscuți colectiv&#160;sub numele de <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleoni</a>) au dimensiuni comparabile—de ordinul a&#160;<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">6985250000000000000♠</span>2.5<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−15</sup>&#160;m</span>—deși „suprafața” acestor particule nu este definită clar.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Neutronul a fost descoperit în 1932 de către fizicianul englez <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a>. </p><p>În <a href="/wiki/Modelul_standard" title="Modelul standard">Modelul Standard</a> al fizicii, electronii sunt cu adevărat particule elementare, fără structură internă. Cu toate acestea, atât protonii cât și neutronii sunt particule compozite alcatuite din <a href="/wiki/Particul%C4%83_elementar%C4%83" title="Particulă elementară">particule elementare</a> numite <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarkuri</a>. Există două tipuri de quarkuri în atomi, fiecare având o sarcină electrică fracționară. Protonii sunt compuși din două <a href="/wiki/Quark_up" class="mw-redirect" title="Quark up">quarkuri up</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6732" class="extiw" title="d:Q6732"><span title="quark up la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> (fiecare cu sarcina +⅔) și un <a href="/w/index.php?title=Quark_down&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Quark down — pagină inexistentă">quark down</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6745" class="extiw" title="d:Q6745"><span title="quark down la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> (cu o sarcină de &#8722;⅓. Neutronii constau dintr-un quark up și două quarkuri down. Această distincție explică diferența de masă și de sarcină electrică între cele două particule.<sup id="cite_ref-pdg2002_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pdg2002-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-schombert2006_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schombert2006-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Quarkurile sunt ținute împreună de <a href="/wiki/Interac%C8%9Biunea_tare" class="mw-redirect" title="Interacțiunea tare">interacțiunea tare</a> (sau forța nucleară tare), care este mediată de <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluoni</a>. Protonii și neutronii, la rândul lor, sunt ținuți unul lângă altul în nucleu de <a href="/wiki/For%C8%9B%C4%83_nuclear%C4%83" title="Forță nucleară">forța nucleară</a>, care este un reziduu al unei forțe tari cu proprietăți oarecum diferite în raport cu raza de acțiune. Gluonul este un membru al familiei&#160;bosonilor gauge, particule elementare care mediază forțe fizice.<sup id="cite_ref-pdg2002_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pdg2002-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-schombert2006_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schombert2006-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nucleul">Nucleul</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=14" title="Modifică secțiunea: Nucleul" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Nucleul"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/350px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/525px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg/700px-Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="671" data-file-height="441" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Energie_de_leg%C4%83tur%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Energie de legătură — pagină inexistentă">Energia de legătură</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420754" class="extiw" title="d:Q420754"><span title="energie de legătură la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;necesară pentru ca un nucleon să scape din nucleu, pentru diverși izotopi</figcaption></figure> <p>Toți protonii și neutronii legați din atom formează un mic <a href="/wiki/Nucleu_atomic" title="Nucleu atomic">nucleu atomic</a>, și sunt denumiți colectiv&#160;<a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleoni</a>. Raza nucleului este aproximativ egală cu 1.07 <span class="nowrap"><sup style="margin-right: -0.5em; vertical-align: 0.8em;">3</sup>&#8730;<span style="border-top:1px solid; padding:0 0.1em;"><i>A</i></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Femtometru" title="Femtometru">fm</a>, unde <i>A</i>&#160;este numărul total de nucleoni.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Acesta este mult mai mic decât raza atomului, care este de ordinul a 10<sup>5</sup> fm. Nucleonii sunt legați împreună de un potențial atractiv cu rază mică de acțiune numit <a href="/wiki/For%C8%9B%C4%83_nuclear%C4%83" title="Forță nucleară">forță tare reziduală</a>. La distanțe mai mici de 2,5 fm această forță este mult mai puternică decât <a href="/wiki/Legea_lui_Coulomb" title="Legea lui Coulomb">forța electrostatică</a> care provoacă respingerea reciprocă a protonilor încărcați pozitiv.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atomii aceluiași <a href="/wiki/Element_chimic" title="Element chimic">element</a> au același număr de protoni, numit <a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83r_atomic" title="Număr atomic">număr atomic</a>. Într-un singur element, numărul de neutroni poate varia, determinând&#160;<a href="/wiki/Izotop" title="Izotop">izotopii</a>&#160;acelui element. Numărul total de protoni și neutroni determină&#160;<a href="/wiki/Nuclid" title="Nuclid">nuclidul</a>. Numărul de neutroni relativ la cel de protoni determină stabilitatea nucleului, anumiți izotopi pretându-se la&#160;<a href="/wiki/Radioactivitate" title="Radioactivitate">dezintegrare radioactivă</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wenner2007_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wenner2007-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protonul, electronul, neutronul sunt clasificați ca <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermioni</a>. Fermionii se supun&#160;<a href="/wiki/Principiul_de_excluziune" title="Principiul de excluziune">principiului de excluziune al lui Pauli</a>, care interzice fermionilor&#160;<i><a href="/wiki/Particule_identice" title="Particule identice">identici</a></i>, cum ar fi mai mulți protoni, să ocupe aceeași stare cuantică în același timp. Astfel, fiecare proton din nucleu trebuie să ocupe o stare cuantică diferită de toți ceilalți protoni, și același lucru este valabil și pentru neutronii din nucleu și pentru toți electronii din norul de electroni. Cu toate acestea, un proton și un neutron au voie să ocupe aceeași stare cuantică.<sup id="cite_ref-raymond_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raymond-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pentru atomii cu un număr atomic scăzut, un nucleu care are mai mulți neutroni decât protoni tinde să scadă la o stare de energie mai mică prin dezintegrare radioactivă, astfel încât <a href="/w/index.php?title=Raportul_neutroni-protoni&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Raportul neutroni-protoni — pagină inexistentă">raportul neutroni–protoni</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15410640" class="extiw" title="d:Q15410640"><span title="raportul neutroni-protoni la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;să se apropie de unu. Cu toate acestea, pe măsură ce numărul atomic crește, este necesară o proporție mai mare de neutroni pentru compensarea respingerii reciproce dintre protoni. Astfel, nu există nuclee stabile cu număr egal de protoni și neutroni de la numărul atomic <i>Z</i> = 20 (calciu) în sus și, pe măsură ce&#160;<i>Z</i> crește, raportul neutroni–protoni al izotopilor stabili crește și el.<sup id="cite_ref-raymond_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raymond-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Izotopul stabil cu cel mai mare raport protoni–neutroni raport este <a href="/w/index.php?title=Izotopii_plumbului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Izotopii plumbului — pagină inexistentă">plumb-208</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1372384" class="extiw" title="d:Q1372384"><span title="izotopii plumbului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> (aproximativ 1,5). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/220px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/330px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg/440px-Wpdms_physics_proton_proton_chain_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="484" /></a><figcaption>Ilustrarea unei fuziuni nucleare, proces care formează un nucleu de deuteriu, format dintr-un proton și un neutron, din doi protoni. Un <a href="/wiki/Pozitron" title="Pozitron">pozitron</a>&#160;(e<sup>+</sup>)—un electron de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Antimaterie" title="Antimaterie">antimaterie</a>&#160;este emis împreună cu un&#160;<a href="/wiki/Neutrin" title="Neutrin">neutrino</a>&#160;electronic.</figcaption></figure> <p>Numărul protonilor și neutronilor în nucleul atomic poate fi modificat, deși acest lucru poate necesita energii foarte înalte din cauza forței tari. <a href="/wiki/Fuziune_nuclear%C4%83" title="Fuziune nucleară">Fuziunea nucleară</a> apare atunci când mai multe particule atomice se unesc pentru a forma un nucleu mai greu, cum ar fi prin ciocnirea la mare energie a două nuclee. De exemplu, în centrul Soarelui protonii necesită energii de 3-10 keV, pentru a depăși respingerea—<a href="/wiki/Bariera_Coulomb" title="Bariera Coulomb">bariera Coulomb</a>—și a fuziona într-un singur nucleu.<sup id="cite_ref-mihos2002_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mihos2002-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fisiune_nuclear%C4%83" title="Fisiune nucleară">Fisiunea nucleară</a> este procesul invers, provocarea divizării unui nucleu în două nuclee mai mici—de obicei, prin dezintegrare radioactivă. Nucleul poate fi modificat și prin bombardament cu particule subatomice sau fotoni de mare energie. Dacă aceasta modifică numărul de protoni din nucleu, atomul se transformă într-un alt element chimic.<sup id="cite_ref-lbnl20070330_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lbnl20070330-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-makhijani_saleska2001_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-makhijani_saleska2001-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dacă în urma unei reacții de fuziune&#160;masa nucleului este mai mică decât suma maselor particulelor separate, atunci diferența dintre aceste două valori pot fi emise sub forma unui tip de energie utilizabilă (cum ar fi o <a href="/wiki/Radia%C8%9Bie_gama" title="Radiație gama">rază gamma</a>, sau energia cinetică a unei <a href="/wiki/Radia%C8%9Bie_beta" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiație beta">particule beta</a>), așa cum descrie formula lui&#160;<a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>&#160;a&#160;<a href="/wiki/Echivalen%C8%9B%C4%83_mas%C4%83%E2%80%93energie" class="mw-redirect" title="Echivalență masă–energie">echivalenței masă–energie</a>&#160;<i>E</i> = <i>mc</i><sup>2</sup>, unde <i>m</i> este pierderea de masă și <i>c</i> este <a href="/wiki/Viteza_luminii" title="Viteza luminii">viteza luminii</a>. Acest deficit face parte din <a href="/w/index.php?title=Energie_de_leg%C4%83tur%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Energie de legătură — pagină inexistentă">energia de legătură</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420754" class="extiw" title="d:Q420754"><span title="energie de legătură la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> a noului nucleu, și este pierderea nerecuperabilă de energie care provoacă particulele sudate una de alta să rămână împreună într-o stare care necesită această energie pentru a se separa.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fuziunea a două nuclee care creează nuclee mai mari cu numere atomice mai mici decât <a href="/wiki/Fier" title="Fier">fierul</a>&#160;și <a href="/wiki/Nichel" title="Nichel">nichelul</a>—un număr total de nucleoni de aproximativ 60—este de obicei un <a href="/wiki/Proces_exoterm" title="Proces exoterm">proces exoterm</a> care eliberează mai multă energie decât este necesară pentru a le aduce împreună.<sup id="cite_ref-ajp63_7_653_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ajp63_7_653-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Acest proces de eliberare de energie este cel care face ca fuziunea nucleară din <a href="/wiki/Stea" title="Stea">stele</a>&#160;să fie o reacție auto-susținută. Pentru nuclee mai grele, energia de legătură per&#160;<a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleon</a>&#160;din nucleu începe să scadă. Aceasta înseamnă că procesele de fuziune producătoare de nuclee cu numere atomice mai mari decât aproximativ 26 și <a href="/wiki/Mas%C4%83_atomic%C4%83" title="Masă atomică">mase atomice</a> mai mari decât 60 este un <a href="/wiki/Proces_endoterm" title="Proces endoterm">proces endoterm</a>. Aceste nuclee mai grele nu pot suferi o reacție de fuziune producătoare de energie care să poată susține <a href="/wiki/Echilibru_hidrostatic" title="Echilibru hidrostatic">echilibrul hidrostatic</a> al unei stele.<sup id="cite_ref-raymond_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raymond-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norul_de_electroni">Norul de electroni</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=15" title="Modifică secțiunea: Norul de electroni" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Norul de electroni"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Potential_energy_well.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/220px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/330px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Potential_energy_well.svg/440px-Potential_energy_well.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="535" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption>O groapă de potențial arată, conform <a href="/wiki/Mecanic%C4%83_clasic%C4%83" title="Mecanică clasică">mecanicii clasice</a>, energia minimă <i>V</i>(<i>x</i>) necesară pentru a ajunge la fiecare poziție <i>x</i>. Clasic, o particulă cu energia <i>E</i> este constrânsă la o serie de poziții între <i>x</i><sub>1</sub> și <i>x</i><sub>2</sub>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Electronii dintr-un atom sunt atrași de protonii din nucleu prin <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">forța electromagnetică</a>. Această forță leagă electronii într-o groapă de potențial&#160;<a href="/wiki/Electrostatic%C4%83" title="Electrostatică">electrostatic</a>&#160;ce înconjoară nucleul mai mic, ceea ce înseamnă că o sursă externă de energie este necesară pentru ca electronul să scape. Cu cât este mai aproape un electron de nucleu, cu atât mai mare forța de atracție. Prin urmare, electronii legați în apropiere de centrul gropii de potențial necesită mai multă energie pentru a scăpa decât cei mai îndepărtați. </p><p>Electronii, ca și alte particule, au proprietăți atât de&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Dualismul_corpuscul-und%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dualismul corpuscul-undă — pagină inexistentă">particulă cât și de undă</a>. Norul electronic este o regiune în interiorul gropii de potențial, unde fiecare electron formează un fel de <a href="/wiki/Und%C4%83_sta%C8%9Bionar%C4%83" title="Undă staționară">undă staționară</a>&#160;tridimensională—o formă de undă care nu se mișcă în raport cu nucleul. Acest comportament este definit de un <a href="/wiki/Orbital_atomic" title="Orbital atomic">orbital atomic</a>, o funcție matematică care caracterizează probabilitatea ca un electron să pară a fi într-un anumit loc, atunci când poziția sa este măsurată.<sup id="cite_ref-science157_3784_13_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science157_3784_13-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Doar o mulțime discretă (sau <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quantize" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:quantize">cuantificată</a>) de orbitali există în jurul nucleului, întrucât alte modele posibile de undă se degradează rapid într-o formă mai stabilă.<sup id="cite_ref-Brucat2008_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brucat2008-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Orbitalii pot avea una sau mai multe structuri de inel sau de nod, și diferă unele de altele în dimensiune, formă și orientare.<sup id="cite_ref-manthey2001_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manthey2001-49"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:S-p-Orbitals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S-p-Orbitals.svg/220px-S-p-Orbitals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S-p-Orbitals.svg/330px-S-p-Orbitals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/S-p-Orbitals.svg/440px-S-p-Orbitals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1813" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Funcțiile de undă ale primilor cinci orbitali atomici. Cei trei orbitali 2p prezintă fiecare câte un singur&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nod_(fizic%C4%83)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nod (fizică) — pagină inexistentă">nod</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1062658" class="extiw" title="d:Q1062658"><span title="nod (fizică) la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> care are o orientare și un minim la centru.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv/220px--Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="64" data-mwtitle="Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs=&quot;theora, vorbis&quot;" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/61/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv/Atomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&amp;title=File%3AAtomic_orbitals_and_periodic_table_construction.ogv&amp;lang=es&amp;trackformat=vtt&amp;origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>Felul cum atomii sunt construiți din orbitali electronici și legătura cu tabelul periodic</figcaption></figure> <p>Fiecare orbital atomic corespunde unui anumit <a href="/wiki/Nivel_de_energie" title="Nivel de energie">nivel de energie</a> al electronului. Electronul își poate schimba starea la un nivel superior de energie prin absorbția unui <a href="/wiki/Foton" title="Foton">foton</a> cu energie suficientă pentru a-l trece într-o nouă stare cuantică. De asemenea, prin intermediul <a href="/wiki/Emisie_spontan%C4%83" title="Emisie spontană">emisiei spontane</a>, un electron dintr-o stare mai mare de energie poate scădea la o stare de energie mai mică, în timp ce radiază energia în exces sub forma unui foton. Aceste valori caracteristice ale energiei, definite prin diferențele de energie ale stărilor cuantice, sunt responsabile pentru <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopie" title="Spectroscopie">liniile spectrale atomice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brucat2008_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brucat2008-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cantitatea de energie necesară pentru a elimina sau adăuga un electron— <a href="/wiki/Energie_de_ionizare" title="Energie de ionizare">energia de legătură a electronului</a>—este cu mult mai mică decât <a href="/w/index.php?title=Energie_de_leg%C4%83tur%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Energie de legătură — pagină inexistentă">energia de legătură a nucleonilor</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420754" class="extiw" title="d:Q420754"><span title="energie de legătură la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. De exemplu, este nevoie de doar 13.6 eV pentru a scoate un electron din&#160;<a href="/wiki/Stare_sta%C8%9Bionar%C4%83" title="Stare staționară">starea de bază</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q911951" class="extiw" title="d:Q911951"><span title="stare staționară la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;dintr-un atom de hidrogen,<sup id="cite_ref-herter_8_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herter_8-50"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;comparativ cu 2.23 <i>milioane de</i> eV pentru divizarea unui nucleu de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Deuteriu" title="Deuteriu">deuteriu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pr79_2_282_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pr79_2_282-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Atomii sunt neutri din punct de vedere&#160;<a href="/wiki/Sarcin%C4%83_electric%C4%83" title="Sarcină electrică">electric</a>&#160;dacă au un număr egal de protoni și electroni. Atomii care au un deficit sau un surplus de electroni se numesc <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ioni</a>. Electronii care sunt aflați mai departe de nucleu pot fi transferați la alți atomi din apropiere sau puși în comun între atomi. Prin acest mecanism, atomii sunt în măsură să formeze&#160;<a href="/wiki/Leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_chimic%C4%83" title="Legătură chimică">legături</a>&#160;în cadrul&#160;<a href="/wiki/Molecul%C4%83" title="Moleculă">moleculelor</a>&#160;și în alte tipuri de <a href="/wiki/Compus_chimic" title="Compus chimic">compuși chimici</a>, cum ar fi&#160;rețelele de <a href="/wiki/Cristalizare" title="Cristalizare">cristale</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_ionic%C4%83" title="Legătură ionică">ionice</a> și <a href="/wiki/Leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_covalent%C4%83" title="Legătură covalentă">covalente</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proprietăți"><span id="Propriet.C4.83.C8.9Bi"></span>Proprietăți</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=16" title="Modifică secțiunea: Proprietăți" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Proprietăți"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proprietăți_nucleare"><span id="Propriet.C4.83.C8.9Bi_nucleare"></span>Proprietăți nucleare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=17" title="Modifică secțiunea: Proprietăți nucleare" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Proprietăți nucleare"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prin definiție, orice doi atomi cu același număr de <i>protoni</i> în nucleele lor aparțin aceluiași <a href="/wiki/Element_chimic" title="Element chimic">element chimic</a>. Atomii cu același număr de protoni, dar număr diferit de <i>neutroni</i> sunt izotopi diferiți&#160;ai aceluiași element. De exemplu, atomii de hidrogen admit exact un proton, dar există izotopi fără neutroni (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Izotopii_hidrogenului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Izotopii hidrogenului — pagină inexistentă">hidrogen-1</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q466603" class="extiw" title="d:Q466603"><span title="izotopii hidrogenului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, de departe, cea mai comună formă,<sup id="cite_ref-matis2000_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-matis2000-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;numit și protiu), un neutron (<a href="/wiki/Deuteriu" title="Deuteriu">deuteriu</a>), doi neutroni (<a href="/wiki/Tritiu" title="Tritiu">tritiu</a>) și mai mult de doi neutroni. Elementele cunoscute formează un set de numere atomice, de la elementul cu un singur proton,&#160;<a href="/wiki/Hidrogen" title="Hidrogen">hidrogenul</a>,&#160;până la elementul cu 118 protoni&#160;<a href="/wiki/Ununoctiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ununoctiu">ununocțiu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-weiss20061017_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weiss20061017-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Toți izotopii cunoscuți ai elementelor cu numărul atomic mai mare de 82 sunt radioactivi.