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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City" title="History of New York City">History of New York City</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City_(prehistory%E2%80%931664)" title="History of New York City (prehistory–1664)">Lenape and New Netherland</a>, to 1664<br /><i><a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a></i><br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City_(1665%E2%80%931783)" title="History of New York City (1665–1783)">British and Revolution</a>, 1665–1783<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City_(1784%E2%80%931854)" title="History of New York City (1784–1854)">Federal and early American</a>, 1784–1854<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City_(1855%E2%80%931897)" title="History of New York City (1855–1897)">Tammany and Consolidation</a>, 1855–1897<br />(<a href="/wiki/New_York_City_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New York City in the American Civil War">Civil War</a>, 1861–1865)<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City_(1898%E2%80%931945)" title="History of New York City (1898–1945)">Early 20th century</a>, 1898–1945<br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Post–World War II</a>, 1946–1977<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City_(1978%E2%80%93present)" title="History of New York City (1978–present)">Modern and post-9/11</a>, 1978–present</td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>See also</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_transportation_in_New_York_City" title="History of transportation in New York City">Transportation</a><br />Timelines: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_New_York_City" title="Timeline of New York City">NYC</a> • <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Bronx" title="Timeline of the Bronx">Bronx</a> • <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Brooklyn" title="Timeline of Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a> • <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Queens" title="Timeline of Queens">Queens</a> • <a href="/wiki/Staten_Island#Timeline" title="Staten Island">Staten Island</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_New_York_City" title="Category:History of New York City">Category</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_New_York_City" title="Template:History of New York City"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_New_York_City" title="Template talk:History of New York City"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_New_York_City" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of New York City"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Immediately after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> became known as one of the world's greatest cities.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, after peaking in population in 1950, the city began to feel the effects of <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a> brought about by new housing communities such as <a href="/wiki/Levittown,_New_York" title="Levittown, New York">Levittown</a>, a downturn in industry and commerce as businesses left for places where it was cheaper and easier to operate, an increase in crime, and an upturn in its welfare burden, all of which reached a nadir in the city's fiscal crisis of the 1970s, when it barely avoided <a href="/wiki/Default_(finance)" title="Default (finance)">defaulting</a> on its obligations and declaring bankruptcy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postwar:_Late_1940s_through_1950s">Postwar: Late 1940s through 1950s</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Postwar: Late 1940s through 1950s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As many great cities lay in ruins after World War II, New York City assumed a new global prominence. It became the home of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_headquarters" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations headquarters">United Nations headquarters</a>, built 1947–1952; inherited the role from Paris as center of the art world with <a href="/wiki/Abstract_expressionism" title="Abstract expressionism">abstract expressionism</a>; and became a rival to London in the international finance and art markets. Yet the population declined after 1950, with increasing suburbanization in the <a href="/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area" title="New York metropolitan area">New York metropolitan area</a> as pioneered in <a href="/wiki/Levittown,_New_York" title="Levittown, New York">Levittown, New York</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Midtown_Manhattan" title="Midtown Manhattan">Midtown Manhattan</a>, fueled by postwar prosperity, was experiencing an unprecedented building boom that changed its very appearance. Glass-and-steel office towers in the new <a href="/wiki/International_style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International style (architecture)">International Style</a> began to replace the <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurat-style</a> towers (built in <a href="/wiki/Wedding-cake_style" title="Wedding-cake style">wedding-cake style</a>) of the prewar era. Also rapidly changing was the eastern edge of the <a href="/wiki/East_Village,_Manhattan" title="East Village, Manhattan">East Village</a> close to <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_East_River_Drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive">FDR Drive</a>. Many traditional apartment blocks were cleared and replaced with large-scale <a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">public housing</a> projects. In <a href="/wiki/Lower_Manhattan" title="Lower Manhattan">Lower Manhattan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urban_renewal" title="Urban renewal">urban renewal</a> began to take shape around 1960, led by <a href="/wiki/David_Rockefeller" title="David Rockefeller">David Rockefeller</a>'s construction of the <a href="/wiki/One_Chase_Manhattan_Plaza" class="mw-redirect" title="One Chase Manhattan Plaza">One Chase Manhattan Plaza</a> building. </p><p>In a built-out city, construction entails destruction. After the old <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux Arts</a> <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Station_(New_York_City)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania Station (New York City)">Pennsylvania Station</a> was torn down, growing concern for preservation led to the 1965 <a href="/wiki/Landmarks_Preservation_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Landmarks Preservation Commission">Landmarks Preservation Commission Law</a>. The city's other great train station, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Central_Terminal" title="Grand Central Terminal">Grand Central</a>, was also threatened with demolition but was eventually saved. Meanwhile, New York City's network of highways spread, destroying neighborhoods where African Americans lived under the guidance of the noted urban planner with exceeding biases against certain ethnicities <a href="/wiki/Robert_Moses" title="Robert Moses">Robert Moses</a>, consequently increasing traffic congestion, traffic pollution, and ruining livelihoods of the people who once lived in vibrant neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the defeat in 1962 of Moses' planned <a href="/wiki/Lower_Manhattan_Expressway" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Manhattan Expressway">Lower Manhattan Expressway</a> by community activists led by <a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a> was an indication that Moses would no longer have the free hand in the destruction of livelihoods he had enjoyed in the past. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1960s">1960s</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: 1960s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NYP_LOC4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/NYP_LOC4.jpg/220px-NYP_LOC4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/NYP_LOC4.jpg/330px-NYP_LOC4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/NYP_LOC4.jpg/440px-NYP_LOC4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="969" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Station_(1910%E2%80%931963)" title="Pennsylvania Station (1910–1963)">Pennsylvania Station</a> in 1962, two years before it was torn down, an event which jump-started the historic preservation movement.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 1960s, a gradual economic and social decay set in. A symptom of the city's waning competitiveness was the loss of both its longtime resident <a href="/wiki/National_League_(baseball)" title="National League (baseball)">National League</a> baseball teams to booming California; the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Dodgers" title="Los Angeles Dodgers">Dodgers</a> and the <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Giants" title="San Francisco Giants">Giants</a> both moved after the 1957 season. A sports void was partially filled with the formation of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Mets" title="New York Mets">Mets</a> in 1962, who played their first two seasons at the <a href="/wiki/Polo_Grounds" title="Polo Grounds">Polo Grounds</a>, the former home of the Giants, before moving to <a href="/wiki/Shea_Stadium" title="Shea Stadium">Shea Stadium</a> in Queens in 1964. </p><p>The passage of the federal <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1965" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration Act of 1965">Immigration Act of 1965</a>, which abolished national-origin quotas, set the stage for increased immigration from Asia, which became the basis for New York's modern <a href="/wiki/Asian_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian American">Asian American</a> community. </p><p>On November 9, 1965, New York endured a <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Blackout_of_1965" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Blackout of 1965">widespread power blackout</a> along with much of eastern North America. (The city's ordeal became the subject of the <a href="/wiki/1968_in_film" title="1968 in film">1968 film</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Where_Were_You_When_the_Lights_Went_Out%3F" title="Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?">Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?</a></i>) The postwar population shift to the suburbs resulted in the decline of textile manufacturing and other traditional industries in New York, most of which also operated in extremely outdated facilities. With the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Container_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Container shipping">container shipping</a>, that industry shifted to <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> where there was more room for it. <a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_worker" title="Blue-collar worker">Blue-collar</a> neighborhoods began to deteriorate and become centers of drugs and crime. Strip clubs and other adult businesses started filling Times Square in the late 1960s. </p><p>In 1966, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">US Navy</a> decommissioned the <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Navy_Yard" title="Brooklyn Navy Yard">Brooklyn Navy Yard</a>, ending a command going back to the early 19th century. It was sold to the city. The Yard continued as a site for shipbuilding for another eleven years. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SKYSCRAPERS_OF_MANHATTAN_VEILED_IN_SMOG_-_NARA_-_548360.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/SKYSCRAPERS_OF_MANHATTAN_VEILED_IN_SMOG_-_NARA_-_548360.jpg/220px-SKYSCRAPERS_OF_MANHATTAN_VEILED_IN_SMOG_-_NARA_-_548360.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/SKYSCRAPERS_OF_MANHATTAN_VEILED_IN_SMOG_-_NARA_-_548360.jpg/330px-SKYSCRAPERS_OF_MANHATTAN_VEILED_IN_SMOG_-_NARA_-_548360.