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persecution to state religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_early_persecution_to_state_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_value_as_a_foundation_to_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_value_as_a_foundation_to_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Human value as a foundation to law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_value_as_a_foundation_to_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_legal_views_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_legal_views_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2 Early legal views of women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_legal_views_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws_affecting_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_affecting_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.3 Laws affecting children </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_affecting_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_status_under_Constantine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_status_under_Constantine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.4 Legal status under Constantine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_status_under_Constantine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_century_political_influence_and_laws_against_pagans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_century_political_influence_and_laws_against_pagans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.5 Fourth century political influence and laws against pagans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_century_political_influence_and_laws_against_pagans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_political_and_legal_impact_of_the_fall_of_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_political_and_legal_impact_of_the_fall_of_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.6 The political and legal impact of the fall of Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_political_and_legal_impact_of_the_fall_of_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_role_of_Christianity_in_politics_and_law_in_the_Medieval_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_role_of_Christianity_in_politics_and_law_in_the_Medieval_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 The role of Christianity in politics and law in the Medieval period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_role_of_Christianity_in_politics_and_law_in_the_Medieval_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Rule_of_Benedict_as_a_legal_base_in_the_Dark_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Rule_of_Benedict_as_a_legal_base_in_the_Dark_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 The Rule of Benedict as a legal base in the Dark Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Rule_of_Benedict_as_a_legal_base_in_the_Dark_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charlemagne_transformed_law_and_founded_feudalism_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charlemagne_transformed_law_and_founded_feudalism_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Charlemagne transformed law and founded feudalism in the Early Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charlemagne_transformed_law_and_founded_feudalism_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_common_law,_persecution,_and_secularization_began_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_common_law,_persecution,_and_secularization_began_in_the_High_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Modern common law, persecution, and secularization began in the High Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_common_law,_persecution,_and_secularization_began_in_the_High_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canon_law,_the_value_of_debate,_and_natural_law_from_medieval_universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canon_law,_the_value_of_debate,_and_natural_law_from_medieval_universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3.1 Canon law, the value of debate, and natural law from medieval universities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canon_law,_the_value_of_debate,_and_natural_law_from_medieval_universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_law_and_human_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_law_and_human_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3.1.1 Natural law and human rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_law_and_human_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revival_of_Roman_law_in_the_Medieval_Inquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revival_of_Roman_law_in_the_Medieval_Inquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3.2 Revival of Roman law in the Medieval Inquisition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revival_of_Roman_law_in_the_Medieval_Inquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_invention_of_Holy_War,_chivalry,_and_the_roots_of_modern_tolerance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_invention_of_Holy_War,_chivalry,_and_the_roots_of_modern_tolerance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3.3 The invention of Holy War, chivalry, and the roots of modern tolerance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_invention_of_Holy_War,_chivalry,_and_the_roots_of_modern_tolerance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral_decline_and_rising_political_power_of_the_church_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral_decline_and_rising_political_power_of_the_church_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.4 Moral decline and rising political power of the church in the Late Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moral_decline_and_rising_political_power_of_the_church_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Political_power_of_Women_rose_and_fell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_power_of_Women_rose_and_fell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.4.1 Political power of Women rose and fell </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_power_of_Women_rose_and_fell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_political_Popes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_political_Popes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.4.2 The political Popes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_political_Popes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_political_and_legal_power_of_the_state_through_Modern_Inquisitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_political_and_legal_power_of_the_state_through_Modern_Inquisitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.4.3 The political and legal power of the state through Modern Inquisitions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_political_and_legal_power_of_the_state_through_Modern_Inquisitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_role_of_Christianity_in_politics_and_law_from_the_Reformation_until_the_Modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_role_of_Christianity_in_politics_and_law_from_the_Reformation_until_the_Modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 The role of Christianity in politics and law from the Reformation until the Modern era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_role_of_Christianity_in_politics_and_law_from_the_Reformation_until_the_Modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_morals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_morals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Sexual morals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_morals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage_and_family_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage_and_family_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Marriage and family life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Marriage_and_family_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Marriage and family life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Marriage_and_family_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Roman Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Medieval period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Family relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clerical_marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clerical_marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Clerical marriage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clerical_marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Slavery </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Slavery subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Latin America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letters_and_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letters_and_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Letters and learning </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Letters_and_learning-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Letters and learning subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Letters_and_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Byzantine Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preservation_of_Classical_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preservation_of_Classical_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Preservation of Classical learning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preservation_of_Classical_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Index Librorum Prohibitorum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protestant_role_in_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_role_in_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Protestant role in science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_role_in_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Astronomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Evolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Embryonic_stem_cell_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Embryonic_stem_cell_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Embryonic stem cell research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Embryonic_stem_cell_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 The arts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_arts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle The arts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-The_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Byzantium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Byzantium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Painting_and_sculpture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Painting_and_sculpture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Painting and sculpture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Painting_and_sculpture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protestant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Protestant </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Economic development </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economic_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economic development subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economic_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protestant_work_ethic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_work_ethic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Protestant work ethic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_work_ethic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_justice,_care-giving,_and_the_hospital_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_justice,_care-giving,_and_the_hospital_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Social justice, care-giving, and the hospital system </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_justice,_care-giving,_and_the_hospital_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Social justice, care-giving, and the hospital system subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Social_justice,_care-giving,_and_the_hospital_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fourth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Fourth century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_period_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_period_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Medieval period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_period_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Industrial Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Education </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Education-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Education subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Latin America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 North America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australasia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australasia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Australasia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australasia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protestant_role_in_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_role_in_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Protestant role in education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_role_in_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cleanliness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cleanliness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Cleanliness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cleanliness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Christian influences on the Islamic world </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Christian influences on the Islamic world subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_of_Christianity_in_science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_Christianity_in_science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Role of Christianity in science in the medieval Islamic world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_Christianity_in_science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_Christianity_in_medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_Christianity_in_medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Role of Christianity in medicine in the medieval Islamic world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_Christianity_in_medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_merchants_and_the_silk_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_merchants_and_the_silk_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Christian merchants and the silk trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_merchants_and_the_silk_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Ottoman Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impacto_del_cristianismo_en_la_civilizaci%C3%B3n" title="Impacto del cristianismo en la civilización – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Impacto del cristianismo en la civilización" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolo_de_kristanismo_en_okcidenta_kulturo" title="Rolo de kristanismo en okcidenta kulturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rolo de kristanismo en okcidenta kulturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gereja_Katolik_dan_peradaban_manusia" title="Gereja Katolik dan peradaban manusia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gereja Katolik dan peradaban manusia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolo_del_christianismo_in_le_civilisation" title="Rolo del christianismo in le civilisation – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Rolo del christianismo in le civilisation" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A4%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="תפקידה של הכנסייה הקתולית בתרבות המערבית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תפקידה של הכנסייה הקתולית בתרבות המערבית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rol_de_cristianisme_en_sivilia" title="Rol de cristianisme en sivilia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Rol de cristianisme en sivilia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%89_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%87" title="التاثير الحضارى للمسيحيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="التاثير الحضارى للمسيحيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impacto_do_cristianismo_na_civiliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Impacto do cristianismo na civilização – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Impacto do cristianismo na civilização" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="Роль христианства в западной цивилизации – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Роль христианства в западной цивилизации" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_Christianity_on_western_civilization" title="Impact of Christianity on western civilization – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Impact of Christianity on western civilization" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hristiyanl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1n_uygarl%C4%B1kta_rol%C3%BC" title="Hristiyanlığın uygarlıkta rolü – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hristiyanlığın uygarlıkta rolü" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:lavender;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Christian_culture" title="Category:Christian culture">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christian culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Collage-Christian-culture.jpg/250px-Collage-Christian-culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Collage-Christian-culture.jpg/375px-Collage-Christian-culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Collage-Christian-culture.jpg/500px-Collage-Christian-culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1123" data-file-height="1193" usemap="#ImageMap_742b352ad57c8de2" resource="/wiki/File:Collage-Christian-culture.jpg" /><map name="ImageMap_742b352ad57c8de2"><area href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Center_Christmas_Tree" shape="rect" coords="0,0,51,53" alt="Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree" title="Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree" /><area href="/wiki/Cyril_and_Methodius" shape="rect" coords="51,0,102,53" alt="Cyril and Methodius" title="Cyril and Methodius" /><area href="/wiki/Saint_George" shape="rect" coords="102,0,154,53" alt="Saint George" title="Saint George" /><area href="/wiki/The_Creation_of_Adam" shape="rect" coords="154,0,205,53" alt="The Creation of Adam (Michelangelo)" title="The Creation of Adam (Michelangelo)" /><area href="/wiki/Piet%C3%A0_(Michelangelo)" shape="rect" coords="201,0,256,53" alt="Pietà (Michelangelo)" title="Pietà (Michelangelo)" /><area href="/wiki/Reformation_Wall" shape="rect" coords="0,53,49,107" alt="Reformation Wall" title="Reformation Wall" /><area href="/wiki/Mystery_of_Crowning" shape="rect" coords="51,53,102,107" alt="Mystery of Crowning" title="Mystery of Crowning" /><area href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics" shape="rect" coords="102,53,154,107" alt="John Paul II with Bill Clinton" title="John Paul II with Bill Clinton" /><area href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" shape="rect" coords="154,53,205,107" alt="Martin Luther" title="Martin Luther" /><area href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" shape="rect" coords="201,53,256,107" alt="Thomas Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas" /><area href="/wiki/Trinity_(Andrei_Rublev)" shape="rect" coords="0,107,51,160" alt="Trinity (Andrei Rublev)" title="Trinity (Andrei Rublev)" /><area href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus_in_art" shape="rect" coords="51,107,102,160" alt="Nativity scene at Cologne Cathedral" title="Nativity scene at Cologne Cathedral" /><area href="/wiki/Trevi_Fountain" shape="rect" coords="102,107,154,160" alt="Trevi Fountain" title="Trevi Fountain" /><area href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" shape="rect" coords="154,107,205,160" alt="Gutenberg Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible" /><area href="/wiki/Christ_the_Redeemer_(statue)" shape="rect" coords="201,107,256,160" alt="Christ the Redeemer" title="Christ the Redeemer" /><area href="/wiki/Clerical_marriage" shape="rect" coords="0,160,51,214" alt="Eastern Catholic priest from Romania with his family" title="Eastern Catholic priest from Romania with his family" /><area href="/wiki/Boston_College" shape="rect" coords="51,160,102,214" alt="Boston College" title="Boston College" /><area href="/wiki/Rosary" shape="rect" coords="102,160,154,214" alt="Rosary" title="Rosary" /><area href="/wiki/Saint_Basil%27s_Cathedral" shape="rect" coords="154,160,205,214" alt="Saint Basil's Cathedral" title="Saint Basil's Cathedral" /><area href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" shape="rect" coords="201,160,256,214" alt="Georges Lemaître" title="Georges Lemaître" /><area href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris" shape="rect" coords="0,214,51,265" alt="Notre-Dame de Paris" title="Notre-Dame de Paris" /><area href="/wiki/Christmas_dinner" shape="rect" coords="51,214,102,265" alt="Danish Christmas dinner" title="Danish Christmas dinner" /><area href="/wiki/Freiburg_Cathedral_Boys%27_Choir" shape="rect" coords="102,214,154,265" alt="Freiburg Cathedral Boys' Choir" title="Freiburg Cathedral Boys' Choir" /><area href="/wiki/Armenian_illuminated_manuscripts" shape="rect" coords="154,214,205,265" alt="Armenian illuminated manuscript" title="Armenian illuminated manuscript" /><area href="/wiki/Carnival_of_Venice" shape="rect" coords="201,214,256,265" alt="Entertainers at the Carnival of Venice" title="Entertainers at the Carnival of Venice" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christian culture</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine culture">Byzantine culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_culture" title="Protestant culture">Protestant culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liturgical_year" title="Liturgical year">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">Mormon culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Christian">Cultural Christian</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_symbolism" title="Christian symbolism">Christian symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture" title="Early Christian art and architecture">Early art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Catholic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Lutheran art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Church architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icons</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_media" title="Christian media">Media</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_film_industry" title="Christian film industry">Film industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_radio" title="Christian radio">Radio formats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_video_game" title="Christian video game">Video games</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Catholic_literature" title="American Catholic literature">American Catholic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_fiction" title="Bible fiction">Bible fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_drama" title="Christian drama">Christian drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_poetry" title="Christian poetry">Christian poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_novel" title="Christian novel">Christian novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_science_fiction" title="Christian science fiction">Christian science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_autobiography" title="Spiritual autobiography">Spiritual autobiography</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Christian_music" title="Contemporary Christian music">CCM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_music" title="Christmas music">Christmas music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_music" title="Church music">Church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liturgical_music" title="Liturgical music">Liturgical music</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology" title="List of Christians in science and technology">List of Christian scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Merton thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Christian Nobel laureates">List of Christian Nobel laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and science">Catholic Church and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parson-naturalist" title="Parson-naturalist">Parson-naturalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers_in_science" title="Quakers in science">Quakers in science</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity in civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christian history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian influences in Islam">Christian influences in Islam</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christian_culture" title="Template:Christian culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christian_culture" title="Template talk:Christian culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christian_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christian culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> has been intricately intertwined with the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">history and formation of Western society</a>. Throughout <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">its long history</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Church</a> has been a major source of social services like schooling and medical care; an inspiration for <a href="/wiki/Western_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Western art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">philosophy</a>; and an influential player <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">in politics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>. In various ways it has sought to affect Western attitudes towards <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> in diverse fields. Festivals like <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a> are marked as public holidays; the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregorian Calendar">Gregorian Calendar</a> has been adopted internationally as the <a href="/wiki/Civil_calendar" title="Civil calendar">civil calendar</a>; and the calendar itself is measured from an estimation of the date of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>'s birth. The cultural influence of the Church has been vast. Church scholars preserved <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_University_Press-1">[1]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the Church rose to replace the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> as the unifying force in Europe. The medieval <a href="/wiki/Cathedral" title="Cathedral">cathedrals</a> remain among the most iconic architectural feats produced by <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a>. Many of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Europe's universities</a> were also founded by the church at that time. Many historians state that universities and <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_school" title="Cathedral school">cathedral schools</a> were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The university is generally regarded<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Verger-4">[4]</a> as an institution that has its origin in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_during_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity during the Middle Ages">Medieval Christian</a> setting, born from <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_school" title="Cathedral school">Cathedral schools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Many scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-abc.net.au-7">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> brought an end to religious unity in the West, but the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance masterpieces</a> produced by Catholic artists like <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a> remain among the most celebrated works of art ever produced. Similarly, Christian <a href="/wiki/Church_music" title="Church music">sacred music</a> by composers like <a href="/wiki/Johann_Pachelbel" title="Johann Pachelbel">Pachelbel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi" title="Antonio Vivaldi">Vivaldi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Bach</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel" title="George Frideric Handel">Handel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Mozart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Haydn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Liszt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Verdi" title="Giuseppe Verdi">Verdi</a> is among the most admired <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a> in the Western canon. The <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a> have also strongly influenced Western philosophers and political activists.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Teachings_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Teachings of Jesus">teachings of Jesus</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_Good_Samaritan" title="Parable of the Good Samaritan">Parable of the Good Samaritan</a>, are argued by some to be among the most important sources of modern notions of "<a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>" and the welfare commonly provided by governments in the West. Long-held Christian teachings on sexuality, marriage, and family life have also been influential and controversial in recent times.<a href="#cite_note-Adrian_Hastings-9">[9]</a>: 309  Christianity in general affected the status of women by condemning <a href="/wiki/Marital_infidelity" class="mw-redirect" title="Marital infidelity">marital infidelity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a> (female infants were more likely to be killed), and <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stark-10">[10]</a>: 104  While official Catholic Church teaching<a href="#cite_note-Kreeft61-11">[11]</a>: 61  considers women and men to be <a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">complementary</a> (equal and different), some modern "advocates of ordination of women and other feminists" argue that teachings attributed to <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">St. Paul</a> and those of the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Fathers of the Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastic</a> theologians advanced the notion of a divinely ordained female inferiority.<a href="#cite_note-Bokenkotter465-12">[12]</a> Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Christianity" title="Women in Christianity">women have played prominent roles</a> in Western history through and as part of the church, particularly in education and healthcare, but also as influential theologians and mystics. <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Christians</a> have made a myriad of contributions to <a href="/wiki/Progress_(history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Progress (history)">human progress</a> in a broad and diverse range of fields, both historically and in modern times, including <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology" title="List of Christians in science and technology">science and technology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gilley-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steane-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-L._Johnson-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_health_care" title="Catholic Church and health care">medicine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-S._Kroger-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">fine arts and architecture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-adherents.com-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-E._McGrath-21">[21]</a> politics, <a href="/wiki/Literatures" class="mw-redirect" title="Literatures">literatures</a>,<a href="#cite_note-E._McGrath-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>,<a href="#cite_note-E._McGrath-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">philosophy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-A._Spinello-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vincelette-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hyman1967-24">[24]</a>: 15  <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">ethics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopaedia_Perthensis-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_drama" title="Christian drama">theatre</a> and business.<a href="#cite_note-J._Hillerbrand-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-adherents.com-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> According to 100 Years of Nobel Prizes a review of Nobel prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prizes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prizes">Nobel Prizes</a> Laureates, have identified <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Christian Nobel laureates">Christianity</a> in its various forms as their religious preference.<a href="#cite_note-Nobel_Prize-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Christians">Eastern Christians</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorian</a> Christians) have also contributed to the Arab <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Civilization</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Ummayad</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasids">Abbasid</a> periods by translating works of <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophers">Greek philosophers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> and afterwards to <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hill,_Donald_1993._p.4-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ferguson-2008-35">[35]</a> They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-christiansofiraq.com-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestorian-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a> writes that medieval Europe's advances in production methods, navigation, and war technology "can be traced to the unique Christian conviction that progress was a God-given obligation, entailed in the gift of reason. That new technologies and techniques would always be forthcoming was a fundamental article of Christian faith. Hence, no bishops or theologians denounced clocks or sailing ships—although both were condemned on religious grounds in various non-Western societies."<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE">example needed</a>] Christianity contributed greatly to the development of <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Europe" title="Culture of Europe">European cultural</a> identity,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> although some progress originated elsewhere, <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> began with the curiosity and passion of the <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> world of old.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Outside the Western world, Christianity has had an influence and contributed to various cultures, such as in Africa, Central Asia, the Near East, Middle East, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.