<sup id="cite_ref-s131_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s131-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dume20030423_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dume20030423-56"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Circa 339 nuclizi apar în mod natural pe <a href="/wiki/P%C4%83m%C3%A2nt" title="Pământ">Pământ</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-lidsay20000730_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lidsay20000730-57"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;din care 254 (aproximativ 75%) nu au fost observați a se degrada, și sunt menționați ca „<a href="/w/index.php?title=Raportul_de_izotopi_stabili&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Raportul de izotopi stabili — pagină inexistentă">izotopi stabili</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17148629" class="extiw" title="d:Q17148629"><span title="raportul de izotopi stabili la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>”. Cu toate acestea, doar 90 din acești nuclizi sunt stabili la toate degradările, chiar și teoretic. Alți 164 (ajungând la un total de 254) nu au fost observați a se degrada, chiar dacă în teorie este posibil din punct de vedere energetic. Aceștia sunt oficial clasificați ca fiind „stabili”. Alți 34 de nuclizi radioactivi au timp de înjumătățire mai mare de 80 de milioane de ani și au viață suficient de lungă încât să fi fost prezenți la nașterea <a href="/wiki/Sistemul_solar" title="Sistemul solar">sistemului solar</a>. Această colecție de 288 de nuclizi este cunoscută sub numele de<a href="/wiki/Nuclid_primordial" title="Nuclid primordial">&#160;nuclizi primordiali</a>. În sfârșit, sunt cunoscuți încă 51 de nuclizi cu viață scurtă care pot apărea în mod natural, ca produse ale descompunerii nuclizilor primordiali (cum ar fi <a href="/wiki/Radiu" title="Radiu">radiul</a>&#160;din&#160;<a href="/wiki/Uraniu" title="Uraniu">uraniu</a>), sau altfel ca produse ale proceselor energetice naturale de pe Pământ, cum ar fi bombardamentul cu raze cosmice (de exemplu, carbonul-14).<sup id="cite_ref-tuli2005_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuli2005-58"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pentru 80 de elemente chimice, există cel puțin un <a href="/w/index.php?title=Raportul_de_izotopi_stabili&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Raportul de izotopi stabili — pagină inexistentă">izotop stabil</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17148629" class="extiw" title="d:Q17148629"><span title="raportul de izotopi stabili la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. Ca o regulă, există doar câțiva izotopi stabili pentru fiecare dintre aceste elemente, valoarea medie fiind de 3,2 izotopi per element. Douăzeci și șase de elemente au numai un singur izotop stabil, în timp ce cel mai mare număr de izotopi observat pentru orice element este de zece, pentru elementul <a href="/wiki/Staniu" title="Staniu">staniu</a>. Elementele <a href="/wiki/Techne%C8%9Biu" title="Technețiu">43</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prome%C8%9Biu" title="Promețiu">61</a>, și toate elementele cu numere de la&#160;<a href="/wiki/Bismut" title="Bismut">83</a> în sus nu au izotopi stabili.<sup id="cite_ref-CRC_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRC-60"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears&#160;din April 2011" style="white-space: nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citarea_surselor" title="Wikipedia:Citarea surselor">necesită&#160;pagina</a></i>&#93;</span></sup> </p><p>Stabilitatea izotopilor este afectată de raportul dintre protoni și neutroni, și de prezența unor „numere magice” de neutroni sau protoni, care reprezintă învelișuri cuantice închise și pline. Aceste învelișuri cuantice corespund unui set de niveluri de energie în cadrul <a href="/w/index.php?title=Modelul_cu_%C3%AEnveli%C8%99uri_al_nucleului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Modelul cu învelișuri al nucleului — pagină inexistentă">modelului cu învelișuri</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q600617" class="extiw" title="d:Q600617"><span title="modelul cu învelișuri al nucleului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;al nucleului; învelișuri pline, cum ar fi învelișul plin de 50 de protoni pentru staniu, conferă stabilitate neobișnuită nuclidului. Din cele 254 de nuclee stabile cunoscute, doar patru au atât un număr impar de protoni <i>și</i> un număr impar de neutroni: <a href="/wiki/Deuteriu" title="Deuteriu">hidrogen-2</a> (<a href="/wiki/Deuteriu" title="Deuteriu">deuteriu</a>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Izotopii_litiului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Izotopii litiului — pagină inexistentă">litiu-6</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q468718" class="extiw" title="d:Q468718"><span title="izotopii litiului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, <a href="/wiki/Bor_(element)" title="Bor (element)">bor-10</a> și <a href="/w/index.php?title=Izotopii_azotului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Izotopii azotului — pagină inexistentă">azot-14</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q470479" class="extiw" title="d:Q470479"><span title="izotopii azotului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. De asemenea, doar patru nuclizi naturali, radioactivi, par–par au un timp de înjumătățire de peste un miliard de ani: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Potasiu-40&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Potasiu-40 — pagină inexistentă">potasiu-40</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2251076" class="extiw" title="d:Q2251076"><span title="potasiu-40 la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Izotopii_vanadiului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Izotopii vanadiului — pagină inexistentă">vanadiu-50</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q477795" class="extiw" title="d:Q477795"><span title="izotopii vanadiului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Izotopii_lantanului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Izotopii lantanului — pagină inexistentă">lantan-138</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q559290" class="extiw" title="d:Q559290"><span title="izotopii lantanului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> și <a href="/w/index.php?title=Izotopii_tantalului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Izotopii tantalului — pagină inexistentă">tantal-180m</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2500708" class="extiw" title="d:Q2500708"><span title="izotopii tantalului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. Majoritatea nucleelor impar–impar sunt foarte instabile în raport cu&#160;<a href="/wiki/Dezintegrare_beta" title="Dezintegrare beta">dezintegrarea beta</a>, deoarece produsele de descompunere sunt par–par, și, prin urmare, mai puternic legate, din cauza <a href="/w/index.php?title=Formula_lui_Weizs%C3%A4cker&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Formula lui Weizsäcker — pagină inexistentă">efectelor împerecherilor nucleare</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q206451" class="extiw" title="d:Q206451"><span title="formula lui Weizsäcker la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-CRC_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRC-60"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears&#160;din April 2011" style="white-space: nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citarea_surselor" title="Wikipedia:Citarea surselor">necesită&#160;pagina</a></i>&#93;</span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Masa">Masa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=18" title="Modifică secțiunea: Masa" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Masa"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Majoritatea masei unui atom provine de la protoni și neutroni. Numărul total al acestor particule (numite „nucleoni”) într-un anumit atom se numește <a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83r_de_mas%C4%83" title="Număr de masă">numărul de masă</a>. Este un număr întreg pozitiv și adimensional (în loc de a avea dimensiunea de masă), pentru că exprimă un număr. Un exemplu de utilizare a unui numărul de masă este „carbon-12,” care are 12 nucleoni (șase protoni și șase neutroni). </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Masa_invariant%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Masa invariantă — pagină inexistentă">Masa unui atom în repaus</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1097654" class="extiw" title="d:Q1097654"><span title="masa invariantă la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> este de multe ori exprimată folosind <a href="/wiki/Unitate_atomic%C4%83_de_mas%C4%83" title="Unitate atomică de masă">unitatea unificată atomică de masă</a> (u), numită și dalton (Da). Această unitate este definită ca o a douăsprezecea parte din masa liberă a unui atom neutru de <a href="/wiki/Carbon-12" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon-12">carbon-12</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1058364" class="extiw" title="d:Q1058364"><span title="carbon-12 la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, care este de aproximativ <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">6973166000000000000♠</span>1.66<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−27</sup>&#160;kg</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-iupac_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iupac-61"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Atomul_de_hidrogen" title="Atomul de hidrogen">Hidrogen-1</a> (cel mai ușor izotop de hidrogen, care este și nuclidul cu cea mai mică masă) are 1.007825&#160;u.<sup id="cite_ref-chieh2001_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chieh2001-62"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Valoarea acestui număr se numește <a href="/wiki/Mas%C4%83_atomic%C4%83" title="Masă atomică">masă atomică</a>. Un anumit atom are o masă atomică aproximativ egală (cu aproximație de 1%) cu numărul de masă înmulțit cu unitatea atomică de masă (de exemplu masa azotului-14 este de aproximativ 14 u). Cu toate acestea, acest număr nu va fi exact un număr întreg, cu excepția carbonului-12 (vezi mai jos).<sup id="cite_ref-nist_wc_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist_wc-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Cel mai greu&#160;<a href="/wiki/Izotop_stabil" title="Izotop stabil">atom stabil</a> este plumb-208,<sup id="cite_ref-s131_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s131-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;cu o masă de <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">7002207976652100000♠</span>207.976<span style="margin-left:.25em;">6521</span>&#160;u</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-audi2003_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-audi2003-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Deoarece chiar și cei mai masivi atomi sunt mult prea ușori pentru a lucra cu ei în mod direct, chimiștii folosesc în schimb unitatea&#160;<a href="/wiki/Mol" title="Mol">mol</a>. Un mol de atomi de orice element are întotdeauna același număr de atomi (circa&#160;<a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83rul_lui_Avogadro" title="Numărul lui Avogadro"><span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">7023602200000000000♠</span>6.022<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>23</sup></span></a>). Acest număr a fost ales astfel încât, dacă un element are o masă atomică de 1 u, un mol de atomi de acest element are o masă de aproape un gram. Pentru definirea <a href="/wiki/Unitate_atomic%C4%83_de_mas%C4%83" title="Unitate atomică de masă">unității atomice de masă</a>, fiecare atom de carbon-12 are o masă atomică de exact 12 u, și deci un mol de atomi de carbon-12 cântărește exact 0,012 kg.<sup id="cite_ref-iupac_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iupac-61"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forma_și_mărimea"><span id="Forma_.C8.99i_m.C4.83rimea"></span>Forma și mărimea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=19" title="Modifică secțiunea: Forma și mărimea" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Forma și mărimea"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Atomilor le lipsește o limită exterioară bine definită, astfel încât dimensiunile lor sunt de obicei descrise în termeni de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Raz%C4%83_atomic%C4%83" title="Rază atomică">rază atomică</a>. Aceasta este o măsură a distanței pe care se întinde norul electronic de la nucleu.<sup id="cite_ref-Ghosh02_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ghosh02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Acest lucru presupune însă că atomul ar prezenta o formă sferică, ceea ce este adevărat doar pentru atomi în vid sau în spațiul liber. Raze atomice se pot calcula din distanțele între două nuclee atunci când doi atomi sunt uniți într-o <a href="/wiki/Leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_chimic%C4%83" title="Legătură chimică">legătură chimică</a>. Raza variază în funcție de locația unui atom în structura atomică, tipul de legătură chimică, numărul atomilor vecini (<a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83r_de_coordinare" title="Număr de coordinare">numărul de coordonare</a>) și proprietatea <a href="/wiki/Mecanic%C4%83_cuantic%C4%83" title="Mecanică cuantică">mecanică cuantică</a>&#160;numită <a href="/wiki/Spin_(fizic%C4%83)" title="Spin (fizică)">spin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aca32_5_751_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aca32_5_751-65"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;În <a href="/wiki/Tabelul_periodic_al_elementelor" title="Tabelul periodic al elementelor">tabelul periodic</a> al elementelor, dimensiunea atomilor tinde să crească atunci când ne deplasăm în jos pe coloane, dar să scadă atunci când ne deplasăm pe rânduri (de la stânga la dreapta).<sup id="cite_ref-dong1998_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dong1998-66"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Ca urmare, cel mai mic atom este cel de heliu, cu o rază de 32 <a href="/wiki/Picometru" title="Picometru">pm</a>, în timp ce unul dintre cele mai mari este cel de <a href="/wiki/Cesiu" title="Cesiu">cesiu</a>,&#160;cu 225&#160;pm.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atunci când este supus unor forțe externe, cum ar fi <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A2mp_electric" title="Câmp electric">câmpurile electrice</a>, forma unui atom se poate abate de la <a href="/wiki/Simetrie_circular%C4%83" title="Simetrie circulară">simetria sferică</a>. Deformarea depinde de mărimea câmpului și de tipul de orbital al electronilor exteriori, așa cum arată unele considerații de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Teoria_grupurilor" title="Teoria grupurilor">teoria grupurilor</a>. Abateri asferice ar putea fi provocate de exemplu în <a href="/wiki/Cristal" title="Cristal">cristale</a>, unde câmpuri electrice mari pot apărea în puncte de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Structur%C4%83_cristalin%C4%83" title="Structură cristalină">joasă simetrie</a> a rețelei. S-a demonstrat că pot apărea deformări&#160;<a href="/wiki/Elipsoid" title="Elipsoid">elipsoidale</a>&#160;semnificative la ionii de sulf<sup id="cite_ref-pssb2008_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pssb2008-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> și ai altor&#160;<a href="/wiki/Calcogen" title="Calcogen">calcogeni</a><sup id="cite_ref-mdpi2014_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mdpi2014-69"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> în compușii de tipul&#160;<a href="/wiki/Pirit%C4%83" title="Pirită">piritei</a>. </p><p>Dimensiunile atomice sunt de mii de ori mai mici decât lungimile de undă ale <a href="/wiki/Lumin%C4%83" title="Lumină">luminii</a> (400-700 <a href="/wiki/Nanometru" title="Nanometru">nm</a>), astfel încât aceștia nu pot fi văzuți folosind un <a href="/wiki/Microscop_optic" title="Microscop optic">microscop optic</a>. Atomi individuali pot fi totuși observați folosind un <a href="/wiki/Microscop_cu_efect_tunel" title="Microscop cu efect tunel">microscop de scanare cu efect tunel</a>. Pentru a înțelege cât de mic este un atom, ne putem gândi că un fir de păr uman tipic are aproximativ 1 milion de atomi de carbon lățime.<sup id="cite_ref-osu2007_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osu2007-70"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> O singură picătură de apă conține aproximativ 2 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Denumirile_numerelor_mari&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Denumirile numerelor mari — pagină inexistentă">triliarde</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1151232" class="extiw" title="d:Q1151232"><span title="denumirile numerelor mari la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;(<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">7021200000000000000♠</span>2<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>21</sup></span>) de atomi de oxigen, și de două ori mai mulți atomi de hidrogen..<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Un singur&#160;<a href="/wiki/Diamant" title="Diamant">diamant</a>&#160;de un carat, cu o masă de <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">6996200000000000000♠</span>2<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−4</sup>&#160;kg</span> conține aproximativ 10 triliarde (10<sup>22</sup>) de atomi de <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Dacă un măr ar fi mărit la dimensiunea Pământului, atunci atomii din măr ar fi aproximativ de dimensiunea mărului original.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dezintegrare_radioactivă"><span id="Dezintegrare_radioactiv.C4.83"></span>Dezintegrare radioactivă</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=20" title="Modifică secțiunea: Dezintegrare radioactivă" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Dezintegrare radioactivă"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Isotopes_and_half-life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/300px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="360" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/450px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Isotopes_and_half-life.svg/600px-Isotopes_and_half-life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Această diagramă arată <a href="/wiki/Perioad%C4%83_de_%C3%AEnjum%C4%83t%C4%83%C8%9Bire" title="Perioadă de înjumătățire">timpul de înjumătățire</a> (T<sub>½ </sub>) al diferiților izotopi cu Z protoni si N neutroni.</figcaption></figure> <p>Fiecare element are unul sau mai mulți izotopi cu nuclee instabile care sunt supuse dezintegrării radioactive, făcând nucleul să emită particule sau radiații electromagnetice. Radioactivitatea poate apărea atunci când raza unui nucleu este mare în comparație cu raza de acțiune a forței tari, care acționează numai pe distanțe de ordinul a 1&#160;fm.<sup id="cite_ref-splung_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-splung-74"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cele mai frecvente forme de dezintegrare radioactivă sunt:<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-firestone20000522_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-firestone20000522-76"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dezintegrare_alfa" title="Dezintegrare alfa">Dezintegrarea alfa</a>: acest proces este cauzat atunci când nucleul emite o particulă alfa, adică un nucleu de heliu, constând din doi protoni și doi neutroni. Rezultatul emisiei este un element nou, cu un&#160;<a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83r_atomic" title="Număr atomic">număr atomic</a>&#160;mai mic.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dezintegrare_beta" title="Dezintegrare beta">Dezintegrarea beta</a> (și <a href="/w/index.php?title=Capturarea_de_electroni&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Capturarea de electroni — pagină inexistentă">capturarea de electroni</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q109910" class="extiw" title="d:Q109910"><span title="capturarea de electroni la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>): aceste procese sunt reglementate de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Interac%C8%9Biune_slab%C4%83" title="Interacțiune slabă">forța slabă</a>, și rezultă din transformarea unui neutron într-un proton, sau a unui proton într-un neutron. Tranziția&#160;neutron-proton este însoțită de emisia unui electron și a unui&#160;<a href="/wiki/Neutrin" title="Neutrin">antineutrino</a>, în timp ce o tranziție proton-neutron (cu excepția capturării de electroni) provoacă emisia unui&#160;<a href="/wiki/Pozitron" title="Pozitron">pozitron</a>&#160;și a unui&#160;<a href="/wiki/Neutrin" title="Neutrin">neutrino</a>. Emisiile de electroni sau pozitroni sunt numite particule beta. Dezintegrarea beta fie crește, fie scade numărul atomic al nucleului cu unu. Capturarea de electroni este mult mai comună decât emisia de pozitroni, pentru că necesită mai puțină energie. În acest tip de degradare, nucleul absoarbe un electron mai degrabă decât să emită un pozitron. În acest proces, se emite însă un&#160;neutrino este, și un proton se transformă în neutron.