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/SKYSCRAPERS_OF_MANHATTAN_VEILED_IN_SMOG_-_NARA_-_548360.jpg/440px-SKYSCRAPERS_OF_MANHATTAN_VEILED_IN_SMOG_-_NARA_-_548360.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2017" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>A 1973 photo of New York City skyscrapers in smog</figcaption></figure> <p>From November 23 to 26, 1966, New York City was <a href="/wiki/1966_New_York_City_smog" title="1966 New York City smog">covered by a major smog episode</a>, filling the city's air with damaging levels of several toxic pollutants. The smog was caused by a combination of factors, including the use of coal-burning power plants, the heavy traffic on the city's roads, and the widespread use of wood-burning stoves and fireplaces. It was the third major smog in New York City, following events of similar scale in 1953 and 1963. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mayor_Lindsay">Mayor Lindsay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mayor Lindsay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Lindsay" title="John Lindsay">John Lindsay</a>, a liberal Republican, was a highly visible and charismatic mayor from 1966 to 1973. The city was a national center of protest movements regarding civil rights for black citizens, opposition to the Vietnam War, and the newly emerging feminist and gay movements. There were jolting economic shocks as the postwar prosperity came to an end with many factories and entire industries shutting down. There was a population transition with hundreds of thousands of <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">African-Americans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_New_York_City" title="Puerto Ricans in New York City">Puerto Ricans</a> moving in, and an exodus of <a href="/wiki/European_Americans" title="European Americans">European-Americans</a> to the suburbs. Labor unions, especially in teaching, transit, sanitation and construction, fractured over major strikes and internal racial tensions.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strikes_and_riots">Strikes and riots</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Strikes and riots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Transport_Workers_Union_of_America" title="Transport Workers Union of America">Transport Workers Union of America</a> (TWU) led by <a href="/wiki/Mike_Quill" title="Mike Quill">Mike Quill</a> shut down the city with a <a href="/wiki/1966_New_York_City_transit_strike" title="1966 New York City transit strike">complete halt of subway and bus service</a> on mayor <a href="/wiki/John_Lindsay" title="John Lindsay">John Lindsay</a>'s first day of office. As New Yorkers endured the transit strike, Lindsay remarked, "I still think it's a fun city," and walked four miles (6 km) from his hotel room to City Hall in a gesture to show it.<sup id="cite_ref-Schaap_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaap-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dick_Schaap" title="Dick Schaap">Dick Schaap</a>, then a columnist for the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Herald_Tribune" title="New York Herald Tribune">New York Herald Tribune</a></i>, coined and popularized the sarcastic term in an article titled <i>Fun City</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schaap_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaap-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FYI_Fun_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FYI_Fun-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the article, Schaap sardonically pointed out that it was not.<sup id="cite_ref-Schaap_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schaap-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FYI_Fun_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FYI_Fun-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anderson_Ave_garbage_strike_1968_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Anderson_Ave_garbage_strike_1968_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Anderson_Ave_garbage_strike_1968_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Anderson_Ave_garbage_strike_1968_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Anderson_Ave_garbage_strike_1968_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Anderson_Ave_garbage_strike_1968_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Anderson_Ave_garbage_strike_1968_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1404" data-file-height="934" /></a><figcaption>Anderson Avenue garbage strike. A common scene throughout New York City in 1968 during a sanitation workers strike</figcaption></figure> <p>The transit strike was the first of many labor struggles. In 1968 the teachers' union (the <a href="/wiki/United_Federation_of_Teachers" title="United Federation of Teachers">United Federation of Teachers</a>, or the UFT) <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_teacher%27s_strike_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="New York City teacher's strike of 1968">went on strike</a> over the firings of several teachers in a school in <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Hill,_Brooklyn" title="Ocean Hill, Brooklyn">Ocean Hill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brownsville,_Brooklyn" title="Brownsville, Brooklyn">Brownsville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>That same year, 1968, also saw a nine-day <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> strike.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GARBAGE_STRIKE_IS_ENDED_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GARBAGE_STRIKE_IS_ENDED-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quality of life in New York reached a nadir during this strike, as mounds of <a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">garbage</a> caught fire, and strong winds whirled the filth through the streets.