<a href="#cite_note-Curtis_2017_173-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Scholars and intellectuals have noted <a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Christians have made significant contributions</a> to Arab and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic civilization</a> since the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politics_and_law">Politics and law</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Politics and law">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_early_persecution_to_state_religion">From early persecution to state religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: From early persecution to state religion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicaea_icon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/170px-Nicaea_icon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/255px-Nicaea_icon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/340px-Nicaea_icon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption>Icon depicting the <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Roman Emperor Constantine</a> (centre) and the bishops of the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> (325) holding the <a href="/wiki/Niceno-Constantinopolitan_Creed" class="mw-redirect" title="Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed">Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381</a></figcaption></figure> The foundation of canon law is found in its earliest texts and their interpretation in the church fathers' writings. Christianity <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christians#Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christians">began as a Jewish sect</a> in the mid-1st century arising out of the life and teachings of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus of Nazareth</a>. The life of Jesus is recounted in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament_view_on_Jesus%27_life" class="mw-redirect" title="New Testament view on Jesus' life">New Testament</a> of the Bible, one of the bedrock texts of Western Civilization and inspiration for countless works of <a href="/wiki/Western_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Western art">Western art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-45">[45]</a> Jesus' birth is commemorated in the festival of Christmas, his death during the <a href="/wiki/Paschal_Triduum" title="Paschal Triduum">Paschal Triduum</a>, and his resurrection during Easter. Christmas and Easter remain holidays in many Western nations. The early followers of Jesus, including <a href="/wiki/St_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="St Paul">Paul</a> and <a href="/wiki/St_Peter" class="mw-redirect" title="St Peter">Peter</a>, carried their new theology concerning Jesus and its ethic throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, sowing the seeds for the development of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, of which Saint Peter is considered the first Pope. Christians sometimes <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">faced persecution</a> during these early centuries, particularly for their refusal to join in <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">worshiping the emperors</a>. Nevertheless, carried through the synagogues, merchants and missionaries across the known world, Christianity quickly grew in size and influence.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46">[46]</a> Its unique appeal was partly the result of its values and ethics.<a href="#cite_note-George_H._van_Kooten-47">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> has had a profound influence on Western civilization and on cultures around the globe; it has contributed to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Western law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Western art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">texts</a>, and education.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> With a literary tradition spanning two millennia, the Bible is one of the most influential works ever written. From practices of <a href="/wiki/Personal_hygiene" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal hygiene">personal hygiene</a> to philosophy and ethics, the Bible has directly and indirectly influenced politics and law, war and peace, sexual morals, marriage and family life, <a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">toilet etiquette</a>, letters and learning, the arts, economics, social justice, medical care and more.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_value_as_a_foundation_to_law">Human value as a foundation to law</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Human value as a foundation to law">edit</a>]</div> The world's first civilizations were Mesopotamian sacred states ruled in the name of a divinity or by rulers who were seen as divine. Rulers, and the priests, soldiers and bureaucrats who carried out their will, were a small minority who kept power by exploiting the many.<a href="#cite_note-Alfred_J._Andrea-51">[51]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">If we turn to the roots of our western tradition, we find that in Greek and Roman times not all human life was regarded as inviolable and worthy of protection. Slaves and 'barbarians' did not have a full right to life and human sacrifices and gladiatorial combat were acceptable... Spartan Law required that deformed infants be put to death; for Plato, infanticide is one of the regular institutions of the ideal State; Aristotle regards abortion as a desirable option; and the Stoic philosopher Seneca writes unapologetically: "Unnatural progeny we destroy; we drown even children who at birth are weakly and abnormal... And whilst there were deviations from these views..., it is probably correct to say that such practices...were less proscribed in ancient times. Most historians of western morals agree that the rise of ...Christianity contributed greatly to the general feeling that human life is valuable and worthy of respect.<a href="#cite_note-Marc_Stauch-52">[52]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/William_Edward_Hartpole_Lecky" title="William Edward Hartpole Lecky">W.E.H.Lecky</a> gives the now classical account of the sanctity of human life in his history of European morals saying Christianity "formed a new standard, higher than any which then existed in the world...".<a href="#cite_note-W._E._H._Lecky-53">[53]</a> Christian ethicist <a href="/wiki/David_P._Gushee" title="David P. Gushee">David P. Gushee</a> says "The justice teachings of Jesus are closely related to a commitment to life's sanctity...".<a href="#cite_note-David_P._Gushee-54">[54]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Keown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Keown (page does not exist)">John Keown</a>, a professor of Christian ethics distinguishes this '<a href="/wiki/Sanctity_of_life" title="Sanctity of life">sanctity of life</a>' doctrine from "a <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> approach, which recognizes only instrumental value in human life, and a <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalistic</a> approach, which regards life as an absolute moral value... [Kewon says it is the] sanctity of life approach ... which embeds a presumption in favor of preserving life, but concedes that there are circumstances in which life should not be preserved at all costs", and it is this which provides the solid foundation for law concerning end of life issues.<a href="#cite_note-Elizabeth_Wicks-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_legal_views_of_women">Early legal views of women</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early legal views of women">edit</a>]</div> Rome had a social caste system, with women having "no legal independence and no independent property".<a href="#cite_note-Jane_F._Gardner-56">[56]</a> Early Christianity, as <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a> explains in his letters to Emperor Trajan, had people from "every age and rank, and both sexes".<a href="#cite_note-Luke_Painter-57">[57]</a> Pliny reports arresting two slave women who claimed to be 'deaconesses' in the first decade of the second century.<a href="#cite_note-Lynn_Cohick-58">[58]</a> There was a rite for the ordination of women deacons in the Roman Pontifical (a liturgical book) up through the 12th century. For women deacons, the oldest rite in the West comes from an eighth-century book, whereas Eastern rites go back to the third century and there are more of them.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The New Testament refers to a number of women in Jesus' inner circle. There are several Gospel accounts of Jesus imparting important teachings to and about women: his meeting with the Samaritan woman at the well, his anointing by Mary of Bethany, his public admiration for a poor widow who donated two copper coins to the Temple in Jerusalem, his stepping to the aid of the woman accused of adultery, his friendship with Mary and Martha the sisters of Lazarus, and the presence of Mary Magdalene, his mother, and the other women as he was crucified. Historian Geoffrey Blainey concludes that "as the standing of women was not high in Palestine, Jesus' kindnesses towards them were not always approved by those who strictly upheld tradition".<a href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_Blaney-60">[60]</a> According to Christian apologist Tim Keller, it was common in the Greco-Roman world to expose female infants because of the low status of women in society. The church forbade its members to do so. Greco-Roman society saw no value in an unmarried woman, and therefore it was illegal for a widow to go more than two years without remarrying. Christianity did not force widows to marry and supported them financially. Pagan widows lost all control of their husband's estate when they remarried, but the church allowed widows to maintain their husband's estate. Christians did not believe in cohabitation. If a Christian man wanted to live with a woman, the church required marriage, and this gave women legal rights and far greater security. Finally, the pagan double standard of allowing married men to have extramarital sex and mistresses was forbidden. Jesus' teachings on divorce and Paul's advocacy of monogamy began the process of elevating the status of women so that Christian women tended to enjoy greater security and equality than women in surrounding cultures.<a href="#cite_note-Tim_Keller-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Laws_affecting_children">Laws affecting children</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Laws affecting children">edit</a>]</div> In the ancient world, infanticide was not legal but was rarely prosecuted. A broad distinction was popularly made between infanticide and infant exposure, which was widely practiced. Many exposed children died, but many were taken by speculators who raised them to be slaves or prostitutes. It is not possible to ascertain, with any degree of accuracy, what diminution of infanticide resulted from legal efforts against it in the Roman empire. "It may, however, be safely asserted that the publicity of the trade in exposed children became impossible under the influence of Christianity, and that the sense of the seriousness of the crime was very considerably increased."<a href="#cite_note-W._E._H._Lecky-53">[53]</a>: 31, 32  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legal_status_under_Constantine">Legal status under Constantine</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Legal status under Constantine">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Constantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Constantine">Emperor Constantine</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> in 313 AD ended the state-sponsored persecution of Christians in the East, and his own conversion to Christianity was a significant turning point in history.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> In 312, Constantine offered civic toleration to Christians, and through his reign instigated laws and policies in keeping with Christian principles – making Sunday the Sabbath "day of rest" for Roman society (though initially this was only for urban dwellers) and embarking on a church building program. In AD 325, Constantine conferred the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> to gain consensus and unity within Christianity, with a view to establishing it as the religion of the Empire. The population and wealth of the Roman Empire had been shifting east, and around the year 330, Constantine established the city of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> as a new imperial city which would be the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>. The Eastern Patriarch in Constantinople now came to rival the Pope in Rome. Although cultural continuity and interchange would continue between these Eastern and Western Roman Empires, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">history of Christianity</a> and Western culture took divergent routes, with a final <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a> separating <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern</a> Christianity in 1054 AD. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fourth_century_political_influence_and_laws_against_pagans">Fourth century political influence and laws against pagans</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fourth century political influence and laws against pagans">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire</a></div> During the fourth century, Christian writing and theology blossomed into a "Golden Age" of literary and scholarly activity unmatched since the days of Virgil and Horace. Many of these works remain influential in politics, law, ethics and other fields. A new genre of literature was also born in the fourth century: church history.<a href="#cite_note-Isaac_Padinjarekutt-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jonathan_Bardill-64">[64]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthonis_van_Dyck_005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anthonis_van_Dyck_005.jpg/170px-Anthonis_van_Dyck_005.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anthonis_van_Dyck_005.jpg/255px-Anthonis_van_Dyck_005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Anthonis_van_Dyck_005.jpg/340px-Anthonis_van_Dyck_005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3189" data-file-height="4226" /></a><figcaption>Saint Ambrose and Emperor Theodosius, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_van_Dyck" title="Anthony van Dyck">Anthony van Dyck</a></figcaption></figure> The remarkable transformation of Christianity from peripheral sect to major force within the Empire is often held to be a result of the influence held by <a href="/wiki/St._Ambrose" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Ambrose">St. Ambrose</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Milan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Milan">Bishop of Milan</a>, but this is unlikely.<a href="#cite_note-Cameron-65">[65]</a>: 60, 63, 131  In April of 390, the Emperor Theodosius I ordered the <a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_Thessalonica" title="Massacre of Thessalonica">punitive massacre of thousands of the citizens</a> of <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a>. In a private letter from Ambrose to Theodosius, sometime in August after this event, Ambrose told Theodosius he cannot be given communion while Theodosius is unrepentant of this terrible act.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a>: 12 <a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Randall_D._Law-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Liebeschuetz" title="Wolf Liebeschuetz">Wolf Liebeschuetz</a> says records show "Theodosius duly complied and came to church humbly, without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly readmitted him to communion."<a href="#cite_note-Hugo-69">[69]</a>: 262  McLynn states that "the encounter at the church door has long been known as a pious fiction."<a href="#cite_note-McLynn-70">[70]</a>: 291  <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Washburn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Washburn (page does not exist)">Daniel Washburn</a> explains that the image of the mitered prelate braced in the door of the cathedral in Milan blocking Theodosius from entering, is a product of the imagination of <a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a>, a historian of the fifth century who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record."<a href="#cite_note-Drake-71">[71]</a>: 215  According to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Peter Brown</a>, these events concern personal piety; they do not represent a turning point in history with the State submitting to the Church.<a href="#cite_note-Brownpowerandpersuasion-72">[72]</a>: 111 <a href="#cite_note-Cameron-65">[65]</a>: 63, 64  According to Christian literature of the fourth century, paganism ended by the early to mid—fifth century with everyone either converted or cowed.<a href="#cite_note-Brown2-73">[73]</a>: 633, 640  Contemporary archaeology, on the other hand, indicates this is not so; paganism continued across the empire, and the end of paganism varied from place to place.<a href="#cite_note-Lavan-74">[74]</a>: 54  Violence such as temple destructions are attested in some locations, generally in small numbers, and are not spread equally throughout the empire. In most regions away from the imperial court, the end of paganism was, more often, gradual and untraumatic.<a href="#cite_note-Lavan-74">[74]</a>: 156, 221 <a href="#cite_note-Sághy-75">[75]</a>: 5, 7, 41  Theodosius reigned (albeit for a brief interim) as the last Emperor of a united Eastern and Western Roman Empire. Between 389 and 391, Theodosius promulgated the Theodosian Decrees, a collection of laws from the time of Constantine including laws against heretics and pagans. In 391 Theodosius blocked the restoration of the pagan <a href="/wiki/Altar_of_Victory" title="Altar of Victory">Altar of Victory</a> to the Roman Senate and then fought against <a href="/wiki/Eugenius" title="Eugenius">Eugenius</a>, who courted pagan support for his own bid for the imperial throne.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Brown says the language of the Theodosian Decrees is "uniformly vehement and the penalties are harsh and frequently horrifying." They may have provided a foundation for similar laws in the High Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-Brown2-73">[73]</a>: 638  However, in antiquity, these laws were not much enforced, and Brown adds that, "In most areas, polytheists were not molested, and, apart from a few ugly incidents of local violence, Jewish communities also enjoyed a century of stable, even privileged, existence."<a href="#cite_note-Brown1-77">[77]</a>: 643  Contemporary scholars indicate pagans were not wiped out or fully converted by the fifth century as Christian sources claim. Pagans remained throughout the fourth and fifth centuries in sufficient numbers to preserve a broad spectrum of pagan practices into the 6th century and even beyond in some places.<a href="#cite_note-Bayliss-78">[78]</a>: 19  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_political_and_legal_impact_of_the_fall_of_Rome">The political and legal impact of the fall of Rome</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The political and legal impact of the fall of Rome">edit</a>]</div> The central bureaucracy of imperial Rome remained in Rome in the sixth century but was replaced in the rest of the empire by German tribal organization and the church.<a href="#cite_note-Ermatinger-79">[79]</a>: 67  After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Rome">fall of Rome</a> (476) most of the west returned to a subsistence agrarian form of life. What little security there was in this world was largely provided by the Christian church.<a href="#cite_note-Cuthbert_Butler-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Roy_T._Matthews-81">[81]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a> served as a source of authority and continuity at this critical time. In the absence of a <a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">magister militum</a> living in Rome, even the control of military matters fell to the pope. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_role_of_Christianity_in_politics_and_law_in_the_Medieval_period">The role of Christianity in politics and law in the Medieval period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The role of Christianity in politics and law in the Medieval period">edit</a>]</div> The historian <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a> likened the Catholic Church in its activities during the Middle Ages to an early version of a welfare state: "It conducted hospitals for the old and orphanages for the young; hospices for the sick of all ages; places for the <a href="/wiki/Leper" class="mw-redirect" title="Leper">lepers</a>; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a cheap bed and meal". It supplied food to the population during famine and distributed food to the poor. This welfare system the church funded through collecting taxes on a large scale and by owning large farmlands and estates.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">canon law of the Catholic Church</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: jus canonicum)<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> is the system of <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">laws</a> and legal principles made and enforced by the <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Hierarchy of the Catholic Church">hierarchical authorities</a> of the Church to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the Church.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> It was the first modern Western <a href="/wiki/Legal_system" title="Legal system">legal system</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West,<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> predating the European <a href="/wiki/Common_law_(legal_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common law (legal system)">common law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> traditions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Rule_of_Benedict_as_a_legal_base_in_the_Dark_Ages">The Rule of Benedict as a legal base in the Dark Ages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Rule of Benedict as a legal base in the Dark Ages">edit</a>]</div> The period between the Fall of Rome (476 C.E.) and the rise of the Carolingian Franks (750 C.E.) is often referred to as the "Dark Ages", however, it could also be designated the "Age of the Monk". This era had a lasting impact on politics and law through Christian aesthetes like St. Benedict (480–543), who vowed a life of chastity, obedience and poverty; after rigorous intellectual training and self-denial, Benedictines lived by the "Rule of Benedict:" work and pray. This "Rule" became the foundation of the majority of the thousands of monasteries that spread across what is modern day Europe; "...certainly there will be no demur in recognizing that St. Benedict's Rule has been one of the great facts in the history of western Europe, and that its influence and effects are with us to this day."<a href="#cite_note-Cuthbert_Butler-80">[80]</a>: intro.  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gregorythegreat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Gregorythegreat.jpg/170px-Gregorythegreat.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Gregorythegreat.jpg/255px-Gregorythegreat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Gregorythegreat.jpg/340px-Gregorythegreat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="770" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Pope <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory the Great">Gregory the Great</a> (c 540–604), who established medieval themes in the Church, in a painting by <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Saraceni" title="Carlo Saraceni">Carlo Saraceni</a>, c. 1610, Rome</figcaption></figure> Monasteries were models of productivity and economic resourcefulness teaching their local communities animal husbandry, cheese making, wine making, and various other skills.<a href="#cite_note-Dennis_J._Dunn-87">[87]</a> They were havens for the poor, hospitals, hospices for the dying, and schools. Medical practice was highly important in medieval monasteries, and they are best known for their contributions to medical tradition. They also made advances in sciences such as astronomy.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> For centuries, nearly all secular leaders were trained by monks because, excepting private tutors who were still, often, monks, it was the only education available.<a href="#cite_note-Paul_Monroe-89">[89]</a> The formation of these organized bodies of believers distinct from political and familial authority, especially for women, gradually carved out a series of social spaces with some amount of independence thereby revolutionizing social history.<a href="#cite_note-Roger_D._Haight-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory the Great">Gregory the Great</a> (c 540–604) administered the church with strict reform. A trained Roman lawyer, administrator, and monk, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook and was a father of many of the structures of the later Catholic Church. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, he looked upon Church and State as co-operating to form a united whole, which acted in two distinct spheres, ecclesiastical and secular, but by the time of his death, the papacy was the great power in Italy:<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Gregory was one of the few sovereigns called Great by universal consent. He is known for sending out the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome to convert the then-<a href="/wiki/Pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan">pagan</a> Anglo-Saxons in England, for his many writings, his administrative skills, and his focus on the welfare of the people.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-OCA-93">[93]</a> He also fought the <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arian heresy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatists</a>, pacified the Goths, left a famous example of penitence for a crime, revised the liturgy, and influenced music through the development of antiphonal chants.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Pope Gregory the Great made himself in Italy a power stronger than emperor or exarch, and established a political influence which dominated the peninsula for centuries. From this time forth the varied populations of Italy looked to the pope for guidance, and Rome as the papal capital continued to be the centre of the Christian world.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Charlemagne_transformed_law_and_founded_feudalism_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages">Charlemagne transformed law and founded feudalism in the Early Middle Ages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Charlemagne transformed law and founded feudalism in the Early Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EB1911_Europe_-_Charlemagne%27s_empire_at_its_greatest_extent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/EB1911_Europe_-_Charlemagne%27s_empire_at_its_greatest_extent.jpg/220px-EB1911_Europe_-_Charlemagne%27s_empire_at_its_greatest_extent.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/EB1911_Europe_-_Charlemagne%27s_empire_at_its_greatest_extent.jpg/330px-EB1911_Europe_-_Charlemagne%27s_empire_at_its_greatest_extent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/EB1911_Europe_-_Charlemagne%27s_empire_at_its_greatest_extent.jpg/440px-EB1911_Europe_-_Charlemagne%27s_empire_at_its_greatest_extent.jpg 2x" data-file-width="869" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>EB1911 Europe – Charlemagne's empire at its greatest extent</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> ("Charles the Great" in English) became king of the Franks in 768. He conquered the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, Saxony, and northern and central Italy, and in 800, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a> crowned Charlemagne <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a>. Sometimes called the "Father of Europe" and the founder of feudalism, Charlemagne instituted political and judicial reform and led what is sometimes referred to as the Early Renaissance or the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Christian Renaissance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Roger_Collins-95">[95]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fried" title="Johannes Fried">Johannes Fried</a> writes that Charlemagne left such a profound impression on his age that traces of it still remain. He promoted education and literacy and subsidized schools, he worked at protecting the poor enacting economic and currency reform; these, along with legal and judicial reforms, created a more lawful and prosperous kingdom. This helped form a group of independent minded warlords into a well-administered empire, with a tradition of working with the Pope, which became the precursor to the nation of France.<a href="#cite_note-Johannes_Fried-96">[96]</a> Fried says, "he was the first king and emperor to seriously enact the legal principle according to which the Pope was beyond the reach of all human justice—a decision that would have major ramifications in the future."<a href="#cite_note-Johannes_Fried-96">[96]</a>: 12  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_common_law,_persecution,_and_secularization_began_in_the_High_Middle_Ages">Modern common law, persecution, and secularization began in the High Middle Ages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Modern common law, persecution, and secularization began in the High Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canossa-three.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Canossa-three.jpg/300px-Canossa-three.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Canossa-three.jpg/450px-Canossa-three.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Canossa-three.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry IV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Pope Gregory VII</a> in <a href="/wiki/Canossa" title="Canossa">Canossa</a> 1077, as depicted by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carlo_Emanuelle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carlo Emanuelle (page does not exist)">Carlo Emanuelle</a></figcaption></figure> By the late 11th century, beginning with the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Pope Gregory VII</a>, the Church successfully established itself as "an autonomous legal and political ... [entity] within Western Christendom".<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 23 For the next three hundred years, the Church held great influence over Western society;<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 23  church laws were the single "universal law ... common to jurisdictions and peoples throughout Europe."<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 30  With its own court system, the Church retained jurisdiction over many aspects of ordinary life, including education, inheritance, oral promises, oaths, moral crimes, and marriage.<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 31  As one of the more powerful institutions of the Middle Ages, Church attitudes were reflected in many secular laws of the time.<a href="#cite_note-Eileen_Power-98">[98]</a>: 1  The Catholic Church was very powerful, essentially internationalist and democratic in it structures, with its many branches run by the different monastic organizations, each with its own distinct theology and often in disagreement with the others.<a href="#cite_note-Repgen-99">[99]</a>: 311, 312 <a href="#cite_note-Cohen3-100">[100]</a>: 396  Men of a scholarly bent usually took <a href="/wiki/Holy_Orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Orders">Holy Orders</a> and frequently joined <a href="/wiki/Religious_institute" title="Religious institute">religious institutes</a>. Those with intellectual, administrative, or diplomatic skill could advance beyond the usual restraints of society. Leading churchmen from faraway lands were accepted in local bishoprics, linking European thought across wide distances. Complexes like the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Cluny" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of Cluny">Abbey of Cluny</a> became vibrant centres with dependencies spread throughout Europe. Ordinary people also trekked vast distances on <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">pilgrimages</a> to express their piety and pray at the site of <a href="/wiki/Holy_relics" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy relics">holy relics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> In the pivotal twelfth century (1100s), Europe began laying the foundation for its gradual transformation from the medieval to the modern.<a href="#cite_note-Moore-102">[102]</a>: 154  Feudal lords slowly lost power to the feudal kings as kings began centralizing power into themselves and their nation-state. Kings built their own armies instead of relying on their vassals, thereby taking power from the nobility. The 'state' took over legal practices that had traditionally belonged to local nobles and local church officials; and they began to target minorities.<a href="#cite_note-Moore-102">[102]</a>: 4, 5 <a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 209  According to <a href="/wiki/R.I._Moore" class="mw-redirect" title="R.I. Moore">R.I. Moore</a> and other contemporary scholars, "the growth of secular power and the pursuit of secular interests, constituted the essential context of the developments that led to a persecuting society."<a href="#cite_note-Moore-102">[102]</a>: 4, 5 <a href="#cite_note-Cotts-104">[104]</a>: 8–10 <a href="#cite_note-Diehl-105">[105]</a>: 224 <a href="#cite_note-Boswell-106">[106]</a>: xviii  This has had a permanent impact on politics and law in multiple ways: through a new rhetoric of exclusion that legitimized persecution based on new attitudes of <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotyping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">stigmatization</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Demonization" title="Demonization">demonization</a> of the accused; by the creation of new civil laws which included allowing the state to be the defendant and bring charges on its own behalf; the invention of police forces as the arm of state enforcement; the invention of a general taxation, gold coins, and modern banking to pay for it all; and the inquisitions, which were <a href="/wiki/Inquisitorial_system#History" title="Inquisitorial system">a new legal procedure</a> that allowed the judge to investigate on his own initiative without requiring a victim (other than the state) to press charges.<a href="#cite_note-Moore-102">[102]</a>: 4, 90–100, 146, 149, 154 <a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a>: 97–111  <blockquote>"The exceptional character of persecution in the Latin west since the twelfth century has lain not in the scale or savagery of particular persecutions, ... but in its capacity for sustained long-term growth. The patterns, procedures and rhetoric of persecution, which were established in the twelfth century, have given it the power of infinite and indefinite self-generation and self-renewal."<a href="#cite_note-Moore-102">[102]</a>: vi, 155 </blockquote> Eventually, this would lead to the development among the early <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a> of the conviction that concepts of <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious toleration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a> were essential.<a href="#cite_note-Scribner-108">[108]</a>: 3  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Canon_law,_the_value_of_debate,_and_natural_law_from_medieval_universities">Canon law, the value of debate, and natural law from medieval universities</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Canon law, the value of debate, and natural law from medieval universities">edit</a>]</div> Christianity in the High Middle Ages had a lasting impact on politics and law through the newly established universities. Canon law emerged from theology and developed independently there.<a href="#cite_note-Shoemaker-109">[109]</a>: 255  By the 1200s, both civil and canon law had become a major aspect of ecclesiastical culture, dominating Christian thought.<a href="#cite_note-Hastings-110">[110]</a>: 382  Most bishops and Popes of this period were trained lawyers rather than theologians, and much Christian thought of this time became little more than an extension of law. In the High Middle Ages, the religion that had begun by decrying the power of law (Romans 7:1)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization#Dubious" title="Talk:Role of Christianity in civilization">discuss</a>] developed the most complex religious law the world has ever seen.