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia%C8%9Bie_gama" title="Radiație gama">Dezintegrare gamma</a>: acest proces rezultă dintr-o schimbare în nivelul de energie al nucleului la o stare de energie inferioară, care se soldează cu emisie de radiații electromagnetice. Starea excitată a unui nucleu care produce emisie gamma apare de obicei în urma emisiei unei particule alpha sau beta. Astfel, dezintegrarea gama urmează de obicei după dezintegrarea alfa sau beta.</li></ul> <p>Alte tipuri mai rare de <a href="/wiki/Radioactivitate" title="Radioactivitate">dezintegrare radioactivă</a> sunt ejecția de neutroni sau protoni sau de grupuri de <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleoni</a> din nucleu, sau mai multe <a href="/wiki/Radia%C8%9Bie_beta" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiație beta">particule beta</a>. O emisie gamma&#160;analogă care permite ca nucleele excitate să piardă energie într-un mod diferit, este <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conversie_intern%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Conversie internă — pagină inexistentă">conversia internă</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q544431" class="extiw" title="d:Q544431"><span title="conversie internă la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>— un proces care produce electroni cu viteză mare care nu sunt radiații beta, urmați de producerea de fotoni cu energie înaltă, care nu sunt radiații gamma. Câteva nuclee mari pot exploda în două sau mai multe fragmente încărcate electric de diferite mase, plus câțiva neutroni, într-o degradare numită&#160;<a href="/wiki/Fisiune_nuclear%C4%83" title="Fisiune nucleară">fisiune nucleară</a>&#160;spontană. </p><p>Fiecare <a href="/wiki/Radioizotop" title="Radioizotop">izotop radioactiv</a> are o perioadă de timp ce caracterizează descompunerea— <a href="/wiki/Perioad%C4%83_de_%C3%AEnjum%C4%83t%C4%83%C8%9Bire" title="Perioadă de înjumătățire">timpul de înjumătățire</a>—care este determinat de cantitatea de timp necesară pentru ca o jumătate dintr-un eșantion să se dezintegreze. Acesta este un proces de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sc%C4%83dere_exponen%C8%9Bial%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Scădere exponențială — pagină inexistentă">scădere exponențială</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q574576" class="extiw" title="d:Q574576"><span title="scădere exponențială la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;care scade&#160;în mod constant proporția de izotop rămasă cu 50% la fiecare timp de înjumătățire. Prin urmare, după ce se scurge de două ori timpul de înjumătățire, va mai rămâne 25% din izotopul prezent, și așa mai departe.<sup id="cite_ref-splung_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-splung-74"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Momentul_magnetic">Momentul magnetic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=21" title="Modifică secțiunea: Momentul magnetic" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Momentul magnetic"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Particulele elementare posedă o proprietate mecanică cuantică intrinsecă numită <a href="/wiki/Spin_(fizic%C4%83)" title="Spin (fizică)">spin</a>. Acest lucru este analog cu <a href="/wiki/Moment_cinetic" title="Moment cinetic">momentul cinetic</a> al unui obiect care se rotește în jurul <a href="/wiki/Centru_de_mas%C4%83" title="Centru de masă">centrului de masă</a>, deși, strict vorbind, aceste particule sunt considerate a fi punctiforme și nu mai poate fi vorba despre o rotație a lor. Spinul este măsurat în unități de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Constanta_Planck" title="Constanta Planck">constantă Planck</a>&#160;redusă (ħ), electronii, protonii și neutronii toate având spin ½ ħ, sau „spin-½”. Într-un atom, electronii în mișcare în jurul <a href="/wiki/Nucleu_atomic" title="Nucleu atomic">nucleului</a> posedă un&#160;<a href="/wiki/Moment_cinetic" title="Moment cinetic">moment cinetic</a>&#160;orbital în plus față de spin, în timp ce nucleul în sine posedă moment cinetic datorită spinului nuclear.<sup id="cite_ref-hornak2006_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hornak2006-77"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A2mp_magnetic" title="Câmp magnetic">Câmpul magnetic</a> produs de un atom— <a href="/wiki/Moment_magnetic" title="Moment magnetic">momentul său magnetic</a>—este determinat de aceste diferite forme de moment cinetic, la fel cum un obiect încărcat electric produce de regulă un câmp magnetic. Cu toate acestea, cea mai importantă contribuție vine de la spinul electronilor. Datorită naturii electronilor de a respecta&#160;<a href="/wiki/Principiul_de_excluziune" title="Principiul de excluziune">principiul de excluziune al lui Pauli</a>, conform căruia doi electroni nu se pot găsi în aceeași <a href="/wiki/Stare_cuantic%C4%83" title="Stare cuantică">stare cuantică</a>, electronii legați fac pereche, fiecare membru al perechii într-un spin cu direcția în sus și celălalt cu spinul în jos. Astfel, aceste rotiri se anulează reciproc, reducând total momentul de dipol magnetic la zero în unii atomi cu număr par de electroni.<sup id="cite_ref-schroeder2_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder2-78"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>În elementele&#160;<a href="/wiki/Feromagnetism" title="Feromagnetism">feromagnetice</a>, cum ar fi fierul, cobaltul și nichelul, un număr impar de electroni conduce la existența unui electron nepereche și la prezența unui moment magnetic net. Orbitalii atomilor vecini se suprapun și se atinge o stare de energie mai joasă atunci când spinii electronilor nepereche sunt aliniați unul cu celălalt, proces spontan cunoscut sub numele de&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interac%C8%9Biune_de_schimb&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Interacțiune de schimb — pagină inexistentă">interacțiune de schimb</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q780736" class="extiw" title="d:Q780736"><span title="interacțiune de schimb la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. Când momentele magnetice ale atomilor materialelor feromagnetice sunt aliniate, materialul poate produce un câmp măsurabil la scară macroscopică. <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">Materialele paramagnetice</a> au atomi cu momentele magnetice întreptate în direcții aleatoare atunci când nu este prezent niciun câmp magnetic, care se aliniază în prezența unui câmp.<sup id="cite_ref-schroeder2_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-schroeder2-78"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-goebel20070901_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goebel20070901-79"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nucleul unui atom nu va avea niciun spin atunci când are atât număr par de neutroni cât și de protoni, dar în alte cazuri cu numere impare, nucleul poate avea spin. În mod normal, nucleele cu spin sunt aliniate în direcții aleatoare, din cauza&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Echilibru_termic&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Echilibru termic — pagină inexistentă">echilibrului termic</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3175122" class="extiw" title="d:Q3175122"><span title="echilibru termic la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. Cu toate acestea, pentru anumite elemente (cum ar fi <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon-129</a>) este posibil să se <a href="/w/index.php?title=Polarizarea_spinului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Polarizarea spinului — pagină inexistentă">polarizeze</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q962347" class="extiw" title="d:Q962347"><span title="polarizarea spinului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> o proporție semnificativă din stările de spin nuclear, astfel încât acestea să fie aliniate în aceeași direcție—o condiție numită <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hiperpolarizare_(fizic%C4%83)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Hiperpolarizare (fizică) — pagină inexistentă">hiperpolarizare</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1641079" class="extiw" title="d:Q1641079"><span title="hiperpolarizare (fizică) la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. Aceasta are importante aplicații în <a href="/wiki/Imagistic%C4%83_prin_rezonan%C8%9B%C4%83_magnetic%C4%83" title="Imagistică prin rezonanță magnetică">imagistica prin rezonanță magnetică</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-yarris1997_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yarris1997-80"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nivelul_de_energie">Nivelul de energie</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=22" title="Modifică secțiunea: Nivelul de energie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Nivelul de energie"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg/220px-Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg/330px-Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg/440px-Atomic_orbital_energy_levels.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="304" /></a><figcaption>Nivelurile de energie ale acestor electroni (nu la scară) sunt suficiente pentru stările fundamentale ale atomilor până la&#160;<a href="/wiki/Cadmiu" title="Cadmiu">cadmiu</a> (5s<sup>2</sup> 4d<sup>10</sup>) inclusiv. Chiar și partea de sus a diagramei are energie mai joasă decât o stare nelegată.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Energie_poten%C8%9Bial%C4%83" title="Energie potențială">Energia potențială</a> a unui electron într-un atom este <a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83r_negativ" title="Număr negativ">negativă</a>, dependența ei față de poziție&#160;ajungând la un&#160;minim (<a href="/wiki/Modul" title="Modul">valoare absolută</a>&#160;maximă) în interiorul nucleului, și dispărând atunci când distanța de la nucleu <a href="/wiki/Limit%C4%83_a_unei_func%C8%9Bii" title="Limită a unei funcții">tinde la infinit</a>, aproximativ <a href="/wiki/Propor%C8%9Bionalitate" title="Proporționalitate">invers proporțional</a> cu distanța. În modelul cuantic-mecanic, un electron legat poate ocupa doar o mulțime de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Stare_cuantic%C4%83" title="Stare cuantică">stări</a>&#160;centrat pe nucleu, și fiecare stare corespunde unui anumit <a href="/wiki/Nivel_de_energie" title="Nivel de energie">nivel de energie</a>; vezi <a href="/wiki/Ecua%C8%9Bia_lui_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Ecuația lui Schrödinger">ecuația lui Schrödinger independentă de timp</a> pentru o explicație teoretică. Un nivel de energie poate fi măsurat prin <a href="/wiki/Energie_de_ionizare" title="Energie de ionizare">cantitatea de energie necesară pentru a dezlega</a>&#160;electronul din atom, și este, de obicei, dată în unități de <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">electronvolți</a>&#160;(eV). Cel mai mic nivel de energie al unui electron legat se numește stare fundamentală, sau&#160;<a href="/wiki/Stare_sta%C8%9Bionar%C4%83" title="Stare staționară">stare staționară</a>, în timp ce o tranziție a unui electron la un nivel superior se soldează cu o stare excitată.<sup id="cite_ref-zeghbroeck1998_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zeghbroeck1998-82"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Energia electronilor crește atunci când <i>n</i> crește, deoarece distanța (medie) față de nucleu crește. Dependența energiei de&#160;ℓ este cauzată nu de <a href="/wiki/Poten%C8%9Bial_electric" title="Potențial electric">potențialul electrostatic</a> al nucleului, ci prin interacțiunea între electroni. </p><p>Pentru ca un electron să&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tranzi%C8%9Bia_electronilor&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Tranziția electronilor — pagină inexistentă">treacă de la o stare la alta</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3537671" class="extiw" title="d:Q3537671"><span title="tranziția electronilor la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, de exemplu de la starea fundamentală la primul nivel excitat (<a href="/wiki/Ionizare" title="Ionizare">ionizare</a>), acesta trebuie să absoarbă sau să emită un <a href="/wiki/Foton" title="Foton">foton</a>&#160;la o energie egală cu diferența de energie potențială între aceste niveluri, conform modelului lui&#160;<a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, care poate fi calculată cu precizie prin&#160;<a href="/wiki/Ecua%C8%9Bia_lui_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Ecuația lui Schrödinger">ecuația lui Schrödinger</a>. Electronii trec între orbitali într-o manieră similară particulelor. De exemplu, dacă un singur foton ar lovi electronii, numai un singur electron și-ar schimba starea ca răspuns la foton; a se vedea <a href="/wiki/Orbital_atomic" title="Orbital atomic">proprietățile electronului</a>. </p><p>Energia emisă de un foton este proporțională cu <a href="/wiki/Frecven%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Frecvență">frecvența</a>&#160;sa, astfel încât aceste niveluri de energie specifice apar ca benzi distincte în cadrul <a href="/wiki/Spectru_electromagnetic" title="Spectru electromagnetic">spectrului electromagnetic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Fiecare element are un spectru caracteristic care depinde de sarcina nucleară, subînvelișurile ocupate de electroni, interacțiunile electromagnetice&#160;dintre electroni și de alți factori.<sup id="cite_ref-martin2007_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martin2007-84"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Fraunhofer_lines.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fraunhofer_lines.svg/300px-Fraunhofer_lines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fraunhofer_lines.svg/450px-Fraunhofer_lines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Fraunhofer_lines.svg/600px-Fraunhofer_lines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>Exemplu de linii de absorbție într-un spectru</figcaption></figure> <p>Atunci când un&#160;<a href="/wiki/Spectru_electromagnetic" title="Spectru electromagnetic">spectru continuu de energie</a> este trecut printr-un gaz sau printr-o&#160;<a href="/wiki/Plasm%C4%83" title="Plasmă">plasmă</a>, unii dintre fotoni sunt absorbiți de atomi, făcându-i pe electroni să-și schimbe nivelul de energie. Acești electroni excitați care rămân legați de atom emit spontan această energie sub forma unui foton, care se îndreaptă într-o direcție oarecare, și astfel coboară înapoi la un nivel inferior de energie. Astfel, atomii se comportă ca un filtru care formează o serie de&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Band%C4%83_de_absorb%C8%9Bie&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bandă de absorbție — pagină inexistentă">benzi de absorbție</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3359445" class="extiw" title="d:Q3359445"><span title="bandă de absorbție la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;întunecate&#160;în producția de energie. (Un observator care vizualizează atomii dintr-o perspectivă care nu include spectrul continuu în fundal vede, în schimb, o serie de <a href="/wiki/Linie_spectral%C4%83" title="Linie spectrală">linii de emisie</a>&#160;produse de fotonii emiși de către atomi.) Măsurătorile&#160;<a href="/wiki/Spectroscopie" title="Spectroscopie">spectroscopice</a> ale intensității și lățimii&#160;liniilor spectrale atomice permit identificarea compoziției și proprietăților fizice ale unei substanțe.<sup id="cite_ref-avogadro_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-avogadro-85"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Examinarea atentă a liniilor spectrale relevă că unele prezintă o divizare a&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Structur%C4%83_fin%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Structură fină — pagină inexistentă">structurii fine</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1402041" class="extiw" title="d:Q1402041"><span title="structură fină la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. Acest lucru se întâmplă din cauza&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Interac%C8%9Biunea_spin-orbit%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Interacțiunea spin-orbită — pagină inexistentă">interacțiunii spin–orbită</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1570979" class="extiw" title="d:Q1570979"><span title="interacțiunea spin-orbită la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, care este o interacțiune între spin și mișcarea electronului cel mai exterior.<sup id="cite_ref-fitzpatrick20070216_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fitzpatrick20070216-86"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Când un atom se află într-un câmp magnetic exterior, liniile spectrale devin împărțite în trei sau mai multe componente, fenomen numit <a href="/wiki/Efectul_Zeeman" title="Efectul Zeeman">efect Zeeman</a>. Acest lucru este cauzat de interacțiunea câmpului magnetic cu momentul magnetic al atomului și al electronilor săi. Unii atomi pot avea mai multe <a href="/wiki/Configura%C8%9Bie_electronic%C4%83" title="Configurație electronică">configurații de electroni</a> cu același nivel de energie, care apar astfel ca o singură linie spectrală. Interacțiunea câmpului magnetic cu atom deplasează aceste configurații de electroni la niveluri de energie ușor diferite, de unde rezultă mai multe linii spectrale.<sup id="cite_ref-weiss2001_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weiss2001-87"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Prezența unui&#160;<a href="/wiki/C%C3%A2mp_electric" title="Câmp electric">câmp electric</a>&#160;extern poate provoca un nivel comparabil de divizare și deplasare a liniilor spectrale prin modificarea nivelurilor de energie ale electronilor, un fenomen numit <a href="/w/index.php?title=Efectul_Stark&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Efectul Stark — pagină inexistentă">efect Stark</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q389407" class="extiw" title="d:Q389407"><span title="efectul Stark la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dacă un electron legat este într-o stare excitată, un foton care interacționează cu el și are energie corespunzătoare poate provoca <a href="/wiki/Emisie_stimulat%C4%83" title="Emisie stimulată">o emisie stimulată</a> a unui foton cu nivelul de energie potrivit. Pentru ca acest lucru să apară, electronul trebuie să coboare la o stare de energie mai mică, astfel încât diferența de energie să fie aceeași cu energia de fotonului cu care interacționează. Fotonii emiși și fotonii care interacționează pornesc apoi în paralel și în fază; adică, modelele de undă ale celor doi fotoni sunt sincronizate. Această proprietate fizică este folosită pentru a face <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasere</a>, care pot emite fascicule coerente de lumină a căror energie este într-o bandă de frecvență îngustă.<sup id="cite_ref-watkins_sjsu_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-watkins_sjsu-89"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Valența_și_comportamentul_legăturilor"><span id="Valen.C8.9Ba_.C8.99i_comportamentul_leg.C4.83turilor"></span>Valența și comportamentul legăturilor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=23" title="Modifică secțiunea: Valența și comportamentul legăturilor" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Valența și comportamentul legăturilor"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Valența este puterea de combinare a unui element. Aceasta este egală cu numărul de atomi de hidrogen cu care atomul s-ar putea combina sau pe care i-ar putea dizloca în formarea de compuși.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Învelișul exterior de electroni al unui atom în starea sa necombinată este cunoscut sub denumirea de&#160;<a href="/wiki/%C3%8Enveli%C8%99_electronic" title="Înveliș electronic">strat de valență</a>, iar electronii de la acel nivel se numesc <a href="/wiki/Electron_de_valen%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Electron de valență">electroni de valență</a>. Numărul de electroni de valență determină comportamentul atomului în&#160;<a href="/wiki/Leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_chimic%C4%83" title="Legătură chimică">legătură</a>&#160;cu alți atomi. Atomii au tendința de a <a href="/wiki/Reac%C8%9Bie_chimic%C4%83" title="Reacție chimică">reacționa chimic</a> unii cu alții într-un mod care le-ar umple (sau le-ar goli) stratul de valență.