<sup id="cite_ref-PERLMUTTER_Garbage_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PERLMUTTER_Garbage-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the schools shut down, the police engaged in a <a href="/wiki/Go_slow" class="mw-redirect" title="Go slow">slowdown</a>, firefighters threatening job actions, the city awash in garbage, and racial and religious tensions breaking to the surface, Lindsay later called the last six months of 1968 "the worst of my public life."<sup id="cite_ref-Obit_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obit-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a> were a series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the <a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Inn" title="Stonewall Inn">Stonewall Inn</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Village" title="Greenwich Village">Greenwich Village</a> neighborhood of New York City. They are frequently cited as the first instance in American history when people in the homosexual community fought back against a government-sponsored system that persecuted sexual minorities, and they have become the defining event that marked the start of the <a href="/wiki/Gay_rights_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Gay rights movement">gay rights movement</a> in the United States and around the world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1970s">1970s</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 1970s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Trade_Center_-_1970s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/World_Trade_Center_-_1970s.jpg/250px-World_Trade_Center_-_1970s.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/World_Trade_Center_-_1970s.jpg/375px-World_Trade_Center_-_1970s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/World_Trade_Center_-_1970s.jpg/500px-World_Trade_Center_-_1970s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Center_(1973%E2%80%932001)" title="World Trade Center (1973–2001)">World Trade Center</a>, completed in 1973</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Times_Square_New_York_City_-_1977.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Times_Square_New_York_City_-_1977.jpg/250px-Times_Square_New_York_City_-_1977.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Times_Square_New_York_City_-_1977.jpg/375px-Times_Square_New_York_City_-_1977.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Times_Square_New_York_City_-_1977.jpg/500px-Times_Square_New_York_City_-_1977.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2251" /></a><figcaption>Times Square in 1977</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1970, the city gained notoriety for high rates of <a href="/wiki/Crime_in_New_York_City" title="Crime in New York City">crime</a> and other social disorders. A popular song by <a href="/wiki/Terry_Cashman" title="Terry Cashman">Cashman & West</a> in the autumn of 1972, "American City Suite", chronicled, in allegorical fashion, the decline in the city's quality of life. The city's <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Subway" title="New York City Subway">subway</a> system was regarded as unsafe due to crime and suffered frequent mechanical breakdowns. Prostitutes and pimps frequented <a href="/wiki/Times_Square" title="Times Square">Times Square</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Central_Park" title="Central Park">Central Park</a> became feared as the site of muggings and rapes. Homeless persons and drug dealers occupied boarded-up and abandoned buildings. The <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department" title="New York City Police Department">New York City Police Department</a> was subject to investigation for widespread <a href="/wiki/Police_corruption" title="Police corruption">corruption</a>, most famously in <a href="/wiki/Knapp_Commission" title="Knapp Commission">the 1971 testimony</a> of whistle-blowing police officer <a href="/wiki/Frank_Serpico" title="Frank Serpico">Frank Serpico</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1975 after the city announced budget cuts downsizing the police force, officers distributed a <a href="/wiki/Fear_City_pamphlets" title="Fear City pamphlets">pamphlet titled "Fear City"</a> to arriving visitors, warning them to stay away.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The opening of the mammoth <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Center_(1973%E2%80%932001)" title="World Trade Center (1973–2001)">World Trade Center</a> complex in 1972, however, was one of the few high points of the city's history at that time. Conceived by <a href="/wiki/David_Rockefeller" title="David Rockefeller">David Rockefeller</a> and built by the <a href="/wiki/Port_Authority_of_New_York_and_New_Jersey" title="Port Authority of New York and New Jersey">Port Authority of New York and New Jersey</a> on the site of the <a href="/wiki/Radio_Row,_Manhattan" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Row, Manhattan">Radio Row</a> electronics district in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Manhattan" title="Lower Manhattan">Lower Manhattan</a>, the Twin Towers displaced the <a href="/wiki/Empire_State_Building" title="Empire State Building">Empire State Building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Midtown_(Manhattan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Midtown (Manhattan)">Midtown</a> as the world's tallest building; it was displaced in turn by Chicago's <a href="/wiki/Sears_Tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sears Tower">Sears Tower</a> in 1973. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiscal_crisis_of_1975">Fiscal crisis of 1975</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fiscal crisis of 1975"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ford_to_City.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/77/Ford_to_City.PNG/180px-Ford_to_City.PNG" decoding="async" width="180" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/77/Ford_to_City.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="265" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>The 1970s were a low point in the city's modern history, and one of the lowest moments came when the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Daily_News" title="New York Daily News">New York Daily News</a></i> reported the President's refusal to bail out the nation's largest city; he later relented.