<a href="#cite_note-Hastings-110">[110]</a>: 382  Canon law became a fertile field for those who advocated strong papal power,<a href="#cite_note-Shoemaker-109">[109]</a>: 260  and <a href="/wiki/Brian_Downing" title="Brian Downing">Brian Downing</a> says that a church-centered empire almost became a reality in this era.<a href="#cite_note-Downing-111">[111]</a>: 35  However, Downing says the rule of law, established in the Middle Ages, is one of the reasons why Europe eventually developed democracy instead.<a href="#cite_note-Downing-111">[111]</a>: 4  Medieval universities were not secular institutions, but they, and some religious orders, were founded with a respect for dialogue and debate, believing good understanding came from viewing something from multiple sides. Because of this, they incorporated reasoned disputation into their system of studies.<a href="#cite_note-Quodlibetal-112">[112]</a>: xxxiii  Accordingly, the universities would hold what was called a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Quadlibettal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Quadlibettal (page does not exist)">quadlibettal</a> where a 'master' would raise a question, students would provide arguments, and those arguments would be assessed and argued. Brian Law says, "Literally anyone could attend, masters and scholars from other schools, all kinds of ecclesiastics and prelates and even civil authorities, all the 'intellectuals' of the time, who were always attracted to skirmishes of this kind, and all of whom had the right to ask questions and oppose arguments."<a href="#cite_note-Quodlibetal-112">[112]</a>: xxv  In a kind of 'Town Hall Meeting' atmosphere, questions could be raised orally by anyone (a quolibet) about literally anything (de quolibet).<a href="#cite_note-Quodlibetal-112">[112]</a>: xxv  Thomas Aquinas was a master at the University of Paris, twice, and held <a href="/wiki/Quodlibeta" title="Quodlibeta">quodlibetals</a>. Aquinas interpreted Aristotle on natural law. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Passerin_d%27Entreves&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander Passerin d'Entreves (page does not exist)">Alexander Passerin d'Entreves</a> writes that natural law has been assailed for a century and a half, yet it remains an aspect of legal philosophy since much human rights theory is based on it.<a href="#cite_note-Passerin_d'Entreves-113">[113]</a> Aquinas taught that just leadership must work for the "common good". He defines a law as "an ordinance of reason" and that it cannot simply be the will of the legislator and be good law. Aquinas says the primary goal of law is that "good is to be done and pursued and evil avoided."<a href="#cite_note-Michael_Bertram_Crowe-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Natural_law_and_human_rights">Natural law and human rights</h6>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Natural law and human rights">edit</a>]</div> "The philosophical foundation of the liberal concept of human rights can be found in natural law theories",<a href="#cite_note-Levent_Gönenç-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-David_Kim-116">[116]</a> and much thinking on natural law is traced to the thought of the Dominican friar, Thomas Aquinas.<a href="#cite_note-John_Goyette-117">[117]</a> Aquinas continues to influence the works of leading political and legal philosophers.<a href="#cite_note-John_Goyette-117">[117]</a> According to Aquinas, every law is ultimately derived from what he calls the 'eternal law': God's ordering of all created things. For Aquinas, a human action is good or bad depending on whether it conforms to reason, and it is this participation in the 'eternal law' by the 'rational creature' that is called 'natural law'. Aquinas said natural law is a fundamental principle that is woven into the fabric of human nature. Secularists, such as Hugo Grotius, later expanded the idea of human rights and built on it. "...one cannot and need not deny that Human Rights are of Western Origin. It cannot be denied, because they are morally based on the Judeo-Christian tradition and Graeco-Roman philosophy; they were codified in the West over many centuries, they have secured an established position in the national declarations of western democracies, and they have been enshrined in the constitutions of those democracies."<a href="#cite_note-Joe_Barth_Abba-118">[118]</a> Howard Tumber says, "human rights is not a universal doctrine, but is the descendent of one particular religion (Christianity)." This does not suggest Christianity has been superior in its practice or has not had "its share of human rights abuses".<a href="#cite_note-Howard_Tumber-119">[119]</a> David Gushee says Christianity has a "tragically mixed legacy" when it comes to the application of its own ethics. He examines three cases of "Christendom divided against itself": the crusades and St. Francis' attempt at peacemaking with Muslims; Spanish conquerors and the killing of indigenous peoples and the protests against it; and the on-again off-again persecution and protection of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-David_Gushee-120">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Malik" title="Charles Malik">Charles Malik</a>, a Lebanese academic, diplomat, philosopher and theologian was responsible for the drafting and adoption of the 1948 <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights#Creation_and_drafting" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Revival_of_Roman_law_in_the_Medieval_Inquisition">Revival of Roman law in the Medieval Inquisition</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Revival of Roman law in the Medieval Inquisition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></div> According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jennifer_Deane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jennifer Deane (page does not exist)">Jennifer Deane</a>, the label <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> implies "an institutional coherence and an official unity that never existed in the Middle Ages."<a href="#cite_note-Deane-121">[121]</a>: 6  The <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Medieval Inquisitions</a> were actually a series of separate inquisitions beginning from around 1184 lasting to the 1230s that were in response to dissidents accused of heresy,<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Papal_Inquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal Inquisition">Papal Inquisition</a> (1230s–1302) was created to restore order disrupted by mob violence against heretics. Heresy was a religious, political, and social issue.<a href="#cite_note-Moore2-123">[123]</a>: 108, 109  As such, "the first stirrings of violence against dissidents were usually the result of popular resentment."<a href="#cite_note-Peters-124">[124]</a>: 189  This led to a breakdown of social order.<a href="#cite_note-Moore2-123">[123]</a>: 108, 109  In the Late Roman Empire, an inquisitorial system of justice had developed, and that is the system that was revived in the Middle Ages. It used a combined panel of both civil and ecclesiastical representatives with a Bishop, his representative, or a local judge, as inquisitor. Essentially, the church reintroduced Roman law in Europe (in the form of the Inquisition) when it seemed that Germanic law had failed.<a href="#cite_note-Monter-125">[125]</a> "The [Medieval] Inquisition was not an organization arbitrarily devised and imposed upon the judicial system by the ambition or fanaticism of the church. It was rather a natural—one may almost say an inevitable—evolution of the forces at work in the thirteenth century."<a href="#cite_note-Henry_Charles_Lea-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_invention_of_Holy_War,_chivalry,_and_the_roots_of_modern_tolerance">The invention of Holy War, chivalry, and the roots of modern tolerance</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The invention of Holy War, chivalry, and the roots of modern tolerance">edit</a>]</div> In 1095, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a> called for a <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusade</a> to re-take the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> from <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> rule. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_S._Pyper&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugh S. Pyper (page does not exist)">Hugh S. Pyper</a> says "the city [of Jerusalem's] importance is reflected in the fact that early medieval maps place [Jerusalem] at the center of the world."<a href="#cite_note-Hastings-110">[110]</a>: 338  <blockquote>"By the eleventh century, the Seljuk Turks had conquered [three—quarters of the Christian world]. The holdings of the old Eastern Roman Empire, known to modern historians as the Byzantine Empire, were reduced to little more than Greece. In desperation, the emperor in Constantinople sent word to the Christians of western Europe asking them to aid their brothers and sisters in the East."<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thomas_F._Madden-128">[128]</a></blockquote> This was the impetus of the first crusade, however, the "Colossus of the Medieval world was Islam, not Christendom" and despite initial success, these conflicts, which lasted four centuries, ultimately ended in failure for western Christendom.<a href="#cite_note-Thomas_F._Madden-128">[128]</a> At the time of the First crusade, there was no clear concept of what a crusade was beyond that of a pilgrimage.<a href="#cite_note-Laiou-129">[129]</a>: 32  <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Riley-Smith" title="Jonathan Riley-Smith">Riley-Smith</a> says the crusades were products of the renewed spirituality of the central Middle Ages as much as they were of political circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-Riley-Smith-130">[130]</a>: 177  Senior churchmen of this time presented the concept of Christian love to the faithful as the reason to take up arms.<a href="#cite_note-Riley-Smith-130">[130]</a>: 177  The people had a concern for living the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vita_apostolica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vita apostolica (page does not exist)">vita apostolica</a> and expressing Christian ideals in active works of charity, exemplified by the new hospitals, the pastoral work of the Augustinians and Premonstratensians, and the service of the friars. Riley-Smith concludes, "The charity of St. Francis may now appeal to us more than that of the crusaders, but both sprang from the same roots."<a href="#cite_note-Riley-Smith-130">[130]</a>: 180, 190–2  <a href="/wiki/Giles_Constable" title="Giles Constable">Constable</a> adds that those "scholars who see the crusades as the beginning of European colonialism and expansionism would have surprised people at the time. [Crusaders] would not have denied some selfish aspects... but the predominant emphasis was on the defense and recovery of lands that had once been Christian and on the self-sacrifice, rather than the self-seeking, of the participants."<a href="#cite_note-Laiou-129">[129]</a>: 15  Riley-Smith also says scholars are turning away from the idea the crusades were materially motivated.<a href="#cite_note-Jonathan_Riley-Smith-131">[131]</a> Ideas such as holy war and Christian chivalry, in both thought and culture, continued to evolve gradually from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 184, 185, 210  This can be traced in expressions of law, traditions, tales, prophecy, and historical narratives, in letters, bulls and poems written during the crusading period.<a href="#cite_note-Alkopher-132">[132]</a>: 715–737  According to political science professor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrew_R._Murphy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrew R. Murphy (page does not exist)">Andrew R. Murphy</a>, concepts of tolerance and intolerance were not starting points for thoughts about relations for any of the various groups involved in or affected by the crusades.<a href="#cite_note-Murphy-133">[133]</a>: xii–xvii  Instead, concepts of tolerance began to grow during the crusades from efforts to define legal limits and the nature of co-existence.<a href="#cite_note-Murphy-133">[133]</a>: xii  Eventually, this would help provide the foundation to the conviction among the early <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a> that pioneering the concept of <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious toleration</a> was necessary.<a href="#cite_note-Scribner-108">[108]</a>: 3  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Moral_decline_and_rising_political_power_of_the_church_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages">Moral decline and rising political power of the church in the Late Middle Ages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Moral decline and rising political power of the church in the Late Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> During the "calamitous" fourteenth century with its <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">famine</a> and <a href="/wiki/14th_century" title="14th century">wars</a>, people were thrown into confusion and despair. From its pinnacle of power in the 1200s, the church entered a period of decline, internal conflict, and corruption.<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 209–214  According to <a href="/wiki/Walter_Ullmann" title="Walter Ullmann">Walter Ullmann</a>, the church lost "the moral, spiritual and authoritative leadership it had built up in Europe over the centuries of minute, consistent, detailed, dynamic forward-looking work. ... The papacy was now forced to pursue policies which, in substance, aimed at appeasement and were no longer directive, orientating and determinative."<a href="#cite_note-Ullmann-134">[134]</a>: 184  According to Matthews and DeWitt, "The Popes in the fourteenth to the mid-fifteenth century turned their interest to the arts and humanities rather than to pressing moral and spiritual issues. Moreover, they were vitally concerned with the trappings of political power. They plunged into Italian politics...ruling as secular princes in their papal lands. Their worldly interests and blatant political maneuverings only intensified the mounting disapproval of the papacy and provided the church's critics with more examples of the institution's corruption and decline."<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 248  As the Church grew more powerful, wealthy, and corrupt, many sought reform. The <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> Orders were founded, which emphasized poverty and spirituality, and the concept of lay piety developed—the <a href="/wiki/Devotio_Moderna" title="Devotio Moderna">Devotio Moderna</a> or the new devotion—which worked toward the ideal of a pious society of ordinary non-ordained people and, ultimately, to the Reformation and the development of modern concepts of tolerance and religious freedom.<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 248–250  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Political_power_of_Women_rose_and_fell">Political power of Women rose and fell</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Political power of Women rose and fell">edit</a>]</div> In the 13th-century Roman Pontifical, the prayer for ordaining women as deacons was removed, and ordination was re-defined and applied only to male Priests. Woman-as-witch became a stereotype in the 1400s until it was codified in 1487 by Pope Innocent VIII who declared "most witches are female". "The European witch stereotype embodies two apparent paradoxes: first, it was not produced by the 'barbaric Dark Ages', but during the progressive Renaissance and the early modern period; secondly, Western Christianity did not recognize the reality of witches for centuries, or criminalize them until around 1400."<a href="#cite_note-Margaret_Schaus-135">[135]</a> Sociologist Don Swenson says the explanation for this may lay in the nature of Medieval society as heirocratic which led to violence and the use of coercion to force conformity. "There has been much debate ... as to how many women were executed ... [and estimates vary wildly, but numbers] small and large do little to portray the horror and dishonor inflicted upon these women. This treatment provides [dramatic] contrast to the respect given to women during the early era of Christianity and in early Europe ..."<a href="#cite_note-Don_Swenson-136">[136]</a> Women were in many respects excluded from political and mercantile life; however, some leading churchwomen were exceptions. Medieval abbesses and female superiors of monastic houses were powerful figures whose influence could rival that of male bishops and abbots: "They treated with kings, bishops, and the greatest lords on terms of perfect equality; ... they were present at all great religious and national solemnities, at the dedication of churches, and even, like the queens, took part in the deliberation of the national assemblies ...".<a href="#cite_note-newadvent.org-137">[137]</a> The increasing popularity of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Mariology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Mariology">devotion to the Virgin Mary</a> (the mother of Jesus) secured maternal virtue as a central cultural theme of Catholic Europe. Kenneth Clarke wrote that the 'Cult of the Virgin' in the early 12th century "had taught a race of tough and ruthless barbarians the virtues of tenderness and compassion".<a href="#cite_note-Civilisation,_BBC_1969-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_political_Popes">The political Popes</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The political Popes">edit</a>]</div> In 1054, after centuries of strained relations, the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a> occurred over differences in doctrine, splitting the Christian world between the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, centered in Rome and dominant in the West, and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, centered in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, capital of the Byzantine Empire. Relations between the major powers in Western society: the nobility, monarchy and clergy, also sometimes produced conflict. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a> was one of the most significant conflicts between <a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and state in medieval Europe</a>. A series of Popes challenged the authority of monarchies over control of appointments, or <a href="/wiki/Investiture" title="Investiture">investitures</a>, of church officials. The Court of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a>, based in Sicily, experienced tension and rivalry with the Papacy over control of Northern Italy.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> In 1302, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a> (1294–1303) issued Unam sanctam, a papal bull proclaiming the superiority of the Pope over all secular rulers. <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV</a> of France responded by sending an army to arrest the Pope. Boniface fled for his life and died shortly thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 216  "This episode revealed that the popes were no longer a match for the feudal kings" and showed there had been a marked decline in papal prestige.<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 216 <a href="#cite_note-Ullmann-134">[134]</a>: xv  <a href="/wiki/George_Garnett" title="George Garnett">George Garnett</a> says the implementation of the papal monarchial idea had led to the loss of prestige, as, the more efficient the papal bureaucratic machine became, the further it alienated the people, and the further it declined.<a href="#cite_note-Ullmann-134">[134]</a>: xv  The <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Papacy had its court at Avignon</a> from 1305 to 1378<a href="#cite_note-Morris-140">[140]</a> This arose from the conflict between the Italian Papacy and the French crown. Theologian <a href="/wiki/Roger_E._Olson" title="Roger E. Olson">Roger Olson</a> says the church reached its nadir at this time when there were three different men claiming to be the rightful Pope.<a href="#cite_note-Olson-141">[141]</a>: 348 <a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 248  <blockquote>"What the observer of the papacy witnessed in the second half of the thirteenth century was a gradual, though clearly perceptible, decomposition of Europe as a single ecclesiastical unit, and the fragmentation of Europe into independent, autonomous entities which were soon to be called national monarchies or states. This fragmentation heralded the withering away of the papacy as a governing institution operating on a universal scale."<a href="#cite_note-Ullmann-134">[134]</a>: 176 </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_political_and_legal_power_of_the_state_through_Modern_Inquisitions">The political and legal power of the state through Modern Inquisitions</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The political and legal power of the state through Modern Inquisitions">edit</a>]</div> The history of the Inquisition divides into two major parts: "its creation by the medieval papacy in the early thirteenth century, and its transformation between 1478 and 1542 into permanent secular governmental bureaucracies: the Spanish, Portuguese, and Roman Inquisitions...all of which endured into the nineteenth century."<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-Edward_Peters-143">[143]</a>: 154  The old medieval inquisitions had limited power and influence, whereas the powers of the modern "Holy Tribunal" were extended and enlarged by the power of the state into "one of the most formidable engines of destruction which ever existed."<a href="#cite_note-Pick-144">[144]</a>: 343  Historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Helen_Rawlings&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Helen Rawlings (page does not exist)">Helen Rawlings</a> says, "the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> was different [from earlier inquisitions] in one fundamental respect: it was responsible to the crown rather than the Pope and was used to consolidate state interest."<a href="#cite_note-Rawlings-145">[145]</a>: 1, 2  It was authorized by the Pope, yet the initial Inquisitors proved so severe that the Pope almost immediately opposed it to no avail.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a>: 52, 53  Early in 1483, the king and queen established a council, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Council_of_the_Inquisition&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Council of the Inquisition (page does not exist)">Consejo de la Suprema y General Inquisición</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consejo_de_la_Suprema_y_General_Inquisici%C3%B3n" class="extiw" title="de:Consejo de la Suprema y General Inquisición">de</a>; <a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsilio_de_la_Supera_Inkvizicio" class="extiw" title="eo:Konsilio de la Supera Inkvizicio">eo</a>; <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consejo_de_la_Suprema_Inquisici%C3%B3n" class="extiw" title="es:Consejo de la Suprema Inquisición">es</a>], to govern the inquisition and chose Torquemada to head it as inquisitor general. In October 1483, a papal bull conceded control to the crown. According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jos%C3%A9_Cassanova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="José Cassanova (page does not exist)">José Cassanova</a>, the Spanish inquisition became the first truly national, unified and centralized state institution.<a href="#cite_note-Casanova-147">[147]</a>: 75  After the 1400s, few Spanish inquisitors were from the religious orders.<a href="#cite_note-Rawlings-145">[145]</a>: 2  The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a> was also fully controlled by the crown which established a government board, known as the General Council, to oversee it. The Grand Inquisitor, who was chosen by the king, was always a member of the royal family. The first statute of <a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Limpieza de sangre</a> (purity of blood) appeared in Toledo in 1449 and was later adopted in Portugal as well. Initially, these statutes were condemned by the Church, but in 1555, the highly corrupt Pope Alexander VI approved a 'blood purity' statute for one of the religious orders.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a>: 19  In his history of the Portuguese Inquisition, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giuseppe_Marcocci&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giuseppe Marcocci (page does not exist)">Giuseppe Marcocci</a> says there is a deep connection between the rise of the Felipes in Portugal, the growth of the inquisition, and the adoption of the statutes of purity of blood which spread and increased and were more concerned with ethnic ancestry than religion.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_F._Mayer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas F. Mayer (page does not exist)">T. F. Mayer</a> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_F._Mayer" class="extiw" title="it:Thomas F. Mayer">it</a>] writes that "the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a> operated to serve the papacy's long standing political aims in Naples, Venice and Florence."<a href="#cite_note-TFMayer-150">[150]</a>: 3  Under Paul III and his successor Julius III, and under most of the popes thereafter, the Roman Inquisition's activity was relatively restrained and its command structure was considerably more bureaucratic than those of other inquisitions were.<a href="#cite_note-TFMayer-150">[150]</a>: 2  Where the medieval Inquisition had focused on popular misconceptions which resulted in the disturbance of public order, the Roman Inquisition was concerned with orthodoxy of a more intellectual, academic nature. The Roman Inquisition is probably best known for its condemnation of the difficult and cantankerous Galileo which was more about "bringing Florence to heel" than about heresy.<a href="#cite_note-TFMayer-150">[150]</a>: 5  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_role_of_Christianity_in_politics_and_law_from_the_Reformation_until_the_Modern_era">The role of Christianity in politics and law from the Reformation until the Modern era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The role of Christianity in politics and law from the Reformation until the Modern era">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg/220px-Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg/330px-Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg/440px-Fa%C3%A7ade_de_la_cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Pierre_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_2009-07-11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3903" data-file-height="3603" /></a><figcaption>Calvin preached at <a href="/wiki/St._Pierre_Cathedral" title="St. Pierre Cathedral">St. Pierre Cathedral</a>, the main church in Geneva.</figcaption></figure> In the Middle Ages, the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle (<a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_two_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of the two kingdoms">doctrine of the two kingdoms</a>).<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther's doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers" title="Priesthood of all believers">priesthood of all believers</a> upgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (Treatise On the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture; 1523).<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen (<a href="/wiki/Church_elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Church elder">church elders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presbyter" title="Presbyter">presbyters</a>) in his representative church government.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a> added regional <a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">synods</a> and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was used by the other Reformed churches.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Politically, <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> favoured a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of democracy: "It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords."<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances (<a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>). 16th-century Calvinists and Lutherans developed a theory of resistance called the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_magistrate" title="Lesser magistrate">doctrine of the lesser magistrate</a> which was later employed in the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Thus early Protestants resisted political <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolutism</a> and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a> was able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies. In 17th century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/English_Bill_of_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="English Bill of Rights">English Bill of Rights</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Settlement_1701" title="Act of Settlement 1701">Act of Settlement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Later, the British took their democratic ideals also to their colonies, e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and India. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the British variety of modern-time democracy, <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, was taken over by Protestant-formed Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands as well as the Catholic countries Belgium and Spain. In North America, <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth Colony</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pilgrim_Fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim Fathers">Pilgrim Fathers</a>; 1620) and <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> (1628) practised democratic self-rule and <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Congregationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregationalist">Congregationalists</a> were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mayflower_Compact" title="Mayflower Compact">Mayflower Compact</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_morals">Sexual morals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sexual morals">edit</a>]</div> Classics scholar <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kyle_Harper&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kyle Harper (page does not exist)">Kyle Harper</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyle_Harper" class="extiw" title="de:Kyle Harper">de</a>; <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyle_Harper" class="extiw" title="fr:Kyle Harper">fr</a>; <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyle_Harper" class="extiw" title="nl:Kyle Harper">nl</a>] says that for a period of time <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">"...the triumph of Christianity not only drove profound cultural change, it created a new relationship between sexual morality and society... The legacy of Christianity lies in the dissolution of an ancient system where social and political status, power, and <a href="/wiki/Social_reproduction" title="Social reproduction">the transmission of social inequality to the next generation</a> scripted the terms of sexual morality.<a href="#cite_note-Kyle_Harper-166">[166]</a>"<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Kyle Harper, From Shame to Sin: The Christian Transformation of Sexual Morality in Late Antiquity, pages 4 and 7</cite></div></blockquote> Both the ancient Greeks and the Romans cared and wrote about sexual morality within categories of good and bad, pure and defiled, and ideal and transgression.<a href="#cite_note-Rebecca_Langlands-167">[167]</a> But the sexual ethical structures of Roman society were built on status, and sexual modesty meant something different for men than it did for women, and for the well-born, than it did for the poor, and for the free citizen, than it did for the slave—for whom the concepts of honor, shame and sexual modesty could be said to have no meaning at all.<a href="#cite_note-Kyle_Harper-166">[166]</a>: 7  Slaves were not thought to have an interior ethical life because they could go no lower socially and were commonly used sexually; the free and well born were thought to embody social honor and were therefore able to exhibit the fine sense of shame suited to their station. Roman literature indicates the Romans were aware of these dualities.<a href="#cite_note-Rebecca_Langlands-167">[167]</a>: 12, 20  Shame was a profoundly social concept that was, in ancient Rome, always mediated by gender and status. "It was not enough that a wife merely regulate her sexual behavior in the accepted ways; it was required that her virtue in this area be conspicuous."<a href="#cite_note-Rebecca_Langlands-167">[167]</a>: 38  Men, on the other hand, were allowed live-in mistresses called pallake.<a href="#cite_note-John_Younger-168">[168]</a> This, for example, permitted Roman society to find both a husband's control of a wife's sexual behavior a matter of intense importance and at the same time see his own sex with young boys as of little concern.<a href="#cite_note-Rebecca_Langlands-167">[167]</a>: 12, 20  Christianity sought to establish equal sexual standards for men and women and to protect all the young whether slave or free. This was a transformation in the deep logic of sexual morality.<a href="#cite_note-Kyle_Harper-166">[166]</a>: 6, 7  Early Church Fathers advocated against adultery, polygamy, homosexuality, pederasty, bestiality, prostitution, and incest while advocating for the sanctity of the marriage bed.<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 20  The central Christian prohibition against such porneia, which is a single name for that array of sexual behaviors, "collided with deeply entrenched patterns of Roman permissiveness where the legitimacy of sexual contact was determined primarily by status. St. Paul, whose views became dominant in early Christianity, made the body into a consecrated space, a point of mediation between the individual and the divine. Paul's over-riding sense that gender—rather than status or power or wealth or position—was the prime determinant in the propriety of the sex act was momentous. By boiling the sex act down to the most basic constituents of male and female, Paul was able to describe the sexual culture surrounding him in transformative terms."<a href="#cite_note-Kyle_Harper-166">[166]</a>: 12, 92  Christian sexual ideology is inextricable from its concept of freewill. "In its original form, Christian freewill was a cosmological claim—an argument about the relationship between God's justice and the individual... as Christianity became intermeshed with society, the discussion shifted in revealing ways to the actual psychology of volition and the material constraints on sexual action... The church's acute concern with volition places Christian philosophy in the liveliest currents of imperial Greco-Roman philosophy [where] orthodox Christians offered a radically distinctive version of it."<a href="#cite_note-Kyle_Harper-166">[166]</a>: 14  The Greeks and Romans said our deepest moralities depend on our social position which is given to us by fate. Christianity "preached a liberating message of freedom". It was a revolution in the rules of behavior, but also in the very image of the human being as a sexual being, free, frail and awesomely responsible for one's own self to God alone. "It was a revolution in the nature of society's claims on the moral agent... There are risks in over-estimating the change in old patterns Christianity was able to begin bringing about; but there are risks, too, in underestimating Christianization as a watershed."<a href="#cite_note-Kyle_Harper-166">[166]</a>: 14–18  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marriage_and_family_life">Marriage and family life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Marriage and family life">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and women">Catholic Church and women</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weyden_Matrimony.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Weyden_Matrimony.jpg/170px-Weyden_Matrimony.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Weyden_Matrimony.jpg/255px-Weyden_Matrimony.