<sup id="cite_ref-reusch20070716_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reusch20070716-91"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> De exemplu, transferul unui singur electron între atomi este o aproximare utilă pentru legăturile care se formează între atomi care au un singur electron mai mult decât stratul exterior complet, și un altul căruia îi lipsește un electron pentru a-și completa ultimul strat, astfel cum apare în compusul <a href="/wiki/Clorur%C4%83_de_sodiu" title="Clorură de sodiu">clorură de sodiu</a> și în alte săruri ionice. Cu toate acestea, multe elemente prezintă valențe multiple, sau tendința de a pune în comun diferite numere de electroni în cadrul diferiților compuși. Astfel, <a href="/wiki/Leg%C4%83tur%C4%83_chimic%C4%83" title="Legătură chimică">legăturile chimice</a> dintre aceste elemente iau multe forme de punere în comun de electroni, care sunt mai mult decât simple transferuri de electroni. Exemplele includ elementul carbon și <a href="/wiki/Compus_organic" title="Compus organic">compușii organici</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-chemguide_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemguide-92"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Element_chimic" title="Element chimic">Elementele chimice</a> sunt adesea afișate într-un <a href="/wiki/Tabelul_periodic_al_elementelor" title="Tabelul periodic al elementelor">tabel periodic</a> care pune în evidență proprietăți chimice recurente. Elementele cu același număr de electroni de valență formează un grup care este aliniat pe aceeași coloană a tabelului. (Rândurile orizontale corespund cu umplerea unui anume nivel cuantic de electroni.) Elementele din extremitatea dreaptă au stratul exterior complet ocupat cu electroni, ceea ce le face să fie inerte din punct de vedere chimic. Ele se numesc&#160;<a href="/wiki/Gaz_nobil" title="Gaz nobil">gaze nobile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-husted20031211_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-husted20031211-93"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-baum2003_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baum2003-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stări_de_agregare"><span id="St.C4.83ri_de_agregare"></span>Stări de agregare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=24" title="Modifică secțiunea: Stări de agregare" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Stări de agregare"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/220px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/330px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Bose_Einstein_condensate.png/440px-Bose_Einstein_condensate.png 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption>Instantanee care ilustrează formarea unui <a href="/wiki/Condensatul_Bose-Einstein" title="Condensatul Bose-Einstein">condensat Bose–Einstein</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Cantitățile de atomi se găsesc în diferite stări ale materiei care depind de condițiile fizice, cum ar fi <a href="/wiki/Temperatur%C4%83" title="Temperatură">temperatura</a> și <a href="/wiki/Presiune" title="Presiune">presiunea</a>. Variind aceste condiții, materialele pot trece între stările&#160;<a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solidă</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lichid" title="Lichid">lichidă</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaz" title="Gaz">gazoasă</a>&#160;și de plasmă.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> În cadrul unei stări, un material poate exista în <a href="/wiki/Alotropie" title="Alotropie">forme alotropice</a>&#160;diferite. Un exemplu în acest sens îl constituie carbonul solid, care poate exista și amorf, ca&#160;<a href="/wiki/Grafit" title="Grafit">grafit</a>,&#160;și cristalizat, ca&#160;<a href="/wiki/Diamant" title="Diamant">diamant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pu49_7_719_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pu49_7_719-96"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Și gazele pot avea forme alotropice multiple, precum <a href="/w/index.php?title=Forme_alotrope_ale_oxigenului&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Forme alotrope ale oxigenului — pagină inexistentă">dioxigenul</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q428653" class="extiw" title="d:Q428653"><span title="forme alotrope ale oxigenului la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;și <a href="/wiki/Ozon" title="Ozon">ozonul</a>. </p><p>La temperaturi apropiate de <a href="/wiki/Zero_absolut" title="Zero absolut">zero absolut</a>, atomii pot forma un <a href="/wiki/Condensatul_Bose-Einstein" title="Condensatul Bose-Einstein">condensat Bose–Einstein</a>, punct în care efectele mecanicii cuantice, care sunt de obicei observate numai la scară atomică, devin evidente la scară macroscopică.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nist_bec_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist_bec-98"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Această colecție suprarăcită de atomi se comportă ca un singur superatom, care poate permite verificări fundamentale ale comportamentelor din mecanica cuantică.<sup id="cite_ref-colton_fyffe1999_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-colton_fyffe1999-99"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identificarea">Identificarea</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=25" title="Modifică secțiunea: Identificarea" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Identificarea"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Fi%C8%99ier:Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/220px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/330px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG/440px-Atomic_resolution_Au100.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Imagine la un&#160;<a href="/wiki/Microscop_cu_efect_tunel" title="Microscop cu efect tunel">microscop cu scanare cu efect tunel</a>&#160;arată atomii individuali care alcătuiesc această suprafară de <a href="/wiki/Aur" title="Aur">aur</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Indice_Miller&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Indice Miller — pagină inexistentă">100</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q849699" class="extiw" title="d:Q849699"><span title="indice Miller la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>) de suprafață. Atomii de la suprafață deviază de la <a href="/wiki/Structur%C4%83_cristalin%C4%83" title="Structură cristalină">structura cristalină</a>&#160;a ansamblului&#160;și se aranjează în coloane de mai mulți atomi cu spații largi între ei.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Microscop_cu_efect_tunel" title="Microscop cu efect tunel">Microscop cu scanare cu efect tunel</a> este un dispozitiv pentru vizualizarea suprafețelor la nivel atomic. El utilizează fenomenul de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Efectul_tunel" title="Efectul tunel">tunelare cuantică</a>, care permite particulelor să treacă printr-o barieră care în mod normal ar fi de netrecut. Electronii tunelează prin vid între doi electrozi metalici planari, pe fiecare dintre care se află un atom&#160;<a href="/wiki/Adsorb%C8%9Bie" title="Adsorbție">adsorbit</a>, furnizând o densitate de curent de tunelare care poate fi măsurată. Scanarea unui atom când trece pe lângă celălalt (eșantion) permite trasarea deplasării primului în raport cu separarea laterală pentru un curent constant. Calculul arată măsura în care sunt vizibile imaginile obținute cu microscopul cu efect tunel. Se confirmă faptul că pentru polarizare redusă, microscopul prezintă dimensiunile mediate spațial ale orbitalilor electronici prin niveluri de energie strâns apropiate— <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nivelul_Fermi&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nivelul Fermi — pagină inexistentă">nivelul Fermi</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13633683" class="extiw" title="d:Q13633683"><span title="nivelul Fermi la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Densitate_local%C4%83_a_st%C4%83rilor&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Densitate locală a stărilor — pagină inexistentă">densitatea locală de stări</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17046017" class="extiw" title="d:Q17046017"><span title="densitate locală a stărilor la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-jacox1997_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacox1997-100"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nf_physics1986_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nf_physics1986-101"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Un atom poate fi <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionizat</a> prin eliminarea unuia dintre electronii săi. <a href="/wiki/Sarcin%C4%83_electric%C4%83" title="Sarcină electrică">Sarcina electrică</a> determină curbarea traiectoriei unui atom atunci când trece printr-un <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A2mp_magnetic" title="Câmp magnetic">câmp magnetic</a>. Raza cu care traiectoria unui ion este transformată de către câmpul magnetic este determinată de masa atomului. <a href="/wiki/Spectrometrie_de_mas%C4%83" title="Spectrometrie de masă">Spectrometrul de masă</a> folosește acest principiu pentru a măsura <a href="/w/index.php?title=Raportul_mas%C4%83-sarcin%C4%83_electric%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Raportul masă-sarcină electrică — pagină inexistentă">raportul masă-sarcină electrică</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q874659" class="extiw" title="d:Q874659"><span title="raportul masă-sarcină electrică la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;al ionilor. Dacă eșantionul conține mai mulți izotopi, spectrometrul de masă poate determina proporția fiecărui izotop în eșantion prin măsurarea intensității diferitelor fascicule de ioni. Printre tehnicile de vaporizare a atomilor se numără&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroscopia_emisiilor_atomice_cu_plasm%C4%83_cuplat%C4%83_inductiv&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Spectroscopia emisiilor atomice cu plasmă cuplată inductiv — pagină inexistentă">&#160; spectroscopia emisiilor atomice cu plasmă cuplată inductiv</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q261552" class="extiw" title="d:Q261552"><span title="spectroscopia emisiilor atomice cu plasmă cuplată inductiv la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;și de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectrometrie_de_mas%C4%83_cu_plasm%C4%83_cuplat%C4%83_inductiv&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Spectrometrie de masă cu plasmă cuplată inductiv — pagină inexistentă">spectrometria de masă cu plasmă cuplată inductiv</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q900680" class="extiw" title="d:Q900680"><span title="spectrometrie de masă cu plasmă cuplată inductiv la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, ambele utilizând plasmă pentru a vaporiza eșantioanele pentru analiză.<sup id="cite_ref-sab53_13_1739_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sab53_13_1739-102"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>O metodă selectivă spațial este <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spectroscopia_pierderilor_de_energie_electronic%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Spectroscopia pierderilor de energie electronică — pagină inexistentă">spectroscopia pierderilor de energie electronică</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q902328" class="extiw" title="d:Q902328"><span title="spectroscopia pierderilor de energie electronică la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, care măsoară pierderea de energie a unui <a href="/wiki/Radia%C8%9Bie_catodic%C4%83" title="Radiație catodică">fascicul de electroni</a> într-un <a href="/w/index.php?title=Microscop_electronic_cu_transmisie&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Microscop electronic cu transmisie — pagină inexistentă">microscop electronic cu transmisie</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q744818" class="extiw" title="d:Q744818"><span title="microscop electronic cu transmisie la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> atunci când interacționează cu o parte dintr-un eșantion. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sond%C4%83_atomic%C4%83_tomografic%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Sondă atomică tomografică — pagină inexistentă">Tomograful cu sondă atomică</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q757649" class="extiw" title="d:Q757649"><span title="sondă atomică tomografică la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;are o rezoluție sub-nanometrică în 3-D și poate identifica din punct de vedere chimic atomi individuali folosind spectrometria timpului-de-zbor.<sup id="cite_ref-rsi39_1_83_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsi39_1_83-103"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spectrele <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stare_excitat%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Stare excitată — pagină inexistentă">stărilor excitate</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q215328" class="extiw" title="d:Q215328"><span title="stare excitată la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;pot fi utilizate pentru a analiza compoziția atomică a unor <a href="/wiki/Stea" title="Stea">stele</a>&#160;îndepărtate. Anumite&#160;<a href="/wiki/Lungime_de_und%C4%83" title="Lungime de undă">lungimi de undă</a>&#160;ale luminii cuprinse în lumina observată de la stele pot fi separate și legate de tranzițiile cuantizate în atomii liberi de gaz. Aceste culori pot fi reproduse folosind o <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lamp%C4%83_cu_desc%C4%83rcare_%C3%AEn_gaz&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Lampă cu descărcare în gaz — pagină inexistentă">lampă cu descărcare în gaz</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q922672" class="extiw" title="d:Q922672"><span title="lampă cu descărcare în gaz la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;care conține același element.<sup id="cite_ref-lochner2007_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lochner2007-104"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Heliu" title="Heliu">Heliul</a> a fost descoperit în acest fel în spectrul Soarelui cu 23 de ani înainte de a fi identificat pe Pământ.<sup id="cite_ref-winter2007_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-winter2007-105"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Originea_și_starea_actuală"><span id="Originea_.C8.99i_starea_actual.C4.83"></span>Originea și starea actuală</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=26" title="Modifică secțiunea: Originea și starea actuală" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Originea și starea actuală"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Atomii formează aproximativ 4% din totalul densității de energie din <a href="/wiki/Univers_observabil" title="Univers observabil">Universul observabil</a>, cu o densitate medie de aproximativ 0,25 atomi/m<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-hinshaw20060210_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hinshaw20060210-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Într-o galaxie, cum ar fi <a href="/wiki/Calea_Lactee" title="Calea Lactee">Calea Lactee</a>, atomii au o concentrație mult mai mare, densitatea de materie din <a href="/wiki/Mediu_interstelar" title="Mediu interstelar">mediul interstelar</a> (ISM) variind de la 10<sup>5</sup> la 10<sup>9</sup> atomi/m<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Soarele este considerat a fi în interiorul <a href="/wiki/Bula_Local%C4%83" title="Bula Locală">Bulei Locale</a>, o regiune de gaze puternic ionizate, deci densitatea în regiunea Soarelui este de numai aproximativ 10<sup>3</sup> atomi/m<sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-science259_5093_327_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science259_5093_327-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Stelele se formează din nori denși în mediul interstelar, și procesele evolutive ale stelelor au ca urmare îmbogățirea constantă a acestui mediu cu elemente mult mai masive decât hidrogenul și heliul. Până la 95% din atomii din Calea Lactee sunt concentrați în interiorul stelelor, iar masa totală a atomilor formează aproximativ 10% din masa galaxiei.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> (restul de masă este o&#160;<a href="/wiki/Materia_%C3%AEntunecat%C4%83" title="Materia întunecată">materie întunecată</a>&#160;necunoscută.)<sup id="cite_ref-nigel2000_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nigel2000-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formarea">Formarea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=27" title="Modifică secțiunea: Formarea" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Formarea"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Se crede că electronii existau în Univers din primele etape ale <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bangului</a>. Nucleele atomice se formează în reacțiile de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Nucleosintez%C4%83" title="Nucleosinteză">nucleosinteză</a>. În aproximativ trei minute <a href="/wiki/Nucleosinteza_Big_Bang" title="Nucleosinteza Big Bang">nucleosinteza Big Bangului</a> a produs mare parte din&#160;<a href="/wiki/Heliu" title="Heliu">heliul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Litiu" title="Litiu">litiul</a>, și <a href="/wiki/Deuteriu" title="Deuteriu">deuteriul</a>&#160;din Univers, și, probabil, o parte din&#160;<a href="/wiki/Beriliu" title="Beriliu">beriliu</a> și <a href="/wiki/Bor_(element)" title="Bor (element)">bor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ns1794_42_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ns1794_42-111"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-science267_5195_192_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-science267_5195_192-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hinshaw20051215_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hinshaw20051215-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Omniprezența și stabilitatea atomilor se bazează pe <a href="/w/index.php?title=Energie_de_leg%C4%83tur%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Energie de legătură — pagină inexistentă">energia lor de legătură</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420754" class="extiw" title="d:Q420754"><span title="energie de legătură la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, ceea ce înseamnă că un atom are o energie mai mică decât un sistem format din nucleu și electroni nelegați. Unde <a href="/wiki/Temperatur%C4%83" title="Temperatură">temperatura</a> este mult mai mare decât <a href="/wiki/Energie_de_ionizare" title="Energie de ionizare">potențialul de ionizare</a>, materia există sub formă de <a href="/wiki/Plasm%C4%83" title="Plasmă">plasmă</a>—un gaz de ioni încărcați pozitiv (posibil chiar nuclee goale) și electroni. Atunci când temperatura scade sub potențialul de ionizare, atomii devin favorabili&#160;<a href="/wiki/Fizic%C4%83_statistic%C4%83" title="Fizică statistică">din punct de vedere statistic</a>. Atomii (completați cu electroni legați) au ajuns să domine <a href="/wiki/Particul%C4%83" title="Particulă">particulele încărcate</a> de la 380.000 de ani după Big Bang—o epocă numită&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Recombinare_(cosmologie)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Recombinare (cosmologie) — pagină inexistentă">recombinare</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3373825" class="extiw" title="d:Q3373825"><span title="recombinare (cosmologie) la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>, atunci când Universul în expansiune s-a răcit suficient pentru a permite electronilor să se atașeze de nuclee.<sup id="cite_ref-abbott20070530_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abbott20070530-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>De la Big Bang, care nu a produs nici&#160;<a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, nici&#160;<a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83r_atomic" title="Număr atomic">elemente mai grele</a>, nucleele atomice au fost combinate în <a href="/wiki/Stea" title="Stea">stele</a> prin procesul de <a href="/wiki/Fuziune_nuclear%C4%83" title="Fuziune nucleară">fuziune nucleară</a> pentru a produce mai mult <a href="/wiki/Heliu" title="Heliu">heliu</a>, și (prin intermediul <a href="/wiki/Procesul_triplu-alfa" title="Procesul triplu-alfa">procesului triplu alfa</a>) secvența de elemente de la carbon până la <a href="/wiki/Fier" title="Fier">fier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-mnras106_343_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mnras106_343-115"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Izotopii, cum ar fi litiu-6, precum și unii izotopi de beriliu și bor sunt generați în spațiu prin <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spala%C8%9Bia_razelor_cosmice&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Spalația razelor cosmice — pagină inexistentă">spalația razelor cosmice</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1062473" class="extiw" title="d:Q1062473"><span title="spalația razelor cosmice la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-nature405_656_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature405_656-116"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Acest lucru se întâmplă atunci când un proton cu energie mare lovește un nucleu atomic, provocând extragerea unui număr mare de nucleoni. </p><p>Elementele mai grele decât fierul s-au produs în <a href="/wiki/Supernov%C4%83" title="Supernovă">supernove</a> prin <a href="/w/index.php?title=Procesul_R&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Procesul R — pagină inexistentă">procesul R</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q285033" class="extiw" title="d:Q285033"><span title="procesul R la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;și în <a href="/wiki/Ramura_gigant_asimptotic%C4%83" title="Ramura gigant asimptotică">stelele gigante din ramura asimptotică</a>&#160;prin <a href="/wiki/Proces_s" title="Proces s">procesul S</a>, care implică capturarea de neutroni de către nucleele atomice.<sup id="cite_ref-mashnik2000_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mashnik2000-117"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Elemente cum ar fi&#160;<a href="/wiki/Plumb" title="Plumb">plumbul</a>&#160;s-au format în mare parte prin dezintegrarea radioactivă a elementelor mai grele.