</figcaption></figure> <p>US economic stagnation in the 1970s hit New York City particularly hard, amplified by a large movement of middle-class residents to the suburbs, which drained the city of tax revenue.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 1975, New York City entered a serious fiscal crisis. Under mayor <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Beame" title="Abraham Beame">Abraham Beame</a>, the city had run out of money to pay for normal operating expenses, was unable to borrow more, and faced the prospect of defaulting on its obligations and declaring bankruptcy. The city admitted an operating deficit of at least $600 million, contributing to a total city debt of more than $11 billion<sup id="cite_ref-Lucia_Capodilupo_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lucia_Capodilupo-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the city was unable to borrow money from the credit markets.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were numerous reasons for the crisis, including overly optimistic forecasts of revenues, underfunding of pensions, use of capital allocations and reserves for operating costs, and poor budgetary and accounting practices. Another perspective given on this matter is that as the most capitalised city of the United States at that time, New York hosted an array of welfare and benefits for its people, including nineteen public hospitals, mass transit facilities and most importantly, New York City provided higher education for free with the municipal university system.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city government was reluctant to confront municipal labor unions; an announced "hiring freeze" was followed by an increase in city payrolls of 13,000 people in one quarter, and an announced layoff of eight thousand workers resulted in only 436 employees leaving the city government.<sup id="cite_ref-Roger_Dunstan_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roger_Dunstan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first solution proposed was the <a href="/wiki/Municipal_Assistance_Corporation" title="Municipal Assistance Corporation">Municipal Assistance Corporation</a>, which tried to pool the city's money and refinance its heavy debts. It was established on June 10, 1975, with <a href="/wiki/Felix_Rohatyn" title="Felix Rohatyn">Felix Rohatyn</a> as chairman, and a board of nine prominent citizens, eight of whom were bankers. In the meanwhile, the crisis continued to worsen, with the admitted city deficit reaching $750 million; municipal bonds could be sold only at a significant loss to the underwriters.<sup id="cite_ref-Roger_Dunstan_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roger_Dunstan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_the_World_Trade_Center_under_construction_from_Duane_Street,_Manhattan,_1970_b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/View_of_the_World_Trade_Center_under_construction_from_Duane_Street%2C_Manhattan%2C_1970_b.jpg/220px-View_of_the_World_Trade_Center_under_construction_from_Duane_Street%2C_Manhattan%2C_1970_b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/View_of_the_World_Trade_Center_under_construction_from_Duane_Street%2C_Manhattan%2C_1970_b.jpg/330px-View_of_the_World_Trade_Center_under_construction_from_Duane_Street%2C_Manhattan%2C_1970_b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/View_of_the_World_Trade_Center_under_construction_from_Duane_Street%2C_Manhattan%2C_1970_b.jpg/440px-View_of_the_World_Trade_Center_under_construction_from_Duane_Street%2C_Manhattan%2C_1970_b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2999" /></a><figcaption>View of the World Trade Center under construction from Duane Street, Manhattan, 1970</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22SUPER%22_FLUSHES_LITTER_FROM_172ND_STREET_WITH_FIRE_HYDRANT_WATER_-_NARA_-_549838.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/%22SUPER%22_FLUSHES_LITTER_FROM_172ND_STREET_WITH_FIRE_HYDRANT_WATER_-_NARA_-_549838.jpg/220px-%22SUPER%22_FLUSHES_LITTER_FROM_172ND_STREET_WITH_FIRE_HYDRANT_WATER_-_NARA_-_549838.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/%22SUPER%22_FLUSHES_LITTER_FROM_172ND_STREET_WITH_FIRE_HYDRANT_WATER_-_NARA_-_549838.jpg/330px-%22SUPER%22_FLUSHES_LITTER_FROM_172ND_STREET_WITH_FIRE_HYDRANT_WATER_-_NARA_-_549838.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/%22SUPER%22_FLUSHES_LITTER_FROM_172ND_STREET_WITH_FIRE_HYDRANT_WATER_-_NARA_-_549838.jpg/440px-%22SUPER%22_FLUSHES_LITTER_FROM_172ND_STREET_WITH_FIRE_HYDRANT_WATER_-_NARA_-_549838.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2023" /></a><figcaption>Litter is flushed from 172nd Street in Manhattan using hydrants</figcaption></figure> <p>The MAC insisted that the city make major reforms, including a <a href="/wiki/Wage_freeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Wage freeze">wage freeze</a>, a major layoff, a subway fare hike, and charging tuition at the <a href="/wiki/City_University_of_New_York" title="City University of New York">City University of New York</a>. The New York State Legislature supported the MAC by passing a law converting the city sales tax and stock transfer tax into state taxes, which when collected were then used as security for the MAC bonds. The State of New York also passed a state law that created an Emergency Financial Control Board to monitor the city's finances, required the city to balance its budget within three years, and required the city to follow accepted accounting practices. But even with all of these measures, the value of the MAC bonds dropped in price, and the city struggled to find the money to pay its employees and stay in operation. The MAC sold off $10 billion in bonds.