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Weyden_Matrimony.jpg 2x" data-file-width="299" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>"Therefore what God has joined together, let not man separate." (<a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a> 19:6) Matrimony, <a href="/wiki/Seven_Sacraments_Altarpiece" title="Seven Sacraments Altarpiece">The Seven Sacraments</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rogier_van_der_Weyden" title="Rogier van der Weyden">Rogier van der Weyden</a>, c. 1445.</figcaption></figure> The teachings of the Church have also been used to "establish[...] the status of women under the law".<a href="#cite_note-Eileen_Power-98">[98]</a> There has been some debate as to whether the Church has improved the status of women or hindered their progress. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Svatba_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Svatba_%282%29.jpg/200px-Svatba_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Svatba_%282%29.jpg/300px-Svatba_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Svatba_%282%29.jpg/400px-Svatba_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Orthodox wedding</a>, Cathedral of Ss. Cyrill and Methodius, Prague, Czech Republic</figcaption></figure> From the beginning of the thirteenth century, the Church formally recognized <a href="/wiki/Fruit_of_the_Holy_Spirit" title="Fruit of the Holy Spirit">marriage between a freely consenting, baptized man and woman</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacrament</a>—an outward sign communicating a special gift of God's love. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Florence" title="Council of Florence">Council of Florence</a> in 1438 gave this definition, following earlier Church statements in 1208, and declared that sexual union was a special participation in the union of Christ in the Church.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a>, while highly valuing the institution, viewed marriage as a "civil", rather than a "religious" matter, being "under the jurisdiction of the civil courts".<a href="#cite_note-Feige,_Diana_1995_P109-170">[170]</a> This is because they found no biblical precedent for clergy performing marriage ceremonies. Further, marriage was said to be for the "relief of <a href="/wiki/Concupiscence" title="Concupiscence">concupiscence</a>"<a href="#cite_note-Feige,_Diana_1995_P109-170">[170]</a> as well as any spiritual purpose. During the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> denied the <a href="/wiki/Sacrament_of_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrament of marriage">sacramentality of marriage</a>. This unanimity was broken at the <a href="/wiki/Lambeth_Conferences#Seventh:_1930" class="mw-redirect" title="Lambeth Conferences">1930 Lambeth Conference</a>, the quadrennial meeting of the worldwide <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> Communion—creating divisions in that denomination. <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a> equates premarital sex with <a href="/wiki/Fornication" title="Fornication">fornication</a> and ties it with breaking the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">sixth commandment</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Thou_shalt_not_commit_adultery" title="Thou shalt not commit adultery">Thou shalt not commit adultery</a>") in its <a href="/wiki/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Catechism of the Catholic Church">Catechism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> While sex before marriage was not a taboo in the Anglican Church until the "Hardwicke Marriage Act of 1753, which for the first time stipulated that everyone in England and Wales had to be married in their parish church"<a href="#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-172">[172]</a> Prior to that time, "marriage began at the time of betrothal, when couples would live and sleep together... The process begun at the time of the Hardwicke Act continued throughout the 1800s, with stigma beginning to attach to illegitimacy."<a href="#cite_note-news.bbc.co.uk-172">[172]</a> Scriptures in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> dealing with sexuality are extensive. Subjects include: the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Decree" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Decree">Apostolic Decree</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts%2015&version=nrsv">Acts 15</a>), sexual immorality, divine love (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Corinthians#13:1" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/1 Corinthians">1 Corinthians 13</a>), mutual self-giving (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Corinthians#7:1" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/1 Corinthians">1 Corinthians 7</a>), bodily membership between Christ and between husband and wife (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Corinthians#6:15" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/1 Corinthians">1 Corinthians 6:15–20</a>) and honor versus dishonor of adultery (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Hebrews#13:4" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Hebrews">Hebrews 13:4</a>). The <a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_homosexuality" title="The Bible and homosexuality">Hebrew Bible</a> and its traditional interpretations in <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> have historically affirmed and endorsed a <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">heteronormative</a> approach towards <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">human sexuality</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Mbuwayesango_2016-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leeming_2003-174">[174]</a> favouring exclusively <a href="/wiki/Heterosexual_intercourse" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterosexual intercourse">penetrative vaginal intercourse between men and women</a> within the boundaries of <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a> over all other forms of <a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">human sexual activity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Mbuwayesango_2016-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leeming_2003-174">[174]</a> including <a href="/wiki/Autoeroticism" title="Autoeroticism">autoeroticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">masturbation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oral_sex" title="Oral sex">oral sex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-penetrative_sex" title="Non-penetrative sex">non-penetrative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homosexual_sexual_practices" title="Homosexual sexual practices">non-heterosexual</a> sexual intercourse (all of which have been labeled as "<a href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</a>" at various times).<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> They have believed and taught that such behaviors are forbidden because they are considered <a href="/wiki/Sin_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin in Christianity">sinful</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Mbuwayesango_2016-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leeming_2003-174">[174]</a> and further compared to or derived from the behavior of the alleged residents of <a href="/wiki/Sodom_and_Gomorrah" title="Sodom and Gomorrah">Sodom and Gomorrah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mbuwayesango_2016-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gnuse_2015-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Roman Empire">edit</a>]</div> Social structures before and at the dawn of Christianity in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> held that women were inferior to men intellectually and physically and were "naturally dependent".<a href="#cite_note-Noble,_p.230-177">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Athens,_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Athens, Greece">Athenian</a> women were legally classified as children regardless of age and were the "legal property of some man at all stages in her life."<a href="#cite_note-Stark-10">[10]</a>: 104  Women in the Roman Empire had limited legal rights and could not enter professions. Female infanticide and abortion were practiced by all classes.<a href="#cite_note-Stark-10">[10]</a>: 104  In family life, men could have "lovers, prostitutes and concubines" but wives who engaged in extramarital affairs were considered guilty of adultery. It was not rare for pagan women to be married before the age of puberty and then forced to consummate the marriage with her often much older husband. Husbands could divorce their wives at any time simply by telling the wife to leave; wives did not have a similar ability to divorce their husbands.<a href="#cite_note-Noble,_p.230-177">[177]</a> Early Church Fathers advocated against polygamy, abortion, infanticide, child abuse, homosexuality, transvestism, and incest.<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 20  After the Roman Empire adopted Christianity as the official religion, however, the link between Christian teachings and Roman family laws became more clear.<a href="#cite_note-nathan187-178">[178]</a>: 91  For example, Church teaching heavily influenced the legal concept of marriage.<a href="#cite_note-Eileen_Power-98">[98]</a>: 1–2  During the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Reform" title="Gregorian Reform">Gregorian Reform</a>, the Church developed and codified a view of marriage as a sacrament.<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 23  In a departure from societal norms, Church law required the consent of both parties before a marriage could be performed<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 20–23  and established a minimum age for marriage.<a href="#cite_note-shahar18-179">[179]</a>: 33  The elevation of marriage to a sacrament also made the union a binding contract, with dissolutions overseen by Church authorities.<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 29, 36  Although the Church abandoned tradition to allow women the same rights as men to dissolve a marriage,<a href="#cite_note-witte20-97">[97]</a>: 20, 25  in practice, when an accusation of infidelity was made, men were granted dissolutions more frequently than women.<a href="#cite_note-shahar18-179">[179]</a>: 18  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_period">Medieval period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Medieval period">edit</a>]</div> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Shulamith_Shahar" title="Shulamith Shahar">Shulamith Shahar</a>, "[s]ome historians hold that the Church played a considerable part in fostering the inferior status of women in medieval society in general" by providing a "moral justification" for male superiority and by accepting practices such as wife-beating.<a href="#cite_note-shahar18-179">[179]</a>: 88  "The ecclesiastical conception of the inferior status of women, deriving from Creation, her role in Original Sin and her subjugation to man, provided both direct and indirect justification for her inferior standing in the family and in society in medieval civilization. It was not the Church which induced husbands to beat their wives, but it not only accepted this custom after the event, if it was not carried to excess, but, by proclaiming the superiority of man, also supplied its moral justification." Despite these laws, some women, particularly <a href="/wiki/Abbess" title="Abbess">abbesses</a>, gained powers that were never available to women in previous Roman or Germanic societies.<a href="#cite_note-shahar18-179">[179]</a>: 12  Although these teachings emboldened secular authorities to give women fewer rights than men, they also helped form the concept of <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eileen_Power-98">[98]</a>: 2  Chivalry was influenced by a new Church attitude towards Mary, the mother of Jesus.<a href="#cite_note-shahar18-179">[179]</a>: 25  This "ambivalence about women's very nature" was shared by most major religions in the Western world.<a href="#cite_note-bitel102-180">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_relations">Family relations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Family relations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thanksgiving_grace_1942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Thanksgiving_grace_1942.jpg/220px-Thanksgiving_grace_1942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Thanksgiving_grace_1942.jpg/330px-Thanksgiving_grace_1942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Thanksgiving_grace_1942.jpg/440px-Thanksgiving_grace_1942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="516" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Christian family saying <a href="/wiki/Grace_(prayer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grace (prayer)">grace</a> before eating</figcaption></figure> Christian culture puts notable emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">family</a>,<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> and according to the work of scholars <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Macfarlane" title="Alan Macfarlane">Alan Macfarlane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Ozment" title="Steven Ozment">Steven Ozment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Jack Goody</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Laslett" title="Peter Laslett">Peter Laslett</a>, the huge transformation that led to modern marriage in Western democracies was "fueled by the religio-cultural value system provided by elements of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, early <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Roman Catholic canon law</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>".<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> Historically, <a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">extended families</a> were the basic family unit in the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholic culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic countries">countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> According to a study by the scholar Joseph Henrich from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, the Catholic church "changed extended family ties, as well as values and psychology of individuals in the Western world".<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Most <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Christian denominations</a> practice <a href="/wiki/Infant_baptism" title="Infant baptism">infant baptism</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> to enter children into the faith. Some form of <a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">confirmation</a> ritual occurs when the child has reached the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_reason_(canon_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of reason (canon law)">age of reason</a> and voluntarily accepts the religion. Ritual <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a> is used to mark <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria">Coptic Christian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-riggs_2006-187">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Christian</a><a href="#cite_note-Columbia_encyc_2011_circ-188">[188]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eritrean Orthodox">Eritrean Orthodox</a> infant males as belonging to the faith.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-N._Stearns_2008_179-190">[190]</a> <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a> is practiced among many Christian countries and communities; <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian communities</a> in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere countries</a>, the Philippines, the Middle East,<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> South Korea and <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> have high circumcision rates,<a href="#cite_note-Associated_Press-195">[195]</a> while Christian communities in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> have low circumcision rates. During the early period of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, the rise of a large, commercial middle class, mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> countries of <a href="/wiki/Holland" title="Holland">Holland</a> and <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, brought about a new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children. <a href="/wiki/Puritanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritanism">Puritanism</a> stressed the importance of individual salvation and concern for the spiritual welfare of children. It became widely recognized that children possess rights on their own behalf. This included the rights of poor children to sustenance, membership in a community, education, and job training. The <a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Relief_of_the_Poor_1601" class="mw-redirect" title="Act for the Relief of the Poor 1601">Poor Relief Acts</a> in Elizabethan England put responsibility on each <a href="/wiki/Parish" title="Parish">Parish</a> to care for all the poor children in the area.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> And prior to the 20th century, three major branches of Christianity—<a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a>—as well as leading Protestant reformers <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> generally held a critical perspective of <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LDS_genealogy_library_slc_utah.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/LDS_genealogy_library_slc_utah.jpg/220px-LDS_genealogy_library_slc_utah.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/LDS_genealogy_library_slc_utah.jpg/330px-LDS_genealogy_library_slc_utah.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/LDS_genealogy_library_slc_utah.jpg/440px-LDS_genealogy_library_slc_utah.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The LDS church's <a href="/wiki/Family_History_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Family History Library">Family History Library</a> is the world's largest library dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogical research</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</a> puts notable emphasis on the <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">family</a>, and the distinctive concept of a united family which lives and progresses forever is at the core of Latter-day Saint doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Church members are encouraged to marry and have children, and as a result, Latter-day Saint families tend to be larger than average. All sexual activity outside of marriage is considered a serious sin. All <a href="/wiki/Homosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexual">homosexual</a> activity is considered sinful and <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">same-sex marriages</a> are not performed or supported by the LDS Church. Latter-day Saint fathers who hold the <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_(LDS_Church)" title="Priesthood (LDS Church)">priesthood</a> typically <a href="/wiki/Baby_blessing" class="mw-redirect" title="Baby blessing">name and bless their children</a> shortly after birth to formally give the child a name and generate a church record for them. <a href="/wiki/Mormons" title="Mormons">Mormons</a> tend to be very family-oriented and have strong connections across generations and with extended family, reflective of their belief that families can be <a href="/wiki/Sealing_(Mormonism)" title="Sealing (Mormonism)">sealed</a> together beyond death.<a href="#cite_note-Bushman-200">[200]</a>: 59  In the temple, husbands and wives are <a href="/wiki/Sealing_(Mormonism)" title="Sealing (Mormonism)">sealed</a> to each other for eternity. The implication is that other institutional forms, including the church, might disappear, but the family will endure.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-201201-MIA-201">[201]</a> A 2011 survey of Mormons in the United States showed that family life is very important to Mormons, with family concerns significantly higher than career concerns. Four out of five Mormons believe that being a good parent is one of the most important goals in life, and roughly three out of four Mormons put having a successful marriage in this category.<a href="#cite_note-DN-20120112-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-LDS-Family-Proc-203">[203]</a> Mormons also have a strict <a href="/wiki/Law_of_chastity" title="Law of chastity">law of chastity</a>, requiring abstention from sexual relations outside heterosexual marriage and fidelity within marriage. A <a href="/wiki/Pew_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Pew Center">Pew Center</a> study about Religion and Living arrangements around the world in 2019, found that Christians around the world live in somewhat smaller households, on average, than non-Christians (4.5 vs. 5.1 members). 34% of world's Christian population live in two parent families with minor children, while 29% live in household with <a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">extended families</a>, 11% live as couples without other family members, 9% live in household with least one child over the age of 18 with one or two parents, 7% live alone, and 6% live in <a href="/wiki/Single_parent" title="Single parent">single parent</a> households.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-2019-204">[204]</a> Christians in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, overwhelmingly live in extended or two parent families with minor children.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-2019-204">[204]</a> While more Christians in Europe and North America live alone or as couples without other family members.<a href="#cite_note-Pew-2019-204">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clerical_marriage">Clerical marriage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Clerical marriage">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clerical_marriage" title="Clerical marriage">Clerical marriage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orthodox_priest_family.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Orthodox_priest_family.jpg/220px-Orthodox_priest_family.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Orthodox_priest_family.jpg/330px-Orthodox_priest_family.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Orthodox_priest_family.jpg/440px-Orthodox_priest_family.jpg 2x" data-file-width="913" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Married <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> priest from <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> with his family (three generations), <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1893</figcaption></figure> Clerical marriage is admitted among <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestants</a>, including both <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutherans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> Some Protestant clergy and their <a href="/wiki/List_of_children_of_clergy" title="List of children of clergy">children</a> have played an essential role in <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> in <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Europe">Early Modern Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Churches</a> (<a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodox">Oriental Orthodox</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Catholic">Eastern Catholic</a>), while allowing married men to be ordained, do not allow clerical marriage after ordination: their <a href="/wiki/Parish_priest" class="mw-redirect" title="Parish priest">parish priests</a> are often married, but must marry before being ordained to the priesthood. Within the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Eastern Christendom</a>, priests' children often became priests and married within their social group, establishing a <a href="/wiki/Priestly_caste" title="Priestly caste">tightly-knit hereditary caste</a> among some <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Christian">Eastern Christian</a> communities.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> not only forbids clerical marriage, but generally follows a practice of clerical celibacy, requiring candidates for ordination to be unmarried or widowed. However, this public policy in the Catholic Church has not always been enforced in private. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery">Slavery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Slavery">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholic Church and slavery</a></div> The Church initially accepted slavery as part of the Greco-Roman social fabric of society, campaigning primarily for humane treatment of slaves but also admonishing slaves to behave appropriately towards their masters.<a href="#cite_note-nathan187-178">[178]</a>: 171–173  Historian Glenn Sunshine says, "Christians were the first people in history to oppose slavery systematically. Early Christians purchased slaves in the markets simply to set them free. Later, in the seventh century, the Franks..., under the influence of its Christian queen, <a href="/wiki/Balthild_of_Chelles" title="Balthild of Chelles">Bathilde</a>, became the first kingdom in history to begin the process of outlawing slavery. ...In the 1200s, Thomas Aquinas declared slavery a sin. When the African slave trade began in the 1400s, it was condemned numerous times by the papacy."<a href="#cite_note-Glenn_S._Sunshine-209">[209]</a> During the early medieval period, Christians tolerated enslavement of non-Christians. By the end of the Medieval period, enslavement of Christians had been mitigated somewhat with the spread of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> within Europe, though outright slavery existed in European colonies in other parts of the world. Several popes issued papal bulls condemning mistreatment of enslaved Native Americans; these were largely ignored. In his 1839 bull <a href="/wiki/In_supremo_apostolatus" title="In supremo apostolatus">In supremo apostolatus</a>, Pope <a href="/wiki/Gregory_XVI" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory XVI">Gregory XVI</a> condemned all forms of slavery; nevertheless some American bishops continued to support slavery for several decades.<a href="#cite_note-starkrodney-210">[210]</a> In this historic Bull, Pope Gregory outlined his summation of the impact of the Church on the ancient institution of slavery, beginning by acknowledging that early Apostles had tolerated slavery but had called on masters to "act well towards their slaves... knowing that the common Master both of themselves and of the slaves is in Heaven, and that with Him there is no distinction of persons". Gregory continued to discuss the involvement of Christians for and against slavery through the ages:<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">In the process of time, the fog of pagan superstition being more completely dissipated and the manners of barbarous people having been softened, thanks to Faith operating by Charity, it at last comes about that, since several centuries, there are no more slaves in the greater number of Christian nations. But – We say with profound sorrow – there were to be found afterwards among the Faithful men who, shamefully blinded by the desire of sordid gain, in lonely and distant countries, did not hesitate to reduce to slavery Indians, negroes and other wretched peoples, or else, by instituting or developing the trade in those who had been made slaves by others, to favour their unworthy practice. Certainly many Roman Pontiffs of glorious memory, Our Predecessors, did not fail, according to the duties of their charge, to blame severely this way of acting as dangerous for the spiritual welfare of those engaged in the traffic and a shame to the Christian name; they foresaw that as a result of this, the infidel peoples would be more and more strengthened in their hatred of the true Religion.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Latin America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StPeterClaver.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/StPeterClaver.jpg/170px-StPeterClaver.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/StPeterClaver.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="202" data-file-height="285" /></a><figcaption>Saint <a href="/wiki/Peter_Claver" title="Peter Claver">Peter Claver</a> worked for the alleviation of the suffering of African slaves brought to South America.</figcaption></figure> It was women, primarily Amerindian Christian converts who became the primary supporters of the Latin American Church.<a href="#cite_note-Stearns-212">[212]</a>: 65  While the Spanish military was known for its ill-treatment of Amerindian men and women, Catholic missionaries are credited with championing all efforts to initiate protective laws for the Indians and fought against their enslavement. This began within 20 years of the discovery of the New World by Europeans in 1492 – in December 1511, <a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Montesinos_(Dominican_friar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio de Montesinos (Dominican friar)">Antonio de Montesinos</a>, a Dominican friar, openly rebuked the Spanish rulers of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> for their "cruelty and tyranny" in dealing with the American natives.<a href="#cite_note-Woods135-213">[213]</a>: 135  <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">King Ferdinand</a> enacted the <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Burgos" title="Laws of Burgos">Laws of Burgos</a> and Valladolid in response. The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.<a href="#cite_note-Johansen-214">[214]</a>: 109, 110  Further abuses against the Amerindians committed by Spanish authorities were denounced by Catholic missionaries such as <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_Las_Casas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartolomé de Las Casas">Bartolomé de Las Casas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco de Vitoria</a> which led to debate on the nature of human rights<a href="#cite_note-Koschorke-215">[215]</a>: 287  and the birth of modern international law.<a href="#cite_note-Woods135-213">[213]</a>: 137  Enforcement of these laws was lax, and some historians blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians; others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples.<a href="#cite_note-Dussel145-216">[216]</a>: 45, 52, 53  Slavery and human sacrifice were both part of Latin American culture before the Europeans arrived. Indian slavery was first abolished by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_III" title="Pope Paul III">Pope Paul III</a> in the 1537 bull <a href="/wiki/Sublimis_Deus" title="Sublimis Deus">Sublimis Deus</a> which confirmed that "their souls were as immortal as those of Europeans", that Indians were to be regarded as fully human, and they should neither be robbed nor turned into slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Johansen-214">[214]</a>: 110  While these edicts may have had some beneficial effects, these were limited in scope. European colonies were mainly run by military and royally-appointed administrators, who <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas#Indigenous_peoples_(Native_Americans)" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">seldom stopped to consider church teachings</a> when forming policy or enforcing their rule. Even after <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">independence</a>, institutionalized prejudice and injustice toward indigenous people continued well into the twentieth century. This has led to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#Rise_of_Indigenous_movements" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">a number of movements to reassert</a> indigenous peoples' civil rights and culture in modern nation-states. A catastrophe was wrought upon the Amerindians by contact with Europeans. Old World diseases like <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and many others spread through Indian populations. "In most of the New World 90 percent or more of the native population was destroyed by wave after wave of previously unknown afflictions. Explorers and colonists did not enter an empty land but rather an emptied one".<a href="#cite_note-Noble,_p.230-177">[177]</a>: 454  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_American_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of American indigenous peoples">Population history of American indigenous peoples</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> Slavery and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a> were part of African societies and states which supplied the Arab world with slaves before the arrival of the Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-Ferro221-217">[217]</a>: 221  Several decades prior to discovery of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, in response to serious military threat to Europe posed by Muslims of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a> had granted Portugal the right to subdue Muslims, pagans and other unbelievers in the papal bull <a href="/wiki/Dum_Diversas" title="Dum Diversas">Dum Diversas</a> (1452).<a href="#cite_note-Thomas66-218">[218]</a>: 65–6  Six years after African slavery was first outlawed by the first major entity to do so, (Great Britain in 1833), <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XVI" title="Pope Gregory XVI">Pope Gregory XVI</a> followed in a challenge to Spanish and Portuguese policy, by condemning slavery and the slave trade in the 1839 papal bull <a href="/wiki/In_supremo_apostolatus" title="In supremo apostolatus">In supremo apostolatus</a>, and approved the ordination of native clergy in the face of government racism.<a href="#cite_note-Duffy221-219">[219]</a>: 221  The United States would eventually outlaw African slavery in 1865. <a href="/wiki/Clapham_Sect" title="Clapham Sect">Clapham Sect</a> were a group of social reformers associated with <a href="/wiki/Clapham" title="Clapham">Clapham</a> in the period from the 1780s to the 1840s. Despite the label "<a href="/wiki/Sect" title="Sect">sect</a>", most members remained in the <a href="/wiki/Established_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Established Church">established</a> (and dominant) <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, which was highly interwoven with offices of state. However, its successors were in many cases outside of the established <a href="/wiki/Anglican_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican Church">Anglican Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> By the close of the 19th century, European powers had managed to gain control of most of the African interior.<a href="#cite_note-Adrian_Hastings-9">[9]</a> The new rulers introduced cash-based economies which created an enormous demand for literacy and a western education—a demand which for most Africans could only be satisfied by Christian missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-Adrian_Hastings-9">[9]</a> Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa, and built schools, hospitals, monasteries and churches.