<sup id="cite_ref-kgs20050504_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kgs20050504-118"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pământul"><span id="P.C4.83m.C3.A2ntul"></span>Pământul</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=28" title="Modifică secțiunea: Pământul" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=28" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Pământul"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cei mai mulți dintre atomii care alcătuiesc <a href="/wiki/P%C4%83m%C3%A2nt" title="Pământ">Pământul</a> și pe locuitorii săi au fost prezenți, în forma lor actuală, în <a href="/wiki/Nebuloas%C4%83" title="Nebuloasă">nebuloasa</a> care s-a contractat dintr-un <a href="/wiki/Nor_molecular" title="Nor molecular">nor molecular</a> pentru a forma <a href="/wiki/Sistemul_solar" title="Sistemul solar">Sistemul Solar</a>. Restul sunt rezultatul dezintegrării radioactive, și proporția lor relativă poate fi folosită pentru a determina <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A2rsta_P%C4%83m%C3%A2ntului" title="Vârsta Pământului">vârsta Pământului</a> prin <a href="/w/index.php?title=Datare_radiometric%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Datare radiometrică — pagină inexistentă">datare radiometrică</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q214753" class="extiw" title="d:Q214753"><span title="datare radiometrică la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuel2001407–430,_511–519_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuel2001407–430,_511–519-119"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gs190_1_205_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gs190_1_205-120"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Majoritatea&#160;<a href="/wiki/Heliu" title="Heliu">heliului</a>&#160;din scoarța Pământului (aproximativ 99% din heliul din sondele de gaze, așa cum arată abundența mai scăzută de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heliu-3&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Heliu-3 — pagină inexistentă">heliu-3</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q533498" class="extiw" title="d:Q533498"><span title="heliu-3 la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>) este un produs al&#160;<a href="/wiki/Dezintegrare_alfa" title="Dezintegrare alfa">dezintegrării alfa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-anderson_foulger_meibom2006_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anderson_foulger_meibom2006-121"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Există pe Pământ câteva urme de atomi care nu au fost prezenți de la început (adică „neprimordiali”), și care nici nu sunt rezultatul dezintegrărilor radioactive. <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">Carbon-14</a> este generat continuu de razele cosmice în atmosferă.<sup id="cite_ref-pennicott2001_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pennicott2001-122"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Unii atomi de pe Pământ au fost generați artificial, fie în mod deliberat, fie ca produse ale reactoarelor sau exploziilor nucleare.<sup id="cite_ref-yarris2001_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yarris2001-123"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pr119_6_2000_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pr119_6_2000-124"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Dintre <a href="/wiki/Element_transuranian" title="Element transuranian">elementele transuranice</a>—cele cu numere atomice mai mari decât 92—numai <a href="/wiki/Plutoniu" title="Plutoniu">plutoniul</a>&#160;și <a href="/wiki/Neptuniu" title="Neptuniu">neptuniul</a>&#160;apar în mod natural pe Pământ.<sup id="cite_ref-poston1998_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-poston1998-125"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cz97_10_522_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cz97_10_522-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Elementele transuranice au durate de viață radioactivă mai scurte decât vârsta actuală a Pământului<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> și, astfel, cantitățile identificabile din aceste elemente s-au descompus demult, cu excepția unor urme de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutoniu-244&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Plutoniu-244 — pagină inexistentă">plutoniu-244</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3032286" class="extiw" title="d:Q3032286"><span title="plutoniu-244 la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160; depuse probabil de praful cosmic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManuel2001407–430,511–519_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuel2001407–430,511–519-128"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Zăcămintele naturale de plutoniu și neptuniu sunt produse prin&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Capturare_de_neutroni&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Capturare de neutroni — pagină inexistentă">capturare de neutroni</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1064418" class="extiw" title="d:Q1064418"><span title="capturare de neutroni la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> în minereul de uraniu.<sup id="cite_ref-ofr_cut_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ofr_cut-129"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pământul conține aproximativ <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">7050133000000000000♠</span>1.33<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>50</sup></span> atomi.<sup id="cite_ref-weisenberger_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weisenberger-130"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Deși există un număr mic de atomi independenți ai&#160;<a href="/wiki/Gaz_nobil" title="Gaz nobil">gazelor nobile</a>, cum ar fi <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heliu" title="Heliu">heliu</a>, 99% din <a href="/wiki/Atmosfera_P%C4%83m%C3%A2ntului" title="Atmosfera Pământului">atmosferă</a>&#160;este legată sub formă de molecule, inclusiv <a href="/wiki/Dioxid_de_carbon" title="Dioxid de carbon">dioxid de carbon</a> și <a href="/wiki/Molecul%C4%83_diatomic%C4%83" title="Moleculă diatomică">molecule diatomice</a>&#160;de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Oxigen" title="Oxigen">oxigen</a> și <a href="/wiki/Azot" title="Azot">azot</a>. La suprafața Pământului, o majoritate covârșitoare a atomilor se combină pentru a forma diferiți compuși, inclusiv <a href="/wiki/Ap%C4%83" title="Apă">apa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sare_de_buc%C4%83t%C4%83rie" title="Sare de bucătărie">sarea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicat" title="Silicat">silicații</a> și <a href="/wiki/Oxid" title="Oxid">oxizii</a>. Atomii se pot combina pentru a crea și materiale care nu sunt alcătuite din molecule discrete, inclusiv <a href="/wiki/Cristal" title="Cristal">cristale</a> lichide și solide sau <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metale</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pidwirnyf_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pidwirnyf-131"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pnas99_22_13966_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas99_22_13966-132"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Această materie atomică formează aranjamente în rețea cărora le lipsește tipul de ordine întreruptă la scară mică asociat materiei moleculare.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forme_rare_și_teoretice"><span id="Forme_rare_.C8.99i_teoretice"></span>Forme rare și teoretice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=29" title="Modifică secțiunea: Forme rare și teoretice" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Forme rare și teoretice"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Elemente_supergrele">Elemente supergrele</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=30" title="Modifică secțiunea: Elemente supergrele" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Elemente supergrele"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>În timp ce izotopii cu numere atomice mai mari decât <a href="/wiki/Plumb" title="Plumb">plumbul</a>&#160;(82) sunt cunoscuți a fi radioactivi, a fost propusă o „<a href="/w/index.php?title=Insula_de_stabilitate&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Insula de stabilitate — pagină inexistentă">insulă de stabilitate</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11774759" class="extiw" title="d:Q11774759"><span title="insula de stabilitate la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>”&#160;pentru unele elemente cu numere atomice mai mari de 103. Aceste <a href="/wiki/Element_transactinid" title="Element transactinid">elemente supergrele</a>&#160;pot avea un nucleu relativ stabil în raport cu dezintegrarea radioactivă.<sup id="cite_ref-cern28509_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cern28509-134"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Cel mai probabil candidat pentru un atom supergreu stabil, <a href="/wiki/Tabelul_periodic_al_elementelor_(extins)" title="Tabelul periodic al elementelor (extins)">unbihexium</a>, are 126 de protoni și 184 de neutroni.<sup id="cite_ref-cen84_10_19_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cen84_10_19-135"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Materie_exotică"><span id="Materie_exotic.C4.83"></span>Materie exotică</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=31" title="Modifică secțiunea: Materie exotică" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=31" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Materie exotică"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fiecare particulă de materie are o particulă corespondentă de&#160;<a href="/wiki/Antimaterie" title="Antimaterie">antimaterie</a>&#160;cu sarcină electrică opusă. Astfel, <a href="/wiki/Pozitron" title="Pozitron">pozitronii</a> sunt <a href="/wiki/Pozitron" title="Pozitron">antielectroni</a>, încărcați pozitiv,&#160;iar&#160;<a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">antiprotonii</a> sunt echivalentul unor&#160;<a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protoni</a>&#160;cu sarcină negativă. Atunci când materia și antimateria se întâlnesc, ele se anihilează reciproc. Din acest motiv și din cauza unui dezechilibru între numărul de particule de materie și cele de antimaterie, acestea din urmă sunt rare în univers. Primele cauze ale acestui dezechilibru nu sunt încă pe deplin înțelese, deși teoriile&#160;<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bariogenez%C4%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Bariogeneză — pagină inexistentă">bariogenezei</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q790454" class="extiw" title="d:Q790454"><span title="bariogeneză la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>&#160;pot oferi o explicație. Ca urmare, nu a fost descoperită în natură antimaterie.<sup id="cite_ref-koppes1999_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koppes1999-136"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cromie20010816_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cromie20010816-137"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>&#160;Cu toate acestea, în 1996 echivalentul din antimaterie al atomului de hidrogen (<a href="/wiki/Antihidrogen" title="Antihidrogen">antihidrogen</a>) a fost sintetizat la laboratorul&#160;<a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>&#160;din <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nature419_6906_439_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature419_6906_439-138"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BBC20021030_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC20021030-139"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alți&#160;atomi exotici&#160;au fost creați prin înlocuirea unuia din protoni, neutroni sau electroni cu alte particule cu aceeași sarcină electrică. De exemplu, un electron poate fi înlocuit cu un&#160;<a href="/wiki/Miuon" title="Miuon">miuon</a>&#160;mult mai masiv, formând un <a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom_exotic&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Atom exotic — pagină inexistentă">atom miuonic</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1068126" class="extiw" title="d:Q1068126"><span title="atom exotic la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup>. Aceste tipuri de atomi pot fi folosite pentru a testa previziuni fundamentale ale fizicii.<sup id="cite_ref-ns1728_77_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ns1728_77-140"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-psT112_1_20_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-psT112_1_20-141"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ripin1998_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ripin1998-142"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Note_de_completare">Note de completare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=32" title="Modifică secțiunea: Note de completare" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=32" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Note de completare"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="references-small" style="list-style-type: lower-alpha;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-59"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text">Pentru cele mai recente actualizări vezi <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart">Grafic Interactiv de Nuclizi (Brookhaven National Laboratory)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725182342/https://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/">Arhivat</a> în <time datetime="2020-07-25">25 iulie 2020</time>, la <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text">Un carat este la 200 de miligrame. <a href="/wiki/Unitate_atomic%C4%83_de_mas%C4%83" title="Unitate atomică de masă">Prin definiție</a>, carbon-12 are 0,012&#160;kg pe mol. <a href="/wiki/Num%C4%83rul_lui_Avogadro" title="Numărul lui Avogadro">Constanta lui Avogadro</a> definește <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">7023600000000000000♠</span>6<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>23</sup></span> atomi pe mol. </span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Note_bibliografice">Note bibliografice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=33" title="Modifică secțiunea: Note bibliografice" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=33" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Note bibliografice"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="references-small references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://goldbook.iupac.org/A00493.html">„Atom”</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Compendium_of_Chemical_Terminology_(IUPAC_Gold_Book)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Compendium of Chemical Terminology (IUPAC Gold Book) — pagină inexistentă">Compendium of Chemical Terminology (IUPAC Gold Book)</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q902163" class="extiw" title="d:Q902163"><span title="Compendium of Chemical Terminology (IUPAC Gold Book) la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup></i> (ed. 2nd). IUPAC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2015-04-25">25 aprilie 2015</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Atom&amp;rft.btitle=%3ACompendium+of+Chemical+Terminology+%28IUPAC+Gold+Book%29%3Csup%3E%3Csmall%3E%E2%81%A0%28%3Cspan+title%3D%22Compendium+of+Chemical+Terminology+%28IUPAC+Gold+Book%29+la+Wikidata%22%3Ed%3C%2Fspan%3E%29%3C%2Fsmall%3E%3C%2Fsup%3E&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=IUPAC&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgoldbook.iupac.org%2FA00493.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r16236537">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"„""”""«""»"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ghosh02-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ghosh02_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ghosh02_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Ghosh, D. C.; Biswas, R. (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). „Theoretical calculation of Absolute Radii of Atoms and Ions. Part 1. The Atomic Radii”. <i>Int. J. Mol. Sci</i>. <b>3</b>: 87–113. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fi3020087">10.3390/i3020087</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1422-0067">1422-0067</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Int.+J.+Mol.+Sci.&amp;rft.atitle=Theoretical+calculation+of+Absolute+Radii+of+Atoms+and+Ions.+Part+1.+The+Atomic+Radii&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft.pages=87-113&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fi3020087&amp;rft.issn=1422-0067&amp;rft.au=Ghosh%2C+D.+C.&amp;rft.au=Biswas%2C+R.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-leigh1990-3"><b><a href="#cite_ref-leigh1990_3-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Leigh, G. J., ed. (<time datetime="1990">1990</time>). <i>International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Commission on the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nomenclature_of_Organic_Chemistry&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry — pagină inexistentă">Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3343212" class="extiw" title="d:Q3343212"><span title="Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup> – Recommendations 1990</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p.&#160;35. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-08-022369-9" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-08-022369-9">0-08-022369-9</a>. <q>An atom is the smallest unit quantity of an element that is capable of existence whether alone or in chemical combination with other atoms of the same or other elements.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=International+Union+of+Pure+and+Applied+Chemistry%2C+Commission+on+the+Nomenclature+of+Inorganic+Chemistry%2C+%3ANomenclature+of+Organic+Chemistry%3Csup%3E%3Csmall%3E%E2%81%A0%28%3Cspan+title%3D%22Nomenclature+of+Organic+Chemistry+la+Wikidata%22%3Ed%3C%2Fspan%3E%29%3C%2Fsmall%3E%3C%2Fsup%3E+%E2%80%93+Recommendations+1990&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=35&amp;rft.pub=Blackwell+Scientific+Publications&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=0-08-022369-9&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-From_AtomosToAtom-4"><b><a href="#cite_ref-From_AtomosToAtom_4-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Andrew G. van Melsen (<time datetime="1952">1952</time>). <i>From Atomos to Atom</i>. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-486-49584-1" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-486-49584-1">0-486-49584-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=From+Atomos+to+Atom&amp;rft.place=Mineola%2C+N.Y.&amp;rft.pub=Dover+Publications&amp;rft.date=1952&amp;rft.isbn=0-486-49584-1&amp;rft.au=Andrew+G.+van+Melsen&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dalton_1803_paper-5"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dalton_1803_paper_5-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Dalton, John (<time datetime="1803">1803</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~GIUNTA/dalton52.html">„On the Absorption of Gases by Water and Other Liquids”</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-08-29">29 august 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=On+the+Absorption+of+Gases+by+Water+and+Other+Liquids&amp;rft.date=1803&amp;rft.aulast=Dalton&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.lemoyne.edu%2F~GIUNTA%2Fdalton52.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537">, în <i>Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-adp322_8_549-6"><b><a href="#cite_ref-adp322_8_549_6-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Einstein, Albert (<time datetime="1905">1905</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070718202731/http://www.zbp.univie.ac.at/dokumente/einstein2.pdf">„Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen”</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Annalen_der_Physik" title="Annalen der Physik">Annalen der Physik</a></i> (în German). <b>322</b> (8): 549–560. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1905AnP...322..549E">1905AnP...322..549E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19053220806">10.1002/andp.19053220806</a>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zbp.univie.ac.at/dokumente/einstein2.pdf">original</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> la <time datetime="2007-07-18">18 iulie 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-02-04">4 februarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&amp;rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+von+der+molekularkinetischen+Theorie+der+W%C3%A4rme+geforderte+Bewegung+von+in+ruhenden+Fl%C3%BCssigkeiten+suspendierten+Teilchen&amp;rft.volume=322&amp;rft.issue=8&amp;rft.pages=549-560&amp;rft.date=1905&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.19053220806&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1905AnP...322..549E&amp;rft.aulast=Einstein&amp;rft.aufirst=Albert&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zbp.univie.ac.at%2Fdokumente%2Feinstein2.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><span class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">Mentenanță CS1: Limbă nerecunoscută (<a href="/wiki/Categorie:Mentenan%C8%9B%C4%83_CS1:_Limb%C4%83_nerecunoscut%C4%83" title="Categorie:Mentenanță CS1: Limbă nerecunoscută">link</a>) </span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Mazo, Robert M. (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). <i>Brownian Motion: Fluctuations, Dynamics, and Applications</i>. Oxford University Press. pp.&#160;1–7. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-19-851567-7" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-19-851567-7">0-19-851567-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/48753074">48753074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Brownian+Motion%3A+Fluctuations%2C+Dynamics%2C+and+Applications&amp;rft.pages=1-7&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48753074&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-851567-7&amp;rft.aulast=Mazo&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lee_hoon1995-8"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lee_hoon1995_8-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Lee, Y.K.; Hoon, K. (<time datetime="1995">1995</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_95/journal/vol4/ykl/report.html">„Brownian Motion”</a>. <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College_London" title="Imperial College London">Imperial College London</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071218061408/http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_95/journal/vol4/ykl/report.html">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2007-12-18">18 decembrie 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-12-18">18 decembrie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Brownian+Motion&amp;rft.pub=Imperial+College+London&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft.aulast=Lee&amp;rft.aufirst=Y.K.