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It failed to achieve results quickly and the state came up with a much more drastic solution: the Emergency Financial Control Board (EFCB). It was a state agency, and city officials had only two votes on the seven-member board. The EFCB took full control of the city's budget. It made drastic cuts in municipal services and spending, cut city employment, froze salaries and raised bus and subway fares. The level of welfare spending was cut. Some hospitals were closed as were some branch libraries and fire stations. The labor unions helped out, by allocating much of their pension funds to the purchase of city bonds—putting the pensions at risk if bankruptcy took place. </p><p>A statement by Mayor Beame was drafted and ready to be released on October 17, 1975, if the teachers' union did not invest $150 million from its pension funds in city securities. "I have been advised by the comptroller that the City of New York has insufficient cash on hand to meet debt obligations due today," the statement said. "This constitutes the default that we have struggled to avoid."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Beame statement was never distributed because <a href="/wiki/Albert_Shanker" title="Albert Shanker">Albert Shanker</a>, the teachers' union president, finally furnished $150 million from the union's pension fund to buy Municipal Assistance Corporation bonds. Two weeks later, President <a href="/wiki/Gerald_R._Ford" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerald R. Ford">Gerald R. Ford</a> angered New Yorkers by refusing to grant the city a bailout.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ford later signed the New York City Seasonal Financing Act of 1975,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a congressional bill that extended $2.3 billion worth of federal loans to the city for three years. In return, Congress ordered the city to increase charges for city services, to cancel a wage increase for city employees and to drastically reduce the number of people in its workforce. </p><p> Rohatyn and the MAC directors persuaded the banks to defer the maturity of the bonds they held and to accept less interest. They also persuaded the city and state employee pension funds to buy MAC bonds to pay off the city's debts. The city government cut the number of its employees by 40,000, deferred the wage increases already agreed to in contracts and kept them below the level of inflation.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loans were repaid with interest.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Look_to_Manhattan_around_1970_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Look_to_Manhattan_around_1970_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Look_to_Manhattan_around_1970_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Look_to_Manhattan_around_1970_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-Look_to_Manhattan_around_1970_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Look_to_Manhattan_around_1970_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-Look_to_Manhattan_around_1970_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1084" /></a><figcaption>Manhattan skyline around 1970</figcaption></figure><p>A fiscal conservative, Democrat <a href="/wiki/Ed_Koch" title="Ed Koch">Ed Koch</a>, was <a href="/wiki/1977_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1977 New York City mayoral election">elected as mayor in 1977</a>. By 1977–78, New York City had eliminated its short-term debt. By 1985, the City no longer needed the support of the Municipal Assistance Corporation, and it voted itself out of existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Roger_Dunstan_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roger_Dunstan-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blackout">Blackout</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Blackout"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_blackout_of_1977" title="New York City blackout of 1977">New York City blackout of 1977</a> struck on July 13 of that year and lasted for 25 hours, during which black and Hispanic neighborhoods fell prey to destruction and looting. Over 3,000 people were arrested, and the city's already crowded prisons were so overburdened that some suggested reopening the recently condemned <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Detention_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhattan Detention Complex">Manhattan Detention Complex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="BleakOutlook"></span>The financial crisis, high crime rates, and damage from the blackouts led to a widespread belief that New York City was in irreversible decline and beyond redemption. By the end of the 1970s, nearly a million people had left, a population loss that would not be recouped for another twenty years. To Jonathan Mahler, the chronicler of <i><a href="/wiki/Ladies_and_Gentlemen,_the_Bronx_Is_Burning" title="Ladies and Gentlemen, the Bronx Is Burning">The Bronx is Burning</a></i>, "The clinical term for it, <i>fiscal crisis,</i> didn't approach the raw reality. <i>Spiritual crisis</i> was more like it."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">American urban history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_New_York_City#1950s–1970s" title="Timeline of New York City">Timeline of New York City, 1950s–1970s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1949 New York City mayoral election">1949 New York City mayoral election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1953 New York City mayoral election">1953 New York City mayoral election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1957 New York City mayoral election">1957 New York City mayoral election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1961_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1961 New York City mayoral election">1961 New York City mayoral election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1965_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1965 New York City mayoral election">1965 New York City mayoral election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1969 New York City mayoral election">1969 New York City mayoral election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1973 New York City mayoral election">1973 New York City mayoral election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_New_York_City_mayoral_election" title="1977 New York City mayoral election">1977 New York City mayoral election</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/newyork-postwar/">"New York After WWII | American Experience | PBS"</a>. <i>www.pbs.