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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regional_varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Regional varieties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_varieties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maghrebi_group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maghrebi_group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Maghrebi group</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maghrebi_group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sudanese_group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sudanese_group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Sudanese group</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sudanese_group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egyptian_group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egyptian_group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Egyptian group</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egyptian_group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesopotamian_group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamian_group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Mesopotamian group</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamian_group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Levantine_group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Levantine_group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.5</span> <span>Levantine group</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Levantine_group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peninsular_group" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peninsular_group"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.6</span> <span>Peninsular group</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peninsular_group-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peripheries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peripheries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.7</span> <span>Peripheries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peripheries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Jewish varieties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_varieties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creoles_and_pidgins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creoles_and_pidgins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Creoles and pidgins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creoles_and_pidgins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Creoles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creoles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Creoles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creoles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pidgins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pidgins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Pidgins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pidgins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Para-Arabic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Para-Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Para-Arabic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Para-Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diglossic_variety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diglossic_variety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Diglossic variety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diglossic_variety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_mixing_and_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_mixing_and_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Language mixing and change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_mixing_and_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typological_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typological_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Typological differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typological_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_major_regional_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_major_regional_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Examples of major regional differences</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples_of_major_regional_differences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples of major regional differences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_major_regional_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_regional_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_regional_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Other regional differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_regional_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mutual_intelligibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mutual_intelligibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Mutual intelligibility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mutual_intelligibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formal_and_vernacular_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formal_and_vernacular_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Formal and vernacular differences</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formal_and_vernacular_differences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formal and vernacular differences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formal_and_vernacular_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linguistic_distance_to_MSA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_distance_to_MSA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Linguistic distance to MSA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_distance_to_MSA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociolinguistic_variables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociolinguistic_variables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sociolinguistic variables</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sociolinguistic_variables-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sociolinguistic variables subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sociolinguistic_variables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Variation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Variation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Variation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Variation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Writing system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology_and_syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology_and_syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Morphology and syntax</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology_and_syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Phonetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emphasis_spreading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emphasis_spreading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>Emphasis spreading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emphasis_spreading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.3</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Varieties of Arabic</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لهجات عربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لهجات عربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe_dialeutal" title="Árabe dialeutal – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Árabe dialeutal" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-la-pek-g%C3%AD_%C3%AA_hong-gi%C3%A2n" title="A-la-pek-gí ê hong-giân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="A-la-pek-gí ê hong-giân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Разновидности на арабския език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Разновидности на арабския език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_arabek" title="Yezhoù arabek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù arabek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80rab_dialectal" title="Àrab dialectal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Àrab dialectal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabische_Dialekte" title="Arabische Dialekte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Arabische Dialekte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Αραβικές διάλεκτοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αραβικές διάλεκτοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe_dialectal" title="Árabe dialectal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Árabe dialectal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabaj_variantoj" title="Arabaj variantoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Arabaj variantoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="گویش‌های عربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گویش‌های عربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabe_dialectal" title="Arabe dialectal – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arabe dialectal" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabyske_talen" title="Arabyske talen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Arabyske talen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%9E%8D%EC%96%B4%EC%9D%98_%EB%B3%80%EC%A2%85" title="아랍어의 변종 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아랍어의 변종" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varietas_bahasa_Arab" title="Varietas bahasa Arab – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Varietas bahasa Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialetti_arabi" title="Dialetti arabi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dialetti arabi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D2%A3_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96" title="Араб тілінің диалектілері – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Араб тілінің диалектілері" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C4%81bu_valodas_variet%C4%81tes" title="Arābu valodas varietātes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Arābu valodas varietātes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keragaman_bahasa_Arab" title="Keragaman bahasa Arab – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Keragaman bahasa Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%B3%E3%83%9F%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A4" title="アーンミーヤ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アーンミーヤ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" 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of dialects/variants of Arabic language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the extant varieties of Arabic. 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color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Colloquial Arabic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;"><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">اللهجات العربية</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">383 million (2024)<sup id="cite_ref-e27_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e27-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Colloquial Arabic</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Afroasiatic">Proto-Afroasiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Arabic">Proto-Arabic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Standard forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ara" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ara">ara</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/320px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/480px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/640px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2051" data-file-height="1151" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Geographical distribution of the varieties of Arabic</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Varieties of Arabic</b> (or <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> languages) are the linguistic systems that <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> speakers speak natively.<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arabic is a <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic language</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic family</a> that originated in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>. There are considerable variations from region to region, with degrees of <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> that are often related to geographical distance and some that are <a href="/wiki/Mutually_unintelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually unintelligible">mutually unintelligible</a>. Many aspects of the variability attested to in these modern variants can be found in the ancient Arabic dialects in the peninsula. Likewise, many of the features that characterize (or distinguish) the various modern variants can be attributed to the original settler dialects as well as local native languages and dialects. Some organizations, such as <a href="/wiki/SIL_International" title="SIL International">SIL International</a>, consider these approximately 30 different varieties to be separate languages, while others, such as the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>, consider them all to be dialects of Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In terms of <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a>, a major distinction exists between the formal standardized language, found mostly in writing or in prepared speech, and the widely diverging <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernaculars</a>, used for everyday speaking situations. The latter vary from country to country, from speaker to speaker (according to personal preferences, education and culture), and depending on the topic and situation. In other words, Arabic in its natural environment usually occurs in a situation of <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>, which means that its native speakers often learn and use two linguistic forms substantially different from each other, the <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (often called MSA in English) as the official language and a local colloquial variety (called <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">العامية</span></span>, <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-ʿāmmiyya</i></span></i> in many Arab countries,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning "<a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</a>" or "colloquial"; or called <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الدارجة</span></span>, <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ad-dārija</i></span></i>, meaning "common or everyday language" in the <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghreb</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), in different aspects of their lives. </p><p>This situation is often compared in Western literature to the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> language, which maintained a cultured variant and several vernacular versions for centuries, until it disappeared as a spoken language, while derived <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> became new languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aragonese_language" title="Aragonese language">Aragonese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franco-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Franco-Provençal">Arpitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asturleonese_language" title="Asturleonese language">Asturleonese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a> and more. The regionally prevalent variety is learned as the speaker's <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a> whilst the formal language is subsequently learned in school. While vernacular varieties differ substantially, <i>Fus'ha</i> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">فصحى</span></span>), the formal <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a>, is standardized and universally understood by those literate in Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-Kamusella_2017_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamusella_2017-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western scholars make a distinction between <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> while speakers of Arabic generally do not consider CA and MSA to be different varieties.<sup id="cite_ref-Kamusella_2017_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamusella_2017-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest differences between the classical/standard and the colloquial Arabic are the loss of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical case</a>; a different and <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">strict</a> word order; the loss of the previous system of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">grammatical mood</a>, along with the evolution of a new system; the loss of the <a href="/wiki/Inflected" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflected">inflected</a> <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a>, except in a few relic varieties; restriction in the use of the <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual number</a> and (for most varieties) the loss of the distinctive conjugation and agreement for feminine <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plurals</a>. Many Arabic dialects, <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> in particular, also have significant <a href="/wiki/Vowel_shift" title="Vowel shift">vowel shifts</a> and unusual <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">consonant clusters</a>. Unlike other dialect groups, in the <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> group, first-person singular <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> begin with a n- (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ن</span></span>). Further substantial differences exist between <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sedentism" title="Sedentism">sedentary</a> speech, the countryside and major cities, ethnic groups, religious groups, social classes, men and women, and the young and the old. These differences are to some degree bridgeable. Often, Arabic speakers can adjust their speech in a variety of ways according to the context and to their intentions—for example, to speak with people from different regions, to demonstrate their level of education or to draw on the authority of the spoken language. </p><p>In terms of <a href="/wiki/Morphological_typology" title="Morphological typology">typological</a> classification, Arabic dialectologists distinguish between two basic norms: Bedouin and Sedentary. This is based on a set of phonological, morphological, and syntactic characteristics that distinguish between these two norms. However, it is not really possible to keep this classification, partly because the modern dialects, especially urban variants, typically amalgamate features from both norms. Geographically, modern Arabic varieties are classified into five groups: <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a>, Egyptian (including <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular Arabic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speakers from distant areas, across national borders, within countries and even between cities and villages, can struggle to understand each other's dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-economist-2018_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economist-2018-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/660px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png" decoding="async" width="660" height="370" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/990px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/1320px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2051" data-file-height="1151" /></a><figcaption>Geographical distribution of the varieties of Arabic (excluding Judeo-Arabic) per <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_Varieties_Map.svg" title="File:Arabic Varieties Map.svg">other sources</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256394559">.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ol{margin-left:1.3em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media(min-width:300px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key,.