&amp;rft.au=Hoon%2C+K.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doc.ic.ac.uk%2F~nd%2Fsurprise_95%2Fjournal%2Fvol4%2Fykl%2Freport.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-e31_2_50-9"><b><a href="#cite_ref-e31_2_50_9-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Patterson, G. 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Springer. pp.&#160;39–42. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/3-540-20631-0" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/3-540-20631-0">3-540-20631-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/181435713">181435713</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Atoms%2C+Molecules+and+Photons%3A+An+Introduction+to+Atomic-+Molecular-+and+Quantum+Physics&amp;rft.pages=39-42&amp;rft.edition=1st&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F181435713&amp;rft.isbn=3-540-20631-0&amp;rft.aulast=Demtr%C3%B6der&amp;rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Woan, Graham (<time datetime="2000">2000</time>). <i>The Cambridge Handbook of Physics</i>. Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;8. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-521-57507-9" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-521-57507-9">0-521-57507-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/224032426">224032426</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Physics&amp;rft.pages=8&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F224032426&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-57507-9&amp;rft.aulast=Woan&amp;rft.aufirst=Graham&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">MacGregor, Malcolm H. (<time datetime="1992">1992</time>). <i>The Enigmatic Electron</i>. Oxford University Press. pp.&#160;33–37. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-19-521833-7" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-19-521833-7">0-19-521833-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/223372888">223372888</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Enigmatic+Electron&amp;rft.pages=33-37&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1992&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F223372888&amp;rft.isbn=0-19-521833-7&amp;rft.aulast=MacGregor&amp;rft.aufirst=Malcolm+H.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pdg2002-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pdg2002_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pdg2002_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Particle Data Group (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.particleadventure.org/">„The Particle Adventure”</a>. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-03">3 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Particle+Adventure&amp;rft.pub=Lawrence+Berkeley+Laboratory&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.au=Particle+Data+Group&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.particleadventure.org%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schombert2006-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schombert2006_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schombert2006_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Schombert, James (<time datetime="2006-04-18">18 aprilie 2006</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110830212645/http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html">„Elementary Particles”</a>. University of Oregon. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2011-08-30">30 august 2011</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-03">3 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Elementary+Particles&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Oregon&amp;rft.date=2006-04-18&amp;rft.aulast=Schombert&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabyss.uoregon.edu%2F~js%2Fast123%2Flectures%2Flec07.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jevremovic, Tatjana (<time datetime="2005">2005</time>). <i>Nuclear Principles in Engineering</i>. Springer. p.&#160;63. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-387-23284-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-387-23284-2">0-387-23284-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/228384008">228384008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Nuclear+Principles+in+Engineering&amp;rft.pages=63&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F228384008&amp;rft.isbn=0-387-23284-2&amp;rft.aulast=Jevremovic&amp;rft.aufirst=Tatjana&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Pfeffer, Jeremy I.; Nir, Shlomo (<time datetime="2000">2000</time>). <i>Modern Physics: An Introductory Text</i>. Imperial College Press. pp.&#160;330–336. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/1-86094-250-4" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/1-86094-250-4">1-86094-250-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/45900880">45900880</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Modern+Physics%3A+An+Introductory+Text&amp;rft.pages=330-336&amp;rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45900880&amp;rft.isbn=1-86094-250-4&amp;rft.aulast=Pfeffer&amp;rft.aufirst=Jeremy+I.&amp;rft.au=Nir%2C+Shlomo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wenner2007-40"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wenner2007_40-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Wenner, Jennifer M. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-09">9 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=How+Does+Radioactive+Decay+Work%3F&amp;rft.pub=Carleton+College&amp;rft.date=2007-10-10&amp;rft.aulast=Wenner&amp;rft.aufirst=Jennifer+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fserc.carleton.edu%2Fquantskills%2Fmethods%2Fquantlit%2FRadDecay.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-raymond-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-raymond_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-raymond_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-raymond_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Raymond, David (<time datetime="2006-04-07">7 aprilie 2006</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021201030437/http://physics.nmt.edu/~raymond/classes/ph13xbook/node216.html">„Nuclear Binding Energies”</a>. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-03">3 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Nuclear+Binding+Energies&amp;rft.pub=New+Mexico+Tech&amp;rft.date=2006-04-07&amp;rft.aulast=Raymond&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nmt.edu%2F~raymond%2Fclasses%2Fph13xbook%2Fnode216.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mihos2002-42"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mihos2002_42-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Mihos, Chris (<time datetime="2002-07-23">23 iulie 2002</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://burro.cwru.edu/Academics/Astr221/StarPhys/coulomb.html">„Overcoming the Coulomb Barrier”</a>. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2008-02-13">13 februarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Overcoming+the+Coulomb+Barrier&amp;rft.pub=Case+Western+Reserve+University&amp;rft.date=2002-07-23&amp;rft.aulast=Mihos&amp;rft.aufirst=Chris&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fburro.cwru.edu%2FAcademics%2FAstr221%2FStarPhys%2Fcoulomb.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lbnl20070330-43"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lbnl20070330_43-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Staff (<time datetime="2007-03-30">30 martie 2007</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/abc/Basic.html">„ABC's of Nuclear Science”</a>. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-03">3 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Basics+of+Nuclear+Physics+and+Fission&amp;rft.pub=Institute+for+Energy+and+Environmental+Research&amp;rft.date=2001-03-02&amp;rft.aulast=Makhijani&amp;rft.aufirst=Arjun&amp;rft.au=Saleska%2C+Scott&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieer.org%2Freports%2Fn-basics.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Shultis, J. Kenneth; Faw, Richard E. (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). <i>Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering</i>. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2011-04-16">16 aprilie 2011</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Nuclear+Wallet+Cards&amp;rft.pub=National+Nuclear+Data+Center%2C+Brookhaven+National+Laboratory&amp;rft.date=2005-04&amp;rft.aulast=Tuli&amp;rft.aufirst=Jagdish+K.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnucleus.iaea.org%2FCIR%2FCIR%2FNuclearWalletCards.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRC-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CRC_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRC_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="reference-text">CRC Handbook (2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iupac-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iupac_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iupac_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Mills, Ian; Cvitaš, Tomislav; Homann, Klaus; Kallay, Nikola; Kuchitsu, Kozo (<time datetime="1993">1993</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/gbook/green_book_2ed.pdf"><i>Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> (ed. 2nd). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Uniunea_Interna%C8%9Bional%C4%83_de_Chimie_Pur%C4%83_%C8%99i_Aplicat%C4%83" title="Uniunea Internațională de Chimie Pură și Aplicată">Uniunea Internațională de Chimie Pură și Aplicată</a>, Commission on Physiochemical Symbols Terminology and Units, Blackwell Scientific Publications. p.&#160;71. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-632-03583-8" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-632-03583-8">0-632-03583-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/27011505">27011505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Quantities%2C+Units+and+Symbols+in+Physical+Chemistry&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pages=71&amp;rft.edition=2nd&amp;rft.pub=Uniunea+Interna%C8%9Bional%C4%83+de+Chimie+Pur%C4%83+%C8%99i+Aplicat%C4%83%2C+Commission+on+Physiochemical+Symbols+Terminology+and+Units%2C+Blackwell+Scientific+Publications&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27011505&amp;rft.isbn=0-632-03583-8&amp;rft.aulast=Mills&amp;rft.aufirst=Ian&amp;rft.au=Cvita%C5%A1%2C+Tomislav&amp;rft.au=Homann%2C+Klaus&amp;rft.au=Kallay%2C+Nikola&amp;rft.au=Kuchitsu%2C+Kozo&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fold.iupac.org%2Fpublications%2Fbooks%2Fgbook%2Fgreen_book_2ed.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chieh2001-62"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chieh2001_62-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Chieh, Chung (<time datetime="2001-01-22">22 ianuarie 2001</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070830110015/http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nuctek/nuclideunstable.html">„Nuclide Stability”</a>. University of Waterloo. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/nuctek/nuclideunstable.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2007-08-30">30 august 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-04">4 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Nuclide+Stability&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Waterloo&amp;rft.date=2001-01-22&amp;rft.aulast=Chieh&amp;rft.aufirst=Chung&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.uwaterloo.ca%2F~cchieh%2Fcact%2Fnuctek%2Fnuclideunstable.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nist_wc-63"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nist_wc_63-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&amp;ascii=html&amp;isotype=some">„Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements”</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061231212733/http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&amp;ascii=html&amp;isotype=some">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2006-12-31">31 decembrie 2006</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-04">4 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Atomic+Weights+and+Isotopic+Compositions+for+All+Elements&amp;rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2FCompositions%2Fstand_alone.pl%3Fele%3D%26ascii%3Dhtml%26isotype%3Dsome&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-audi2003-64"><b><a href="#cite_ref-audi2003_64-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Audi, G.; Wapstra, A.H.; Thibault, C. (<time datetime="2003">2003</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051016185841/http://amdc.in2p3.fr/masstables/Ame2003/Ame2003b.pdf">„The Ame2003 atomic mass evaluation (II)”</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Physics_(revist%C4%83)" title="Nuclear Physics (revistă)">Nuclear Physics (revistă)</a></i>. <b>729</b> (1): 337–676. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NuPhA.729..337A">2003NuPhA.729..337A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.003">10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.003</a>. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amdc.in2p3.fr/masstables/Ame2003/Ame2003b.pdf">original</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> la <time datetime="2005-10-16">16 octombrie 2005</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2016-09-26">26 septembrie 2016</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Physics+%28revist%C4%83%29&amp;rft.atitle=The+Ame2003+atomic+mass+evaluation+%28II%29&amp;rft.volume=729&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=337-676&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.003&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003NuPhA.729..337A&amp;rft.aulast=Audi&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rft.au=Wapstra%2C+A.H.&amp;rft.au=Thibault%2C+C.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famdc.in2p3.fr%2Fmasstables%2FAme2003%2FAme2003b.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aca32_5_751-65"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aca32_5_751_65-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Shannon, R. D. (<time datetime="1976">1976</time>). „Revised effective ionic radii and systematic studies of interatomic distances in halides and chalcogenides”. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acta_Crystallographica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Acta Crystallographica — pagină inexistentă">Acta Crystallographica</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q343155" class="extiw" title="d:Q343155"><span title="Acta Crystallographica la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup></i>. <b>32</b> (5): 751–767. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976AcCrA..32..751S">1976AcCrA..32..751S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0567739476001551">10.1107/S0567739476001551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=%3AActa+Crystallographica%3Csup%3E%3Csmall%3E%E2%81%A0%28%3Cspan+title%3D%22Acta+Crystallographica+la+Wikidata%22%3Ed%3C%2Fspan%3E%29%3C%2Fsmall%3E%3C%2Fsup%3E&amp;rft.atitle=Revised+effective+ionic+radii+and+systematic+studies+of+interatomic+distances+in+halides+and+chalcogenides&amp;rft.volume=32&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.pages=751-767&amp;rft.date=1976&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1107%2FS0567739476001551&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976AcCrA..32..751S&amp;rft.aulast=Shannon&amp;rft.aufirst=R.+D.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dong1998-66"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dong1998_66-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Dong, Judy (<time datetime="1998">1998</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hypertextbook.com/facts/MichaelPhillip.shtml">„Diameter of an Atom”</a>. The Physics Factbook. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071104160920/http://hypertextbook.com/facts/MichaelPhillip.shtml">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2007-11-04">4 noiembrie 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-11-19">19 noiembrie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Diameter+of+an+Atom&amp;rft.pub=The+Physics+Factbook&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.aulast=Dong&amp;rft.aufirst=Judy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhypertextbook.com%2Ffacts%2FMichaelPhillip.shtml&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Zumdahl, Steven S. (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://college.hmco.com/chemistry/intro/zumdahl/intro_chemistry/5e/students/protected/periodictables/pt/pt/pt_ar5.html"><i>Introductory Chemistry: A Foundation</i></a> (ed. 5th). Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-618-34342-3" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-618-34342-3">0-618-34342-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/173081482">173081482</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080304155935/http://college.hmco.com/chemistry/intro/zumdahl/intro_chemistry/5e/students/protected/periodictables/pt/pt/pt_ar5.html">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2008-03-04">4 martie 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-02-05">5 februarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introductory+Chemistry%3A+A+Foundation&amp;rft.edition=5th&amp;rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173081482&amp;rft.isbn=0-618-34342-3&amp;rft.aulast=Zumdahl&amp;rft.aufirst=Steven+S.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcollege.hmco.com%2Fchemistry%2Fintro%2Fzumdahl%2Fintro_chemistry%2F5e%2Fstudents%2Fprotected%2Fperiodictables%2Fpt%2Fpt%2Fpt_ar5.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pssb2008-68"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pssb2008_68-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Birkholz, M.; Rudert, R. (<time datetime="2008">2008</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mario_Birkholz/publication/242536174_Interatomic_distances_in_pyrite-structure_disulfides_-_a_case_for_ellipsoidal_modeling_of_sulfur_ions/file/ea85e52dfb00163952.pdf">„Interatomic distances in pyrite-structure disulfides – a case for ellipsoidal modeling of sulfur ions&#93;”</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>phys. stat. sol. b</i>. <b>245</b>: 1858–1864. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PSSBR.245.1858B">2008PSSBR.245.1858B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpssb.200879532">10.1002/pssb.200879532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=phys.+stat.+sol.+b&amp;rft.atitle=Interatomic+distances+in+pyrite-structure+disulfides+%E2%80%93+a+case+for+ellipsoidal+modeling+of+sulfur+ions%5D&amp;rft.volume=245&amp;rft.pages=1858-1864&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fpssb.200879532&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PSSBR.245.1858B&amp;rft.au=Birkholz%2C+M.&amp;rft.au=Rudert%2C+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fprofile%2FMario_Birkholz%2Fpublication%2F242536174_Interatomic_distances_in_pyrite-structure_disulfides_-_a_case_for_ellipsoidal_modeling_of_sulfur_ions%2Ffile%2Fea85e52dfb00163952.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mdpi2014-69"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mdpi2014_69-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Birkholz, M. (<time datetime="2014">2014</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/4/3/390">„Modeling the Shape of Ions in Pyrite-Type Crystals”</a>. <i>Crystals</i>. <b>4</b>: 390–403. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fcryst4030390">10.3390/cryst4030390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Crystals&amp;rft.atitle=Modeling+the+Shape+of+Ions+in+Pyrite-Type+Crystals&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.pages=390-403&amp;rft.date=2014&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fcryst4030390&amp;rft.au=Birkholz%2C+M.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F2073-4352%2F4%2F3%2F390&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-osu2007-70"><b><a href="#cite_ref-osu2007_70-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Staff (<time datetime="2007">2007</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/terra/2007/02/small-miracles/">„Small Miracles: Harnessing nanotechnology”</a>. Oregon State University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-07">7 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Small+Miracles%3A+Harnessing+nanotechnology&amp;rft.pub=Oregon+State+University&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.au=Staff&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foregonstate.edu%2Fterra%2F2007%2F02%2Fsmall-miracles%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537">—describes the width of a human hair as <span class="nowrap"><span style="display:none" class="sortkey">6996100000000000000♠</span>10<sup>5</sup>&#160;nm</span> and 10 carbon atoms as spanning 1&#160;nm.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Padilla, Michael J.; Miaoulis, Ioannis; Cyr, Martha (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). <i>Prentice Hall Science Explorer: Chemical Building Blocks</i>. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. p.&#160;32. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-13-054091-9" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-13-054091-9">0-13-054091-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/47925884">47925884</a>. <q>There are 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (that's 2&#160;sextillion) atoms of oxygen in one drop of water—and twice as many atoms of hydrogen.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Prentice+Hall+Science+Explorer%3A+Chemical+Building+Blocks&amp;rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+New+Jersey+USA&amp;rft.pages=32&amp;rft.pub=Prentice-Hall%2C+Inc.