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href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonatisierung_(Beton)" title="Carbonatisierung (Beton) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Carbonatisierung (Beton)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonataci%C3%B3n" title="Carbonatación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Carbonatación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonatazio" title="Karbonatazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Karbonatazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="کربوناتسیون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کربوناتسیون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonatation" title="Carbonatation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Carbonatation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonatazione" title="Carbonatazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Carbonatazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonatizacija" title="Karbonatizacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Karbonatizacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonatatie" title="Carbonatatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Carbonatatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonatisering" title="Karbonatisering – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Karbonatisering" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonatyzacja" title="Karbonatyzacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Karbonatyzacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Карбонатизация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Карбонатизация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karbonatisering" title="Karbonatisering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Karbonatisering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Карбонатизація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Карбонатизація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q902902#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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</nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Reaction of calcium hydroxide with CO2 to form calcium carbonate</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Carbonation" title="Carbonation">Carbonation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the dissolution of CO<sub>2</sub> in water, see <a href="/wiki/Carbonated_water" title="Carbonated water">Carbonated water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonated_beverages" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonated beverages">carbonated beverages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbonated_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonated drink">Carbonated drink</a>.</div> <p><b>Carbonatation</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide" title="Calcium hydroxide">calcium hydroxide</a> reacts with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and forms insoluble <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {Ca(OH)2{+}CO2->CaCO3{+}H_2O}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Ca</mtext> <msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mtext>OH</mtext> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>CO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo stretchy="false">⟶</mo> <msubsup> <mtext>CaCO</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>H</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em" /> </mrow> </msubsup> <mtext>O</mtext> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {Ca(OH)2{+}CO2->CaCO3{+}H_2O}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f4d941d911d1ae4042caaa8f4e0562f095f414d9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:34.494ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {Ca(OH)2{+}CO2->CaCO3{+}H_2O}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>The process of forming a carbonate is sometimes referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Carbonation" title="Carbonation">carbonation</a>", although this term usually refers to the process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concrete">Concrete</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbonatation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Concrete"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Betonrot_Hippodroom.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Betonrot_Hippodroom.JPG/300px-Betonrot_Hippodroom.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Betonrot_Hippodroom.JPG/450px-Betonrot_Hippodroom.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Betonrot_Hippodroom.JPG/600px-Betonrot_Hippodroom.JPG 2x" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>Carbonatation induced rebar corrosion</figcaption></figure> <p>Carbonatation is a slow process that occurs in <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> where <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">CaO</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Calcium_hydroxide" title="Calcium hydroxide">Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub></a><sub>(<a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aq</a>)</sub>) in the <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a> reacts with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>) from the <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a> and forms calcium carbonate. </p><p>The water in the pores of <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> concrete is normally <a href="/wiki/Alkaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline">alkaline</a> with a <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> in the range of 12.5 to 13.5. This highly alkaline environment is one in which the steel <a href="/wiki/Rebar" title="Rebar">rebar</a> is <a href="/wiki/Passivation_(chemistry)" title="Passivation (chemistry)">passivated</a> and is protected from corrosion. According to the <a href="/wiki/Pourbaix_diagram" title="Pourbaix diagram">Pourbaix diagram</a> for iron, the metal is passive when the pH is above 9.5.