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:2}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-narrow{column-count:1}}@media(min-width:450px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:3}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist image-key image-key-wide"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff4900; color:black;"> </span> 1: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:mey" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:mey">Hassaniyya</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00c373; color:black;"> </span> 2: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ary" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ary">Moroccan Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#009dff; color:black;"> </span> 3: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:aao" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:aao">Algerian Saharan Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff00d6; color:black;"> </span> 4: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:arq" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:arq">Algerian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ddb92f; color:black;"> </span> 5: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:aeb" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:aeb">Tunisian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00ffbd; color:black;"> </span> 6: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ayl" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ayl">Libyan Arabic – Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#e7c075; color:black;"> </span> 7: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:arz" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:arz">Egyptian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#51cc29; color:black;"> </span> 8: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:avl" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:avl">Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#298dcc; color:black;"> </span> 9: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:aec" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:aec">Saidi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cc29b2; color:white;"> </span> 10: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:shu" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:shu">Chadian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ccb929; color:black;"> </span> 11: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:apd" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:apd">Sudanese Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#29cca2; color:black;"> </span> 12: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:pga" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:pga">Juba Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff9266; color:black;"> </span> 13: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ars" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ars">Najdi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#66c4ff; color:black;"> </span> 14: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:apc" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:apc">Levantine Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ea93f0; color:black;"> </span> 15: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ayp" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ayp">North Mesopotamian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#998e3d; color:black;"> </span> 16: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acm" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acm">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#66ffd8; color:black;"> </span> 17: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:afb" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:afb">Gulf Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cc8366; color:black;"> </span> 18: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:abv" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:abv">Baharna Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#bae344; color:black;"> </span> 19: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acw" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acw">Hijazi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#66a5cc; color:black;"> </span> 20: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ssh" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ssh">Shihhi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cc66bc; color:black;"> </span> 21: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acx" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acx">Omani Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ccc066; color:black;"> </span> 22: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:adf" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:adf">Dhofari Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#66ccb2; color:black;"> </span> 23: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ayn" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ayn">Sanaani Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f2ae92; color:black;"> </span> 24: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acq" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acq">Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#79ba3c; color:black;"> </span> 25: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ayh" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ayh">Hadrami Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#91cdf2; color:black;"> </span> 26: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:auz" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:auz">Uzbeki Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a786f2; color:black;"> </span> 27: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:abh" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:abh">Bactrian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#a4a068; color:black;"> </span> 28: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acy" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acy">Cypriot Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#59a6b8; color:black;"> </span> 29: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:mlt" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:mlt">Maltese</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fc7183; color:black;"> </span> 30: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:kcn" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:kcn">Nubi</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#fefee9ff; color:;"> </span> Sparsely populated area or no indigenous Arabic speakers</div></li><li>Solid area fill: variety natively spoken by at least 25% of the population of that area or variety indigenous to that area only</li><li>Hatched area fill: minority scattered over the area</li><li>Dotted area fill: speakers of this variety are mixed with speakers of other Arabic varieties in the area</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_varieties">Regional varieties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Regional varieties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The greatest variations between kinds of Arabic are those between <a href="/wiki/Regional_language" title="Regional language">regional language</a> groups. Arabic dialectologists formerly distinguished between just two groups: the <a href="/wiki/Mashriqi_Arabic" title="Mashriqi Arabic">Mashriqi</a> (eastern) dialects, east of Libya which includes the dialects of <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a> (western) dialects which includes the dialects of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>) west of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-discoverdiscomfort-hooshmand_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-discoverdiscomfort-hooshmand-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> is high within each of those two groups, while the intelligibility between the two groups is <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility#Asymmetric_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">asymmetric</a>: Maghrebi speakers are more likely to understand Mashriqi than vice versa.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Arab dialectologists have now adopted a more detailed classification for modern variants of the language, which is divided into five major groups: <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a>, Egypto-Sudanic or Nile Valley (including <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-economist-2018_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economist-2018-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These large <a href="/wiki/Regional_language" title="Regional language">regional</a> groups do not correspond to borders of modern states. In the western parts of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, varieties are referred to as <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الدارجة</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ad-dārija</i></span>, and in the eastern parts, as <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">العامية</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-ʿāmmiyya</i></span>. Nearby varieties of Arabic are mostly <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually intelligible</a>, but faraway varieties tend not to be. Varieties west of Egypt are particularly disparate, with Egyptian Arabic speakers claiming difficulty in understanding North African Arabic speakers, while North African Arabic speakers' ability to understand other Arabic speakers is mostly due to the widespread popularity of Egyptian and Levantine popular media (for example Syrian or Lebanese TV shows). This phenomenon is called <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility#Asymmetric_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">asymmetric intelligibility</a>. </p><p>One factor in the differentiation of the varieties is the influence from other languages previously spoken or still presently spoken in the regions, such as </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian_languages" title="Modern South Arabian languages">Modern South Arabian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old South Arabian</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Babylonian</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Iraq</a>);<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Gulf</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maghrebi_group">Maghrebi group</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Maghrebi group"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Western varieties</a> are influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">Koines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الدارجة</span></span>/<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">مغربية</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">maḡribiyya</i></span>/<span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">dārija</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ary" class="extiw" title="silcode:ary">ary</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الدارجة</span></span>/<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">دزيرية</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">dzīriyya</i></span>/<span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">dārja</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/arq" class="extiw" title="silcode:arq">arq</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الدارجة</span></span>/<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">تونسي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">tūnsi</i></span>/<span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">dērja</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aeb" class="extiw" title="silcode:aeb">aeb</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ليبي</span></span>/<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الدارجة</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">dārja</i></span>/<span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">lībi</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ayl" class="extiw" title="silcode:ayl">ayl</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Pre-Hilalian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">صقلي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">sīqīlli</i></span>, extinct in Sicily) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/sqr" class="extiw" title="silcode:sqr">sqr</a>) † <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mlt" class="extiw" title="silcode:mlt">mlt</a>)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Bedouin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aao" class="extiw" title="silcode:aao">aao</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mey" class="extiw" title="silcode:mey">mey</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusian Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أندلسي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">andalūsi</i></span>, extinct in Iberia, surviving among Andalusi communities in Morocco and Algeria) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/xaa" class="extiw" title="silcode:xaa">xaa</a>) †</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sudanese_group">Sudanese group</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sudanese group"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese varieties</a> are influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian languages</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">سوداني</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">sūdāni</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/apd" class="extiw" title="silcode:apd">apd</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/pga" class="extiw" title="silcode:pga">pga</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian Arabic</a> (Baggara, Shuwa Arabic) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/shu" class="extiw" title="silcode:shu">shu</a>) <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bagirmi_Arabic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bagirmi Arabic (page does not exist)">Bagirmi Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">باجيرمي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">bājirmi</i></span>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi Arabic</a> † <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku Arabic</a>, pidgin † <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor Arabic</a>, pidgin</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egyptian_group">Egyptian group</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Egyptian group"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian varieties</a> are influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic language</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">مصرى</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">maṣri</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/arz" class="extiw" title="silcode:arz">arz</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Sa'idi Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">صعيدى</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ṣaʿīdi</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aec" class="extiw" title="silcode:aec">aec</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesopotamian_group">Mesopotamian group</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mesopotamian group"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian varieties</a> are influenced by the Mesopotamian languages (<a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic</a>), <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a>. </p> <ul><li>North Mesopotamian (<i>qeltu</i> varieties) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North Mesopotamian Arabic</a> or Moslawi (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">موصلية</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">mūsuliyya</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ayp" class="extiw" title="silcode:ayp">ayp</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot Maronite Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acy" class="extiw" title="silcode:acy">acy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/yhd" class="extiw" title="silcode:yhd">yhd</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdad Jewish Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi Arabic</a> (<i>gelet</i> varieties) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acm" class="extiw" title="silcode:acm">acm</a>)</li> <li>South Mesopotamian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani Arabic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Levantine_group">Levantine group</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Levantine group"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine varieties</a> (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/apc" class="extiw" title="silcode:apc">apc</a>) are influenced <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic languages</a>, and to a lesser extent, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">the Turkish language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Ancient Egyptian language</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">القيليقية</span></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الأردنية</span></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">اللبنانية</span></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الفلسطينية</span></span>) <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fellahi_Arabic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fellahi Arabic (page does not exist)">Fellahi Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الفلاحي</span></span>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Madani_Arabic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Madani Arabic (page does not exist)">Madani Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">المدني</span></span>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">السورية</span></span>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الدمشقية</span></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppo Arabic</a> (الحلبية)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peninsular_group">Peninsular group</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Peninsular group"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">peninsular varieties</a> are influenced by <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">South Arabian Languages</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">نجدي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">najdi</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ars" class="extiw" title="silcode:ars">ars</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">خليجي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ḵalīji</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/afb" class="extiw" title="silcode:afb">afb</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بحراني</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">baḥrāni</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/abv" class="extiw" title="silcode:abv">abv</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">حجازي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ḥijāzi</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acw" class="extiw" title="silcode:acw">acw</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">يمني</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">yamani</i></span>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">حضرمي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ḥaḍrami</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ayh" class="extiw" title="silcode:ayh">ayh</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Arabic" title="Indonesian Arabic">Indonesian Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">إندونيسيا</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">'iindunisia</i></span>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ayn" class="extiw" title="silcode:ayn">ayn</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acq" class="extiw" title="silcode:acq">acq</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihamiyya Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81fi%CA%BF%C4%AB_Arabic" title="Yāfiʿī Arabic">Yāfiʿī Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عماني</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿumāni</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acx" class="extiw" title="silcode:acx">acx</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/adf" class="extiw" title="silcode:adf">adf</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">شحّي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">šiḥḥi</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ssh" class="extiw" title="silcode:ssh">ssh</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">البدوية</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">badawi</i></span>/<span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">bdiwi</i></span>) – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/avl" class="extiw" title="silcode:avl">avl</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Peripheries">Peripheries</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Peripheries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Bactrian Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/abh" class="extiw" title="silcode:abh">abh</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Uzbeki Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/auz" class="extiw" title="silcode:auz">auz</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani Arabic</a> †</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_varieties">Jewish varieties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Jewish varieties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jewish varieties are influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> languages. Though they have features similar to each other, they are not a homogeneous unit and still belong philologically to the same family groupings as their non-Judeo counterpart varieties. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a> (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/jrb" class="extiw" title="silcode:jrb">jrb</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi Arabic</a> (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/yhd" class="extiw" title="silcode:yhd">yhd</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdad Jewish Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan Arabic</a> (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aju" class="extiw" title="silcode:aju">aju</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic</a> (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/yud" class="extiw" title="silcode:yud">yud</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni Arabic</a> (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/jye" class="extiw" title="silcode:jye">jye</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creoles_and_pidgins">Creoles and pidgins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Creoles and pidgins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_pidgins_and_creoles" title="Arabic-based pidgins and creoles">Arabic-based pidgins and creoles</a></div> <p>There have been a number of Arabic-based <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a> throughout history, including a number of new ones emerging today. These may be broadly divided into the <a href="/wiki/Sudan_(region)" title="Sudan (region)">Sudanic</a> pidgins and creoles, which share a common ancestry, and incipient immigrant pidgins. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Creoles">Creoles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Creoles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/kcn" class="extiw" title="silcode:kcn">kcn</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pidgins">Pidgins</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pidgins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi Arabic</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">مريدي</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">mridi</i></span>) †</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Para-Arabic">Para-Arabic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Para-Arabic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arabic-Javanese_of_Klego&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arabic-Javanese of Klego (page does not exist)">Arabic-Javanese of Klego</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">كليغو</span></span> – <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">klighu</i></span>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diglossic_variety">Diglossic variety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Diglossic variety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> – (ISO 639–3: <a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/arb" class="extiw" title="silcode:arb">arb</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_mixing_and_change">Language mixing and change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Language mixing and change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">Code-switching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">Koiné language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication_accommodation_theory" title="Communication accommodation theory">Communication accommodation theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">Prestige (sociolinguistics)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dialect_levelling" title="Dialect levelling">Dialect levelling</a></div> <p>Arabic is characterized by a wide number of varieties; however, Arabic speakers are often able to manipulate the way they speak based on the circumstances. There can be a number of motives for changing one's speech: the formality of a situation, the need to communicate with people with different dialects, to get social approval, to differentiate oneself from the listener, when citing a written text to differentiate between personal and professional or general matters, to clarify a point, and to shift to a new topic.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An important factor in the mixing or changing of Arabic is the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Prestige_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Prestige dialect">prestige dialect</a>. This refers to the level of respect accorded to a language or dialect within a speech community. The formal Arabic language carries a considerable prestige in most Arabic-speaking communities, depending on the context. This is not the only source of prestige, though.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many studies have shown that for most speakers, there is a prestige variety of vernacular Arabic. In Egypt, for non-Cairenes, the prestige dialect is Cairo Arabic. For Jordanian women from Bedouin or rural background, it may be the urban dialects of the big cities, especially including the capital Amman.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, in certain contexts, a dialect relatively different from formal Arabic may carry more prestige than a dialect closer to the formal language—this is the case in Bahrain, for example.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Language mixes and changes in different ways. Arabic speakers often use more than one variety of Arabic within a conversation or even a sentence. This process is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a>. For example, a woman on a TV program could appeal to the authority of the formal language by using elements of it in her speech in order to prevent other speakers from cutting her off. Another process at work is "leveling", the "elimination of very localised dialectical features in favour of more regionally general ones." This can affect all linguistic levels—semantic, syntactic, phonological, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The change can be temporary, as when a group of speakers with substantially different Arabics communicate, or it can be permanent, as often happens when people from the countryside move to the city and adopt the more prestigious urban dialect, possibly over a couple of generations. </p><p>This process of accommodation sometimes appeals to the formal language, but often does not. For example, villagers in central Palestine may try to use the dialect of Jerusalem rather than their own when speaking with people with substantially different dialects, particularly since they may have a very weak grasp of the formal language.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another example, groups of educated speakers from different regions will often use dialectical forms that represent a middle ground between their dialects rather than trying to use the formal language, to make communication easier and more comprehensible. For example, to express the <a href="/wiki/Existential_clause" title="Existential clause">existential</a> "there is" (as in, "there is a place where..."), Arabic speakers have access to many different words: </p> <ul><li>Iraq and Kuwait: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aku/</span></li> <li>Egypt, the Levant, and most of the Arabian Peninsula: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fiː/</span></li> <li>Tunisia: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/famːa/</span></li> <li>Morocco and Algeria: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kajn/</span></li> <li>Yemen: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/beh/</span></li> <li>Modern Standard Arabic: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hunaːk/</span></li></ul> <p>In this case, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fiː/</span> is most likely to be used as it is not associated with a particular region and is the closest to a dialectical middle ground for this group of speakers. Moreover, given the prevalence of movies and TV shows in Egyptian Arabic, the speakers are all likely to be familiar with it.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iraqi/Kuwaiti <i>aku</i>, Levantine <i>fīh</i> and North African <i>kayn</i> all evolve from Classical Arabic forms (<i>yakūn</i>, <i>fīhi</i>, <i>kā'in</i> respectively), but now sound different. </p><p>Sometimes a certain dialect may be associated with backwardness and does not carry mainstream prestige—yet it will continue to be used as it carries a kind of covert prestige and serves to differentiate one group from another when necessary. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Typological_differences">Typological differences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Typological differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A basic distinction that cuts across the entire geography of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic-speaking_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-speaking world">Arabic-speaking world</a> is between sedentary and nomadic varieties (often misleadingly called <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a>). The distinction stems from the settlement patterns in the wake of the Arab conquests. As regions were conquered, army camps were set up that eventually grew into cities, and settlement of the rural areas by <a href="/wiki/Nomadic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic">nomadic</a> Arabs gradually followed thereafter. In some areas, sedentary dialects are divided further into urban and rural variants.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The most obvious phonetic difference between the two groups is the pronunciation of the letter <big>ق</big> <i><a href="/wiki/Qaaf" class="mw-redirect" title="Qaaf">qaf</a></i>, which is pronounced as a voiced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> in the urban varieties of the Arabian Peninsula (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi dialect</a> in the ancient cities of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>) as well as in the Bedouin dialects across all Arabic-speaking countries, but is voiceless mainly in post-<a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabized</a> urban centers as either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/q/</span> (with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span> being an <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophone</a> in a few words mostly in <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">North African</a> cities) or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span> (merging <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/Q%C4%81f" class="mw-redirect" title="Qāf">ق</a>⟩</span> with <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">ء</a>⟩</span>) in the urban centers of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. The latter were mostly <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabized</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Islamic Conquests</a>. </p><p>The other major phonetic difference is that the rural varieties preserve the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> (CA) <a href="/wiki/Interdental" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdental">interdentals</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> ث and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> ذ,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and merge the CA emphatic sounds <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɮˤ/</span> ض and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ðˤ/</span> ظ into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ðˤ/</span> rather than sedentary <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dˤ/</span>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The most significant differences between rural Arabic and non-rural Arabic are in syntax. The sedentary varieties in particular share a number of common innovations from CA.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Statement needs to be more specific about the content to which it refers. (April 2011)">specify</span></a></i>]</sup> This has led to the suggestion, first articulated by <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Ferguson" title="Charles A. Ferguson">Charles Ferguson</a>, that a simplified <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koiné language</a> developed in the army staging camps in Iraq, whence the remaining parts of the modern Arab world were conquered.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In general, the rural varieties are more conservative than the sedentary varieties and the rural varieties within the Arabian peninsula are even more conservative than those elsewhere. Within the sedentary varieties, the western varieties (particularly, <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>) are less conservative than the eastern varieties.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A number of cities in the Arabic world speak a "Bedouin" variety, which acquires prestige in that context.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_of_major_regional_differences">Examples of major regional differences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Examples of major regional differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following example illustrates similarities and differences between the literary, standardized varieties, and major urban dialects of Arabic. <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a>, a highly divergent <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> language descended from Maghrebi Arabic is also provided. </p><p><i>True pronunciations differ; transliterations used approach an approximate demonstration. Also, the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">pronunciation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> differs significantly from region to region.</i> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Variety </th> <th>I love reading a lot. </th> <th>When I went to the library, </th> <th>I only found this old book. </th> <th>I wanted to read a book about the history of women in France. </th></tr> <tr> <th>Arabic </th> <td><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أَنَا أُحِبُّ القِرَاءَةَ كَثِيرًا</span></span> </td> <td><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عِنْدَمَا ذَهَبْتُ إِلَى المَكْتَبَة</span></span> </td> <td><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">لَمْ أَجِد سِوَى هٰذَا الكِتَابِ القَدِيم</span></span> </td> <td><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">كُنْتُ أُرِيدُ أَنْ أَقْرَأَ كِتَابًا عَن تَارِيخِ المَرأَةِ فِي فَرَنسَا</span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> </th> <td><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾana ʾuḥibbu‿l-qirāʾata kaṯīran</i></span><br /><br /><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʔana: ʔuħibːu‿lqiraːʔata kaθiːran</i></span> </td> <td><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿindamā ḏahabtu ʾila‿l-maktabah</i></span><br /><br /><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʕindamaː ðahabtu ʔila‿lmaktabah</i></span> </td> <td><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">lam ʾaǧid siwā hāḏa‿l-kitābi‿l-qadīm</i></span><br /><br /><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">lam ʔad͡ʒid siwaː haːða‿lkitaːbi‿lqadiːm</i></span> </td> <td><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">kuntu ʾurīdu an ʾaqraʾa kitāban ʿan tārīḫi‿l-marʾati fī faransā</i></span><br /><br />[kuntu ʔuriːdu ʔan ʔaqraʔa kitaːban ʕan taːriːχi‿lmarʔati fiː faransaː] <span style="color:#d33">Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>)</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian (Tunis)</a> </th> <td>nḥəbb năqṛa baṛʃa </td> <td>wăqtəlli mʃit l-əl-măktba </td> <td>ma-lqīt kān ha-lə-ktēb lə-qdīm </td> <td>kənt nḥəbb năqṛa ktēb ʕla tērīḵ enssa fi fṛānsa </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian (Algiers)</a> </th> <td>ʔāna nḥəbb nəqṛa b-ez-zaf </td> <td>ki rŭħt l-əl-măktaba </td> <td>ma-lqīt ḡīr hād lə-ktāb lə-qdīm </td> <td>kŭnt ḥayəb nəqṛa ktāb ʕla t-tārīḵ təʕ enssa fi fṛānsa </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan (Casablanca)</a> </th> <td>ʔāna kanebɣi naqra b-ez-zāf </td> <td>melli mʃīt el-maktaba </td> <td>ma-lqīt ḡīr hād le-ktāb le-qdīm </td> <td>kunt bāḡi naqra ktāb ʕla tārīḵ enssa fe-fransa </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya (Nouakchott)</a> </th> <td>ʔānə nəbqi ləgrāye ḥattə </td> <td>līn gəst əl-məktəbə </td> <td>ma jbart mahu ḏə ləktāb l-qadīm </td> <td>kənt ndōr nəgra ktāb ʕan tārīḵ ləmra/ləʔləyāt və vrāns </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> </th> <td>jien inħobb naqra ħafna </td> <td>meta mort il-librerija </td> <td>sibt biss dan il-ktieb il-qadim </td> <td>ridt naqra ktieb dwar il-ġrajja tan-nisa fi Franza. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5">Egypto-Sudanic </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian (Cairo)</a> </th> <td>ʔana baḥebb el-ʔerāya awi </td> <td>lamma roḥt el-maktaba </td> <td>ma-lʔet-ʃ ʔella l-ketāb el-ʔadīm da </td> <td>kont ʕāyez ʔaʔra ketāb ʕan tarīḵ es-settāt fe faransa </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Northern Jordanian (Irbid)</a> </th> <td>ʔana/ʔani kṯīr baḥebb il-qirāʔa </td> <td>lamma ruḥt ʕal-mektebe </td> <td>ma lagēteʃ ʔilla ha-l-ktāb l-gadīm </td> <td>kān baddi ʔagra ktāb ʕan tārīḵ l-mara b-faransa </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian (Amman)</a> </th> <td>ʔana ktīr baḥebb il-qirāʔa </td> <td>lamma ruḥt ʕal-mektebe </td> <td>ma lagēt ʔilla hal-ktāb l-gadīm </td> <td>kan beddi ʔaqraʔ ktāb ʕan tārīḵ l-mara b-faransa </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese (Beirut)</a> </th> <td>ʔana ktīr bḥebb l-ʔ(i)rēye </td> <td>lamma reḥt ʕal-makt(a)be </td> <td>ma l(a)ʔēt ʔilla ha-le-ktēb l-ʔ(a)dīm </td> <td>kēn badde ʔeʔra ktēb ʕan tērīḵ l-mara b-f(a)ransa </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian (Damascus)</a> </th> <td>ʔana ktīr bḥebb l-ʔraye </td> <td>lamma reḥt ʕal-maktabe </td> <td>ma laʔēt ʔilla ha-l-ktāb l-ʔdīm </td> <td>kān biddi ʔra ktāb ʕan tārīḵ l-mara b-fransa </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian (Baghdad)</a> </th> <td>ʔāni kulliš ʔaḥebb lu-qrāye </td> <td>min reḥit lil-maktabe </td> <td>ma ligēt ḡīr hāḏe l-ketab el-ʕatīg </td> <td>redet ʔaqre ketāb ʕan tārīḵ l-imrayyāt eb-franse </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf (Kuwait)</a> </th> <td>ʔāna wāyid ʔaḥibb il-qirāʾa </td> <td>lamman riḥt il-maktaba </td> <td>ma ligēt ʔilla ha-l-kitāb il-qadīm </td> <td>kint ʔabī ʔagra kitāb ʕan tārīḵ il-ḥarīm b-faransa </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi (Jeddah)</a> </th> <td>ʔana marra ʔaḥubb al-girāya </td> <td>lamma ruħt al-maktaba </td> <td>ma ligīt ḡēr hāda l-kitāb al-gadīm </td> <td>kunt ʔabḡa ʔaɡra kitāb ʕan tārīḵ al-ḥarīm fi faransa </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Sanaani Arabic (Sanaa)</a> </th> <td>ʔana bajn ʔaḥibb el-gerāje gawi </td> <td>ḥīn sert salā el-maktabe </td> <td>ma legēt-ʃ ḏajje l-ketāb l-gadīm </td> <td>kont aʃti ʔagra ketāb ʕan tarīḵ l-mare beh farānsa </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_regional_differences">Other regional differences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Other regional differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Peripheral" varieties of Arabic – that is, varieties spoken in countries where Arabic is not a dominant language and a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>)– are particularly divergent in some respects, especially in their vocabularies, since they are less influenced by classical Arabic. However, historically they fall within the same dialect classifications as the varieties that are spoken in countries where Arabic is the dominant language. Because most of these peripheral dialects are located in Muslim majority countries, they are now influenced by Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, the Arabic varieties of the Qur'an and their Arabic-speaking neighbours, respectively. </p><p>Probably the most divergent non-creole Arabic variety is <a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Maronite_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cypriot Maronite Arabic">Cypriot Maronite Arabic</a>, a nearly extinct variety that has been heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, and written in <a href="/wiki/Greek_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek script">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> alphabets. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> is descended from <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a>. Its vocabulary has acquired a large number of loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> and more recently <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, and it uses only a Latin-based alphabet. It is the only Semitic language among the official languages of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. </p><p>Arabic-based <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgins</a> (which have a limited vocabulary consisting mostly of Arabic words, but lack most Arabic morphological features) are in widespread use along the southern edge of the Sahara, and have been for a long time. In the eleventh century, the medieval geographer <a href="/wiki/Al-Bakri" title="Al-Bakri">al-Bakri</a> records a text in an Arabic-based pidgin, probably one that was spoken in the region corresponding to modern <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>. In some regions, particularly around <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>, the pidgins have <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creolized</a> (see the list below). </p><p>Immigrant speakers of Arabic often incorporate a significant amount of vocabulary from the host-country language in their speech, in a situation analogous to <a href="/wiki/Spanglish" title="Spanglish">Spanglish</a> in the United States. </p><p>Even within countries where the official language is Arabic, different varieties of Arabic are spoken. For example, within Syria, the Arabic spoken in Homs is recognized as different from the Arabic spoken in Damascus, but both are considered to be varieties of "Levantine" Arabic. And within Morocco, the <a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Arabic of the city of Fes</a> is considered different from the Arabic spoken elsewhere in the country. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mutual_intelligibility">Mutual intelligibility</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Mutual intelligibility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geographically distant colloquial varieties usually differ enough to be <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually unintelligible</a>, and some linguists consider them distinct languages.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, research by Trentman & Shiri indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations.<sup id="cite_ref-Trentman_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trentman-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Egyptian Arabic is one of the most widely understood Arabic dialects due to a thriving Egyptian television and movie industry, and Egypt's highly influential role in the region for much of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formal_and_vernacular_differences">Formal and vernacular differences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Formal and vernacular differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another way that varieties of Arabic differ is that some are formal and others are colloquial (that is, vernacular). There are two formal varieties, or <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">اللغة الفصحى</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-lugha(t) al-fuṣḥá</i></span>, One of these, known in English as <i>Modern Standard Arabic</i> (<i>MSA</i>), is used in contexts such as writing, broadcasting, interviewing, and speechmaking. The other, Classical Arabic, is the language of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qur'an</a>. It is rarely used except in reciting the Qur'an or quoting older classical texts.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Arabic speakers typically do not make an explicit distinction between MSA and Classical Arabic.) Modern Standard Arabic was deliberately developed in the early part of the 19th century as a modernized version of Classical Arabic. </p><p>People often use a mixture of both colloquial and formal Arabic. For example, interviewers or speechmakers generally use MSA in asking prepared questions or making prepared remarks, then switch to a colloquial variety to add a spontaneous comment or respond to a question. The ratio of MSA to colloquial varieties depends on the speaker, the topic, and the situation—amongst other factors. Today even the least educated citizens are exposed to MSA through public education and exposure to mass media, and so tend to use elements of it in speaking to others.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is an example of what linguistics researchers call <i><a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a></i>. <i>See <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_register" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic register">Linguistic register</a>.</i> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_diglossia_diagram_Badawi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Arabic_diglossia_diagram_Badawi.svg/400px-Arabic_diglossia_diagram_Badawi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Arabic_diglossia_diagram_Badawi.svg/600px-Arabic_diglossia_diagram_Badawi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Arabic_diglossia_diagram_Badawi.svg/800px-Arabic_diglossia_diagram_Badawi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>Arabic diglossia diagram according to El-Said Badawi<br /> <b>a-b</b>: <i>fuṣḥā</i> end <br /> <b>c-d</b>: colloquial (<i>‘āmmiyya</i>) end <br /> <b>a-g-e</b> and <b>e-h-b</b>: pure <i>fuṣḥā</i> <br /> <b>c-g-f</b> and <b>f-h-d</b>: pure colloquial <br /> <b>e-g-f-h</b>: overlap of <i>fuṣḥā</i> and colloquial <br /> <b>a-g-c</b> and <b>b-h-d</b>: foreign (<i>dakhīl</i>) influence</figcaption></figure> <p>Egyptian linguist <a href="/wiki/El-Said_Badawi" title="El-Said Badawi">Al-Said Badawi</a> proposed the following distinctions between the different "levels of speech" involved when speakers of Egyptian Arabic switch between vernacular and formal Arabic varieties: </p> <ul><li><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">فصحى التراث</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">fuṣḥá at-turāṯ</i></span>, 'heritage classical': The Classical Arabic of Arab literary heritage and the Qur'an. This is primarily a written language, but it is heard in spoken form at the mosque or in religious programmes on television, but with a <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">modernized pronunciation</a>.</li> <li><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">فصحى العصر</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">fuṣḥá al-ʿaṣr</i></span>, 'contemporary classical' or 'modernized classical': This is what Western linguists call <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (MSA). It is a modification and simplification of Classical Arabic that was deliberately created for the modern age. Consequently, it includes many newly coined words, either adapted from Classical Arabic (much as European scholars during the Renaissance coined new English words by adapting words from Latin), or borrowed from foreign, chiefly European, languages. Although it is principally a written language, it is spoken when people read aloud from prepared texts. Highly skilled speakers can also produce it spontaneously, though this typically occurs only in the context of media broadcasts – particularly in <a href="/wiki/Talk_show" title="Talk show">talk</a> and debate programs on pan-Arab television networks such as <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network" title="Al Jazeera Media Network">Al Jazeera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al_Arabiya" title="Al Arabiya">Al Arabiya</a> – where the speakers want to be simultaneously understood by Arabic speakers in all the various countries where these networks' target audiences live. If highly skilled speakers use it spontaneously, it is spoken when Arabic speakers of different dialects communicate with each other. Commonly used as a written language, it is found in most books, newspapers, magazines, official documents, and reading primers for small children; it is also used as another version of literary form of the Qur'an and in modernized revisions of writings from Arab literary heritage.</li> <li><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عامية المثقفين</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿāmmiyyat al-muṯaqqafīn</i></span>, 'colloquial of the cultured' (also called Educated Spoken Arabic, Formal Spoken Arabic, or Spoken MSA by other authors<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>): This is a vernacular dialect that has been heavily influenced by MSA, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">borrowed words</a> from MSA (this is similar to the literary <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, wherein scores of words were borrowed directly from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a>); loanwords from MSA replace or are sometimes used alongside native words evolved from Classical Arabic in colloquial dialects. It tends to be used in serious discussions by well-educated people, but is generally not used in writing except informally. It includes a large number of foreign loanwords, chiefly relating to the technical and theoretical subjects it is used to discuss, sometimes used in non-intellectual topics. Because it can generally be understood by listeners who speak varieties of Arabic different from those of the speaker's country of origin, it is often used on television, and it is also becoming the language of instruction at universities.</li> <li><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عامية المتنورين</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿāmmiyyat al-mutanawwarīn</i></span> 'colloquial of the basically educated': This is the everyday language that people use in informal contexts, and that is heard on television when non-intellectual topics are being discussed. It is characterized, according to Badawi, by high levels of borrowing. Educated speakers usually code-switch between <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿāmmiyyat al-muṯaqqafīn</i></span> and <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿāmmiyyat al-mutanawwarīn</i></span>.</li> <li><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عامية الأميين</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿāmmiyyat al-ʾummiyyīn</i></span>, 'colloquial of the illiterates': This is very colloquial speech characterized by the absence of any influence from MSA and by relatively little foreign borrowing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p>Almost everyone in Egypt is able to use more than one of these levels of speech, and people often switch between them, sometimes within the same sentence. This is generally true in other Arabic-speaking countries as well.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The spoken dialects of Arabic have occasionally been written, usually in the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>. Vernacular Arabic was first recognized as a written language distinct from Classical Arabic in 17th century <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a>, when the Cairo elite began to trend towards colloquial writing. A record of the Cairo vernacular of the time is found in the dictionary compiled by <a href="/wiki/Yusuf_al-Maghribi" title="Yusuf al-Maghribi">Yusuf al-Maghribi</a>. More recently, many plays and poems, as well as a few other works exist in <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>; books of poetry, at least, exist for most varieties. In <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, colloquial <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> was taught as a separate subject under French colonization, and some textbooks exist. <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a> throughout the Arab world who spoke <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a> dialects rendered newspapers, letters, accounts, stories, and translations of some parts of their liturgy in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>, adding diacritics and other conventions for letters that exist in Judeo-Arabic but not Hebrew. The <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> was advocated for <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese Arabic</a> by <a href="/wiki/Said_Aql" class="mw-redirect" title="Said Aql">Said Aql</a>, whose supporters published several books in his transcription. In 1944, Abdelaziz Pasha Fahmi, a member of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Egypt proposed the replacement of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a> with the Latin alphabet. His proposal was discussed in two sessions in the communion but was rejected, and faced strong opposition in cultural circles.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Latin alphabet (as "<a href="/wiki/Arabizi" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabizi">Arabizi</a>") is used by Arabic speakers over the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> or for sending <a href="/wiki/Short_message_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Short message service">messages</a> via <a href="/wiki/Cellular_phone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cellular phone">cellular phones</a> when the Arabic alphabet is unavailable or difficult to use for technical reasons;<sup id="cite_ref-Yaghan_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yaghan-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is also used in Modern Standard Arabic when Arabic speakers of different dialects communicate each other. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_distance_to_MSA">Linguistic distance to MSA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Linguistic distance to MSA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Linguistic distance</a></div> <p>Three scientific papers concluded, using various <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a> techniques, that Levantine dialects (and especially Palestinian) were the closest colloquial varieties, in terms of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_similarity" title="Lexical similarity">lexical similarity</a>, to Modern Standard Arabic: Harrat et al. (2015, comparing MSA to two Algerian dialects, Tunisian, Palestinian, and Syrian),<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> El-Haj et al. (2018, comparing MSA to Egyptian, Levantine, Gulf, and North African Arabic),<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Abu Kwaik et al. (2018, comparing MSA to Algerian, Tunisian, Palestinian, Syrian, Jordanian, and Egyptian).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociolinguistic_variables">Sociolinguistic variables</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Sociolinguistic variables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a> is the study of how language usage is affected by societal factors, e.g., cultural norms and contexts (see also <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatics</a>). The following sections examine some of the ways that modern Arab societies influence how Arabic is spoken. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Arab world, religion transcends the boundaries of personal belief, functioning as a pervasive and influential force in every facet of life. It is deeply embedded within the social fabric, permeating language, politics, and cultural identity. From birth, individuals are not only given a name but are also ascribed a place within a specific religious order: whether as Muslims, divided into <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a>, or as <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>. These religious identities are not fluid or optional; rather, they are firmly entrenched, shaping and defining the individual’s experience. Even language itself is moulded by this religious framework, reflecting the collective identity and adjusting to the intricate balance of belief systems. Religion in this context functions as a sociopolitical construct, inextricably linked to the authority of the state and its historical evolution. It speaks for the individual, often before they can express themselves, and thus, the interplay between faith and politics must be fully understood to grasp the complexities of the language and culture of the Arab world. Religion and politics here are intertwined to such a degree that they cannot be separated.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> offers a clear example of the intricate relationship between religion, identity, and societal structures in the Arab world. A significant distinction exists between the Shiite population, Bahrain's oldest and most established community, and the Sunni population, which began migrating to the island in the 18th century. Despite being a minority, the Sunni population holds a dominant position, with the ruling family of Bahrain being Sunni. This dominance is reflected in the public sphere, where the colloquial language presented on television and in media is almost exclusively that of the Sunni community. As a result, power, prestige, and economic control are closely associated with the Sunni Arabs. This socio-political dynamic exerts a profound influence on the evolution of language in Bahrain, steering its development in line with the interests and cultural practices of the Sunni minority.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The case of <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> further exemplifies how religious affiliation can significantly influence linguistic variation within the Arab world. This observation is drawn from a study conducted prior to the Iraq War and the mass emigration of Iraqi Christians in the early 21st century. In <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, notable differences exist between the Arabic spoken by Christian and Muslim residents. The Christian community in Baghdad is longstanding, and their dialect traces its roots to the sedentary vernacular of urban medieval Iraq. By contrast, the typical Muslim dialect of the city is a more recent development, originating from Bedouin speech patterns. As in other parts of the Arab world, both communities in Baghdad share Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) as the prestigious form of the language. However, the Muslim colloquial dialect is more closely associated with power and economic dominance, reflecting the greater influence of the Muslim community in the city. Consequently, Christians often adopt the Muslim dialect in formal or public contexts—such as a Christian school teacher addressing students—demonstrating the extent to which language in Baghdad, and the wider Arab world, is shaped by the prevailing sociopolitical landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variation">Variation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Variation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Writing system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Different regional representations for some phonemes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Native Phonemes </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Iraqi</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="9">Letters </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span> </td> <td><big><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%DA%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="ڭ">ڭ</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%83" class="mw-redirect" title="ك">ك</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/Gaf" title="Gaf">گ</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a></span>‎</big> </td> <td colspan="2"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%DA%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="ڨ">ڨ</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a></span>‎</big> </td> <td colspan="2"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a></span>‎</big> </td> <td><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a></span>‎<sup><sup id="cite_ref-Egyptian_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egyptian-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></sup></big> </td> <td><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a></span>‎ / <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="غ">غ</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%83" class="mw-redirect" title="ك">ك</a></span>‎</big><sup><sup id="cite_ref-Levantine_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levantine-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></sup> </td> <td><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/Gaf" title="Gaf">گ</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%83" class="mw-redirect" title="ك">ك</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a></span>‎</big> </td> <td><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a> / <a href="/wiki/%DA%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="گ">گ</a></span>‎</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>/</span><big><sup><sup id="cite_ref-ch_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ch-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></sup></big> </td> <td colspan="7"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">تش</span>‎</big> </td> <td colspan="2"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%DA%86" class="mw-redirect" title="چ">چ</a></span>‎</big> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Foreign Phonemes<big><sup><sup id="cite_ref-p_and_v_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p_and_v-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></sup></big> </th> <th colspan="9">Letters </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="9"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="پ">پ</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="ب">ب</a></span>‎</big> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%DA%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="ڥ">ڥ</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%DA%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="ڢ">ڢ</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%81" class="mw-redirect" title="ف">ف</a></span>‎</big> </td> <td colspan="6"><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%DA%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="ڤ">ڤ</a></span>‎</big> / <big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%81" class="mw-redirect" title="ف">ف</a></span>‎</big> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also spelled Ammiya, Amiyya, Ammiyya, 'Ammiyya, 'Ammiya, Amiyah, Ammiyah, Amiyyah, Ammiyyah<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Egyptian-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Egyptian_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In Egypt, when there is a need to transcribe <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʒ/</span> or (also a reduction of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d͡ʒ/</span>), is approximated to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʒ]</span> using <a href="/wiki/%DA%86" class="mw-redirect" title="چ">چ</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levantine-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Levantine_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">While /g/ is native in most of southern Levant; most of Jordan (Amman, Zarqa, Irbid), parts of Palestine (Gaza) and parts of eastern Syria (Deir ez-Zor and Raqqa). It is not a native in most of northern and western Levant especially in the historically urban centers as in Aleppo, Beirut, Damascus, Haifa, Hama and Homs and Jerusalem dialects, but still most speakers are able to pronounce it.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ch-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ch_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡ʃ/</span> is a native phoneme/allophone only in Iraqi, Gulf and some rural Levantine dialects, and foreign in most other dialects.