&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47925884&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-054091-9&amp;rft.aulast=Padilla&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&amp;rft.au=Miaoulis%2C+Ioannis&amp;rft.au=Cyr%2C+Martha&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman, Richard</a> (<time datetime="1995">1995</time>). <i>Six Easy Pieces</i>. The Penguin Group. p.&#160;5. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/978-0-14-027666-4" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/978-0-14-027666-4">978-0-14-027666-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/40499574">40499574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Six+Easy+Pieces&amp;rft.pages=5&amp;rft.pub=The+Penguin+Group&amp;rft.date=1995&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40499574&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-14-027666-4&amp;rft.aulast=Feynman&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-splung-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-splung_74-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-splung_74-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.splung.com/content/sid/5/page/radioactivity">„Radioactivity”</a>. Splung.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071204135150/http://www.splung.com/content/sid/5/page/radioactivity">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2007-12-04">4 decembrie 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-12-19">19 decembrie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Radioactivity&amp;rft.pub=Splung.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.splung.com%2Fcontent%2Fsid%2F5%2Fpage%2Fradioactivity&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">L'Annunziata, Michael F. (<time datetime="2003">2003</time>). <i>Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis</i>. Academic Press. pp.&#160;3–56. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-12-436603-1" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-12-436603-1">0-12-436603-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/16212955">16212955</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Radioactivity+Analysis&amp;rft.pages=3-56&amp;rft.pub=Academic+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F16212955&amp;rft.isbn=0-12-436603-1&amp;rft.aulast=L%27Annunziata&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael+F.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-firestone20000522-76"><b><a href="#cite_ref-firestone20000522_76-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Firestone, Richard B. (<time datetime="2000-05-22">22 mai 2000</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060929111801/http://isotopes.lbl.gov/education/decmode.html">„Radioactive Decay Modes”</a>. Berkeley Laboratory. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isotopes.lbl.gov/education/decmode.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2006-09-29">29 septembrie 2006</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-07">7 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Radioactive+Decay+Modes&amp;rft.pub=Berkeley+Laboratory&amp;rft.date=2000-05-22&amp;rft.aulast=Firestone&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fisotopes.lbl.gov%2Feducation%2Fdecmode.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hornak2006-77"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hornak2006_77-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Hornak, J. P. (<time datetime="2006">2006</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/nmr/chap-3/chap-3.htm">„Chapter 3: Spin Physics”</a>. <i>The Basics of NMR</i>. Rochester Institute of Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070203044312/http://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/nmr/chap-3/chap-3.htm">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2007-02-03">3 februarie 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-07">7 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Basics+of+NMR&amp;rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Spin+Physics&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.aulast=Hornak&amp;rft.aufirst=J.+P.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cis.rit.edu%2Fhtbooks%2Fnmr%2Fchap-3%2Fchap-3.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-schroeder2-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schroeder2_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-schroeder2_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Schroeder, Paul A. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-07">7 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Magnetic+Properties&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Georgia&amp;rft.date=2000-02-25&amp;rft.aulast=Schroeder&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul+A.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gly.uga.edu%2Fschroeder%2Fgeol3010%2Fmagnetics.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-goebel20070901-79"><b><a href="#cite_ref-goebel20070901_79-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Goebel, Greg (<time datetime="2007-09-01">1 septembrie 2007</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vectorsite.net/tpqm_04.html">„[4.3] Magnetic Properties of the Atom”</a>. <i>Elementary Quantum Physics</i>. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-07">7 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Elementary+Quantum+Physics&amp;rft.atitle=%5B4.3%5D+Magnetic+Properties+of+the+Atom&amp;rft.date=2007-09-01&amp;rft.aulast=Goebel&amp;rft.aufirst=Greg&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vectorsite.net%2Ftpqm_04.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yarris1997-80"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yarris1997_80-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Yarris, Lynn (<time datetime="1997">1997</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1997/story1.html">„Talking Pictures”</a>. <i>Berkeley Lab Research Review</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080113104939/http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Research-Review/Magazine/1997/story1.html">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2008-01-13">13 ianuarie 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-09">9 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Berkeley+Lab+Research+Review&amp;rft.atitle=Talking+Pictures&amp;rft.ssn=winter&amp;rft.date=1997&amp;rft.aulast=Yarris&amp;rft.aufirst=Lynn&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lbl.gov%2FScience-Articles%2FResearch-Review%2FMagazine%2F1997%2Fstory1.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Liang, Z.-P.; Haacke, E. M. (<time datetime="1999">1999</time>). Webster, J. G., ed. <i>Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering: Magnetic Resonance Imaging</i>. vol. 2. John Wiley &amp; Sons. pp.&#160;412–426. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-471-13946-7" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-471-13946-7">0-471-13946-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineering%3A+Magnetic+Resonance+Imaging&amp;rft.pages=412-426&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=0-471-13946-7&amp;rft.aulast=Liang&amp;rft.aufirst=Z.-P.&amp;rft.au=Haacke%2C+E.+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zeghbroeck1998-82"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zeghbroeck1998_82-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Zeghbroeck, Bart J. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2008-02-14">14 februarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Fine+structure&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Texas+at+Austin&amp;rft.date=2007-02-16&amp;rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffarside.ph.utexas.edu%2Fteaching%2Fqm%2Flectures%2Fnode55.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-weiss2001-87"><b><a href="#cite_ref-weiss2001_87-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Weiss, Michael (<time datetime="2001">2001</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/spin/node8.html">„The Zeeman Effect”</a>. University of California-Riverside. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080202143147/http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/spin/node8.html">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2008-02-02">2 februarie 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-02-06">6 februarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Zeeman+Effect&amp;rft.pub=University+of+California-Riverside&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.aulast=Weiss&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmath.ucr.edu%2Fhome%2Fbaez%2Fspin%2Fnode8.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Beyer, H. F.; Shevelko, V. P. (<time datetime="2003">2003</time>). <i>Introduction to the Physics of Highly Charged Ions</i>. CRC Press. pp.&#160;232–236. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-7503-0481-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-7503-0481-2">0-7503-0481-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/47150433">47150433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Physics+of+Highly+Charged+Ions&amp;rft.pages=232-236&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47150433&amp;rft.isbn=0-7503-0481-2&amp;rft.aulast=Beyer&amp;rft.aufirst=H.+F.&amp;rft.au=Shevelko%2C+V.+P.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-watkins_sjsu-89"><b><a href="#cite_ref-watkins_sjsu_89-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Watkins, Thayer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/stimem.htm">„Coherence in Stimulated Emission”</a>. San José State University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080112234014/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/stimem.htm">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2008-01-12">12 ianuarie 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-12-23">23 decembrie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Coherence+in+Stimulated+Emission&amp;rft.pub=San+Jos%C3%A9+State+University&amp;rft.aulast=Watkins&amp;rft.aufirst=Thayer&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sjsu.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fwatkins%2Fstimem.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text">oxford dictionary – valency</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-reusch20070716-91"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reusch20070716_91-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Reusch, William (<time datetime="2007-07-16">16 iulie 2007</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071029211245/http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm">„Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry”</a>. Michigan State University. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm">original</a> la <time datetime="2007-10-29">29 octombrie 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-11">11 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Virtual+Textbook+of+Organic+Chemistry&amp;rft.pub=Michigan+State+University&amp;rft.date=2007-07-16&amp;rft.aulast=Reusch&amp;rft.aufirst=William&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cem.msu.edu%2F~reusch%2FVirtualText%2Fintro1.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chemguide-92"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chemguide_92-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/covalent.html">„Covalent bonding – Single bonds”</a>. chemguide. <time datetime="2000">2000</time>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Covalent+bonding+%E2%80%93+Single+bonds&amp;rft.pub=chemguide&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemguide.co.uk%2Fatoms%2Fbonding%2Fcovalent.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-husted20031211-93"><b><a href="#cite_ref-husted20031211_93-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Husted, Robert; et al. (<time datetime="2003-12-11">11 decembrie 2003</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://periodic.lanl.gov/default.htm">„Periodic Table of the Elements”</a>. Los Alamos National Laboratory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080110103232/http://periodic.lanl.gov/default.htm">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2008-01-10">10 ianuarie 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-11">11 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Periodic+Table+of+the+Elements&amp;rft.pub=Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory&amp;rft.date=2003-12-11&amp;rft.aulast=Husted&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fperiodic.lanl.gov%2Fdefault.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-baum2003-94"><b><a href="#cite_ref-baum2003_94-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Baum, Rudy (<time datetime="2003">2003</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/elements.html">„It's Elemental: The Periodic Table”</a>. Chemical &amp; Engineering News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-11">11 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=It%27s+Elemental%3A+The+Periodic+Table&amp;rft.pub=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.aulast=Baum&amp;rft.aufirst=Rudy&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fcen%2F80th%2Felements.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Goodstein, David L. (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). <i>States of Matter</i>. Courier Dover Publications. pp.&#160;436–438. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-13-843557-X" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-13-843557-X">0-13-843557-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=States+of+Matter&amp;rft.pages=436-438&amp;rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=0-13-843557-X&amp;rft.aulast=Goodstein&amp;rft.aufirst=David+L.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pu49_7_719-96"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pu49_7_719_96-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Brazhkin, Vadim V. (<time datetime="2006">2006</time>). „Metastable phases, phase transformations, and phase diagrams in physics and chemistry”. <i>Physics-Uspekhi</i>. <b>49</b> (7): 719–24. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhyU...49..719B">2006PhyU...49..719B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1070%2FPU2006v049n07ABEH006013">10.1070/PU2006v049n07ABEH006013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Physics-Uspekhi&amp;rft.atitle=Metastable+phases%2C+phase+transformations%2C+and+phase+diagrams+in+physics+and+chemistry&amp;rft.volume=49&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.pages=719-24&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1070%2FPU2006v049n07ABEH006013&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PhyU...49..719B&amp;rft.aulast=Brazhkin&amp;rft.aufirst=Vadim+V.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Myers, Richard (<time datetime="2003">2003</time>). <i>The Basics of Chemistry</i>. Greenwood Press. p.&#160;85. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-313-31664-3" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-313-31664-3">0-313-31664-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/50164580">50164580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Basics+of+Chemistry&amp;rft.pages=85&amp;rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50164580&amp;rft.isbn=0-313-31664-3&amp;rft.aulast=Myers&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nist_bec-98"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nist_bec_98-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Staff (<time datetime="2001-10-09">9 octombrie 2001</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/bec_background.cfm">„Bose-Einstein Condensate: A New Form of Matter”</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080103192918/http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/BEC_background.htm">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2008-01-03">3 ianuarie 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-16">16 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.atitle=Bose-Einstein+Condensate%3A+A+New+Form+of+Matter&amp;rft.date=2001-10-09&amp;rft.au=Staff&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpublic_affairs%2Freleases%2Fbec_background.cfm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-colton_fyffe1999-99"><b><a href="#cite_ref-colton_fyffe1999_99-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Colton, Imogen; Fyffe, Jeanette (<time datetime="1999-02-03">3 februarie 1999</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070829200820/http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html">„Super Atoms from Bose-Einstein Condensation”</a>. The University of Melbourne. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~ywong/poster/articles/bec.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2007-08-29">29 august 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-02-06">6 februarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Super+Atoms+from+Bose-Einstein+Condensation&amp;rft.pub=The+University+of+Melbourne&amp;rft.date=1999-02-03&amp;rft.aulast=Colton&amp;rft.aufirst=Imogen&amp;rft.au=Fyffe%2C+Jeanette&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ph.unimelb.edu.au%2F~ywong%2Fposter%2Farticles%2Fbec.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jacox1997-100"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jacox1997_100-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Jacox, Marilyn; Gadzuk, J. William (noiembrie 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/STM/stm.html">„Scanning Tunneling Microscope”</a>. National Institute of Standards and Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080107133132/http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/STM/stm.html">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2008-01-07">7 ianuarie 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-11">11 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Scanning+Tunneling+Microscope&amp;rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&amp;rft.date=1997-11&amp;rft.aulast=Jacox&amp;rft.aufirst=Marilyn&amp;rft.au=Gadzuk%2C+J.+William&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2FGenInt%2FSTM%2Fstm.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nf_physics1986-101"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nf_physics1986_101-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/index.html">„The Nobel Prize in Physics 1986”</a>. The Nobel Foundation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-11">11 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+1986&amp;rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1986%2Findex.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537">—in particular, see the Nobel lecture by G. Binnig and H. 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A. Panitz — pagină inexistentă">Panitz, John A.</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=S._Brooks_McLane&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="S. Brooks McLane — pagină inexistentă">McLane, S. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-15">15 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Oklo+Fossil+Reactors&amp;rft.pub=Curtin+University+of+Technology&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oklo.curtin.edu.au%2Findex.cfm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-weisenberger-130"><b><a href="#cite_ref-weisenberger_130-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Weisenberger, Drew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_05.html">„How many atoms are there in the world?”</a>. Jefferson Lab<span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-16">16 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=How+many+atoms+are+there+in+the+world%3F&amp;rft.pub=Jefferson+Lab&amp;rft.aulast=Weisenberger&amp;rft.aufirst=Drew&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feducation.jlab.org%2Fqa%2Fmathatom_05.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pidwirnyf-131"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pidwirnyf_131-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Pidwirny, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html">„Fundamentals of Physical Geography”</a>. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-16">16 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Physical+Geography&amp;rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Okanagan&amp;rft.aulast=Pidwirny&amp;rft.aufirst=Michael&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2Fcontents.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pnas99_22_13966-132"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pnas99_22_13966_132-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Anderson, Don L. 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Cornell University Press. pp.&#160;5–10. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-8014-0333-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-8014-0333-2">0-8014-0333-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/17518275">17518275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+the+Chemical+Bond&amp;rft.pages=5-10&amp;rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1960&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17518275&amp;rft.isbn=0-8014-0333-2&amp;rft.aulast=Pauling&amp;rft.aufirst=Linus&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cern28509-134"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cern28509_134-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Anonymous (<time datetime="2001-10-02">2 octombrie 2001</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28509">„Second postcard from the island of stability”</a>. <i>CERN Courier</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080203031237/http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/28509">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2008-02-03">3 februarie 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-04">4 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&amp;rft.atitle=The+Strange+World+of+the+Exotic+Atom&amp;rft.issue=1728&amp;rft.pages=77-115&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.aulast=Barrett&amp;rft.aufirst=Roger&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg12717284.600-the-strange-world-of-the-exotic-atom-physicists-can-nowmake-atoms-and-molecules-containing-negative-particles-other-than-electronsand-use-them-not-just-to-test-theories-but-also-to-fight-cancer-.