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The carbon dioxide in the air reacts with the <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkali</a> in the cement and makes the pore water more acidic, thus lowering the pH. Carbon dioxide will start to carbonatate the cement in the concrete from the moment the object is made. This carbonatation process will start at the surface, then slowly moves deeper and deeper into the concrete. The rate of carbonatation is dependent on the relative humidity of the concrete - a 50% relative humidity being optimal. If the object is cracked, the carbon dioxide in the air will be better able to penetrate into the concrete. </p><p>Eventually this may lead to corrosion of the rebar and structural damage or failure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sugar_refining">Sugar refining</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbonatation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sugar refining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The carbonatation process is used in the production of <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugar</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sugar_beet" title="Sugar beet">sugar beets</a>. It involves the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Limewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Limewater">limewater</a> (milk of lime - calcium hydroxide <a href="/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)" title="Suspension (chemistry)">suspension</a>) and carbon dioxide enriched gas into the "raw juice" (the sugar rich liquid prepared from the diffusion stage of the process) to form calcium carbonate and precipitate impurities that are then removed. The whole process takes place in "carbonatation tanks" and processing time varies from 20 minutes to an hour. </p><p>Carbonatation involves the following effects: </p> <ul><li>The increase in <a href="/wiki/Alkalinity" title="Alkalinity">alkalinity</a> <a href="/wiki/Coagulation" title="Coagulation">coagulates</a> <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> in the juice.</li> <li>Calcium carbonate absorbs colourants</li> <li>Alkalinity destroys some <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharide</a> sugars, mostly <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a></li></ul> <p>The target is a large particle that naturally settles rapidly to leave a clear juice. The juice at the end is approximately 15 <a href="/wiki/Brix" title="Brix">°Bx</a> and 90% <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a>. The <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> of the thin juice produced is a balance between removing as much <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> from the solution and the expected pH drop across later processing. If the juice goes <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acidic</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Crystallization" title="Crystallization">crystallisation</a> stages then sucrose rapidly breaks down to glucose and fructose; not only do glucose and fructose affect crystallisation but they are '<a href="/wiki/Molasses" title="Molasses">molassagenic</a>' taking equivalent amounts of sucrose on to the molasses stage. </p><p>The carbon dioxide gas bubbled through the mixture forms calcium carbonate. The non-sugar solids are incorporated into the calcium carbonate particles and removed by natural (or assisted) <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">sedimentation</a> in tanks or <a href="/wiki/Clarifier" title="Clarifier">clarifiers</a>. </p><p>There are several systems of carbonatation, named from the companies that first developed them. They differ in how the lime is introduced, the temperature and duration of each stage, and the separation of the solids from the liquid. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_V._N._Dorr" title="John V. N. Dorr">Dorr</a> (also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dorr-Oliver&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dorr-Oliver (page does not exist)">Dorr-Oliver</a>) - a continuous process using two tanks with recycling ("1st carbonatation") to build up particle size for natural <a href="/wiki/Flocculation" title="Flocculation">flocculation</a>. The recycling ratio is about 7:1. The particles are separated under gravity in a thickening stage in a clarifier. The clear juice is then gassed further in another tank ("2nd carbonatation") and filtered. The concentrated mud (underflow) from the clarifier is filtered and/or pressed to recover more liquid. The Dorr process is low in maintenance and man-power but susceptible to filtration problems when frost damaged beets are processed. It is favoured in the UK and the USA.</li> <li>DDS (<i>Det Danske Sukkerfabrik</i> - "The Danish Sugarfactory") -- multistage process involving pre-liming where the pH of the juice is gradually increased to start precipitation of proteins, followed by addition of further lime and CO<sub>2</sub> gas. The particles are removed at each stage by filtration.</li> <li>RT (<i>Raffinerie Tirlemontoise</i> - "<a href="/wiki/Sugar_refinery_of_Tienen" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar refinery of Tienen">Sugar refinery of Tienen</a>") - another multistage process with a pre-liming stage. Particles also removed by filtration.</li></ul> <p>Both DDS and RT processes are favoured by <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> factories. The carbonatation system is generally matched to the <a href="/wiki/Sugar_beet#Diffusion" title="Sugar beet">diffusion scheme</a>; juice from RT diffusers being processed by the RT carbonatation. </p><p>The clear juice from carbonatation is generally known as "thin juice". it may undergo pH adjustment with <a href="/wiki/Soda_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Soda ash">soda ash</a> and addition of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> ("sulfitation") prior to the next stage which is concentration by multiple effect evaporation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_softening">Water softening</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbonatation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Water softening"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The carbonatation reaction takes place during <a href="/wiki/Lime_softening" title="Lime softening">lime softening</a> (Clark's process) in <a href="/wiki/Water_softening" title="Water softening">water softening</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbonatation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkali%E2%80%93silica_reaction" title="Alkali–silica reaction">Alkali–silica reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_degradation" title="Concrete degradation">Concrete degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phosphatation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phosphatation (page does not exist)">Phosphatation</a> — a similar process used in <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane#Refining" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane processing</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carbonatation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Thermo/ironE-pH.htm">"Pourbaix diagram of iron"</a>. Corrosion-doctors.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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