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-p_and_v-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-p_and_v_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span> never natively appear as phonemes in Arabic dialects, and they are always restricted to loanwords, with their usage depending on the speaker and they can be pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f/</span>. In general; most speakers can pronounce <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/v/</span>, but cannot pronounce <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/p/</span>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology_and_syntax">Morphology and syntax</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Morphology and syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>All varieties, sedentary and nomadic, differ in the following ways from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> (CA)</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>The order <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">subject–verb–object</a> may be more common than <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">verb–subject–object</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Verbal agreement between subject and object is always complete. <ul><li>In CA, there was no number agreement between subject and verb when the subject was third-person and the subject followed the verb.</li></ul></li> <li>Loss of case distinctions (<i><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab">ʾIʿrab</a></i>).</li> <li>Loss of original mood distinctions other than the indicative and imperative (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood#Arabic" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a>, jussive, energetic I, energetic II). <ul><li>The dialects differ in how exactly the new indicative was developed from the old forms. The sedentary dialects adopted the old subjunctive forms (feminine <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span>, masculine plural <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span>), while many of the Bedouin dialects adopted the old indicative forms (feminine <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iːna/</span>, masculine plural <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uːna/</span>).</li> <li>The sedentary dialects subsequently developed new mood distinctions; see below.</li></ul></li> <li>Loss of dual marking everywhere except on nouns. <ul><li>A frozen dual persists as the regular plural marking of a small number of words that normally come in pairs (e.g., eyes, hands, parents).</li> <li>In addition, a productive dual marking on nouns exists in most dialects (<a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a> are exceptions). This dual marking differs syntactically from the frozen dual in that it cannot take possessive suffixes. In addition, it differs morphologically from the frozen dual in various dialects, such as <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a>.</li> <li>The productive dual differs from CA in that its use is optional, whereas the use of the CA dual was mandatory even in cases of implicitly dual reference.</li> <li>The CA dual was marked not only on nouns, but also on verbs, adjectives, pronouns and demonstratives; the dual in those varieties that have them is analyzed as plural for agreement with verbs, adjectives, pronouns, and demonstratives.</li></ul></li> <li>Development of an analytic genitive construction with the usage of <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:حق">حق</a></i> ḥagg, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B9" class="extiw" title="wikt:بتاع">بتاع</a></i> bitāʕ, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B9" class="extiw" title="wikt:تاع">تاع</a></i> tāʕ, <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84" class="extiw" title="wikt:ديال">ديال</a></i> diyāl etc. to rival the <a href="/wiki/I%E1%B8%8D%C4%81fah" title="Iḍāfah">constructed genitive</a>. <ul><li>The Bedouin dialects make the least use of the analytic genitive. <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a> makes the most use of it, to the extent that the constructed genitive is no longer productive, and used only in certain relatively frozen constructions.</li></ul></li> <li>The relative pronoun is no longer inflected. <ul><li>In CA, it took gender, number and case endings.</li></ul></li> <li>Pronominal clitics ending in a short vowel moved the vowel before the consonant. <ul><li>Hence, second singular <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ak/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ik/</span> rather than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ka/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ki/</span>; third singular masculine <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-uh/</span> rather than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-hu/</span>.</li> <li>Similarly, the feminine plural verbal marker <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-na/</span> became <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-an/</span>.</li> <li>Because of the absolute prohibition in all Arabic dialects against having two vowels in hiatus, the above changes occurred only when a consonant preceded the ending. When a vowel preceded, the forms either remained as-is or lost the final vowel, becoming <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-k/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ki/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-h/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-n/</span>, respectively. Combined with other phonetic changes, this resulted in multiple forms for each clitic (up to three), depending on the phonetic environment.</li> <li>The verbal markers <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-tu/</span> (first singular) and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ta/</span> (second singular masculine) both became <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-t/</span>, while second singular feminine <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ti/</span> remained. Mesopotamian dialects in southeastern Turkey are an exception for they retain the ending <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-tu/</span> for first person singular.</li> <li>In the dialect of southern <a href="/wiki/Nejd" class="mw-redirect" title="Nejd">Nejd</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Riyadh" title="Riyadh">Riyadh</a>), the second singular masculine <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ta/</span> has been retained, but takes the form of a long vowel rather than a short one as in CA.</li> <li>The forms given here were the original forms, and have often suffered various changes in the modern dialects.</li> <li>All of these changes were triggered by the loss of final short vowels (see below).</li></ul></li> <li>Various simplifications have occurred in the range of variation in verbal paradigms. <ul><li>Third-weak verbs with radical <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> and radical <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> (traditionally transliterated <i>y</i>) have merged in the form I perfect tense. They had already merged in CA, except in form I.</li> <li>Form I perfect <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">faʕula</span></i> verbs have disappeared, often merging with <i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">faʕila</span></i>.</li> <li>Doubled verbs now have the same endings as third-weak verbs.</li> <li>Some endings of third-weak verbs have been replaced by those of the strong verbs (or vice versa, in some dialects).</li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>All dialects except some Bedouin dialects of the Arabian peninsula share the following innovations from CA</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>Loss of the inflected passive (i.e., marked through internal vowel change) in finite verb forms. <ul><li>New passives have often been developed by co-opting the original reflexive formations in CA, particularly verb forms V, VI and VII (In CA these were derivational, not inflectional, as neither their existence nor exact meaning could be depended upon; however, they have often been incorporated into the inflectional system, especially in more innovative sedentary dialects).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya Arabic</a> contains a newly developed inflected passive that looks somewhat like the old CA passive.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi Arabic</a> has retained the inflected passive up to the modern era, though this feature is on its way to extinction as a result of the influence of other dialects.</li></ul></li> <li>Loss of the indefinite <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> suffix (<a href="/wiki/Tanwiin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanwiin">tanwiin</a>) on nouns. <ul><li>When this marker still appears, it is variously <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/an/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/in/</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/en/</span>.</li> <li>In some Bedouin dialects it still marks indefiniteness on any noun, although this is optional and often used only in oral poetry.</li> <li>In other dialects it marks indefiniteness on post-modified nouns (by adjectives or relative clauses).</li> <li>All Arabic dialects preserve a form of the CA adverbial accusative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/an/</span> suffix, which was originally a tanwiin marker.</li></ul></li> <li>Loss of verb form IV, the causative. <ul><li>Verb form II sometimes gives causatives, but is not productive.</li></ul></li> <li>Uniform use of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> in imperfect verbal prefixes. <ul><li>CA had <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> before form II, III and IV active, and before all passives, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> elsewhere.</li> <li>Some Bedouin dialects in the Arabian peninsula have uniform <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi Arabic</a> has <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> when the following vowel is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> when the following vowel is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span>.</li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>All sedentary dialects share the following additional innovations</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>Loss of a separately distinguished feminine plural in verbs, pronouns and demonstratives. This is usually lost in adjectives as well.</li> <li>Development of a new indicative-subjunctive distinction. <ul><li>The indicative is marked by a prefix, while the subjunctive lacks this.</li> <li>The prefix is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bi/</span> in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a>, but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ka/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ta/</span> in <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>. It is not infrequent to encounter <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ħa/</span> as an indicative prefix in some Persian Gulf states; and, in South Arabian Arabic (viz. Yemen), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʕa/</span> is used in the north around the San'aa region, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃa/</span> is used in the southwest region of Ta'iz.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> and at least some varieties of <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a> lack an indicative prefix. Rural dialects in Tunisia however, may use /ta/.</li></ul></li> <li>Loss of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> in the third-person masculine enclitic pronoun, when attached to a word ending in a consonant. <ul><li>The form is usually <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> in sedentary dialects, but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ah/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ih/</span> in Bedouin dialects.</li> <li>After a vowel, the bare form <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> is used, but in many sedentary dialects the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> is lost here as well. In Egyptian Arabic, for example, this pronoun is marked in this case only by lengthening of the final vowel and concomitant stress shift onto it, but the "h" reappears when followed by another suffix. <ul><li><i>ramā</i> "he threw it"</li> <li><i>marama<b>hū</b>ʃ</i> "he didn't throw it"</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>The following innovations are characteristic of many or most sedentary dialects</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>Agreement (verbal, adjectival) with inanimate plurals is plural, rather than feminine singular or feminine plural, as in CA.</li> <li>Development of a <a href="/wiki/Circumfix" title="Circumfix">circumfix</a> <a href="/wiki/Negation_in_Arabic" title="Negation in Arabic">negative marker</a> on the verb, involving a prefix <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ma-/</span> and a suffix <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ʃ/</span>. <ul><li>In combination with the fusion of the indirect object and the development of new mood markers, this results in morpheme-rich verbal complexes that can approach <a href="/wiki/Polysynthetic_language" title="Polysynthetic language">polysynthetic languages</a> in their complexity.</li> <li>An example from <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>: <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ma-bi-t-ɡib-u-ha-lnaː-ʃ/</span></li> <li>[negation]-[indicative]-[2nd.person.subject]-bring-[feminine.object]-to.us-[negation]</li> <li>"You (plural) aren't bringing her (them) to us."</li></ul></li> <li>(NOTE: Versteegh glosses <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bi/</span> as <i>continuous</i>.)</li></ul></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, the distinction between active and passive participles has disappeared except in form I and in some Classical borrowings. <ul><li>These dialects tend to use form V and VI active participles as the passive participles of forms II and III.</li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>The following innovations are characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> (in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, west of Egypt)</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>In the imperfect, <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> has replaced first person singular <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ-/</span> with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n-/</span>, and the first person plural, originally marked by <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n-/</span> alone, is also marked by the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-u/</span> suffix of the other plural forms.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a> has greatly rearranged the system of verbal derivation, so that the traditional system of forms I through X is not applicable without some stretching. It would be more accurate to describe its verbal system as consisting of two major types, <a href="/wiki/Triliteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Triliteral">triliteral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quadriliteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadriliteral">quadriliteral</a>, each with a mediopassive variant marked by a prefixal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t-/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tt-/</span>. <ul><li>The triliteral type encompasses traditional form I verbs (strong: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ktəb/</span> "write"; geminate: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃəmm/</span> "smell"; hollow: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/biʕ/</span> "sell", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/qul/</span> "say", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xaf/</span> "fear"; weak <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʃri/</span> "buy", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ħbu/</span> "crawl", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bda/</span> "begin"; irregular: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kul/</span>-<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kla/</span> "eat", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ddi/</span> "take away", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʒi/</span> "come").</li> <li>The quadriliteral type encompasses strong [CA form II, quadriliteral form I]: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sˤrˤfəq/</span> "slap", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hrrəs/</span> "break", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hrnən/</span> "speak nasally"; hollow-2 [CA form III, non-CA]: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʕajən/</span> "wait", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡufəl/</span> "inflate", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/mixəl/</span> "eat" (slang); hollow-3 [CA form VIII, IX]: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xtˤarˤ/</span> "choose", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ħmarˤ/</span> "redden"; weak [CA form II weak, quadriliteral form I weak]: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/wrri/</span> "show", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sˤqsˤi/</span> "inquire"; hollow-2-weak [CA form III weak, non-CA weak]: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sali/</span> "end", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ruli/</span> "roll", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tiri/</span> "shoot"; irregular: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sˤifətˤ/</span>-<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sˤafətˤ/</span> "send".</li> <li>There are also a certain number of quinquiliteral or longer verbs, of various sorts, e.g. weak: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pidˤali/</span> "pedal", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/blˤani/</span> "scheme, plan", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/fanti/</span> "dodge, fake"; remnant CA form X: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/stəʕməl/</span> "use", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/stahəl/</span> "deserve"; diminutive: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t-birˤʒəz/</span> "act bourgeois", <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t-biznəs/</span> "deal in drugs".</li> <li>Those types corresponding to CA forms VIII and X are rare and completely unproductive, while some of the non-CA types are productive. At one point, form IX significantly increased in productivity over CA, and there are perhaps 50–100 of these verbs currently, mostly stative but not necessarily referring to colors or bodily defects. However, this type is no longer very productive.</li> <li>Due to the merging of short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>, most of these types show no stem difference between perfect and imperfect, which is probably why the languages has incorporated new types so easily.</li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>The following innovations are characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>, probably under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, puts the demonstrative pronoun after the noun (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/al-X<span class="wrap"> </span>da/</span> "this X" instead of CA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/haːðaː<span class="wrap"> </span>l-X/</span>) and leaves <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrogative pronoun">interrogative pronouns</a> <a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a> rather than fronting them, as in other dialects.