<a href="#cite_note-Adrian_Hastings-9">[9]</a>: 397–410  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Letters_and_learning">Letters and learning</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Letters and learning">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Christianity and science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and science">Catholic Church and science</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_thinkers_in_science" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Christian thinkers in science">List of Christian thinkers in science</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Christian Nobel laureates">List of Christian Nobel laureates</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_Catholic_scientist-clerics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics">List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Catholic scientists">List of Catholic scientists</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg/200px-Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg/300px-Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg/400px-Map_of_Medieval_Universities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1127" data-file-height="986" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">mediaeval universities</a> established by Catholic students, faculty, monarchs, or priests</figcaption></figure> The influence of the Church on Western letters and learning has been formidable. The ancient texts of the Bible have deeply influenced Western art, literature and culture. For centuries following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, small monastic communities were practically the only outposts of literacy in Western Europe. In time, the Cathedral schools developed into Europe's earliest universities and the church has established thousands of primary, secondary and tertiary institutions throughout the world in the centuries since. The Church and clergymen have also sought at different times to censor texts and scholars. Thus different schools of opinion exist as to the role and influence of the Church in relation to western letters and learning. One view, first propounded by <a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment philosophers</a>, asserts that the Church's doctrines are entirely superstitious and have hindered the progress of civilization. <a href="/wiki/Communist_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist states">Communist states</a> have made similar arguments in their education in order to inculcate a negative view of Catholicism (and religion in general) in their citizens. The most famous incidents cited by such critics are the Church's condemnations of the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>. Events in <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christian Europe</a>, such as the Galileo affair, that were associated with the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> led some scholars such as <a href="/wiki/John_William_Draper" title="John William Draper">John William Draper</a> to postulate a <a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">conflict thesis</a>, holding that religion and science have been in conflict throughout history. While the conflict thesis remains popular in <a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">atheistic and antireligious</a> circles, it has lost favor among most contemporary historians of science.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Active_Christians_in_Science.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Active_Christians_in_Science.jpg/200px-Active_Christians_in_Science.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Active_Christians_in_Science.jpg/300px-Active_Christians_in_Science.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Active_Christians_in_Science.jpg/400px-Active_Christians_in_Science.jpg 2x" data-file-width="439" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption>Set of pictures for a number of notable scientists self-identified as Christians: <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a></figcaption></figure> In opposition to this view, some historians of science, including non-Catholics such as <a href="/wiki/J.L._Heilbron" class="mw-redirect" title="J.L. Heilbron">J.L. Heilbron</a>,<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alistair_Cameron_Crombie" title="Alistair Cameron Crombie">A.C. Crombie</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">David Lindberg</a>,<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Grant_(Historian_and_philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Grant (Historian and philosopher)">Edward Grant</a>, historian of science Thomas Goldstein,<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> and Ted Davis, have argued that the Church had a significant, positive influence on the development of Western civilization. They hold that, not only did monks save and cultivate the remnants of ancient civilization during the barbarian invasions, but that the Church promoted learning and science through its sponsorship of many <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">universities</a> which, under its leadership, grew rapidly in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, and Johannes Kepler all considered themselves Christian. St.<a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, the Church's "model theologian", argued that reason is in harmony with faith, and that reason can contribute to a deeper understanding of revelation, and so encouraged intellectual development.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> The Church's priest-scientists, many of whom were <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuits</a>, have been among the leading lights in <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomagnetism">geomagnetism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Solar_physics" title="Solar physics">solar physics</a>, becoming some of the "fathers" of these sciences. Examples include important churchmen such as the <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinian</a> abbot <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> (pioneer in the study of genetics), the monk <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> who developed <a href="/wiki/Ockham%27s_Razor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ockham's Razor">Ockham's Razor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a> friar who was one of the early advocates of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>), and Belgian priest <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a> (the first to propose the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory). Other notable priest scientists have included <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Steno" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Steno">Nicholas Steno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Maria_Grimaldi" title="Francesco Maria Grimaldi">Francesco Grimaldi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Riccioli" title="Giovanni Battista Riccioli">Giambattista Riccioli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Boscovich" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Boscovich">Roger Boscovich</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a>. Even more numerous are Catholic laity involved in science:<a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> who discovered <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>; <a href="/wiki/Galvani" class="mw-redirect" title="Galvani">Galvani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Volta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">Ampere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a>, pioneers in electricity and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lavoisier" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavoisier">Lavoisier</a>, "father of modern <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>"; <a href="/wiki/Vesalius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesalius">Vesalius</a>, founder of modern <a href="/wiki/Human_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Human anatomy">human anatomy</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Cauchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cauchy">Cauchy</a>, one of the mathematicians who laid the rigorous foundations of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a>. Most contemporary historians of science agree that <a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a> as an exception, with the relationship between science and Christianity, and have corrected numerous false interpretations of the affair.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Professor <a href="/wiki/Noah_Efron" title="Noah Efron">Noah J Efron</a> says that "Generations of historians and sociologists have discovered many ways in which Christians, Christian beliefs, and Christian institutions played crucial roles in fashioning the tenets, methods, and institutions of what in time became modern science. They found that some forms of Christianity provided the motivation to study nature systematically..."<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Virtually all modern scholars and historians agree that Christianity moved many early-modern intellectuals to study nature systematically.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christians_in_science_and_technology" title="List of Christians in science and technology">Christian Scholars and Scientists</a> have made noted contributions to science and technology fields,<a href="#cite_note-Gilley-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steane-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-L._Johnson-15">[15]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-S._Kroger-18">[18]</a> both historically and in modern times. Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Copernicus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Polish_Biographical_Dictionary-232">[232]</a> <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a>,<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a><a href="#cite_note-Newton_-_1-235">[235]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Boyle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> Some scholars and historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-abc.net.au-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gilley1-239">[239]</a> According to 100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005), a review of Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000, 65.4% of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Christian Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize Laureates</a>, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes).<a href="#cite_note-Nobel_prize-240">[240]</a> Overall, Christians have won a total of 78.3% of all the Nobel Prizes in <a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-241">[241]</a> 72.5% in <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a>, 65.3% in <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-241">[241]</a> 62% in <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Medicine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-241">[241]</a> 54% in <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Economics">Economics</a><a href="#cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-241">[241]</a> and 49.5% of all <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> awards.<a href="#cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-241">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_binding_Louvre_MR373.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Codex_binding_Louvre_MR373.jpg/170px-Codex_binding_Louvre_MR373.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Codex_binding_Louvre_MR373.jpg/255px-Codex_binding_Louvre_MR373.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Codex_binding_Louvre_MR373.jpg/340px-Codex_binding_Louvre_MR373.jpg 2x" data-file-width="786" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption>David dictating the <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a>, book cover. Ivory, end of the 10th century–11th century.</figcaption></figure> Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the 1st century AD, and from the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus of Nazareth</a> and his early followers. Jesus learned the texts of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> and became an influential wandering preacher. Accounts of his life and teachings appear in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament_view_on_Jesus%27_life" class="mw-redirect" title="New Testament view on Jesus' life">New Testament</a> of the Bible, one of the bedrock texts of Western Civilization.<a href="#cite_note-bbc.co.uk-45">[45]</a> His orations, including the <a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_Good_Samaritan" title="Parable of the Good Samaritan">The Good Samaritan</a> and his declaration against hypocrisy "<a href="/wiki/Jesus_and_the_woman_taken_in_adultery" title="Jesus and the woman taken in adultery">Let he who is without sin cast the first stone</a>" have been deeply influential in <a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Western literature</a>. Many translations of the Bible exist, including the <a href="/wiki/King_James_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="King James Bible">King James Bible</a>, which is one of the most admired texts in <a href="/wiki/English_literature" title="English literature">English literature</a>. The poetic <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a> and other passages of the Hebrew Bible have also been deeply influential in Western Literature and thought. Accounts of the actions of Jesus' early followers are contained within the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">Epistles</a> written between the early Christian communities – in particular the <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a> which are among the earliest extant Christian documents and foundational texts of <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>. After the death of Jesus, the new sect grew to be the dominant religion of the Roman Empire and the long tradition of Christian scholarship began. When the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> was starting to disintegrate, <a href="/wiki/St_Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St Augustine">St Augustine</a> was Bishop of <a href="/wiki/Hippo_Regius" title="Hippo Regius">Hippo Regius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-242">[242]</a> He was a <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman <a href="/wiki/Africa_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa Province">Africa Province</a>. His writings were very influential in the development of <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a> and he developed the concept of the Church as a spiritual <a href="/wiki/New_Jerusalem#Christianity" title="New Jerusalem">City of God</a> (in <a href="/wiki/The_City_of_God" title="The City of God">a book of the same name</a>), distinct from the material Earthly City.<a href="#cite_note-CC-243">[243]</a> His book <a href="/wiki/Confessions_(Augustine)" title="Confessions (Augustine)">Confessions</a>, which outlines his sinful youth and conversion to Christianity, is widely considered to be the first autobiography of ever written in the canon of <a href="/wiki/Western_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Literature">Western Literature</a>. Augustine profoundly influenced the coming medieval worldview.<a href="#cite_note-Wilken_2003_291-244">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Byzantine Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_medicine" title="Byzantine medicine">Byzantine medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Panorama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Panorama.jpg/220px-Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Panorama.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Panorama.jpg/330px-Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Panorama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Panorama.jpg/440px-Hagia_Sophia_Interior_Panorama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3856" data-file-height="3047" /></a><figcaption>Interior panorama of the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>, the patriarchal <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a> in Constantinople designed 537 AD by <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a>, the first compiler of Archimedes' various works. The influence of Archimedes' principles of solid geometry is evident.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> was one of the peaks in <a href="/wiki/Christian_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian history">Christian history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian civilization">Christian civilization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> remained the leading city of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian world">Christian world</a> in size, wealth, and culture. <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy</a>, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine science</a> played an important role in the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical knowledge</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Greek_contributions_to_the_Islamic_world" title="Greek contributions to the Islamic world">Islamic world</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Italy">Renaissance Italy</a>, and also in the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic science</a> to Renaissance Italy.<a href="#cite_note-Saliba-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> Many of the most distinguished classical scholars held high office in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Constantinople" title="University of Constantinople">Imperial University of Constantinople</a> sometimes known as the University of the Palace Hall of Magnaura (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: Πανδιδακτήριον τῆς Μαγναύρας), was an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman</a> educational institution that could trace its corporate origins to 425 AD, when the emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a> founded the Pandidakterion (<a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Greek language">Medieval Greek</a>: Πανδιδακτήριον).<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> The Pandidakterion was refounded in 1046<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX Monomachos</a> who created the Departments of <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> (Διδασκαλεῖον τῶν Νόμων) and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a> (Γυμνάσιον).<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> At the time various economic schools, colleges, polytechnics, libraries and fine arts academies also operated in the city of Constantinople. And a few scholars have gone so far as to call the Pandidakterion the first "<a href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</a>" in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Loukaki_1997,_1553-252">[252]</a> The writings of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> never ceased to be cultivated in Byzantium. Therefore, Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Anastos-253">[253]</a>: 409  In the field of engineering <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a>, the Greek mathematician and architect of the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>, produced the first compilation of <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> works c. 530, and it is through this tradition, kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering founded c. 850 during the "Byzantine Renaissance" by <a href="/wiki/Leo_the_Geometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo the Geometer">Leo the Geometer</a> that such works are known today (see <a href="/wiki/Archimedes_Palimpsest" title="Archimedes Palimpsest">Archimedes Palimpsest</a>).<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> Indeed, geometry and its applications (architecture and engineering instruments of war) remained a specialty of the Byzantines.<figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg/120px-ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg/180px-ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg/240px-ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The frontispiece of the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Dioscurides" title="Vienna Dioscurides">Vienna Dioscurides</a>, which shows a set of seven famous physicians </figcaption></figure> Though scholarship lagged during the dark years following the Arab conquests, during the so-called Byzantine Renaissance at the end of the first millennium Byzantine scholars re-asserted themselves becoming experts in the scientific developments of the Arabs and Persians, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a>: 116–118  The Byzantines are also credited with <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">several technological advancements</a>, particularly in architecture (e.g. the pendentive dome) and warfare technology (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>). Although at various times the Byzantines made magnificent achievements in the application of the <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in the Middle Ages">sciences</a> (notably in the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a>), and although they preserved much of the ancient knowledge of science and geometry, after the 6th century Byzantine scholars made few novel contributions to science in terms of developing new theories or extending the ideas of classical authors.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> In the final century of the Empire, Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to early <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Italy">Renaissance Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a>: 8  During this period, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical sciences</a> were taught in Trebizond; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars.<a href="#cite_note-TM189-259">[259]</a>: 189  In the field of law, <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>'s reforms had a clear effect on the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a>, and Leo III's Ecloga influenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic world.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a>: 340  In the 10th century, <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI the Wise</a> achieved the complete codification of the whole of Byzantine law in Greek, which became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law, generating interest to the present day. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preservation_of_Classical_learning">Preservation of Classical learning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Preservation of Classical learning">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg/170px-KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg/255px-KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg/340px-KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1484" data-file-height="1934" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Kells" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a>. Celtic Church scholars did much to preserve the texts of ancient Europe through the Dark Ages.</figcaption></figure> During the period of European history often called the <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a> which followed the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, Church scholars and missionaries played a vital role in preserving knowledge of Classical Learning. While the Roman Empire and Christian religion survived in an increasingly Hellenised form in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> centred at Constantinople in the East, Western civilisation suffered a collapse of literacy and organisation following the fall of Rome in 476AD. Monks sought refuge at the far fringes of the known world: like Cornwall, Ireland, or the Hebrides. Disciplined Christian scholarship carried on in isolated outposts like <a href="/wiki/Skellig_Michael" title="Skellig Michael">Skellig Michael</a> in Ireland, where literate monks became some of the last preservers in Western Europe of the poetic and philosophical works of Western antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-261">[261]</a> By around 800AD they were producing illuminated manuscripts such as the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Kells" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a>, by which old learning was re-communicated to Western Europe. The <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Hiberno-Scottish mission</a> led by Irish and Scottish monks like St <a href="/wiki/Columba" title="Columba">Columba</a> spread Christianity back into Western Europe during the Middle Ages, establishing monasteries through Anglo-Saxon England and the Frankish Empire during the Middle Ages. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cahill" title="Thomas Cahill">Thomas Cahill</a>, in his 1995 book <a href="/wiki/How_the_Irish_Saved_Civilization" title="How the Irish Saved Civilization">How the Irish Saved Civilization</a>, credited Irish Monks with having "saved" Western Civilization:<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">[A]s the Roman Empire fell, as all through Europe matted, unwashed barbarians[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization#Dubious" title="Talk:Role of Christianity in civilization">discuss</a>] descended on the Roman cities, looting artifacts and burning books, the Irish, who were just learning to read and write, took up the great labor of copying all western literature – everything they could lay their hands on. These scribes then served as conduits through which the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian cultures were transmitted to the tribes of Europe, newly settled amid the rubble and ruined vineyards of the civilization they had overwhelmed. Without this Service of the Scribes, everything that happened subsequently would be unthinkable. Without the <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Mission of the Irish Monks</a>, who single-handedly re-founded European civilization throughout the continent in the bays and valleys of their exile, the world that came after them would have been an entirely different one-a world without books.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization#Dubious" title="Talk:Role of Christianity in civilization">discuss</a>] And our own world would never have come to be.</blockquote> According to art historian <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Clark" title="Kenneth Clark">Kenneth Clark</a>, for some five centuries after the fall of Rome, virtually all men of intellect joined the Church and practically nobody in western Europe outside of monastic settlements had the ability to read or write. While church scholars at different times also destroyed classical texts they felt were contrary to the Christian message, it was they, virtually alone in Western Europe, who preserved texts from the old society.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-261">[261]</a> As Western Europe became more orderly again, the Church remained a driving force in education, setting up <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral schools">Cathedral schools</a> beginning in the Early Middle Ages as centers of education, which became <a href="/wiki/Medieval_universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval universities">medieval universities</a>, the springboard of many of Western Europe's later achievements. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cistercian_numerals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Cistercian_numerals.svg/170px-Cistercian_numerals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Cistercian_numerals.svg/255px-Cistercian_numerals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Cistercian_numerals.svg/340px-Cistercian_numerals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="126" /></a><figcaption>Numbers written with <a href="/wiki/Cistercian_numerals" title="Cistercian numerals">Cistercian numerals</a>. From left to right: 1 in units place, 2 in tens place (20), 3 in hundreds place (300), 4 in thousands place (4000), then compound numbers 5555, 6789, 9394.</figcaption></figure> The Catholic <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercian</a> order used its own <a href="/wiki/Cistercian_numerals" title="Cistercian numerals">numbering system</a>, which could express numbers from 0 to 9999 in a single sign.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-chrisomalis-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> According to one modern Cistercian, "enterprise and entrepreneurial spirit" have always been a part of the order's identity, and the Cistercians "were catalysts for development of a market economy" in 12th-century Europe.<a href="#cite_note-SpringBankBaedekerSFChron-268">[268]</a> Until the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, most of the technological advances in Europe were made in the monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-SpringBankBaedekerSFChron-268">[268]</a> According to the medievalist Jean Gimpel, their high level of industrial technology facilitated the diffusion of new techniques: "Every monastery had a model factory, often as large as the church and only several feet away, and waterpower drove the machinery of the various industries located on its floor."<a href="#cite_note-Gimpel-269">[269]</a> Waterpower was used for crushing wheat, sieving flour, fulling cloth and tanning – a "level of technological achievement [that] could have been observed in practically all" of the Cistercian monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> The English science historian <a href="/wiki/James_Burke_(science_historian)" title="James Burke (science historian)">James Burke</a> examines the impact of Cistercian waterpower, derived from Roman watermill technology such as that of <a href="/wiki/Barbegal_aqueduct_and_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbegal aqueduct and mill">Barbegal aqueduct and mill</a> near <a href="/wiki/Arles" title="Arles">Arles</a> in the fourth of his ten-part <a href="/wiki/Connections_(British_documentary)" class="mw-redirect" title="Connections (British documentary)">Connections</a> TV series, called "Faith in Numbers". The <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercians</a> made major contributions to culture and technology in medieval Europe: <a href="/wiki/Cistercian_architecture" title="Cistercian architecture">Cistercian architecture</a> is considered one of the most beautiful styles of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">medieval architecture</a>;<a href="#cite_note-NewAdvent-271">[271]</a> and the Cistercians were the main force of technological diffusion in fields such as agriculture and <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering" title="Hydraulic engineering">hydraulic engineering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NewAdvent-271">[271]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum">Index Librorum Prohibitorum</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Index Librorum Prohibitorum">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg/220px-Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg/330px-Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg/440px-Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption>Title page of Index Librorum Prohibitorum (Venice 1564)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" title="Index Librorum Prohibitorum">Index Librorum Prohibitorum</a> ("List of Prohibited Books") was a list of publications <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">prohibited</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>. While the promulgation of the Index has been described by some as the "turning-point in the freedom of enquiry" in the Catholic world,<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> the actual effects of the Index were minimal and it was largely ignored. John Hedley Brooke explains: <blockquote>It is important not to exaggerate the oppressive effects of Index and Inquisition. The Counter-Reformation did not prevent Italian scholars from making original contributions in classical scholarship, history, law, literary criticism, logic, mathematics, medicine, philology, and rhetoric. Nor were they isolated by the Index from European scholarship. Prohibited books entered private libraries where they would be consulted by those prepared to break the rules in the interests of learning. One such collection was in the hands of Galileo's Paduan friend, G. V. Pinelli. One can lose a sense of perspective if the condemnation of Galileo is taken to epitomize the attitude of Catholic authorities toward the natural sciences. Relatively few scientific works were placed on the Index. The attempt to put a stop to the moving earth stands out because it proved so tragic an aberration – a personal tragedy for Galileo and, in the long run, a tragedy for the Church, which overreached itself in securing a territory that would prove impossible to hold.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a></blockquote> The first Index was published in 1559 by the Sacred Congregation of the Roman Inquisition. The last edition of the Index appeared in 1948 and publication of the list ceased 1966.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> The avowed aim of the list was to protect the faith and morals of the faithful by preventing the reading of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">immoral</a> books or works containing <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological</a> errors. Books thought to contain such errors included some scientific works by leading astronomers such as <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>'s Epitome astronomiae Copernicianae, which was on the Index from 1621 to 1835. The various editions of the Index also contained the rules of the Church relating to the reading, selling and pre-emptive censorship of books. Canon law still recommends that works concerning sacred Scripture, theology, canon law, church history, and any writings which specially concern religion or good morals, be submitted to the judgement of the local <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinary (Catholic Church)">Ordinary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> Some of the scientific works that were on early editions of the Index (e.g. on <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a>) have long been routinely taught at Catholic universities worldwide. <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a>, whose works were on the Index, now has a monument in Rome, <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno#Retrospective_views_of_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">erected over the Church's objections</a> at the place where he was <a href="/wiki/Death_by_burning" title="Death by burning">burned alive at the stake</a> for <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protestant_role_in_science">Protestant role in science</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Protestant role in science">edit</a>]</div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Merton_Thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Merton Thesis">Merton Thesis</a> there was a positive <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> between the rise of <a href="/wiki/Puritanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritanism">puritanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">protestant</a> <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">pietism</a> on the one hand and early <a href="/wiki/Experimental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental science">experimental science</a> on the other.<a href="#cite_note-sztompka2003-276">[276]</a> The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental techniques and <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a>; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religious <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> between Protestantism and the scientific values.<a href="#cite_note-gregory1998-277">[277]</a> In his theory, <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> focused on English Puritanism and <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">German Pietism</a> as having been responsible for the development of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a> of the 17th and 18th centuries. Merton explained that the connection between <a href="/wiki/Religious_affiliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious affiliation">religious affiliation</a> and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the <a href="/wiki/Ascetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascetic">ascetic</a> Protestant values and those of modern science.<a href="#cite_note-becker1992-278">[278]</a> Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to study God's influence on the world and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research.