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Gramlich, "The New York City Fiscal Crisis: What Happened and What is to be Done?" <i>American Economic Review</i> (1976) 66#2 pp. 415–429 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1817255">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lucia_Capodilupo-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lucia_Capodilupo_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucia_Capodilupo2002" class="citation web cs1">Lucia Capodilupo (April 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100612141837/http://newman.baruch.cuny.edu/digital/2003/amfl/mac/mac_finding_aid_index.htm">"Municipal Assistance for the City of New York (MAC)"</a>. 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Public Education and the Making of a New American Political Order</i> (U of Illinois Press, 2017) pp 114–142. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress#Public_law,_private_law,_designation" title="Act of Congress"><abbr title="Public Law">Pub. L.</abbr></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uslaw.link/citation/us-law/public/94/143">94–143</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/94th-congress/house-bill/10481">H.R. 10481</a>, 89 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-89-797">797</a>, enacted <span data-sort-value="000000001975-12-05-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">December 5, 1975</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter D. McClelland and Alan L. Magdovitz, <i>Crisis in the Making: The Political Economy of New York State since 1945</i> (2000) pp. 335, 337</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles R. Morris, <i>The Cost of Good Intentions: New York City and the Liberal Experiment</i> (1980) p. 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For legal and technical details see Gayle Gutekunst-Roth, "New York – A City in Crisis: Fiscal Emergency Legislation and the Constitutional Attacks." <i>Fordham Urban Law Journal</i> 6 (1977): 65. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1083&context=ulj">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donna E. Shalala, and Carol Bellamy. "State Saves a City: The New York Case, A." <i>Duke Law Journal</i> (1976): 1119+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2598&context=dlj">online.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles J. Orlebeke, "Saving New York: The Ford Administration and the New York City Fiscal Crisis," in Alexej Ugrinsky and Bernard J. Firestone eds. <i>Gerald R. Ford and the Politics of Post-Watergate America – Vol. 2</i> (1993) pp 359–385 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/98642364/gerald-r-ford-and-the-politics-of-post-watergate">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1975" class="citation news cs1">Russell, Mary (December 10, 1975). "Ford Signs Bill To Aid N.Y.C.". <i>The Washington Post</i>. p. B9. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/146357089">146357089</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Ford+Signs+Bill+To+Aid+N.Y.C.&rft.pages=B9&rft.date=1975-12-10&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+New+York+City+%281946%E2%80%931977%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Goodman, <i>Blackout</i> (2003)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan Mahler, <i>The Bronx is Burning: 1977, Baseball, Politics, and the Battle for the Soul of a City</i> (2006) <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Brecher, Charles, et al. <i>Power Failure: New York City Politics and Policy since 1960</i> (Oxford University Press, 1993) 420 pages; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/78022736/power-failure-new-york-city-politics-and-policy-since">online edition</a></li> <li>Burns, Ric, and James Sanders. <i>New York: An Illustrated History</i> (2003), large-scale book version of Burns PBS documentary, <a href="/wiki/New_York:_A_Documentary_Film" title="New York: A Documentary Film">New York: A Documentary Film</a> an eight part, 17½ hour documentary film directed by <a href="/wiki/Ric_Burns" title="Ric Burns">Ric Burns</a> for <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>. It originally aired in 1999 with additional episodes airing in 2001 and 2003.</li> <li>Cannato, Vincent J. <i>The ungovernable city: John Lindsay and his struggle to save New York</i> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Colgrove&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="James Colgrove (page does not exist)">Colgrove, James</a>. "Reform and its discontents: public health in New York City during the Great Society." <i>Journal of policy history</i> (2007) 19#1 pp: 3–28. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:130312/CONTENT/jph.2007.0000.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Flanagan, Richard M. <i>Robert Wagner and the Rise of New York City's Plebiscitary Mayoralty: The Tamer of the Tammany Tiger</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014)</li> <li>Freeman, Joshua B. <i>Working-class New York: life and labor since World War II</i> (2001)</li> <li>Gratz, Roberta Brandes. <i>The Battle for Gotham: New York in the Shadow of Robert Moses and Jane Jacobs</i> (Nation Books, 2011)</li> <li>Haslip-Viera, Gabriel. <i>Boricuas In Gothamed: Puerto Ricans In The Making Of New York City</i> (2004)</li> <li>Jackson, Kenneth T., ed. <i>The Encyclopedia of New York City</i> (Yale University Press, 1995) 1350 pages; articles by experts; 2nd expanded edition 2010, 1585pp</li> <li>Jacobs, James B., Coleen Friel, and Robert Raddick. <i>Gotham unbound: How New York city was liberated from the grip of organized crime</i> (NYU Press, 2001)</li> <li>Korrol, Virginia Sanchez and Pedro Juan Hernandez. <i>Pioneros II: Puerto Ricans in New York City, 1948–1998</i> (2010), 127pp</li> <li>Levinson, Marc. "Container Shipping and the Decline of New York, 1955–1975." <i>Business History Review</i> (2006) 80#1 pp: 49–80.