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonetics">Phonetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Phonetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When it comes to phonetics the Arabic dialects differ in the pronunciation of the short vowels (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>/</span>) and a number of selected consonants, mainly <span class="nowrap">⟨ق⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/q/</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ج⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d͡ʒ/</span> and the <a href="/wiki/Interdental_consonant" title="Interdental consonant">interdental consonants</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ث⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨ذ⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨ظ⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ðˤ/</span>, in addition to the dental <span class="nowrap">⟨ض⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dˤ/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emphasis_spreading">Emphasis spreading</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Emphasis spreading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emphasis spreading is a phenomenon where <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> is backed to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑ]</span> in the vicinity of emphatic consonants. The domain of emphasis spreading is potentially unbounded; in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>, the entire word is usually affected, although in <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a> and some other varieties, it is blocked by <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/</span> (and sometimes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/</span>). It is associated with a concomitant decrease in the amount of pharyngealization of emphatic consonants, so that in some dialects emphasis spreading is the only way to distinguish emphatic consonants from their plain counterparts. It also pharyngealizes consonants between the source consonant and affected vowels, although the effects are much less noticeable than for vowels. Emphasis spreading does <i>not</i> affect the affrication of non-emphatic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> in <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, with the result that these two phonemes are always distinguishable regardless of the nearby presence of other emphatic phonemes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonants">Consonants</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Letter </th> <th colspan="2">Dialect group </th> <th colspan="4">Levantine </th> <th colspan="2">Nilo-Egyptian </th> <th colspan="3">Peninsular </th> <th colspan="2">Mesopotamian </th> <th colspan="4">Maghrebi </th></tr> <tr> <th>Old Arabic </th> <th>Modern Standard </th> <th>Jordanian (Western Amman)<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Syrian (Damascus) </th> <th>Lebanese (Beirut) </th> <th>Palestinian (Jerusalem) </th> <th>Lower Egyptian (Cairo) </th> <th>Upper Egyptian (Sohag) </th> <th>Hejazi (Urban) </th> <th>Najdi <p>(Riyadh) </p> </th> <th>Kuwaiti (Kuwait) </th> <th>(Baghdad) </th> <th>(Mosul) </th> <th>Tunisian (Tunis) </th> <th>Algerian (Algiers) </th> <th>Algierian ( Oran) </th> <th>Moroccan (Urban) </th></tr> <tr> <td><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a></span>‎</big> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kʼ/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/q/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="4"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="4"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a></span>‎ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/g/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/(d)ʒ~ɡ/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>* </td></tr> <tr> <td><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="ث">ث</a></span>‎</big> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> </td> <td colspan="6"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>]</span>,<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="5"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><big><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="ذ">ذ</a></span>‎</big> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> </td> <td colspan="6"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>]</span>,<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="5"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="ظ">ظ</a></span>‎ </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ðˤ/</span> </td> <td colspan="6"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">zˤ</a>]</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">zˤ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a>]</span> </td> <td colspan="5" rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a>]</span> </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="3"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>]</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="ض">ض</a></span>‎ </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɮˤ/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dˤ/</span> </td> <td colspan="7"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>]</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>* in Moroccan the <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a>⟩</span> is sometimes pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a>/</span> in some words as in <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">جلس</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[gləs]</a></span> "He sat". </p><p>Most dialects of Arabic will use <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span> for <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/Q%C4%81f" class="mw-redirect" title="Qāf">ق</a>⟩</span> in learned words that are borrowed from Standard Arabic into the respective dialect or when Arabs speak Modern Standard Arabic. </p><p>The main dialectal variations in Arabic consonants revolve around the six consonants <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%C7%A6%C4%ABm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ǧīm">ج</a>⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/Q%C4%81f" class="mw-redirect" title="Qāf">ق</a>⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">ث</a>⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">ذ</a>⟩</span>, <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">ض</a>⟩</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">ظ</a>⟩</span>. </p><p>Classical Arabic <span class="nowrap">⟨ق⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/q/</span> varies widely from a dialect to another with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span> being the most common: </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span> in most of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/San%27ani_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="San'ani Arabic">Northern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Eastern</a> Yemen and parts of Oman, Southern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Iraq</a>, some parts of the Levant, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a> and to lesser extent in some parts (mostly rural) of <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, but it is also used partially across those countries in some words.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span> in most of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, <a href="/wiki/Ta%27izzi-Adeni_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic">Southern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Western</a> Yemen and parts of Oman, Northern Iraq, parts of the Levant, especially <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> dialects. However, most other dialects of Arabic will use this pronunciation in learned words that are borrowed from Standard Arabic into the respective dialect.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span> in most of the Levant and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a>, as well as some North African towns such as <a href="/wiki/Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Tlemcen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fez,_Morocco" title="Fez, Morocco">Fez</a>.</li> <li>other variations include <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_plosive" title="Voiced uvular plosive">ɢ</a>]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a> and some forms of <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]</span> In rural <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span> in some positions in <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Arabic">Iraqi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a>]</span> in some positions in <a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a> and consonantally in the Yemeni dialect of <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yafi'</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">d͡z</a>]</span> in some positions in <a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a>, though this pronunciation is fading in favor of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>.</li></ul> <p>Classical Arabic <span class="nowrap">⟨ج⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɟ/</span> (Modern Standard <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d͡ʒ/</span>) varies widely from a dialect to another with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span> being the most common: </p> <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span> in most of the Arabian peninsula, Algeria, Iraq, Upper Egypt, Sudan, parts of the Levant and Yemen.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>]</span> in most of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Lower Egypt</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>.</li> <li>other variations include <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>]</span> in the Persian Gulf and southern Iraq and coastal <a href="/wiki/Hadhramaut" title="Hadhramaut">Hadhramaut</a>. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡʲ]</span> in some <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabian</a> <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> dialects, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, as the 8th-century <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> linguist <a href="/wiki/Sibawayh" title="Sibawayh">Sibawayh</a> described it.</li></ul> <p>Classical <a href="/wiki/Interdental_consonant" title="Interdental consonant">interdental consonants</a> <span class="nowrap">⟨ث⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> and <span class="nowrap">⟨ذ⟩</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t,<span class="wrap"> </span>d/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s,<span class="wrap"> </span>z/</span> in some words in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, Sudan, most of the Levant, parts of the Arabian peninsula (urban <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a> and parts of Yemen). In <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and other parts of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> they are consistently <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t,<span class="wrap"> </span>d/</span>. They remain <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ð/</span> in most of the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Tunisia, parts of Yemen, rural Palestinian, Eastern Libyan, and some rural <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian</a> dialects. In Arabic-speaking towns of Eastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (Urfa, Siirt and Mardin), they respectively become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/f,<span class="wrap"> </span>v/</span>. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should <b>specify the language</b> of its non-English content, using <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span>, <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for transliterated languages, and <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Reflexes of Classical <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/</span> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Place</th> <th rowspan="2">Reflex</th> <th style="width:50px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈqalb/</span></th> <th style="width:50px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/baqara/</span></th> <th style="width:50px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈwaqt/</span></th> <th style="width:50px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈqaːl/</span></th> <th style="width:50px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈqamar/</span></th> <th style="width:50px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈqahwa/</span></th> <th style="width:100px;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/quddaːm/</span> </th></tr> <tr> <th>"heart"</th> <th>"cow"</th> <th>"time"</th> <th>"said"</th> <th>"moon"</th> <th>"coffee"</th> <th>"in front of" </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi Arabic</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>galb</td> <td>bagara</td> <td>wagt</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gamar</td> <td>gahwa</td> <td>guddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Uzbeki_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzbeki Arabic">Uzbeki Arabic</a> (Jugari)</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>qalb</td> <td>baqara</td> <td>waqt, (waḥt)</td> <td>qāl</td> <td>qamar</td> <td>—</td> <td>giddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kuwait_City" title="Kuwait City">Kuwait City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span> </td> <td>gaḷb </td> <td>bgara </td> <td>wakt (sporadic) </td> <td>gāl </td> <td>gumar </td> <td>gahwa </td> <td>jiddām </td></tr> <tr> <td>Muslim <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Arabic">Baghdad Arabic</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span></td> <td>gaḷuḅ</td> <td>baqare</td> <td>wakət</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gumar</td> <td>gahwe</td> <td>guddām, jiddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Baghdadi_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Baghdadi Arabic">Jewish Baghdadi Arabic</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span></td> <td>qalb</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>qāl</td> <td>qamaɣ</td> <td>—</td> <td>jeddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">Mosul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span></td> <td>qʌləb</td> <td>bʌgʌɣa</td> <td>wʌqət</td> <td>qāl</td> <td>qʌmʌɣ</td> <td>qʌhwi</td> <td>qəddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anah" title="Anah">Anah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>qālb</td> <td>(bagra)</td> <td>waqet</td> <td>qāl</td> <td>—</td> <td>gahwa</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rural <a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South Mesopotamian Arabic</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span></td> <td>galub</td> <td>bgure, bagre</td> <td>wakit</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gumar</td> <td>ghawe, gahwe</td> <td>jiddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi Arabic</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span></td> <td>qalb</td> <td>baqaṛa</td> <td>waqt, waxt</td> <td>qāl</td> <td>qamaṛ</td> <td>qahwe</td> <td>qǝddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mardin" title="Mardin">Mardin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span></td> <td>qalb</td> <td>baqaṛe</td> <td>waqt, waxt</td> <td>qāl</td> <td>qumaṛ</td> <td>qaḥwe</td> <td>qǝddām </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sheep nomads,<br />S <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, NE <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>]</span></td> <td>galb, galub</td> <td>bgara</td> <td>wagt, wakit</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gamar</td> <td>ghawa</td> <td>jeddām </td></tr> <tr> <td>Camel nomads,<br />SE <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, NE <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">d͡z</a>]</span></td> <td>galb, galub</td> <td>bgara</td> <td>wagt, wakit</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gamar</td> <td>ghawa</td> <td>dᶻöddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syria</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span></td> <td>ʾalb</td> <td>baʾara</td> <td>waʾt</td> <td>ʾāl</td> <td>ʾamar</td> <td>ʾahwe</td> <td>ʾǝddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syria</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span></td> <td>ʾalb</td> <td>baʾara</td> <td>waʾt</td> <td>ʾāl</td> <td>ʾamar</td> <td>ʾahwe</td> <td>ʾǝddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanon</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span></td> <td>ʾalb</td> <td>baʾra</td> <td>waʾt</td> <td>ʾāl</td> <td>ʾamar</td> <td>ʾahwe</td> <td>ʾǝddeem </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Amman, Jordan</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span></td> <td>gaḷib or <i>ʾ</i>alib</td> <td>bagara or ba<i>ʾ</i> ara</td> <td>wagǝt or wa<i>ʾ</i>ǝt</td> <td>gāl or <i>ʾ</i>āl</td> <td>gamar or <i>ʾ</i>amar</td> <td>gahweh or <i>ʾ</i>ahweh</td> <td>giddām or <i>ʾ</i>iddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Irbid, Jordan</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>galib</td> <td>bagara</td> <td>waket</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gamar</td> <td>gahwe – gahweh</td> <td>giddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Sweida, Syria</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span></td> <td>qalb</td> <td>baqara</td> <td>—</td> <td>qāl</td> <td>qamar</td> <td>qahwe</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nazareth" title="Nazareth">Nazareth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Israel</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]</span></td> <td>ʾalb (or kalb)</td> <td>baʾara (or bakara)</td> <td>waʾt (or wakt)</td> <td>ʾāl (or kāl)</td> <td>ʾamar (or kamar)</td> <td>ʾahwe (or kahwe)</td> <td>ʾuddām (or kuddām) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> (urban <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian Arabic</a>)</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span></td> <td>ʾalb</td> <td>baʾara</td> <td>waʾt</td> <td>ʾāl</td> <td>ʾamar</td> <td>ʾahwe</td> <td>ʾuddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bir_Zeit" class="mw-redirect" title="Bir Zeit">Bir Zeit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">West Bank</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]</span></td> <td>kalb</td> <td>bakara</td> <td>wakt</td> <td>kāl</td> <td>kamar</td> <td>kahwe</td> <td>kuddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sana%CA%BDa" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanaʽa">Sanaʽa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemen</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>galb</td> <td>bagara</td> <td>wagt</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gamar</td> <td>gahweh</td> <td>guddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egypt</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span></td> <td>ʾalb</td> <td>baʾara</td> <td>waʾt</td> <td>ʾāl</td> <td>ʾamar</td> <td>ʾahwa</td> <td>ʾuddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sa%27idi_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'idi Arabic">Sa'idi Arabic</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>galb</td> <td>bagara</td> <td>wagt</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gamar</td> <td>gahwa</td> <td>guddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudan</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>galib</td> <td>bagara</td> <td>wagt</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gamra</td> <td>gahwa, gahawa</td> <td>giddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ouadda%C3%AF_Prefecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouaddaï Prefecture">Ouadai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chad</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span></td> <td>—</td> <td>beger</td> <td>waqt</td> <td>gāl</td> <td>gamra</td> <td>gahwa</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Benghazi" title="Benghazi">Benghazi</a>, E. <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libya</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>gaḷǝb</td> <td>ǝbgǝ́ṛa</td> <td>wagǝt</td> <td>gāḷ</td> <td>gǝmaṛ</td> <td>gahawa</td> <td>giddām </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> </td> <td>[<a href="/wiki/G" title="G">g</a>] </td> <td>galb </td> <td>bugra </td> <td>wagǝt </td> <td>gāl </td> <td>gmar </td> <td>gahwa </td> <td>giddam </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisia</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>qalb</td> <td>bagra</td> <td>waqt</td> <td>qal</td> <td>gamra, qamra</td> <td>qahwa</td> <td>qoddem </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/El_Hamma" title="El Hamma">El Hamma de Gabes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisia</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>gal<sup>a</sup>b</td> <td>bagra</td> <td>wagt</td> <td>gal</td> <td>gamra</td> <td>gahwa</td> <td>geddem </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marazig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marazig (page does not exist)">Marazig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisia</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span></td> <td>galab</td> <td>bagra</td> <td>wagt</td> <td>gal</td> <td>gamra</td> <td>gahwa, qahwa</td> <td>qoddem, geddem </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algiers</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>qǝlb</td> <td>bagra</td> <td>waqt</td> <td>qal</td> <td>qamar, gamra</td> <td>qahǝwa</td> <td>qoddam </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9tif_Province" title="Sétif Province">Sétif</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>gǝlb</td> <td>bagra</td> <td>waqt</td> <td>gal</td> <td>gmar</td> <td>qahwa</td> <td>guddam </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>)</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]</span></td> <td>kǝlb</td> <td>bekra</td> <td>wǝkt</td> <td>kal</td> <td>kmǝr</td> <td>kahwa</td> <td>kǝddam </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rabat" title="Rabat">Rabat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Morocco</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>qǝlb</td> <td>bgar</td> <td>waqt</td> <td>qal, gal</td> <td>qamar, gamra</td> <td>qahǝwa</td> <td>qǝddam, gǝddam </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Casablanca" title="Casablanca">Casablanca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Morocco</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span>, occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span></td> <td>qǝlb</td> <td>bgar</td> <td>waqt</td> <td>gal</td> <td>qǝmr, gamra</td> <td>qahǝwa</td> <td>qoddam </td></tr> <tr> <td>North <a href="/wiki/Tangier" title="Tangier">Tangier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Morocco</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span></td> <td>qǝlb</td> <td>bqar</td> <td>waqt,</td> <td>qal</td> <td>gǝmra</td> <td>qahǝwa</td> <td>qoddam </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Moroccans" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Moroccans">Jewish Moroccans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a>)</td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span></td> <td>qǝlb</td> <td>bqar</td> <td>wǝqt</td> <td>qal</td> <td>qmǝr</td> <td>qǝhwa</td> <td>qǝddam </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span> <small>(written <a href="/wiki/Q" title="Q">q</a>)</small></td> <td>qalb</td> <td>baqra</td> <td>waqt</td> <td>qal</td> <td>qamar</td> <td>—</td> <td>quddiem </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Maronite_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cypriot Maronite Arabic">Cypriot Maronite Arabic</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]</span> occ. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>]</span></td> <td>kalp</td> <td>pakar</td> <td>oxt</td> <td>kal</td> <td>kamar</td> <td>—</td> <td>kintám </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusian Arabic">Andalusian Arabic</a></td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>]</span></td> <td>qalb</td> <td>baqar</td> <td>waqt</td> <td>qal</td> <td>qamar</td> <td>—</td> <td>quddām </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul><li>CA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/</span> is lost. <ul><li>When adjacent to vowels, the following simplifications take place, in order: <ul><li>V<sub>1</sub>ʔV<sub>2</sub> → V̄ when V<sub>1</sub> = V<sub>2</sub></li> <li>aʔi aʔw → aj aw</li> <li>iʔV uʔV → ijV uwV</li> <li>VʔC → V̄C</li> <li>Elsewhere, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span> is simply lost.</li></ul></li> <li>In CA and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (MSA), <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/</span> is still pronounced.</li> <li>Because this change had already happened in Meccan Arabic at the time the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> was written, it is reflected in the orthography of written Arabic, where a diacritic known as <a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">hamzah</a> is inserted either above an <i>ʾalif</i>, <i>wāw</i> or <i>yāʾ</i>, or "on the line" (between characters); or in certain cases, a diacritic ʾalif maddah (" ʾalif") is inserted over an <i>ʾalif</i>. (As a result, proper spelling of words involving <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/</span> is probably one of the most difficult issues in Arabic orthography</li> <li>Modern dialects have smoothed out the morphophonemic variations, typically by losing the associated verbs or moving them into another paradigm (for example, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/qaraʔ/</span> "read" becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/qara/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔara/</span>, a third-weak verb).</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/</span> has reappeared medially in various words due to borrowing from CA. (In addition, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/</span> has become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>]</span> in many dialects, although the two are marginally distinguishable in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>, since words beginning with original <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/</span> can elide this sound, whereas words beginning with original <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/</span> cannot.)</li></ul></li> <li>CA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span> often becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>]</span> in the Persian Gulf, Iraq, some Rural Palestinian dialects and in some <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> dialects when adjacent to an original <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>, particularly in the second singular feminine enclitic pronoun, where <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>]</span> replaces Classical <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ik/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ki/</span>). In a very few Moroccan varieties, it affricates to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k͡ʃ/</span>. Elsewhere, it remains <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]</span>.</li> <li>CA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/</span> is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">ʀ</a>]</span> in a few areas: <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>, for instance, and the Jewish variety in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>. In all of northern Africa, a phonemic distinction has emerged between plain <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>]</span> and emphatic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[rˤ]</span>, thanks to the merging of short vowels.</li> <li>CA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> (but not emphatic CA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tˤ/</span>) is affricated to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a>]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>; this is still distinguishable from the sequence <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ts]</span>.</li> <li>CA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>/</span>) is pronounced in <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Arabic">Iraqi Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti Arabic</a> with glottal closure: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʔˤ]</span>. In some varieties <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>/</span> is devoiced to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>]</span> before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</span>, for some speakers of Cairene Arabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bitaʕha/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bitaħħa/</span> (or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/bitaʕ̞ħa/</span>) "hers". The residue of this rule applies also in the Maltese language, where neither etymological <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</span> nor <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>/</span> are pronounced as such, but give <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>]</span> in this context: <i>tagħha</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[taħħa]</span> "hers".</li> <li>The nature of "emphasis" differs somewhat from variety to variety. It is usually described as a concomitant <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealization</a>, but in most sedentary varieties is actually <a href="/wiki/Velarization" title="Velarization">velarization</a>, or a combination of the two. (The phonetic effects of the two are only minimally different from each other.) Usually there is some associated lip rounding; in addition, the stop consonants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/</span> are dental and lightly aspirated when non-emphatic, but alveolar and completely unaspirated when emphatic.</li> <li>CA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/</span> is also in the process of splitting into emphatic and non-emphatic varieties, with the former causing emphasis spreading, just like other emphatic consonants. Originally, non-emphatic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>]</span> occurred before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> or between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and a following consonant, while emphatic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[rˤ]</span> occurred mostly near <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>]</span>. <ul><li>To a large extent, Western Arabic dialects reflect this, while the situation is rather more complicated in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>. (The allophonic distribution still exists to a large extent, although not in any predictable fashion; nor is one or the other variety used consistently in different words derived from the same root. Furthermore, although derivational suffixes (in particular, relational <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ijja/</span>) affect a preceding <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/r/</span> in the expected fashion, inflectional suffixes do not).</li></ul></li> <li>Certain other consonants, depending on the dialect, also cause pharyngealization of adjacent sounds, although the effect is typically weaker than full emphasis spreading and usually has no effect on more distant vowels. <ul><li>The velar fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/</span> and the uvular consonant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/</span> often cause partial backing of adjacent <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> (and of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> in <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>). For <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, the effect is sometimes described as half as powerful as an emphatic consonant, as a vowel with uvular consonants on both sides is affected similarly to having an emphatic consonant on one side.</li> <li>The pharyngeal consonants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>/</span> cause no emphasis spreading and may have little or no effect on adjacent vowels. In <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>, for example, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> adjacent to either sound is a fully front <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>]</span>. In other dialects, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>/</span> is more likely to have an effect than <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>/</span>.</li> <li>In some <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a> dialects, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/</span> and/or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/</span> causes backing.</li> <li>In some dialects, words such as <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الله</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aɫɫaː/</span> <i><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Allāh</i></span></i> has backed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>]</span>'s and in some dialects also velarized <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowels">Vowels</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Classical Arabic short vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> undergo various changes. <ul><li>Original final short vowels are mostly deleted.</li> <li>Many <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a> dialects merge <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> into a phonemic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>/</span> except when directly followed by a single consonant; this sound may appear allophonically as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> in certain phonetic environments.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> dialects merge <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>/</span>, which is deleted when unstressed. Tunisian maintains this distinction, but deletes these vowels in non-final open syllables.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, under the strong influence of <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>, goes even further. Short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> is converted to labialization of an adjacent velar, or is merged with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>/</span>. This schwa then deletes everywhere except in certain words ending <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-CCəC/</span>. <ul><li>The result is that there is no distinction between short and long vowels; borrowings from CA have "long" vowels (now pronounced half-long) uniformly substituted for original short and long vowels.</li> <li>This also results in consonant clusters of great length, which are (more or less) syllabified according to a sonority hierarchy. For some subdialects, in practice, it is very difficult to tell where, if anywhere, there are syllabic peaks in long consonant clusters in a phrase such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/xsˤsˤk<span class="wrap"> </span>tktbi/</span> "you (fem.) must write". Other dialects, in the North, make a clear distinction; they say /xəssək təktəb/ "you want to write", and not */xəssk ətkətb/.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> have merged, obscuring the original distribution. In this dialect, the two varieties have completely split into separate phonemes, with one or the other used consistently across all words derived from a particular root except in a few situations. <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, the allophonic effect of emphatic consonants is more pronounced than elsewhere.</li> <li>Full <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> is affected as above, but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> are also affected, and are to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>]</span>, respectively.</li> <li>In some varieties, such as in <a href="/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a>, the effects are even more extreme (and complex), where both high-mid and low-mid allophones exist (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>]</span>), in addition to front-rounded allophones of original <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front rounded vowel">ø</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front rounded vowel">œ</a>]</span>), all depending on adjacent phonemes.</li> <li>On the other hand, emphasis spreading in <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a> is less pronounced than elsewhere; usually it only spreads to the nearest full vowel on either side, although with some additional complications.</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i~ɪ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u~ʊ/</span> in CA completely become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> respectively in some other particular dialects.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a>, short <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> are elided in various circumstances in unstressed syllables (typically, in open syllables; for example, in Egyptian Arabic, this occurs only in the middle vowel of a VCVCV sequence, ignoring word boundaries). In Levantine, however, clusters of three consonants are almost never permitted. If such a cluster would occur, it is broken up through the insertion of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>/</span> – between the second and third consonants in Egyptian Arabic, and between the first and second in <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>CA long vowels are shortened in some circumstances. <ul><li>Original final long vowels are shortened in all dialects.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a>, unstressed long vowels are shortened.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a> also cannot tolerate long vowels followed by two consonants, and shortens them. (Such an occurrence was rare in CA, but often occurs in modern dialects as a result of elision of a short vowel.)</li></ul></li> <li>In most dialects, particularly sedentary ones, CA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aː/</span> have two strongly divergent allophones, depending on the phonetic context. <ul><li>Adjacent to an emphatic consonant and to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/</span> (but not usually to other sounds derived from this, such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/</span>), a back variant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>]</span> occurs; elsewhere, a strongly fronted variant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a>]</span>~<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>]</span> is used.</li> <li>The two allophones are in the process of splitting phonemically in some dialects, as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>]</span> occurs in some words (particularly foreign borrowings) even in the absence of any emphatic consonants anywhere in the word. (Some linguists have postulated additional emphatic phonemes in an attempt to handle these circumstances; in the extreme case, this requires assuming that <b>every</b> phoneme occurs doubled, in emphatic and non-emphatic varieties. Some have attempted to make the vowel allophones autonomous and eliminate the emphatic consonants as phonemes. Others have asserted that emphasis is actually a property of syllables or whole words rather than of individual vowels or consonants. None of these proposals seems particularly tenable, however, given the variable and unpredictable nature of emphasis spreading.)</li> <li>Unlike other Arabic varieties, <a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi Arabic</a> did not develop allophones of the vowels /a/ and /aː/, and both are pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">ä</a>]</span>.</li></ul></li> <li>CA diphthongs <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aj/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aw/</span> have become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Mid front unrounded vowel">e̞ː</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Mid back rounded vowel">o̞ː</a>]</span> (but merge with original <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> in <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> dialects, which is probably a secondary development). The diphthongs are maintained in <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">the Maltese language</a> and some urban Tunisian dialects, particularly that of <a href="/wiki/Sfax" title="Sfax">Sfax</a>, while <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>]</span> also occur in some other Tunisian dialects, such as <a href="/wiki/Monastir,_Tunisia" title="Monastir, Tunisia">Monastir</a>.</li> <li>The placement of the stress accent is extremely variable between varieties; nowhere is it phonemic. <ul><li>Most commonly, it falls on the last syllable containing a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by two consonants; but never farther from the end than the third-to-last syllable. This maintains the presumed stress pattern in CA (although there is some disagreement over whether stress could move farther back than the third-to-last syllable), and is also used in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (MSA). <ul><li>In CA and MSA, stress cannot occur on a final long vowel; however, this does not result in different stress patterns on any words, because CA final long vowels are shortened in all modern dialects, and any current final long vowels are secondary developments from words containing a long vowel followed by a consonant.</li></ul></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>, the rule is similar, but stress falls on the second-to-last syllable in words of the form ...VCCVCV, as in <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/makˈtaba/</span>.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a>, stress is final in words of the (original) form CaCaC, after which the first <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> is elided. Hence <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">جَبَل</span></span> <i><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ǧabal</i></span></i> "mountain" becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈʒbəl]</span>.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, phonetic stress is often not recognizable.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diglossia#Arabic" title="Diglossia">Arabic diglossia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Arabic (disambiguation)">Arabic (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Arabic_Dialectology" title="International Association of Arabic Dialectology">International Association of Arabic Dialectology</a> (AIDA)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e27-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ara">Arabic</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (27th ed., 2024) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Al-Wer-Concise-Encyclopedia_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAl-Wer2018" class="citation book cs1">Al-Wer, E. 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Universitas Islam Negeri Maulana Malik Ibrahim. <q>In terms of usage, Arabic is divided into Arabic fusha and amiya.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A9+%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%89+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A3%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85+%22%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%22+%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A9+%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%89+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A3%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85+%22%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84%22+%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86+%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A.&rft.inst=Universitas+Islam+Negeri+Maulana+Malik+Ibrahim&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Muwafiq&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Rizqi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetheses.uin-malang.ac.id%2F16250%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWehr1979" class="citation book cs1">Wehr, Hans (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WTak55pG-_IC&pg=PA319"><i>A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: (Arab.-Engl.)</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-06-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Discover+Discomfort&rft.atitle=Arabic+Dialects+Compared%3A+Maghrebi%2C+Egyptian%2C+Levantine%2C+Hejazi%2C+Gulf%2C+and+MSA&rft.date=2019-07-11&rft.aulast=Hooshmand&rft.aufirst=Dana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscoverdiscomfort.com%2Farabic-dialects-maghrebi-egyptian-levantine-gulf-hejazi-msa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/about-us/mesopotamia/mesopotamia-history/mesopotamia-languages">"Mesopotamian Languages — Department of Archaeology"</a>. <i>www.arch.cam.ac.uk</i>. 