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-psT112_1_20-141"><b><a href="#cite_ref-psT112_1_20_141-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Indelicato, Paul (<time datetime="2004">2004</time>). „Exotic Atoms”. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physica_Scripta&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Physica Scripta — pagină inexistentă">Physica Scripta</a><sup><small>⁠(<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2089395" class="extiw" title="d:Q2089395"><span title="Physica Scripta la Wikidata">d</span></a>)</small></sup></i>. <b>T112</b> (1): 20–26. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</a>:<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/physics/0409058">physics/0409058</a>&#8239;<span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Accesibil gratuit"><img alt="Accesibil gratuit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhST..112...20I">2004PhST..112...20I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1238%2FPhysica.Topical.112a00020">10.1238/Physica.Topical.112a00020</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=%3APhysica+Scripta%3Csup%3E%3Csmall%3E%E2%81%A0%28%3Cspan+title%3D%22Physica+Scripta+la+Wikidata%22%3Ed%3C%2Fspan%3E%29%3C%2Fsmall%3E%3C%2Fsup%3E&amp;rft.atitle=Exotic+Atoms&amp;rft.volume=T112&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=20-26&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0409058&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1238%2FPhysica.Topical.112a00020&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PhST..112...20I&amp;rft.aulast=Indelicato&amp;rft.aufirst=Paul&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ripin1998-142"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ripin1998_142-0">^</a></b> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Ripin, Barrett H. (iulie 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120723135110/http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm.html">„Recent Experiments on Exotic Atoms”</a>. American Physical Society. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/199807/experiment.cfm.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2012-07-23">23 iulie 2012</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-02-15">15 februarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Recent+Experiments+on+Exotic+Atoms&amp;rft.pub=American+Physical+Society&amp;rft.date=1998-07&amp;rft.aulast=Ripin&amp;rft.aufirst=Barrett+H.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpublications%2Fapsnews%2F199807%2Fexperiment.cfm.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliografie">Bibliografie</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=34" title="Modifică secțiunea: Bibliografie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=34" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Bibliografie"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r12727094">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>dl>dd{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-100{font-size:100%}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><cite id="CITEREFManuel2001" class="citation book">Manuel, Oliver (<time datetime="2001">2001</time>). <i>Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations</i>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-306-46562-0" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-306-46562-0">0-306-46562-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/228374906">228374906</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Origin+of+Elements+in+the+Solar+System%3A+Implications+of+Post-1957+Observations&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F228374906&amp;rft.isbn=0-306-46562-0&amp;rft.aulast=Manuel&amp;rft.aufirst=Oliver&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lectură_suplimentară"><span id="Lectur.C4.83_suplimentar.C4.83"></span>Lectură suplimentară</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=35" title="Modifică secțiunea: Lectură suplimentară" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=35" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Lectură suplimentară"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r12727094"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><cite id="CITEREFDalton1808" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">Dalton, J.</a> (<time datetime="1808">1808</time>). <i>A New System of Chemical Philosophy, Part 1</i>. London and Manchester: S. Russell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+New+System+of+Chemical+Philosophy%2C+Part+1&amp;rft.place=London+and+Manchester&amp;rft.pub=S.+Russell&amp;rft.date=1808&amp;rft.aulast=Dalton&amp;rft.aufirst=J.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Gangopadhyaya, Mrinalkanti (<time datetime="1981">1981</time>). <i>Indian Atomism: History and Sources</i>. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-391-02177-X" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-391-02177-X">0-391-02177-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/10916778">10916778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Indian+Atomism%3A+History+and+Sources&amp;rft.place=Atlantic+Highlands%2C+New+Jersey&amp;rft.pub=Humanities+Press&amp;rft.date=1981&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10916778&amp;rft.isbn=0-391-02177-X&amp;rft.aulast=Gangopadhyaya&amp;rft.aufirst=Mrinalkanti&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2003" class="citation book">Harrison, Edward Robert (<time datetime="2003">2003</time>). <i>Masks of the Universe: Changing Ideas on the Nature of the Cosmos</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-521-77351-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-521-77351-2">0-521-77351-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/50441595">50441595</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Masks+of+the+Universe%3A+Changing+Ideas+on+the+Nature+of+the+Cosmos&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F50441595&amp;rft.isbn=0-521-77351-2&amp;rft.aulast=Harrison&amp;rft.aufirst=Edward+Robert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Iannone, A. Pablo (<time datetime="2001">2001</time>). <i>Dictionary of World Philosophy</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-415-17995-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-415-17995-5">0-415-17995-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/44541769">44541769</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+World+Philosophy&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44541769&amp;rft.isbn=0-415-17995-5&amp;rft.aulast=Iannone&amp;rft.aufirst=A.+Pablo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFKing1999" class="citation book">King, Richard (<time datetime="1999">1999</time>). <i>Indian philosophy: an introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought</i>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-7486-0954-7" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-7486-0954-7">0-7486-0954-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Indian+philosophy%3A+an+introduction+to+Hindu+and+Buddhist+thought&amp;rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft.isbn=0-7486-0954-7&amp;rft.aulast=King&amp;rft.aufirst=Richard&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFLevere2001" class="citation book">Levere, Trevor, H. (<time datetime="2001">2001</time>). <i>Transforming Matter – A History of Chemistry for Alchemy to the Buckyball</i>. The Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-8018-6610-3" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-8018-6610-3">0-8018-6610-3</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Transforming+Matter+%E2%80%93+A+History+of+Chemistry+for+Alchemy+to+the+Buckyball&amp;rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.isbn=0-8018-6610-3&amp;rft.aulast=Levere&amp;rft.aufirst=Trevor%2C+H.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation web">Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dte%2Fmnw1">„A Greek-English Lexicon”</a>. Perseus Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&amp;rft.pub=Perseus+Digital+Library&amp;rft.au=Liddell%2C+Henry+George&amp;rft.au=Scott%2C+Robert&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Dte%252Fmnw1&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation web">Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29%2Ftomos">„ἄτομος”</a>. <i>A Greek-English Lexicon</i>. Perseus Digital Library<span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2010-06-21">21 iunie 2010</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&amp;rft.atitle=%E1%BC%84%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82&amp;rft.au=Liddell%2C+Henry+George&amp;rft.au=Scott%2C+Robert&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Da%2529%252Ftomos&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMcEvilley2002" class="citation book">McEvilley, Thomas (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). <i>The shape of ancient thought: comparative studies in Greek and Indian philosophies</i>. Allworth Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/1-58115-203-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/1-58115-203-5">1-58115-203-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+shape+of+ancient+thought%3A+comparative+studies+in+Greek+and+Indian+philosophies&amp;rft.pub=Allworth+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=1-58115-203-5&amp;rft.aulast=McEvilley&amp;rft.aufirst=Thomas&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFMoran2005" class="citation book">Moran, Bruce T. (<time datetime="2005">2005</time>). <i>Distilling Knowledge: Alchemy, Chemistry, and the Scientific Revolution</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-674-01495-2" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-674-01495-2">0-674-01495-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Distilling+Knowledge%3A+Alchemy%2C+Chemistry%2C+and+the+Scientific+Revolution&amp;rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=0-674-01495-2&amp;rft.aulast=Moran&amp;rft.aufirst=Bruce+T.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFPonomarev1993" class="citation book">Ponomarev, Leonid Ivanovich (<time datetime="1993">1993</time>). <i>The Quantum Dice</i>. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-7503-0251-8" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-7503-0251-8">0-7503-0251-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/26853108">26853108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Quantum+Dice&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26853108&amp;rft.isbn=0-7503-0251-8&amp;rft.aulast=Ponomarev&amp;rft.aufirst=Leonid+Ivanovich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFRoscoe1895" class="citation book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Enfield_Roscoe&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Enfield Roscoe — pagină inexistentă">Roscoe, Henry Enfield</a> (<time datetime="1895">1895</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FJMEAAAAYAAJ"><i>John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry</i></a>. Century science series. New York: Macmillan<span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2011-04-03">3 aprilie 2011</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=John+Dalton+and+the+Rise+of+Modern+Chemistry&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.series=Century+science+series&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan&amp;rft.date=1895&amp;rft.aulast=Roscoe&amp;rft.aufirst=Henry+Enfield&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFJMEAAAAYAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFSiegfried2002" class="citation book">Siegfried, Robert (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). <i>From Elements to Atoms: A History of Chemical Composition</i>. DIANE. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-87169-924-9" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-87169-924-9">0-87169-924-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/186607849">186607849</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=From+Elements+to+Atoms%3A+A+History+of+Chemical+Composition&amp;rft.pub=DIANE&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F186607849&amp;rft.isbn=0-87169-924-9&amp;rft.aulast=Siegfried&amp;rft.aufirst=Robert&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Teresi, Dick (<time datetime="2003">2003</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=pheL_ubbXD0C&amp;dq"><i>Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science</i></a>. Simon &amp; Schuster. pp.&#160;213–214. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-7432-4379-X" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-7432-4379-X">0-7432-4379-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Lost+Discoveries%3A+The+Ancient+Roots+of+Modern+Science&amp;rft.pages=213-214&amp;rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=0-7432-4379-X&amp;rft.aulast=Teresi&amp;rft.aufirst=Dick&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DpheL_ubbXD0C%26dq&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation book">Various (<time datetime="2002">2002</time>). Lide, David R., ed. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/"><i>Handbook of Chemistry &amp; Physics</i></a> (ed. 88th). CRC. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-8493-0486-5" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-8493-0486-5">0-8493-0486-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/179976746">179976746</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080523110822/http://www.hbcpnetbase.com/">Arhivat</a> din originalul de la <time datetime="2008-05-23">23 mai 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-05-23">23 mai 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Chemistry+%26+Physics&amp;rft.edition=88th&amp;rft.pub=CRC&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F179976746&amp;rft.isbn=0-8493-0486-5&amp;rft.au=Various&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hbcpnetbase.com%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFWurtz1881" class="citation book">Wurtz, Charles Adolphe (<time datetime="1881">1881</time>). <i>The Atomic Theory</i>. New York: D. Appleton and company. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:Referin%C8%9Be_%C3%AEn_c%C4%83r%C8%9Bi/0-559-43636-X" title="Special:Referințe în cărți/0-559-43636-X">0-559-43636-X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Atomic+Theory&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=D.+Appleton+and+company&amp;rft.date=1881&amp;rft.isbn=0-559-43636-X&amp;rft.aulast=Wurtz&amp;rft.aufirst=Charles+Adolphe&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legături_externe"><span id="Leg.C4.83turi_externe"></span>Legături externe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=36" title="Modifică secțiunea: Legături externe" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modificare</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Atom&amp;action=edit&amp;section=36" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Legături externe"><span>modificare sursă</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s_HEUHyoZWI"><span class="plainlinks"> "Quantum Mechanics and the Structure of Atoms"</span></a> pe <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> fizica reale lecție începe la 2:20 în film.</li> <li><cite class="citation web">Freudenrich, Craig C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070108023359/http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm">„How Atoms Work”</a>. How Stuff Works. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm">original</a> la <time datetime="2007-01-08">8 ianuarie 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-09">9 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=How+Atoms+Work&amp;rft.pub=How+Stuff+Works&amp;rft.aulast=Freudenrich&amp;rft.aufirst=Craig+C.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.howstuffworks.com%2Fatom.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Mai multe valori specificate pentru <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#124;nume=</code> și <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#124;last=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Ajutor:Erori_CS1#redundant_parameters" title="Ajutor:Erori CS1">ajutor</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics/Atom">„The Atom”</a>. <i>Free High School Science Texts: Physics</i>. Wikibooks<span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2010-07-10">10 iulie 2010</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Free+High+School+Science+Texts%3A+Physics&amp;rft.atitle=The+Atom&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FFHSST_Physics%2FAtom&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Mai multe valori specificate pentru <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#124;lucrare=</code> și <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#124;work=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Ajutor:Erori_CS1#redundant_parameters" title="Ajutor:Erori CS1">ajutor</a>)</span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation web">Anonymous (<time datetime="2007">2007</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100122123927/http://scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/fundamental/atom.html">„The atom”</a>. Science aid+. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/chemistry/fundamental/atom.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2010-01-22">22 ianuarie 2010</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2010-07-10">10 iulie 2010</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=The+atom&amp;rft.pub=Science+aid%2B&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.au=Anonymous&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienceaid.co.uk%2Fchemistry%2Ffundamental%2Fatom.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537">—un ghid pentru atom pentru adolescenti.</li> <li><cite class="citation web">Anonymous (<time datetime="2006-01-03">3 ianuarie 2006</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070102114833/http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6672963">„Atoms and Atomic Structure”</a>. BBC. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6672963">original</a> la <time datetime="2007-01-02">2 ianuarie 2007</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2007-01-11">11 ianuarie 2007</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Atoms+and+Atomic+Structure&amp;rft.pub=BBC&amp;rft.date=2006-01-03&amp;rft.au=Anonymous&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fdna%2Fh2g2%2FA6672963&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation web">Various (<time datetime="2006-01-03">3 ianuarie 2006</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080114002007/http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl?Type=TOC">„Physics 2000, Table of Contents”</a>. University of Colorado. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl?Type=TOC">original</a> la <time datetime="2008-01-14">14 ianuarie 2008</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-01-11">11 ianuarie 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Physics+2000%2C+Table+of+Contents&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Colorado&amp;rft.date=2006-01-03&amp;rft.au=Various&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorado.edu%2Fphysics%2F2000%2Findex.pl%3FType%3DTOC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li> <li><cite class="citation web">Various (<time datetime="2006-02-03">3 februarie 2006</time>). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100417023635/http://www.hydrogenlab.de/elektronium/HTML/einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html">„What does an atom look like?”</a>. University of Karlsruhe. Arhivat din <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hydrogenlab.de/elektronium/HTML/einleitung_hauptseite_uk.html">original</a> la <time datetime="2010-04-17">17 aprilie 2010</time><span class="reference-accessdate">. Accesat în <time datetime="2008-05-12">12 mai 2008</time></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=What+does+an+atom+look+like%3F&amp;rft.pub=University+of+Karlsruhe&amp;rft.date=2006-02-03&amp;rft.au=Various&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hydrogenlab.de%2Felektronium%2FHTML%2Feinleitung_hauptseite_uk.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fro.wikipedia.org%3AAtom" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r16236537"></li></ul> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.eqiad.main‐7c479b968‐zz6h6 Cached time: 20241116113424 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [show‐toc] CPU time usage: 1.758 seconds Real time usage: 3.247 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 9913/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 349119/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 5070/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 14/100 Expensive parser function count: 0/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 494011/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 1.044/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 7816406/52428800 bytes Lua Profile: recursiveClone <mwInit.lua:45> 140 ms 13.2% ? 140 ms 13.2% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::getLabelByLanguage 100 ms 9.4% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess 100 ms 9.4% dataWrapper <mw.lua:672> 80 ms 7.5% <mw.lua:694> 60 ms 5.7% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::unstripNoWiki 60 ms 5.7% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::sub 40 ms 3.8% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::gmatch_callback 40 ms 3.8% date 40 ms 3.8% [others] 260 ms 24.5% Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 0/400 --> <!-- Transclusion expansion time report (%,ms,calls,template) 100.00% 2741.375 1 -total 52.16% 1429.893 84 Format:Ill-wd 38.30% 1049.863 2 Format:Listănote 11.31% 310.024 37 Format:Cite_journal 10.04% 275.207 62 Format:Cite_web 7.67% 210.131 42 Format:Cite_book 4.40% 120.707 1 Format:Infocasetă 2.37% 65.061 1 Format:Cite_encyclopedia 2.15% 58.922 14 Format:Val 1.65% 45.157 8 Format:Cite_news --> <!-- Saved in parser cache with key rowiki:pcache:idhash:12596-0!canonical and timestamp 20241116113424 and revision id 16447958. 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