<a href="#cite_note-sztompka2003-276">[276]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Astronomy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Specola1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Specola1.jpg/220px-Specola1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Specola1.jpg/330px-Specola1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Specola1.jpg/440px-Specola1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vatican_Observatory" title="Vatican Observatory">Vatican Observatory</a> Telescope in <a href="/wiki/Castel_Gandolfo" title="Castel Gandolfo">Castel Gandolfo</a></figcaption></figure> Historically, the Catholic Church has been a major a sponsor of astronomy, not least due to the astronomical basis of the calendar by which holy days and Easter are determined. Nevertheless, the most famous case of a scientist being tried for heresy arose in this field of science: the <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Trial of Galileo">trial of Galileo</a>. The Church's interest in astronomy began with purely practical concerns, when in the 16th century Pope Gregory XIII required astronomers to correct for the fact that the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a> had fallen out of sync with the sky. Since the <a href="/wiki/Spring_equinox_(Northern_Hemisphere)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring equinox (Northern Hemisphere)">Spring equinox</a> was tied to the celebration of Easter, the Church considered that this steady movement in the date of the equinox was undesirable. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a> is the internationally accepted <a href="/wiki/Civil_calendar" title="Civil calendar">civil calendar</a> used throughout the world today and is an important contribution of the Catholic Church to Western Civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> It was introduced by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII" title="Pope Gregory XIII">Pope Gregory XIII</a>, after whom the calendar was named, by a decree signed on 24 February 1582.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> In 1789, the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Observatory" title="Vatican Observatory">Vatican Observatory</a> opened. It was moved to <a href="/wiki/Castel_Gandolfo" title="Castel Gandolfo">Castel Gandolfo</a> in the 1930s and the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Advanced_Technology_Telescope" title="Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope">Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope</a> began making observation in Arizona, US, in 1995.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gregorianscher_Kalender_Petersdom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Gregorianscher_Kalender_Petersdom.jpg/250px-Gregorianscher_Kalender_Petersdom.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Gregorianscher_Kalender_Petersdom.jpg/375px-Gregorianscher_Kalender_Petersdom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Gregorianscher_Kalender_Petersdom.jpg/500px-Gregorianscher_Kalender_Petersdom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption>Detail of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_extant_papal_tombs" title="List of extant papal tombs">tomb of Pope Gregory XIII</a> celebrating the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregorian Calendar">Gregorian Calendar</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg/250px-Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg/375px-Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg/500px-Galileo_facing_the_Roman_Inquisition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1567" /></a><figcaption>Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition by <a href="/wiki/Cristiano_Banti" title="Cristiano Banti">Cristiano Banti</a> (1857)</figcaption></figure> The famous astronomers <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Copernicus">Nicholas Copernicus</a>, who put the Sun at the centre of the heavens in 1543, and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, who experimented with the new technology of the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> and, with its aid declared his belief that Copernicus was correct, were both practising Catholics – indeed Copernicus was a Catholic clergyman. Yet the church establishment at that time held to theories devised in pre-Christian Greece by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, which said that the sky revolved around the Earth. When Galileo began to assert that the Earth in fact revolved around the Sun, he therefore found himself challenging the Church establishment at a time where the Church hierarchy also held temporal power and was engaged in the ongoing political challenge of the rise of Protestantism. After discussions with <a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII" title="Pope Urban VIII">Pope Urban VIII</a> (a man who had written admiringly of Galileo before taking papal office), Galileo believed he could avoid censure by presenting his arguments in dialogue form, but the Pope took offence when he discovered that some of his own words were being spoken by a character in the book who was a simpleton and Galileo was called for a trial before the Inquisition.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-284">[284]</a> In this most famous example cited by critics of the Catholic Church's "posture towards science", <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> <a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">was denounced</a> in 1633 for his work on the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric">heliocentric</a> model of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, previously proposed by the Polish clergyman and intellectual Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus's work had been <a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium#Reception" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">suppressed de facto</a> by the Church, but Catholic authorities were generally tolerant of discussion of the hypothesis as long as it was portrayed only as a useful mathematical fiction, and not descriptive of reality. Galileo, by contrast, argued from his unprecedented observations of the Solar System that the heliocentric system was not merely an abstract model for calculating planetary motions, but actually corresponded to physical reality – that is, he insisted the planets really do orbit the Sun. After years of telescopic observation, consultations with the Popes, and verbal and written discussions with astronomers and clerics, a trial was convened by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Tribunal of the Roman and Universal Inquisition</a>. Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy" (not "guilty of heresy", as is frequently misreported), placed under <a href="/wiki/House_arrest" title="House arrest">house arrest</a>, and all of his works, including any future writings, were banned.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> Galileo had been threatened with torture and other Catholic scientists fell silent on the issue. Galileo's great contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> stopped publishing in France and went to Sweden. According to Polish-British <a href="/wiki/Historian_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Historian of science">historian of science</a> <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bronowski" title="Jacob Bronowski">Jacob Bronowski</a>:<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-284">[284]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The effect of the trial and imprisonment was to put a total stop to the scientific tradition in the Mediterranean.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization#Dubious" title="Talk:Role of Christianity in civilization">discuss</a>] From now on the Scientific Revolution moved to Northern Europe.</blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a>, on 31 October 1992, publicly expressed regret for the actions of those Catholics who badly treated Galileo in that trial.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> Cardinal <a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Newman" title="John Henry Newman">John Henry Newman</a>, in the nineteenth century, claimed that those who attack the Church can only point to the Galileo case, which to many historians does not prove the Church's opposition to science since many of the churchmen at that time were encouraged by the Church to continue their research.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Evolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_and_the_Catholic_Church" title="Evolution and the Catholic Church">Evolution and the Catholic Church</a></div> Since the publication of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a> in 1859, the position of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> on the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> has slowly been refined. For about 100 years, there was no authoritative pronouncement on the subject, though many hostile comments were made by local church figures. In contrast with many Protestant objections, Catholic issues with evolutionary theory have had little to do with maintaining the literalism of the account in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>, and have always been concerned with the question of how man came to have a soul. Modern <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a> has had little Catholic support. In the 1950s, the Church's position was one of neutrality; by the late 20th century its position evolved to one of general acceptance in recent years. However, the church insists that the human soul was immediately infused by God, and the reality of a single ancestor (commonly called <a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">monogenism</a>) for the human race.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Today<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit">[update]</a>, the Church's official position is a fairly non-specific example of <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">theistic evolution</a>,<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> stating that <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific findings</a> regarding <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a> are not in conflict, though humans are regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Special_creation" title="Special creation">special creation</a>, and that the existence of God is required to explain both <a href="/wiki/Monogenism" title="Monogenism">monogenism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> component of human origins. No infallible declarations by the Pope or an <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecumenical Council">Ecumenical Council</a> have been made. The Catholic Church's official position is fairly non-specific, stating only that faith and the origin of man's material body "from pre-existing living matter" are not in conflict, and that the existence of God is required to explain the spiritual component of man's origin.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Embryonic_stem_cell_research">Embryonic stem cell research</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Embryonic stem cell research">edit</a>]</div> Recently, the Church has been criticized for its teaching that <a href="/wiki/Embryonic_stem_cell_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic stem cell research">embryonic stem cell research</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">experimentation on human beings</a>, and results in the killing of a human person. Much criticism of this position has been on the grounds that the doctrine hinders scientific research; even some conservatives, taking a <a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a> position, <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_controversy#Viewpoints" title="Stem cell controversy">have pointed out</a> that most embryos from which stem cells are harvested are "leftover" from <a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">in vitro fertilization</a>, and would soon be discarded whether used for such research or not. The Church, by contrast, has consistently upheld its ideal of the dignity of each individual human life, and argues that it is as wrong to destroy an embryo as it would be to kill an adult human being; and that therefore advances in medicine can and must come without the destruction of human embryos, for example by using adult or umbilical stem cells in place of embryonic stem cells. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_arts">The arts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: The arts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantium">Byzantium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Byzantium">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Art_in_Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Art in Roman Catholicism">Art in Roman Catholicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_Catholic_Church_musicians" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman Catholic Church musicians">List of Roman Catholic Church musicians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:God2-Sistine_Chapel.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/God2-Sistine_Chapel.png/300px-God2-Sistine_Chapel.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/God2-Sistine_Chapel.png/450px-God2-Sistine_Chapel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/God2-Sistine_Chapel.png/600px-God2-Sistine_Chapel.png 2x" data-file-width="3141" data-file-height="1463" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Creation_of_Adam" class="mw-redirect" title="Creation of Adam">Creation of Adam</a> by <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a> from the ceiling of the <a href="/wiki/Sistine_Chapel" title="Sistine Chapel">Sistine Chapel</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg/200px-Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg/300px-Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg/400px-Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4176" data-file-height="2429" /></a><figcaption>Byzantine mosaic of the <a href="/wiki/Deesis" title="Deesis">Deesis</a>, 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G._Conti_La_parabola_del_Buon_Samaritano_Messina_Chiesa_della_Medaglia_Miracolosa_Casa_di_Ospitalit%C3%A0_Collereale.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/G._Conti_La_parabola_del_Buon_Samaritano_Messina_Chiesa_della_Medaglia_Miracolosa_Casa_di_Ospitalit%C3%A0_Collereale.jpg/200px-G._Conti_La_parabola_del_Buon_Samaritano_Messina_Chiesa_della_Medaglia_Miracolosa_Casa_di_Ospitalit%C3%A0_Collereale.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/G._Conti_La_parabola_del_Buon_Samaritano_Messina_Chiesa_della_Medaglia_Miracolosa_Casa_di_Ospitalit%C3%A0_Collereale.jpg/300px-G._Conti_La_parabola_del_Buon_Samaritano_Messina_Chiesa_della_Medaglia_Miracolosa_Casa_di_Ospitalit%C3%A0_Collereale.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/G._Conti_La_parabola_del_Buon_Samaritano_Messina_Chiesa_della_Medaglia_Miracolosa_Casa_di_Ospitalit%C3%A0_Collereale.jpg/400px-G._Conti_La_parabola_del_Buon_Samaritano_Messina_Chiesa_della_Medaglia_Miracolosa_Casa_di_Ospitalit%C3%A0_Collereale.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="1686" /></a><figcaption>An 18th century Italian depiction of the <a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_Good_Samaritan" title="Parable of the Good Samaritan">Parable of the Good Samaritan</a>. Biblical subjects have been a constant theme of <a href="/wiki/Western_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Western art">Western art</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a> comprises the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman</a> Empire,<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of Rome">decline of Rome</a> and lasted until the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim</a> states of the eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward. A number of states contemporary with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> were culturally influenced by it, without actually being part of it (the "<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_commonwealth" title="Byzantine commonwealth">Byzantine commonwealth</a>"). These included <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Medieval_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Medieval Serbia">Serbia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Rus</a>, as well as some non-Orthodox states like the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a>, which had close ties to the Byzantine Empire despite being in other respects part of western European culture. Art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> is often called "post-Byzantine". Certain artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church architecture, are maintained in Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Architecture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></div> Several historians credit the Catholic Church for what they consider to be the brilliance and magnificence of Western art. "Even though the church dominated art and architecture, it did not prevent architects and artists from experimenting..."<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 225  Historians such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Woods" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Woods">Thomas Woods</a> refer to the western Church's consistent opposition to <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_iconoclasm" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine iconoclasm">Byzantine iconoclasm</a>, an eastern movement against visual representations of the divine, and the western church's insistence on building structures befitting worship. Important contributions include its cultivation and patronage of individual artists, as well as development of the <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance</a> styles of art and architecture.<a href="#cite_note-Woods135-213">[213]</a>: 115–27  <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a>'s repeated reference to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Wisdom%20of%20Solomon%2011:20&version=nrsvae">Wisdom 11:20</a> (God "ordered all things by measure and number and weight") influenced the geometric constructions of Gothic architecture.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] British art historian <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Clark" title="Kenneth Clark">Kenneth Clark</a> wrote that Western Europe's first "great age of civilization" was ready to begin around the year 1000. From 1100, he wrote, monumental abbeys and cathedrals were constructed and decorated with sculptures, hangings, mosaics and works belonging to one of the greatest epochs of art, providing stark contrast to the monotonous and cramped conditions of ordinary living during the period. The Late Middle Ages produced ever more extravagant art and architecture, but also the virtuous simplicity of those such as <a href="/wiki/St_Francis_of_Assisi" class="mw-redirect" title="St Francis of Assisi">St Francis of Assisi</a> (expressed in the <a href="/wiki/Canticle_of_the_Sun" title="Canticle of the Sun">Canticle of the Sun</a>) and the epic poetry of <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Humanities-103">[103]</a>: 248–250  <a href="/wiki/Abbot_Suger" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbot Suger">Abbot Suger</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_St_Denis" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilica of St Denis">Abbey of St. Denis</a> is considered an influential early patron of Gothic architecture. He believed that love of beauty brought people closer to God: "The dull mind rises to truth through that which is material". Clarke calls this "the intellectual background of all the sublime works of art of the next century and in fact has remained the basis of our belief of the value of art until today".<a href="#cite_note-Civilisation,_BBC_1969-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Painting_and_sculpture">Painting and sculpture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Painting and sculpture">edit</a>]</div> Renaissance artists such as <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gian_Lorenzo_Bernini" title="Gian Lorenzo Bernini">Bernini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli" title="Sandro Botticelli">Botticelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fra_Angelico" title="Fra Angelico">Fra Angelico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tintoretto" title="Tintoretto">Tintoretto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caravaggio" title="Caravaggio">Caravaggio</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Titian" title="Titian">Titian</a>, were among a multitude of innovative virtuosos sponsored by the Church.<a href="#cite_note-Duffy221-219">[219]</a>: 133  During both <a href="/wiki/The_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="The Renaissance">The Renaissance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>, Catholic artists produced many of the unsurpassed masterpieces of <a href="/wiki/Western_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Western art">Western art</a> – often inspired by Biblical themes: from Michelangelo's <a href="/wiki/David_(Michelangelo)" title="David (Michelangelo)">David</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piet%C3%A0" title="Pietà">Pietà</a> sculptures, to Da Vinci's <a href="/wiki/The_Last_Supper_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)">Last Supper</a> and Raphael's various Madonna paintings. Referring to a "great outburst of creative energy such as took place in Rome between 1620 and 1660", Kenneth Clarke wrote: <blockquote>[W]ith a single exception, the great artists of the time were all sincere, conforming Christians. <a href="/wiki/Guercino" title="Guercino">Guercino</a> spent much of his mornings in prayer; <a href="/wiki/Bernini" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernini">Bernini</a> frequently went into retreats and practised the <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Exercises_of_Ignatius_of_Loyola" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola">Spiritual Exercises</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Saint Ignatius</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rubens" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubens">Rubens</a> attended Mass every morning before beginning work. The exception was <a href="/wiki/Caravaggio" title="Caravaggio">Caravaggio</a>, who was like the hero of a modern play, except that he happened to paint very well. This conformism was not based on fear of the Inquisition, but on the perfectly simple belief that the faith which had inspired the great saints of the preceding generation was something by which a man should regulate his life.<a href="#cite_note-Civilisation,_BBC_1969-138">[138]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,<a href="#cite_note-Hall100-295">[295]</a>: 100  and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives. The <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> style, which encompassed music, art, and architecture, was particularly encouraged by the post-Reformation Catholic Church as such forms offered a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor.<a href="#cite_note-Murray45-296">[296]</a>: 45  The list of Catholic composers and Catholic sacred music which have a prominent place in Western culture is extensive, but includes <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ave_Verum_Corpus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ave Verum Corpus">Ave Verum Corpus</a>; <a href="/wiki/Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Franz Schubert</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Ave_Maria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ave Maria">Ave Maria</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Franck" title="César Franck">César Franck</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Panis_angelicus" title="Panis angelicus">Panis angelicus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Vivaldi" title="Antonio Vivaldi">Antonio Vivaldi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gloria_(Vivaldi)" title="Gloria (Vivaldi)">Gloria</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Christian literature</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Christian_library" title="Christian library">Christian library</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_drama" title="Christian drama">Christian drama</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Catholic_literature" title="American Catholic literature">American Catholic literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mennonite_literature" title="Mennonite literature">Mennonite literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mormon_fiction" title="Mormon fiction">Mormon fiction</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1612_First_Quarto_of_King_James_Bible.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/1612_First_Quarto_of_King_James_Bible.jpg/200px-1612_First_Quarto_of_King_James_Bible.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/1612_First_Quarto_of_King_James_Bible.jpg/300px-1612_First_Quarto_of_King_James_Bible.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/1612_First_Quarto_of_King_James_Bible.jpg/400px-1612_First_Quarto_of_King_James_Bible.jpg 2x" data-file-width="844" data-file-height="642" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Speed" title="John Speed">John Speed</a>'s Genealogies Recorded in the Sacred Scriptures (1611), bound into first <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Bible</a> in <a href="/wiki/Quarto" title="Quarto">quarto</a> size (1612)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Christian literature</a> is writing that deals with Christian themes and incorporates the <a href="/wiki/Christian_worldview" title="Christian worldview">Christian world view</a>. This constitutes a huge body of extremely varied writing. <a href="/wiki/Christian_poetry" title="Christian poetry">Christian poetry</a> is any poetry that contains Christian teachings, themes, or references. The influence of Christianity on poetry has been great in any area that Christianity has taken hold. Christian poems often directly reference the Bible, while others provide <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a>. Similarly, the list of Catholic authors and literary works is vast. With a literary tradition spanning two millennia, the Bible and <a href="/wiki/Papal_Encyclicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal Encyclicals">Papal Encyclicals</a> have been constants of the Catholic canon but countless other historical works may be listed as noteworthy in terms of their influence on Western society. From late Antiquity, <a href="/wiki/St_Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St Augustine">St Augustine</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/Confessions_(St._Augustine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessions (St. Augustine)">Confessions</a>, which outlines his sinful youth and conversion to Christianity, is widely considered to be the first autobiography ever written in the canon of <a href="/wiki/Western_Literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Literature">Western Literature</a>. Augustine profoundly influenced the coming medieval worldview.<a href="#cite_note-Wilken_2003_291-244">[244]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a>, written 1265–1274, is the best-known work of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (c.1225–1274), and although unfinished, "one of the classics of the history of philosophy and one of the most influential works of Western literature."<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> It is intended as a manual for beginners in theology and a compendium of all of the main <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theological</a> teachings of the Church. It presents the reasoning for almost all points of Christian theology in the West. The epic poetry of the Italian <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a> of the late <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> is also considered immensely influential. The English statesman and philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a>, wrote the seminal work <a href="/wiki/Utopia_(More_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopia (More book)">Utopia</a> in 1516. <a href="/wiki/St_Ignatius_Loyola" class="mw-redirect" title="St Ignatius Loyola">St Ignatius Loyola</a>, a key figure in the Catholic counter-reformation, is the author of an influential book of meditations known as the <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Exercises_of_Ignatius_of_Loyola" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola">Spiritual Exercises</a>. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg/200px-Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg/300px-Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg/400px-Benozzo_Gozzoli_004a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Thomas Aquinas">Saint Thomas Aquinas</a> was one of the great scholars of the Medieval period.</figcaption></figure> Scholasticism was initially a program conducted by medieval Christian thinkers attempting to harmonize the various authorities of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and late antiquity philosophy, especially that of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> but also of <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Scholastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastics">scholastics</a>' intellectual systems by Aquinas, called the <a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologiae</a>, influenced the writings of <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a>, and in turn, Dante's creation and sacramental theology has contributed to a <a href="/wiki/Catholic_imagination" title="Catholic imagination">Catholic imagination</a> influencing writers such as <a href="/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a><a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church" title="Doctor of the Church">Doctor of the Church</a>" is a name is given to a saint from whose writings the whole Church is held to have derived great advantage and to whom "eminent learning" and "great sanctity" have been attributed by a proclamation of a pope or of an <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">ecumenical council</a>. This honour is given rarely, and only after <a href="/wiki/Canonization" title="Canonization">canonization</a>. The <a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a>, is an <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_English" title="Bible translations into English">English translation</a> of the Christian <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, has been described as one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the shaping of the English-speaking world.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protestant">Protestant</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Protestant">edit</a>]</div> The arts have been strongly inspired by Protestant beliefs. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gerhardt" title="Paul Gerhardt">Paul Gerhardt</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Wither" title="George Wither">George Wither</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Watts" title="Isaac Watts">Isaac Watts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wesley" title="Charles Wesley">Charles Wesley</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Cowper" title="William Cowper">William Cowper</a>, and many other authors and composers created well-known church hymns. Musicians like <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz" title="Heinrich Schütz">Heinrich Schütz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Frederick_Handel" class="mw-redirect" title="George Frederick Handel">George Frederick Handel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Purcell" title="Henry Purcell">Henry Purcell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Johannes Brahms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn-Bartholdy" class="mw-redirect" title="Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy">Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy</a> composed great works of music. Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example, <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Holbein_the_Younger" title="Hans Holbein the Younger">Hans Holbein the Younger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucas_Cranach_the_Elder" title="Lucas Cranach the Elder">Lucas Cranach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a>. World literature was enriched by the works of <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Spenser" title="Edmund Spenser">Edmund Spenser</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Bunyan" title="John Bunyan">John Bunyan</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Donne" title="John Donne">John Donne</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Defoe" title="Daniel Defoe">Daniel Defoe</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Wordsworth" title="William Wordsworth">William Wordsworth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Wolfgang Goethe">Johann Wolfgang Goethe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conrad_Ferdinand_Meyer" title="Conrad Ferdinand Meyer">Conrad Ferdinand Meyer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Fontane" title="Theodor Fontane">Theodor Fontane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Washington Irving</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Browning" title="Robert Browning">Robert Browning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emily_Dickinson" title="Emily Dickinson">Emily Dickinson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB" title="Emily Brontë">Emily Brontë</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne" title="Nathaniel Hawthorne">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stearns_Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Stearns Eliot">Thomas Stearns Eliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Galsworthy" title="John Galsworthy">John Galsworthy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Thomas Mann</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Updike" title="John Updike">John Updike</a>, and many others. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_development">Economic development</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Economic development">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francisco_de_Vitoria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Francisco_de_Vitoria.jpg/170px-Francisco_de_Vitoria.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Francisco_de_Vitoria.jpg/255px-Francisco_de_Vitoria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Francisco_de_Vitoria.jpg/340px-Francisco_de_Vitoria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Francisco de Vitoria at <a href="/wiki/Convento_de_San_Esteban,_Salamanca" title="Convento de San Esteban, Salamanca">San Esteban, Salamanca</a></figcaption></figure> The notion of <a href="/wiki/Christian_finance" title="Christian finance">Christian finance</a> refers to banking and financial activities which came into existence several centuries ago. <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Churches</a>, such as the Catholic Church and Reformed Church, traditionally prohibit <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a> as a sin against the eighth commandment.<a href="#cite_note-Cox1853-302">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-Considine2016-303">[303]</a> The activities of the <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a> (12th century), <a href="/wiki/Mount_of_piety" title="Mount of piety">Mounts of Piety</a> (appeared in 1462) or the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Chamber">Apostolic Chamber</a> attached directly to the Vatican, may have given rise to operations of a banking nature or a financial nature (issuance of securities, investments) is proved.<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco de Vitoria</a>, a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> and a Catholic thinker who studied the issue regarding the human rights of colonized natives, is recognized by the United Nations as a father of international law, and now also by historians of economics and democracy as a leading light for the West's democracy and rapid economic development.<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a>, an economist of the twentieth century, referring to the <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholastics</a>, wrote, "it is they who come nearer than does any other group to having been the 'founders' of scientific economics."