9 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Callison-Burch, "Arabic dialect identification," Computational Linguistics, vol. 40, pp. 171–202, March 2014 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen, R. (2000). The Arabic Language in Theory and Practice. Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, 34(2), 197–199. doi:10.1017/S0026318400040438</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bassiouney, 2009, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.arabacademy.com/faq/arabic_language">http://www.arabacademy.com/faq/arabic_language</a> Questions from Prospective Students on the varieties of Arabic Language – online Arab Academy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taha, Zeinab A. “EDUCATED SPOKEN ARABIC: HOW COULD IT HELP IN REDEFINING THE ACTFL GUIDELINES?” Al-'Arabiyya, 40/41, 2007, pp. 104–114. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43195689. 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Springer, Cham. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18111-0_47">https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18111-0_47</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01261598/document">PDF</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conference Proceedings, Arabic Dialect Identification in the Context of Bivalency and Code-Switching, El-Haj, Mahmoud, Rayson, Paul, Aboelezz, Mariam, Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018), 2018, European Language Resources Association (ELRA), Miyazaki, Japan, el-haj-etal-2018-arabic, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://aclanthology.org/L18-1573">https://aclanthology.org/L18-1573</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kathrein Abu Kwaik, Motaz Saad, Stergios Chatzikyriakidis, Simon Dobnika, A Lexical Distance Study of Arabic Dialects, Procedia Computer Science, Volume 142, 2018, Pages 2–13, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1877-0509">1877-0509</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2018.10.456">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2018.10.456</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bassiouney, 2009, p.105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holes, 1984, p.433-457.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abu-Haidar, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wals.info/feature/81A#2/18.0/152.9">Feature 81A: Order of Subject, Object and Verb</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFadda2016" class="citation journal cs1">Fadda, Haya (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.canil.ca/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Fadda-Language-Variation-in-Western-Amman.pdf">"LANGUAGE VARIATION IN WESTERN AMMAN"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Language Variation in Western Amman</i>: 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+Variation+in+Western+Amman&rft.atitle=LANGUAGE+VARIATION+IN+WESTERN+AMMAN&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Fadda&rft.aufirst=Haya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.canil.ca%2Fwordpress%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F11%2FFadda-Language-Variation-in-Western-Amman.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVarieties+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Abdel-Jawad, H. (1986). 'The emergence of a dialect in Jordanian urban centres.' <i>International Journal of the Sociology of Language</i> 61.</li> <li>Abu-Haidar, F. (1991). <i>Christian Arabic of Baghdad</i>, Weisbaden: Otto Harasowitz.</li> <li>Abu-Melhim, A. R. (1991). 'Code-switching and accommodation in Arabic.' <i>Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics.</i></li> <li>Al-Sawi, M. (5..4). 'Writing Arabic with Roman letters.' <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.academia.edu/843265/writing_Arabic_in_the_Latin_letters._">https://www.academia.edu/843265/writing_Arabic_in_the_Latin_letters._</a></li> <li>Badawi, S.A. (1973). Mustawayāt al-'Arabīyah al-mu'āṣirah fī Miṣr: Baḥth fī 'alāqat al-lughah bi-al-ḥaḍārah, Cairo: Dār al-Ma'ārif.</li> <li>Bassiouney, Reem (2006). <i>Functions of code-switching in Egypt: Evidence from monologues</i>, Leiden: Brill.</li> <li>Bassiouney, Reem (2009). <i>Arabic Sociolinguistics</i>, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.</li> <li>Blanc, D. (1960) 'Style variations in Arabic: A sample of interdialectical conversation.' in C.A. Ferguson (ed.) <i>Contributions to Arabic linguistics</i>, Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press.</li> <li>Dendane, Z. (1994). 'Sociolinguistic variation in an Arabic speech community: Tlemcen.' <i>Cahiers de Dialectologie et de Linguistique Contrastive</i> 4.</li> <li>El-Hassan, S. (1997). 'Educated Spoken Arabic in Egypt and the Levant: A critical review of diglossia and related concepts.' <i>Archivum Linguisticum</i> 8(2).</li> <li>Ferguson, C.A. (1972). 'Diglossia.' <i>Word</i> 15.</li> <li>Holes, C. (1983). 'Bahrain dialects: Sectarian differences exemplified through texts.' <i>Zeitschrift fur arabische Linguistik</i>10.</li> <li>Holes, C. (1995). 'Community, dialect and urbanization in the Arabic-speaking Middle-East.' <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i> 58(2).</li> <li>Mitchell, T.F. (1986). 'What is educated spoken Arabic?' <i>International Journal of the Sociology of Language </i>61.</li> <li>Pereira, C. (2007). 'Urbanization and dialect change: The dialect of Tripoli, Libya.' in C. Miller, E. Al-Wer, D. Caubet and J.C.E. Watson (eds), <i>Arabic in the city: Issues in dialect contact and language variation</i>, London and New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>.</li> <li>Suleiman, Y. (1994). <i>Arabic sociolinguistics: Issues and perspectives</i>, Richmond: Curzon.</li> <li>Versteegh, K. (2001). <i>The Arabic language</i>, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/22295615/George_Grigore_and_Gabriel_Bi%C8%9Bun%C4%83_eds._Arabic_Varieties_Far_and_Wide._Proceedings_of_the_11th_International_Conference_of_AIDA_Bucharest_2015._Bucharest_Editura_Universit%C4%83%C8%9Bii_din_Bucure%C8%99ti_2016">Arabic Varieties: Far and Wide. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference of AIDA Bucharest 2015</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6400033/George_Grigore._2014._A_Bibliography_of_Association_Internationale_de_Dialectologie_Arabes_-_AIDA_-_Proceedings_1993-2014_in_Supplement_of_Romano-Arabica_Journal_14_2014">A Bibliography of Association Internationale de Dialectologie Arabe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://independent.academia.edu/AIDAAssociationInternationaledeDialectologieArabe">AIDA – Association Internationale de Dialectologie Arabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Grigore" title="George Grigore">George Grigore</a> <i>L'arabe parlé à Mardin. Monographie d'un parler arabe périphérique</i>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.academia.edu/2586197/George_Grigore._2007._Larabe_parle_a_Mardin_-_monographie_dun_parler_arabe_peripherique_._Bucarest_Editura_Universitatii_din_Bucuresti">[1]</a></li> <li>Durand, O., (1995), <i>Introduzione ai dialetti arabi</i>, Centro Studi Camito-Semitici, Milan.</li> <li>Durand, O., (2009), <i>Dialettologia araba</i>, Carocci Editore, Rome.</li> <li>Fischer W. & Jastrow O., (1980) <i>Handbuch der Arabischen Dialekte</i>, Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.</li> <li>Heath, Jeffrey "Ablaut and Ambiguity: Phonology of a Moroccan Arabic Dialect" (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987)</li> <li>Holes, Clive (2004) <i>Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties</i> Georgetown University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58901-022-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-58901-022-1">1-58901-022-1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111222101902/http://acc.teachmideast.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=113">Versteegh, Dialects of Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kees_Versteegh" title="Kees Versteegh">Kees Versteegh</a>, <i>The Arabic Language</i> (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080108133640/http://www.ccls.columbia.edu/cadim.html">Columbia Arabic Dialect Modeling (CADIM) Group</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm#arab_par">Israeli Hebrew and Modern Arabic – a Few Differences and Many Parallels</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3333540/VI-VII_2006-2007_Peripheral_Arabic_Dialect">Peripheral Arabic Dialects</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://en.m.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Varieties_of_Arabic_Swadesh_lists">Varieties of Arabic Swadesh lists</a> (from Wiktionary's <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists">Swadesh-list appendix</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varieties_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Varieties_of_Arabic_Swadesh_lists" class="extiw" title="wikt:Appendix:Varieties of Arabic Swadesh lists">Swadesh lists: Varieties of Arabic</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_language" title="Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_language" title="Template talk:Arabic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a> <ul><li><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">Harakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> (tanwin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾAlif</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Tāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ǧīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ḥāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Dāl</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Rāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Zāy</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Šīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṣād</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṭāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿAyn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ġayn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Fāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Qāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Lām</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Mīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Nūn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Hāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Wāw</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Yāʾ</i></span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern<br />spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurrieq_dialect" title="Zurrieq dialect">Żurrieqi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Tunis" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunis</a> (North-Eastern Tunisian)</li></ul></li> <li>Village <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sahil" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sahili</a> (Sahel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sfax" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel</a> (Lesser Kabylia)</li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli</a> (Mountain)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Judeo-Maghrebi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li> <li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maqil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Arabic" title="Western Algerian Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sulaym <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nile Valley</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North</a> (Qeltu)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a> <ul><li>Bakhtiari</li> <li>Bukhara</li> <li>Kashkadarya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Arabic">Nigerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a> <ul><li>Kjal</li> <li>Wqal</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a> <ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a> <ul><li>Adeni</li> <li>Beda</li> <li>Habban</li> <li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾIʿrāb</i></span> (case)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a><br />· <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi" title="Shahmukhi">Shahmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li> <li>MS-DOS codepages <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li> <li>709</li> <li>710</li> <li>711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Islam and Arabic language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_language" title="Category:Arabic language">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Semitic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Semitic_languages" title="Template talk:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Semitic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Canaano-Akkadian_language" title="Canaano-Akkadian language">Canaano-Akkadian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dilmun#People,_language_and_religion" title="Dilmun">Dilmunite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kishite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kishite language">Kishite</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian#Dumaitic" title="Ancient North Arabian">Dumaitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hasaitic" title="Hasaitic">Hasaitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hismaic" title="Hismaic">Hismaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Safaitic#Language" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thamudic" title="Thamudic">Thamudic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dialect groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialect<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Armazic_language" title="Armazic language">Armazic</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hatran_Aramaic" title="Hatran Aramaic">Ashurian and Hatran</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Aramaic" title="Lebanese Aramaic">Lebanese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean</a></i></li> <li><i>Palestinian</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-<br />Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern</a> <ul><li>Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barwar" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barwar">Barwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hértevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Christian_Neo-Aramaic" title="Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Qaraqosh" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qaraqosh">Qaraqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a> <ul><li>Assyrian</li> <li>Chaldean</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Inter-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Koy_Sanjaq" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Koy Sanjaq">Koy Sanjaq Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanandaj_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Sanandaj Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Sanandaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Trans-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Zakho</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ammonite_language" title="Ammonite language">Ammonite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deir_Alla_inscription#Language" title="Deir Alla inscription">South Gileadite</a> (Deir Alla)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast Semitic">Southeast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E1%B9%AD%E1%B8%A5ari_language" title="Baṭḥari language">Baṭḥari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4arsusi_language" title="Ḥarsusi language">Ḥarsusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoby%C3%B3t_language" title="Hobyót language">Hobyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehri_language" title="Shehri language">Shehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southwest</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abyssinian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian languages">Abyssinian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahalik_language" title="Dahalik language">Dahalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trans-<br />versal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Argobba_language" title="Argobba language">Argobba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harari_language" title="Harari language">Harari</a>–<a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">East Gurage</a> <ul><li>East Gurage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silt%CA%BCe_language" title="Siltʼe language">Siltʼe</a> <ul><li>Inneqor</li> <li>Ulbare</li> <li>Wolane</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zay_language" title="Zay language">Zay</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N-group <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gafat_language" title="Gafat language">Gafat</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soddo_language" title="Soddo language">Soddo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tt-group <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mesmes_language" title="Mesmes language">Mesmes</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muher_language" title="Muher language">Muher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">West Gurage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inor_language" title="Inor language">Inor</a> <ul><li>Endegen</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesqan_language" title="Mesqan language">Mesqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language" title="Sebat Bet Gurage language">Sebat Bet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaha_language" title="Chaha language">Chaha</a></li> <li>Ezha</li> <li>Gumer</li> <li>Gura</li> <li>Gyeto</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yemenite languages">Yemenite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faifi_language" title="Faifi language">Faifi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hadramautic_language" title="Hadramautic language">Hadramautic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minaean_language" title="Minaean language">Minaean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qatabanian_language" title="Qatabanian language">Qatabanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rijal_Alma_(speech_variety)" title="Rijal Alma (speech variety)">Rijal Alma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razihi_language" title="Razihi language">Razihi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct</a> or historical languages.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Varieties_of_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_varieties" title="Template:Language varieties"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_varieties" title="Template talk:Language varieties"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_varieties" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language varieties"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Varieties_of_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">Varieties</a> of languages</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_dialects" title="Albanian dialects">Albanian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_dialects" title="Aragonese dialects">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_dialects" title="Armenian dialects">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_dialects" title="Aromanian dialects">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_dialects" title="Azerbaijani dialects">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_dialects" title="Basque dialects">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_dialects" title="Bengali dialects">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_dialects" title="Bulgarian dialects">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_dialects" title="Catalan dialects">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch dialects">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_French" title="Varieties of French">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_dialects" title="Georgian dialects">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_dialects" title="German dialects">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Modern_Greek" title="Varieties of Modern Greek">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Central Indo-Aryan languages">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_dialects" title="Korean dialects">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Macedonian" title="Dialects of Macedonian">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language#Dialects" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_dialects" title="Norwegian dialects">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_dialects" title="Pashto dialects">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_dialects_and_varieties" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian dialects and varieties">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Polish" title="Dialects of Polish">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_dialects" title="Portuguese dialects">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_dialects_and_languages" title="Punjabi dialects and languages">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language#Dialects" title="Romani language">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_dialects" title="Romanian dialects">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_dialects" title="Russian dialects">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Serbo-Croatian" title="Dialects of Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_dialects" title="Slovene dialects">Slovene</a></li> <li><a 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