</li> <li>Lagumina, Salvator. <i> New York at Mid-Century: The Impellitteri Years</i> (1992), He was Mayor in 1950–53</li> <li>Mahler, Jonathan. <i>The Bronx is Burning: 1977, Baseball, Politics, and the Battle for the Soul of a City</i> (2006)</li> <li>Mollenkopf, John, ed. <i>Power, Culture, and Place</i> (Russell Sage Foundation, 1988)</li> <li>Morris, Charles R. <i>The cost of good intentions: New York City and the liberal experiment, 1960–1975</i> (1981).</li> <li>Orlebeke, Charles J. "Saving New York: The Ford Administration and the New York City Fiscal Crisis," in Alexej Ugrinsky and Bernard J. Firestone eds. <i>Gerald R. Ford and the Politics of Post-Watergate America - Vol. 2</i> (1993) pp 359–85 With commentary by Abraham D. Beame, Hugh L. Carey, et al. pp 386–414 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/98642364/gerald-r-ford-and-the-politics-of-post-watergate">online</a></li> <li>Plunz, Richard. <i>A history of housing in New York City</i> (Columbia UP, 2018).</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerald_Podair&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerald Podair (page does not exist)">Podair, Jerald E.</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Strike_That_Changed_New_York:_Blacks,_Whites,_and_the_Ocean_Hill-Brownsville_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="The Strike That Changed New York: Blacks, Whites, and the Ocean Hill-Brownsville Crisis">The Strike That Changed New York: Blacks, Whites, and the Ocean Hill-Brownsville Crisis</a></i> (Yale University Press, 2008)</li> <li>Roberts, Sam, ed. <i>America's Mayor: John V. Lindsay and the Reinvention of New York</i> (2010) Essays on multiple topics, well illustrated</li> <li>Samuel, Lawrence R. <i>New York City 1964: A Cultural History</i> (McFarland, 2014)</li> <li>Sayre, Wallace S. and Herbert Kaufman, <i>Governing New York City: Politics in the Metropolis</i> (1965) 782pp</li> <li>Shefter, Martin. <i>Political crisis/fiscal crisis: The collapse and revival of New York City</i> (Columbia University Press, 1992)</li> <li>Shelton, Jon. "Dropping Dead: Teachers, the New York City Fiscal Crisis, and Austerity" in Shelton, <i>Teacher Strike! Public Education and the Making of a New American Political Order</i> (U of Illinois Press, 2017) pp 114–142. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Teacher-Strike-Education-American-Political-ebook/dp/B071RDSKC2/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Taylor, Clarence, ed. <i>Civil Rights in New York City: From World War II to the Giuliani Era</i> (Oxford University Press, 2011)</li> <li>Thomas, Lorrin. <i>Puerto Rican citizen: history and political identity in twentieth-century New York City</i> (University of Chicago Press, 2010)</li> <li>Tochterman, Brian L. <i>The Dying City: Postwar New York and the Ideology of Fear</i> (2017), Covers late 1940s to the 1980s</li> <li>Viteritti, Joseph P. <i>Summer in the City: John Lindsay, New York, and the American Dream</i> (2014) Essays by scholars evaluate politics, race relations, finance, public management, architecture, economic development, and the arts.</li> <li>Wollman, Elizabeth L. <i>Hard Times: The Adult Musical in 1970s New York City</i> (Oxford University Press, 2013)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aMcDAAAAMBAJ">"What Does It Take To Get A Decent Apartment In The Big Apartment Squeeze?"</a>, <i>New York</i> Magazine, September 30, 1968 issue.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronology">Chronology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946%E2%80%931977)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Chronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City_(1898%E2%80%931945)" title="History of New York City (1898–1945)">History of New York City <br /> (1898–1945)</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> History of New York City <br /> (1946–1977) </b> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City_(1978%E2%80%93present)" title="History of New York City (1978–present)">History of New York City <br /> (1978–present)</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946–1977)&oldid=1251778776">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_New_York_City_(1946–1977)&oldid=1251778776</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_New_York_City" title="Category:History of New York City">History of New York City</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th_century_in_New_York_City" title="Category:20th century in New York City">20th century in New York City</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_bare_URLs_for_citations" title="Category:All articles with bare URLs for citations">All articles with bare URLs for citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_bare_URLs_for_citations_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with bare URLs for citations from August 2024">Articles with bare URLs for citations from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_missing_ISBNs" title="Category:Pages with missing ISBNs">Pages with missing ISBNs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_July_2024" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2024">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_June_2013" title="Category:Use mdy dates from June 2013">Use mdy dates from June 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_with_empty_Wikidata_description" title="Category:Short description with empty Wikidata description">Short description with empty Wikidata description</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 October 2024, at 01:11<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; 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