<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> Other economists and historians, such as Raymond de Roover, Marjorie Grice-Hutchinson, and Alejandro Chafuen, have also made similar statements. Historian Paul Legutko of Stanford University said the Catholic Church is "at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization."<a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a> Catholic <a href="/wiki/List_of_banking_families" title="List of banking families">banking families</a> includes <a href="/wiki/House_of_Medici" title="House of Medici">House of Medici</a>,<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> <a href="/wiki/Welser_family" title="Welser family">Welser family</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fugger_family" title="Fugger family">Fugger family</a>,<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simonetti_family" title="Simonetti family">Simonetti family</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protestant_work_ethic">Protestant work ethic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Protestant work ethic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_protestantische_Ethik_und_der_%27Geist%27_des_Kapitalismus_original_cover.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Die_protestantische_Ethik_und_der_%27Geist%27_des_Kapitalismus_original_cover.jpg/170px-Die_protestantische_Ethik_und_der_%27Geist%27_des_Kapitalismus_original_cover.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Die_protestantische_Ethik_und_der_%27Geist%27_des_Kapitalismus_original_cover.jpg/255px-Die_protestantische_Ethik_und_der_%27Geist%27_des_Kapitalismus_original_cover.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Die_protestantische_Ethik_und_der_%27Geist%27_des_Kapitalismus_original_cover.jpg/340px-Die_protestantische_Ethik_und_der_%27Geist%27_des_Kapitalismus_original_cover.jpg 2x" data-file-width="753" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption>Cover of the original German edition of <a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</a></figcaption></figure> The rise of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> in the 16th century contributed to the development of banking in Northern Europe. In the late 18th century, Protestant merchant families began to move into banking to an increasing degree, especially in trading countries such as the United Kingdom (<a href="/wiki/Barings" class="mw-redirect" title="Barings">Barings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_family_(Birmingham)" title="Lloyd family (Birmingham)">Lloyd</a>),<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> Germany (<a href="/wiki/Schroders" title="Schroders">Schroders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berenberg_family" title="Berenberg family">Berenbergs</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Schramm1963-311">[311]</a> and the Netherlands (<a href="/wiki/Hope_%26_Co." title="Hope & Co.">Hope & Co.</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=G%C3%BClcher_%26_Mulder&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gülcher & Mulder (page does not exist)">Gülcher & Mulder</a>). At the same time, new types of financial activities broadened the scope of banking far beyond its origins. One school of thought attributes <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> with setting the stage for the later development of capitalism in northern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-aura.abdn.ac.uk-312">[312]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Morgan_family" title="Morgan family">Morgan family</a> is an American <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopal Church in the United States of America">Episcopal Church</a> family and <a href="/wiki/List_of_banking_families" title="List of banking families">banking dynasty</a>, which became prominent in the U.S. and throughout the world in the late 19th century and early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-THE_EPISCOPALIANS-313">[313]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a>, the Calvinist work ethic,<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> or the Puritan work ethic<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Work_ethic" title="Work ethic">work ethic</a> concept in <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> which emphasizes that hard work, discipline, and <a href="/wiki/Frugality" title="Frugality">frugality</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> are a result of a person's subscription to the values espoused by the <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant faith</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>. The phrase was initially coined in 1904–1905 by <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> in his book <a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> Weber asserted that Protestant ethics and values along with the Calvinist doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">predestination</a> gave birth to capitalism.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> It is one of the most influential and cited books in sociology although the thesis presented has been controversial since its release. In opposition to Weber, historians such as <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper" title="Hugh Trevor-Roper">Hugh Trevor-Roper</a> assert that the Protestant work ethic did not create <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and that capitalism developed in pre-Reformation Catholic communities. Just as priests and caring professionals are deemed to have a <a href="/wiki/Vocation" title="Vocation">vocation</a> (or "calling" from God) for their work, according to the Protestant work ethic the lowly workman also has a noble vocation which he can fulfil through dedication to his work. The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God's creation and, according to Genesis 2:15, make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Sciences">sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God's commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code.<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Therefore, craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors.<a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a> was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated <a href="/wiki/Mass_action_(sociology)" title="Mass action (sociology)">mass action</a> that influenced the development of capitalism and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. This idea is also known as the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">"Protestant ethic thesis</a>".<a href="#cite_note-SEP-326">[326]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:One_World_Trade_Center_and_Trinity_Church.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/One_World_Trade_Center_and_Trinity_Church.JPG/170px-One_World_Trade_Center_and_Trinity_Church.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/One_World_Trade_Center_and_Trinity_Church.JPG/255px-One_World_Trade_Center_and_Trinity_Church.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/One_World_Trade_Center_and_Trinity_Church.JPG/340px-One_World_Trade_Center_and_Trinity_Church.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Trinity_Church_(Manhattan)" title="Trinity Church (Manhattan)">Trinity Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>; it has been seen as embodying the <a href="/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="White Anglo-Saxon Protestant">White Anglo-Saxon Protestant</a> culture in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopalians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_(U.S.A.)" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)">Presbyterians</a> tend to be considerably wealthier<a href="#cite_note-THE_EPISCOPALIANS-313">[313]</a> and better educated (having more <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">graduate</a> and post-graduate degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">America</a>,<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> and are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American business,<a href="#cite_note-Hacker_1957_1009–1026_p._1011-329">[329]</a> law and politics, especially the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> Large numbers of the most <a href="/wiki/Old_money" title="Old money">wealthy and affluent American families</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilts" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanderbilts">Vanderbilts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astor_family" title="Astor family">Astors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_family" title="Rockefeller family">Rockefellers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Du_Pont_family" title="Du Pont family">Du Ponts</a>,<a href="#cite_note-W._Williams-331">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/Whitney_family" title="Whitney family">Whitneys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morgan_family" title="Morgan family">Morgans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ford_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Ford family">Fords</a>,<a href="#cite_note-W._Williams-331">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mellon_family" title="Mellon family">Mellons</a>,<a href="#cite_note-W._Williams-331">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Van_Leer" title="Samuel Van Leer">Van Leers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Brown_Jr." title="Nicholas Brown Jr.">Browns</a>,<a href="#cite_note-W._Williams-331">[331]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Wayne" title="Anthony Wayne">Waynes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brown_Brothers_Harriman_%26_Co." title="Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.">Harrimans</a> are <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline Protestant</a> families.<a href="#cite_note-THE_EPISCOPALIANS-313">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-W._Williams-331">[331]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Boston_Brahmin" title="Boston Brahmin">Boston Brahmins</a>, who were regarded as the nation's social and cultural elites, were often associated with the <a href="/wiki/American_upper_class" title="American upper class">American upper class</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>;<a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a> and the Episcopal Church.<a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Old_Philadelphians" title="Old Philadelphians">Old Philadelphianss</a> were often associated with the <a href="/wiki/American_upper_class" title="American upper class">American upper class</a> and the Episcopal Church and <a href="/wiki/Quakerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Quakerism">Quakerism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> These families were influential in the development and leadership of arts, culture, science, medicine, law, politics, industry and trade in the United States. Some academics have theorized that <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, the dominant traditional religion of the Nordic countries, had an effect on the development of <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> there and the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic model</a>. Schröder posits that Lutheranism promoted the idea of a nationwide community of believers and led to increased state involvement in economic and social life, allowing for nationwide welfare solidarity and economic co-ordination.<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kettunen-338">[338]</a> Esa Mangeloja says that the revival movements helped to pave the way for the modern Finnish welfare state. During that process, the church lost some of its most important social responsibilities (health care, education, and social work) as these tasks were assumed by the secular Finnish state.<a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> Pauli Kettunen presents the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_model" title="Nordic model">Nordic model</a> as the outcome of a sort of mythical "Lutheran peasant enlightenment", portraying the Nordic model as the result of a sort of "secularized Lutheranism";<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> however, mainstream academic discourse on the subject focuses on "historical specificity", with the centralized structure of the Lutheran church being but one aspect of the cultural values and state structures that led to the development of the welfare state in Scandinavia.<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_justice,_care-giving,_and_the_hospital_system">Social justice, care-giving, and the hospital system</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Social justice, care-giving, and the hospital system">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_health_care" title="Catholic Church and health care">Catholic Church and health care</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Physician_in_hospital_sickroom_printed_1682.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Physician_in_hospital_sickroom_printed_1682.jpg/170px-Physician_in_hospital_sickroom_printed_1682.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Physician_in_hospital_sickroom_printed_1682.jpg/255px-Physician_in_hospital_sickroom_printed_1682.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Physician_in_hospital_sickroom_printed_1682.jpg/340px-Physician_in_hospital_sickroom_printed_1682.jpg 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>Historian of hospitals, <a href="/wiki/Guenter_Risse" class="mw-redirect" title="Guenter Risse">Guenter Risse</a>, says that the Church spearheaded the development of a hospital system geared towards the marginalized.</figcaption></figure> The Catholic Church has contributed to society through its social doctrine which has guided leaders to promote social justice and providing care to the sick and poor. In orations such as his <a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a> and stories such as <a href="/wiki/Parable_of_the_Good_Samaritan" title="Parable of the Good Samaritan">The Good Samaritan</a>, Jesus called on followers to worship God, act without violence or prejudice and care for the sick, hungry and poor. Such teachings are the foundation of Catholic Church involvement in <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a>, hospitals and health care. Today the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> is the largest non-government provider of <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a> services in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Geopolitics-342">[342]</a> It has around 18,000 clinics, 16,000 homes for the elderly and those with special needs, and 5,500 hospitals, with 65 percent of them located in developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-World_Development_p.40-343">[343]</a> In 2010, the Church's <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Council_for_the_Pastoral_Care_of_Health_Care_Workers" title="Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Health Care Workers">Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Health Care Workers</a> said that the Church manages 26% of the world's health care facilities.<a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a> The Church's involvement in health care has ancient origins. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fourth_century">Fourth century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Fourth century">edit</a>]</div> Historians record that, prior to Christianity, the ancient world left little trace of any organized charitable effort.<a href="#cite_note-Gerhard_Uhlhorn-345">[345]</a> Christian charity and the practice of feeding and clothing the poor, visiting prisoners, supporting widows and orphan children has had sweeping impact.<a href="#cite_note-Charles_Schmidt-346">[346]</a> Albert Jonsen, University of Washington historian of medicine, says "the second great sweep of medical history begins at the end of the fourth century, with the founding of the first Christian hospital at Caesarea in Cappadocia, and concludes at the end of the fourteenth century, with medicine well ensconced in the universities and in the public life of the emerging nations of Europe."<a href="#cite_note-Albert_R._Jonsen-347">[347]</a> After the death of Eusebios in 370 and the election of Basil as bishop of Caesarea, Basil established the first formal soup kitchen, hospital, homeless shelter, hospice, poorhouse, orphanage, reform center for thieves, women's center for those leaving prostitution and many other ministries. Basil was personally involved and invested in the projects and process giving all of his personal wealth to fund the ministries. Basil himself would put on an apron and work in the soup kitchen. These ministries were given freely regardless of religious affiliation. Basil refused to make any discrimination when it came to people who needed help saying that "the digestive systems of the Jew and the Christian are indistinguishable."<a href="#cite_note-Robert_H._Bremner-348">[348]</a> "...there is a striking resemblance between [Basil's] ideals and those of modern times. ... certainly he was the most modern among the pioneers of monasticism, and for this reason, if for none other, his work has a permanent interest..."<a href="#cite_note-W.K.Lowther_Clarke-349">[349]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG/220px-SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG/330px-SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG/440px-SantaMariaDellaScalaSienaBack.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>Panorama of Siena's <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_della_Scala_(Siena)" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Maria della Scala (Siena)">Santa Maria della Scala Hospital</a>, one of Europe's oldest <a href="/wiki/Hospitals" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospitals">hospitals</a></figcaption></figure> Charity has now become a universal practice.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization#Dubious" title="Talk:Role of Christianity in civilization">discuss</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Thomas_Max_Safley-350">[350]</a> Christianity played a key role in the building and maintaining of hospitals in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Many hospitals were built and maintained by bishops in their respective prefectures. Hospitals were usually built near or around churches, and great importance was laid on the idea of healing through salvation.<a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a> When medicine failed, doctors would ask their patients to pray. This often involved icons of <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cosmas_and_Damian" title="Saints Cosmas and Damian">Cosmas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saints_Cosmas_and_Damian" title="Saints Cosmas and Damian">Damian</a>, patron saints of medicine and doctors. Christianity also played a key role in propagating the idea of charity. Medicine was made, according to Oregon State University historian, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gary_Ferngren&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gary Ferngren (page does not exist)">Gary Ferngren</a> (professor of ancient Greek and Rome history with a speciality in ancient medicine) "accessible to all and... simple". In the actual practice of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> there is evidence of Christian influence. John Zacharias Aktouarios recommends the use of Holy Water mixed with a pellitory plant to act as a way to cure epilepsy.<a href="#cite_note-Bouras-Vallianatos-352">[352]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_period_2">Medieval period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Medieval period">edit</a>]</div> The Catholic Church established a hospital system in Medieval Europe that was different from the merely reciprocal hospitality of the Greeks and family-based obligations of the Romans. These hospitals were established to cater to "particular social groups marginalized by poverty, sickness, and age", according to historian of hospitals, Guenter Risse.<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fugger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugger">Fugger</a> Family from Augsburg, Germany who were bankers, 500 years ago founded one of the first social housing projects in the world, which exists till today.<a href="#cite_note-354">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a><a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_Revolution">Industrial Revolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Industrial Revolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sisters_of_Mercy_at_the_Battle_of_Gravelotte.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Sisters_of_Mercy_at_the_Battle_of_Gravelotte.jpg/220px-Sisters_of_Mercy_at_the_Battle_of_Gravelotte.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Sisters_of_Mercy_at_the_Battle_of_Gravelotte.jpg/330px-Sisters_of_Mercy_at_the_Battle_of_Gravelotte.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Sisters_of_Mercy_at_the_Battle_of_Gravelotte.jpg/440px-Sisters_of_Mercy_at_the_Battle_of_Gravelotte.jpg 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="702" /></a><figcaption>"After the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelotte" title="Battle of Gravelotte">Battle of Gravelotte</a>. The French Sisters of Mercy of St. Borromeo arriving on the battle field to succor the wounded." Unsigned lithograph, 1870 or 1871.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LeoXIII1900.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/LeoXIII1900.jpg/170px-LeoXIII1900.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/LeoXIII1900.jpg/255px-LeoXIII1900.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/LeoXIII1900.jpg/340px-LeoXIII1900.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="1897" /></a><figcaption>In 1891 <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a> issued <a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a> in which the Church defined the dignity and rights of industrial workers.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> brought many concerns about the deteriorating working and living conditions of urban workers. Influenced by the German Bishop <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Emmanuel_Freiherr_von_Ketteler" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler">Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler</a>, in 1891 <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a> published the encyclical <a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a>, which set in context <a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions. Rerum Novarum argued for the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.<a href="#cite_note-Duffy221-219">[219]</a>: 240  <a href="/wiki/Quadragesimo_anno" title="Quadragesimo anno">Quadragesimo anno</a> was issued by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pope Pius XI</a>, on 15 May 1931, 40 years after Rerum novarum. Unlike Leo, who addressed mainly the condition of workers, Pius XI concentrated on the ethical implications of the social and economic order. He called for the reconstruction of the social order based on the principle of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/solidarity" class="extiw" title="wikt:solidarity">solidarity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subsidiarity_(Catholicism)" title="Subsidiarity (Catholicism)">subsidiarity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Duffy221-219">[219]</a>: 260  He noted major dangers for human freedom and dignity, arising from unrestrained capitalism and totalitarian communism. The social teachings of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a> repeat these teachings, and apply them in greater detail not only to workers and owners of capital, but also to other professions such as politicians, educators, house-wives, farmers <a href="/wiki/Bookkeeper" class="mw-redirect" title="Bookkeeper">bookkeepers</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">international organizations</a>, and all aspects of life including the military. Going beyond Pius XI, he also defined social teachings in the areas of medicine, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, sport, TV, science, law and education. Pius XII was called "the Pope of Technology" for his willingness and ability to examine the social implications of technological advances. The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual. With the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Space_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Space age">space age</a> at the end of his pontificate, Pius XII explored the social implications of space exploration and satellites on the social fabric of humanity asking for a new sense of community and solidarity in light of existing <a href="/wiki/Social_teachings_of_the_papacy" title="Social teachings of the papacy">papal teachings</a> on subsidiarity.<a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist Church">Methodist Church</a>, among other Christian denominations, was responsible for the establishment of hospitals, universities, orphanages, soup kitchens, and schools to follow Jesus's command to <a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">spread</a> the <a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Good News</a> and <a href="/wiki/Works_of_mercy" title="Works of mercy">serve</a> all people.<a href="#cite_note-Establishments-358">[358]</a><a href="#cite_note-Teasdale2014-359">[359]</a> In Western nations, governments have increasingly taken up funding and organisation of health services for the poor but the Church still maintains a massive network of health care providers across the world. In the West, these institutions are increasingly run by lay-people after centuries of being run by priests, nuns and brothers, In 2009, Catholic hospitals in the US received approximately one of every six patients, according to the Catholic Health Association.<a href="#cite_note-:0-360">[360]</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Health_Australia" title="Catholic Health Australia">Catholic Health Australia</a> is the largest non-government provider grouping of health, community and aged care services, representing about 10% of the health sector.<a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a> In 1968, nuns or priests were the chief executives of 770 of America's 796 Catholic hospitals. By 2011, they presided over 8 of 636 hospitals.<a href="#cite_note-:0-360">[360]</a> As with schooling, women have played a vital role in running and staffing Christian care institutions – in Methodist hospitals, <a href="/wiki/Deaconesses" class="mw-redirect" title="Deaconesses">deaconesses</a> who trained as nurses staffed the hospitals,<a href="#cite_note-Teasdale2014-359">[359]</a> and in Catholic hospitals, through religious institutes like the <a href="/wiki/Sisters_of_Mercy" title="Sisters of Mercy">Sisters of Mercy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Little_Sisters_of_the_Poor" title="Little Sisters of the Poor">Little Sisters of the Poor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sisters_of_St._Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sisters of St. Mary">Sisters of St. Mary</a> – and teaching and nursing have been seen as "women's vocations". Seeking to define the role played by <a href="/wiki/Religious_(Catholicism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious (Catholicism)">religious</a> in hospitals through American history, the New York Times noted that nuns were trained to "see Jesus in the face of every patient" and that:<a href="#cite_note-:0-360">[360]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Although their influence is often described as intangible, the nuns kept their hospitals focused on serving the needy and brought a spiritual reassurance that healing would prevail over profit, authorities on Catholic health care say.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Medical_missions_in_China" title="Medical missions in China">Medical missions in China</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr._Peter_Parker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Dr._Peter_Parker.jpg/220px-Dr._Peter_Parker.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Dr._Peter_Parker.jpg/330px-Dr._Peter_Parker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Dr._Peter_Parker.jpg/440px-Dr._Peter_Parker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Peter_Parker_(physician)" title="Peter Parker (physician)">Peter Parker</a>, an American physician and a <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a> who introduced Western medical techniques into <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> China<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a></figcaption></figure> Protestant and Catholic physicians and surgeons of the 19th and early 20th centuries laid many foundations for modern medicine in China. Western medical <a href="/wiki/Mission_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission (Christian)">missionaries</a> established the first modern clinics and hospitals, provided the first training for nurses, and opened the first medical schools in China.<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a> Work was also done in opposition to the abuse of <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>. Medical treatment and care came to many Chinese who were addicted, and eventually public and official opinion was influenced in favor of bringing an end to the destructive trade.<a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a> By 1901, China was the most popular destination for medical missionaries. The 150 foreign physicians operated 128 hospitals and 245 dispensaries, treating 1.7 million patients. In 1894, male medical missionaries comprised 14 percent of all missionaries; women doctors were four percent. Modern medical education in China started in the early 20th century at hospitals run by international missionaries. Missionaries from other <a href="/wiki/Christian_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian denominations">Christian denominations</a> came to <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a> missionaries, for example, arrived in Calcutta in 1836 and by "the year 1880 there were over 31,200 Lutheran Christians spread out in 1,052 villages".<a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a> <a href="/wiki/Methodists" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodists">Methodists</a> began arriving in India in 1783 and established <a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">missions</a> with a focus on "education, health ministry, and evangelism".<a href="#cite_note-AbrahamKirby2009-366">[366]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jr2014-367">[367]</a> In the 1790s, Christians from the <a href="/wiki/London_Missionary_Society" title="London Missionary Society">London Missionary Society</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baptist_Missionary_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist Missionary Society">Baptist Missionary Society</a>, began doing missionary work in the Indian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FrykenbergLow2003-368">[368]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Neyyoor" title="Neyyoor">Neyoor</a>, the London Missionary Society Hospital "pioneered improvements in the public health system for the treatment of diseases even before organised attempts were made by the colonial Madras Presidency, reducing the death rate substantially".<a href="#cite_note-LucykLoewenau2017-369">[369]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education">Education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christian_school" title="Christian school">Christian school</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_school" title="Catholic school">Catholic school</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_school" title="Cathedral school">Cathedral school</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_university" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic university">Catholic university</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Medieval university</a></div> <table class="wikitable" align="right" border="1" style="width:40%; font-size:90%"> <caption style="font-size:100%; color:black">The number of Catholic institutions as of 2000<a href="#cite_note-Froehle30-370">[370]</a>: 17–20, 30–35, 41–43  </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:blue; color:white">Institutions </th> <th style="background:blue; color:white"># </th></tr> <tr> <td>Parishes and missions </td> <td>408,637 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Primary and secondary schools </td> <td>125,016 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Universities </td> <td>1,046 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hospitals </td> <td>5,853 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Orphanages </td> <td>8,695 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Homes for the elderly and handicapped </td> <td>13,933 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dispensaries, leprosaries, nurseries and other institutions </td> <td>74,936 </td></tr> </tbody></table> Missionary activity for the Catholic Church has always incorporated education of evangelized peoples as part of its social ministry. History shows that in evangelized lands, the first people to operate schools were Roman Catholics. In some countries, the Church is the main provider of education or significantly supplements government forms of education. Presently, the Church operates the world's largest non-governmental school system.<a href="#cite_note-Gardner148-371">[371]</a> Many of Western Civilization's most influential universities were founded by the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a><a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a><a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a><a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Pew_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Pew Center">Pew Center</a> study about <a href="/wiki/Religiosity_and_education" title="Religiosity and education">religion and education</a> around the world in 2016, found that <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> ranked as the second most educated religious group around in the world after <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> with an average of 9.3 years of schooling,<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> and the highest of years of schooling among Christians found in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> (13.6),<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (13.5)<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a> (13.1).<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> were also found to have the second highest number of <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">graduate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-graduate" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-graduate">post-graduate</a> degrees per capita while in absolute numbers ranked in the first place (220 million).<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> Between the various <a href="/wiki/World_Christianity" title="World Christianity">Christian communities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> outranks other nations in terms of Christians who obtain a university degree in institutions of <a href="/wiki/Higher_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher education">higher education</a> (67%),<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> followed by the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Israel" title="Christianity in Israel">Christians of Israel</a> (63%),<a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Christianity in Georgia (country)">Christians of Georgia</a> (57%).<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> According to the study, Christians in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia-Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia-Pacific">Asia-Pacific</a> regions are highly educated since many of the world <a href="/wiki/Universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Universities">universities</a> were built by the historic <a href="/wiki/Christian_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian denominations">Christian Churches</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> in addition to the historical evidence that "Christian monks built libraries and, in the days before printing presses, preserved important earlier writings produced in Latin, Greek and Arabic".<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> According to the same study, Christians have a significant amount of <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">gender equality</a> in educational attainment,<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> and the study suggests that one of the reasons is the encouragement of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">Protestant Reformers</a> in promoting the <a href="/wiki/Education_of_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Education of women">education of women</a>, which led to the eradication of illiteracy among females in Protestant communities.<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> According to the same study "there is a large and pervasive gap in educational attainment between Muslims and Christians in sub-Saharan Africa" as <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> adults in this region are far less educated than their <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> counterparts,<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> with scholars suggesting that this gap is due to the educational facilities that were created by <a href="/wiki/Christian_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian missionaries">Christian missionaries</a> during the colonial era for fellow believers.<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pythagore-chartres.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Pythagore-chartres.jpg/170px-Pythagore-chartres.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Pythagore-chartres.jpg/255px-Pythagore-chartres.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Pythagore-chartres.jpg/340px-Pythagore-chartres.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="925" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> on one of the <a href="/wiki/Archivolts" class="mw-redirect" title="Archivolts">archivolts</a> at <a href="/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral" title="Chartres Cathedral">Chartres Cathedral</a>. From Medieval Europe's <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral School">Cathedral Schools</a> grew many of Europe's modern universities.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Oxford.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Oxford.svg/170px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Oxford.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Oxford.svg/255px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Oxford.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Oxford.svg/340px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Oxford.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2338" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Arms_of_the_University_of_Oxford" class="mw-redirect" title="Arms of the University of Oxford">coat of arms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, bearing the Latin motto The Lord is my Light. Europe's universities were essentially a Catholic invention.</figcaption></figure> The Catholic Church founded the West's first universities, which were preceded by the schools attached to monasteries and cathedrals, and generally staffed by monks and friars.<a href="#cite_note-auto-379">[379]</a> In 530, <a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Saint Benedict</a> wrote his <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_St_Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule of St Benedict">monastic Rule</a>, which became a blueprint for the organization of <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a> throughout Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Woods135-213">[213]</a>: 27  The new monasteries preserved classical craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools, <a href="/wiki/Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">scriptoria</a> and libraries. As well as providing a focus for spiritual life, they functioned as agricultural, economic and production centers, particularly in remote regions, becoming major conduits of civilization.<a href="#cite_note-LeGoff80-380">[380]</a>: 120  The <a href="/wiki/Cluniac_reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluniac reforms">Cluniac reform</a> of monasteries that had begun in 910 sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.<a href="#cite_note-Duffy221-219">[219]</a>: 88–89  Monasteries introduced new technologies and crops, fostered the creation and preservation of literature and promoted economic growth. Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries.<a href="#cite_note-Woods135-213">[213]</a>: 40–44 <a href="#cite_note-LeGoff80-380">[380]</a>: 80–82  <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathedral schools">Cathedral schools</a> began in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education, some of them ultimately evolving into <a href="/wiki/Medieval_universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval universities">medieval universities</a>. During the High Middle Ages, <a href="/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral" title="Chartres Cathedral">Chartres Cathedral</a> operated the famous and influential <a href="/wiki/School_of_Chartres" title="School of Chartres">Chartres Cathedral School</a>. Universities began springing up in Italian towns like <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Schola_Medica_Salernitana" title="Schola Medica Salernitana">Schola Medica Salernitana</a>, established in the 9th Century, became a leading medical school and translated the work of Greek and Arabic physicians into Latin. <a href="/wiki/Bologna_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Bologna University">Bologna University</a> founded in 1088 became the most influential of the early universities, which first specialised in <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paris_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris University">Paris University</a> founded in 1150 but formed from a pre–existing cathedral school, specialising in such topics as theology, came to rival Bologna under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Notre_Dame_Cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Notre Dame Cathedral">Notre Dame Cathedral</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a> founded in 1096, later came to rival Paris in Theology, while <a href="/wiki/Salamanca_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Salamanca University">Salamanca University</a> was founded in Spain in 1243. According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a>, the universities benefited from the use of Latin, the common language of the Church, and its internationalist reach, and their role was to "teach, argue and reason within a Christian framework".<a href="#cite_note-auto-379">[379]</a> The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation;<a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a> and Saint <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albert the Great</a>, a pioneer of biological field research<a href="#cite_note-382">[382]</a> In the 13th century, <a href="/wiki/Mendicant_orders" title="Mendicant orders">mendicant orders</a> were founded by <a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dominic_de_Guzm%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominic de Guzmán">Dominic de Guzmán</a> which brought <a href="/wiki/Consecrated_life_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Consecrated life (Catholic Church)">consecrated religious life</a> into urban settings.<a href="#cite_note-LeGoff80-380">[380]</a>: 87  These orders also played a large role in the development of cathedral schools into <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">universities</a>, the direct ancestors of the modern Western institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Woods135-213">[213]</a>: 44–48  Notable <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> theologians such as the Dominican <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> worked at these universities, his <a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologica" title="Summa Theologica">Summa Theologica</a> was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> thought and Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-Bokenkotter465-12">[12]</a>: 158–159  The university reached central Europe by the 14th century, with the foundation of institutions like <a href="/wiki/Prague_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague University">Prague University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cracow_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Cracow University">Cracow University</a>. The Spaniard <a href="/wiki/St_Ignatius_Loyola" class="mw-redirect" title="St Ignatius Loyola">St Ignatius Loyola</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a> (Jesuits) in 1540. Initially a missionary order, the Jesuits took Western learning and the Catholic faith to India, Japan, China, Canada, Central and South America and Australia.<a href="#cite_note-383">[383]</a> The order became increasingly involved in education, founding schools, colleges and universities across the globe and <a href="/wiki/List_of_alumni_of_Jesuit_educational_institutions" title="List of alumni of Jesuit educational institutions">educating such notable Western scholars, intellectuals, artists and statesmen</a> as <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Coubertin" title="Pierre de Coubertin">Pierre de Coubertin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Arthur_Conan_Doyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Arthur Conan Doyle">Sir Arthur Conan Doyle</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock" title="Alfred Hitchcock">Alfred Hitchcock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bing_Crosby" title="Bing Crosby">Bing Crosby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hughes_(critic)" title="Robert Hughes (critic)">Robert Hughes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>. According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Blainey" title="Geoffrey Blainey">Geoffrey Blainey</a>, the university became a hallmark of Christian Civilisation, though, he writes, "in the most recent century perhaps no institution has done more to promote an alternative or secular view of the world".<a href="#cite_note-auto-379">[379]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America_2">Latin America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Latin America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_older_building,_part_of_the_Universidad_National_de_Cordoba_in_Cordoba,_Argentina.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/An_older_building%2C_part_of_the_Universidad_National_de_Cordoba_in_Cordoba%2C_Argentina.jpg/220px-An_older_building%2C_part_of_the_Universidad_National_de_Cordoba_in_Cordoba%2C_Argentina.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/An_older_building%2C_part_of_the_Universidad_National_de_Cordoba_in_Cordoba%2C_Argentina.jpg/330px-An_older_building%2C_part_of_the_Universidad_National_de_Cordoba_in_Cordoba%2C_Argentina.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/An_older_building%2C_part_of_the_Universidad_National_de_Cordoba_in_Cordoba%2C_Argentina.jpg/440px-An_older_building%2C_part_of_the_Universidad_National_de_Cordoba_in_Cordoba%2C_Argentina.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2248" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/National_University_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="National University of Córdoba">National University of Córdoba</a> in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Argentina" title="Córdoba, Argentina">Córdoba</a>, Argentina, founded in 1613 by the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a></figcaption></figure> Education in Latin American began under the direction of missionaries who were sponsored by the Spanish crown. Royal policy stipulated that the Amerindians had to accept missionaries but they did not have to convert. Indians who agreed to listen to the missionaries were not subjected to work for <a href="/wiki/Encomendero" class="mw-redirect" title="Encomendero">encomenderos</a> some of whom were notorious for brutal conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Noble,_p.230-177">[177]</a>: 450–1  A key role in the development of the university system in Latin America was played by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_religious_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic religious order">Catholic orders</a>, especially by the <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a>, but also the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominicans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a> The founding and operation of most universities resulted from the – usually local – initiative of one of these orders, which sometimes quarreled openly over the control of the <a href="/wiki/Campus" title="Campus">campus</a> and the curriculum. The (temporary) <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">dissolution of the Jesuit order</a> in the late 18th century proved to be a major setback for the university landscape in Latin America, several of the suppressed <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jesuit_institutions#List_of_Jesuit_universities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jesuit institutions">Jesuit universities</a> were reopened only decades later. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: North America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georgetown_Jesuit_Residence.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three young adults lie on grass reading books in front of a brick building with many windows." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Georgetown_Jesuit_Residence.jpg/170px-Georgetown_Jesuit_Residence.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Georgetown_Jesuit_Residence.jpg/255px-Georgetown_Jesuit_Residence.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Georgetown_Jesuit_Residence.jpg/340px-Georgetown_Jesuit_Residence.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1782" /></a><figcaption>Students studying outside Wolfington Hall Jesuit Residence, <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a>, US </figcaption></figure> A number of Catholic universities, schools and colleges have been formed in the United States. The religious tolerance established by the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> enabled the Catholic clergy of Maryland to found <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a>, America's oldest Catholic university, in 1789 and it became a Jesuit institution in 1805.<a href="#cite_note-385">[385]</a> Saint <a href="/wiki/Katharine_Drexel" title="Katharine Drexel">Katharine Drexel</a> inherited a fortune and established the <a href="/wiki/Sisters_of_the_Blessed_Sacrament" title="Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament">Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament for Indians and Colored People</a> (now known as the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament), founded schools across America and started <a href="/wiki/Xavier_University_of_Louisiana" title="Xavier University of Louisiana">Xavier University of Louisiana</a> in New Orleans in 1925 for the education of African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australasia">Australasia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Australasia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mary_MacKillop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Mary_MacKillop.jpg/170px-Mary_MacKillop.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Mary_MacKillop.jpg/255px-Mary_MacKillop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Mary_MacKillop.jpg/340px-Mary_MacKillop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="486" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Mary_MacKillop" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Mary MacKillop">Saint Mary MacKillop</a>, Australia's first saint. Through many centuries, Catholic women have founded <a href="/wiki/Religious_institute" title="Religious institute">religious institutes</a> dedicated to the education of the poor.</figcaption></figure> From 19th-century foundations, the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_education_in_Australia" title="Catholic education in Australia">Catholic education system in Australia</a> has grown to be the second biggest sector after government schools with around 21 per cent of all secondary school enrolments.<a href="#cite_note-387">[387]</a> The Church has established primary, secondary and tertiary educational institutions. St <a href="/wiki/Mary_MacKillop" title="Mary MacKillop">Mary MacKillop</a> was a 19th-century Australian nun who founded an educational religious institute, the <a href="/wiki/Sisters_of_St_Joseph_of_the_Sacred_Heart" title="Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart">Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart</a>, and in 2010 became the first Australian to be canonised as a saint.<a href="#cite_note-388">[388]</a> Catholic education is also significant in neighbouring South Pacific nations: 11% of New Zealand students attend Catholic schools<a href="#cite_note-389">[389]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa_2">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_slag_bij_Adua_TMnr_5956-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_slag_bij_Adua_TMnr_5956-2.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_slag_bij_Adua_TMnr_5956-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_slag_bij_Adua_TMnr_5956-2.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_slag_bij_Adua_TMnr_5956-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_slag_bij_Adua_TMnr_5956-2.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_De_slag_bij_Adua_TMnr_5956-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> forces, assisted by <a href="/wiki/Saint_George" title="Saint George">St. George</a> (top), win the battle against <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italian</a> invaders. Painted 1965–1975.</figcaption></figure> By the close of the 19th century, European powers had managed to gain control of most of the African interior.<a href="#cite_note-Adrian_Hastings-9">[9]</a>: 398  The new rulers introduced cash-based economies which created an enormous demand for literacy and a western education—a demand which for most Africans could only be satisfied by Christian missionaries.<a href="#cite_note-Adrian_Hastings-9">[9]</a>: 398 Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa, and built schools, hospitals, monasteries and churches.<a href="#cite_note-Adrian_Hastings-9">[9]</a>: 398  With a high number of adult baptisms, the Church is growing faster in Africa than anywhere else.<a href="#cite_note-Froehle30-370">[370]</a>: 46  It also operates a greater number of Catholic schools per parish here (3:1) than in other areas of the world.<a href="#cite_note-Froehle30-370">[370]</a>: 48  According to <a href="/wiki/Heather_J._Sharkey" title="Heather J. Sharkey">Heather Sharkey</a>, the real impact of the activities of the missionaries is still a topic open to debate in academia today.<a href="#cite_note-390">[390]</a> Sharkey asserted that "the missionaries played manifold roles in colonial Africa and stimulated forms of cultural, political and religious change." "Historians still debate the nature of their impact and question their relation to the system of European colonialism in the continent." She noted that the missionaries did great good in Africa, providing crucial social services such as modern education and health care that would have otherwise not been available. Sharkey said that, in societies that were traditionally male-dominated, female missionaries provided women in Africa with health care knowledge and basic education.<a href="#cite_note-391">[391]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Pew_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Pew Center">Pew Center</a> study about <a href="/wiki/Religiosity_and_education" title="Religiosity and education">religion and education</a> around the world in 2016, found that "there is a large and pervasive gap in educational attainment between Muslims and Christians in sub-Saharan Africa" as <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> adults in this region are far less educated than their <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a> counterparts,<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> with scholars suggesting that this gap is due to the educational facilities that were created by <a href="/wiki/Christian_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian missionaries">Christian missionaries</a> during the colonial era for fellow believers.<a href="#cite_note-Pew2016-377">[377]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia_2">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xaviers_college.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Xaviers_college.jpg/200px-Xaviers_college.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Xaviers_college.jpg/300px-Xaviers_college.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Xaviers_college.jpg/400px-Xaviers_college.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1504" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The Catholic <a href="/wiki/St._Xavier%27s_College,_Mumbai" title="St. Xavier's College, Mumbai">St. Xavier's College in Mumbai</a> is one of the most prestigious liberal arts colleges in India.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_College,_Kanpur" title="Christ Church College, Kanpur">Christ Church College</a> (1866) and <a href="/wiki/St._Stephen%27s_College,_Delhi" title="St. Stephen's College, Delhi">St. Stephen's College</a> (1881) are two examples of prominent church-affiliated educational institutions founded during the British Raj.<a href="#cite_note-CarpenterGlanzer2014-392">[392]</a> Within educational institutions established during the British Raj, Christian texts, especially the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Bible">Bible</a>, were a part of the curricula.<a href="#cite_note-CraneMohanram2013-393">[393]</a> During the British Raj, Christian missionaries developed writing systems for Indian languages that previously did not have one.<a href="#cite_note-AKanjamala2014-394">[394]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bhaṭṭācāryya1969-395">[395]</a> Christian missionaries in India also worked to increase literacy and also engaged in social activism, such as fighting against prostitution, championing the right of widowed women to remarry, and trying to stop early marriages for women.<a href="#cite_note-Mullin2014-396">[396]</a> In India, over 25,000 schools and colleges are operated by the Church.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-397">[397]</a> The Jesuits' educational institutions have left a prestigious impact through their education institutions.<a href="#cite_note-398">[398]</a> Education has become the major priority for the Church in India in recent years with nearly 60% of the Catholic schools situated in rural areas.<a href="#cite_note-399">[399]</a> Even in the early part of the 19th century, Catholic schools had emphasised relief for the poor and their welfare.<a href="#cite_note-400">[400]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protestant_role_in_education">Protestant role in education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Protestant role in education">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg/200px-HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg/300px-HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg/400px-HarvardElizaSusanQuincy1836.jpg 2x" data-file-width="577" data-file-height="311" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a>, historically one of several favored undergraduate schools for the Protestant elite.<a href="#cite_note-401">[401]</a> Seen here is the 1836 Harvard alumni procession.</figcaption></figure> As the Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels got a strong boost. Compulsory education for both boys and girls was introduced. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> who established <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> in 1628 founded <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> only eight years later. Seven of the first nine of what are called <a href="/wiki/Colonial_colleges" title="Colonial colleges">colonial colleges</a> were founded by Christians, including <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>,<a href="#cite_note-402">[402]</a><a href="#cite_note-Khalaf_2012_31-403">[403]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> (1701); a nineteenth-century book on "Colleges in America" says, "Eighty three percent of the colleges in [the U.S.] were founded by Christian philanthropy."<a href="#cite_note-John_Marshall_Barker-404">[404]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> also became a centre of learning as one of the colleges not specifically Christian.<a href="#cite_note-405">[405]</a><a href="#cite_note-406">[406]</a> <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian church">Presbyterian</a> foundation.<a href="#cite_note-Khalaf_2012_31-403">[403]</a> A large number of <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">mainline Protestants</a> have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education.<a href="#cite_note-mainline2000-407">[407]</a> <dl><dd>The private schools and colleges established by the mainline Protestant denominations, as a rule, still want to be known as places that foster values, but few will go so far as to identify those values as Christian. ... Overall, the distinctiveness of mainline Protestant identity has largely dissolved since the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-408">[408]</a></dd></dl> Protestantism also initiated translations of the Bible into national languages and thereby supported the development of national literatures.<a href="#cite_note-Olúfémi_Táíwò-409">[409]</a><a href="#cite_note-Christopher_Thao_Vang-410">[410]</a> <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_(United_States)" title="Episcopal Church (United States)">Episcopalians</a><a href="#cite_note-THE_EPISCOPALIANS-313">[313]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterians" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterians">Presbyterians</a><a href="#cite_note-Hacker_1957_1009–1026_p._1011-329">[329]</a> tend to be considerably wealthier and better educated than most other religious groups. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cleanliness">Cleanliness</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Cleanliness">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution in Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene in Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cantharus_(Christianity)" title="Cantharus (Christianity)">Cantharus (Christianity)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bishop_Sebouh_-_Washing_of_Feet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Bishop_Sebouh_-_Washing_of_Feet.jpg/185px-Bishop_Sebouh_-_Washing_of_Feet.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Bishop_Sebouh_-_Washing_of_Feet.jpg/278px-Bishop_Sebouh_-_Washing_of_Feet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Bishop_Sebouh_-_Washing_of_Feet.jpg/370px-Bishop_Sebouh_-_Washing_of_Feet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Bishop Sebouh Chouldjian of the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a> <a href="/wiki/Maundy_(foot_washing)" title="Maundy (foot washing)">washing the feet</a> of children</figcaption></figure> The Bible has many rituals of purification relating to <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a>, childbirth, <a href="/wiki/Religion_and_sexuality" title="Religion and sexuality">sexual relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keri" title="Keri">nocturnal emission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zav" title="Zav">unusual bodily fluids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tzaraath" title="Tzaraath">skin disease</a>, death, and <a href="/wiki/Korban" title="Korban">animal sacrifices</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a> prescribes several kinds of <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">hand washing</a> for example after leaving the latrine, lavatory or bathhouse, or before prayer, or after eating a meal.<a href="#cite_note-Pedersen-1999-411">[411]</a> The women in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church are prohibited from entering the church temple during <a href="/wiki/Menses" class="mw-redirect" title="Menses">menses</a>; and the men do not enter a church the day after they have had intercourse with their wives.<a href="#cite_note-412">[412]</a> Christianity has always placed a strong <a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">emphasis on hygiene</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Warsh-413">[413]</a> Despite the denunciation of the <a href="/wiki/Mixed_bathing" title="Mixed bathing">mixed bathing</a> style of Roman pools by <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian">early Christian</a> clergy, as well as the pagan custom of women naked bathing in front of men, this did not stop the Church from urging its followers to go to public baths for bathing,<a href="#cite_note-Squatriti-414">[414]</a> which contributed to hygiene and good health according to the <a href="/wiki/Church_Father" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Father">Church Father</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a>. The Church also built <a href="/wiki/Public_bathing" title="Public bathing">public bathing</a> facilities that were separate for both sexes near <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">monasteries</a> and pilgrimage sites; also, the <a href="/wiki/Popes" class="mw-redirect" title="Popes">popes</a> situated baths within church <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicas</a> and monasteries since the early Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-Mary_Thurlkill-415">[415]</a> Pope <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory the Great">Gregory the Great</a> urged his followers on value of <a href="/wiki/Bathing" title="Bathing">bathing</a> as a bodily need.<a href="#cite_note-Paolo_Squatriti-416">[416]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bagno_del_Papa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Bagno_del_Papa.jpg/185px-Bagno_del_Papa.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Bagno_del_Papa.jpg/278px-Bagno_del_Papa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Bagno_del_Papa.jpg/370px-Bagno_del_Papa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="788" /></a><figcaption>Bagno del Papa in <a href="/wiki/Viterbo" title="Viterbo">Viterbo</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agkistro_Byzantine_bath.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Agkistro_Byzantine_bath.jpg/185px-Agkistro_Byzantine_bath.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Agkistro_Byzantine_bath.jpg/278px-Agkistro_Byzantine_bath.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Agkistro_Byzantine_bath.jpg/370px-Agkistro_Byzantine_bath.jpg 2x" data-file-width="979" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Agkistro" title="Agkistro">Agkistro</a> Byzantine bath</figcaption></figure> Great <a href="/wiki/Bath_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Bath House">bathhouses</a> were built in <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine centers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>,<a href="#cite_note-417">[417]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Popes" class="mw-redirect" title="Popes">popes</a> allocated to the Romans bathing through <a href="/wiki/Diaconia" title="Diaconia">diaconia</a>, or private <a href="/wiki/Lateran" title="Lateran">Lateran</a> baths, or even a myriad of monastic <a href="/wiki/Bath_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Bath House">bath houses</a> functioning in eighth and ninth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Paolo_Squatriti-416">[416]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Popes" class="mw-redirect" title="Popes">Popes</a> maintained their baths in their residences, and <a href="/wiki/Bath_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Bath House">bath houses</a> including hot baths incorporated into Christian Church buildings or those of monasteries, which known as "charity baths" because they served both the clerics and needy poor people.<a href="#cite_note-ArthurAshpitel1851-418">[418]</a> <a href="/wiki/Public_bathing" title="Public bathing">Public bathing</a> was common in medieval <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> in larger towns and cities such as <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regensburg" title="Regensburg">Regensburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-419">[419]</a><a href="#cite_note-420">[420]</a> Catholic religious orders of the <a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinians</a>' and <a href="/wiki/Benedictines" title="Benedictines">Benedictines</a>' rules contained <a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">ritual purification</a>,<a href="#cite_note-421">[421]</a> and inspired by <a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a> encouragement for the practice of therapeutic bathing; <a href="/wiki/Benedictine" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedictine">Benedictine</a> monks played a role in the development and promotion of <a href="/wiki/Spa" title="Spa">spas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ASpiritualHistory-422">[422]</a> <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant Christianity</a> also played a prominent role in the development of the British <a href="/wiki/Spa" title="Spa">spas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ASpiritualHistory-422">[422]</a> Contrary to popular belief<a href="#cite_note-423">[423]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bathing" title="Bathing">bathing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> were not lost in Europe with the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-424">[424]</a><a href="#cite_note-425">[425]</a> <a href="/wiki/Soap_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Soap making">Soapmaking</a> first became an established trade during the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a>". The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> used <a href="/wiki/Scent" class="mw-redirect" title="Scent">scented</a> <a href="/wiki/Oils" class="mw-redirect" title="Oils">oils</a> (mostly from Egypt), among other alternatives. By the 15th century, the manufacture of soap in the <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> had become virtually industrialized, with sources in <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)" title="Castile (historical region)">Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-426">[426]</a> By the mid-19th century, the English urbanised middle classes had formed an ideology of cleanliness that ranked alongside typical <a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian</a> concepts, such as Christianity, respectability and <a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">social progress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eveleigh,_Bogs_2002-427">[427]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Salvation_Army" title="The Salvation Army">The Salvation Army</a> has adopted the deployment of <a href="/wiki/Personal_hygiene" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal hygiene">personal hygiene</a>,<a href="#cite_note-428">[428]</a><a href="#cite_note-429">[429]</a> and by providing <a href="/wiki/Personal_hygiene" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal hygiene">personal hygiene</a> products, such as a <a href="/wiki/Toothbrush" title="Toothbrush">toothbrush</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toothpaste" title="Toothpaste">toothpaste</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a>.<a href="#cite_note-430">[430]</a><a href="#cite_note-431">[431]</a><a href="#cite_note-432">[432]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Anal_hygiene" title="Anal hygiene">use of water</a> in many <a href="/wiki/Christian_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian countries">Christian countries</a> is due in part to the Biblical toilet etiquette which encourages washing after all instances of defecation.<a href="#cite_note-433">[433]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bidet" title="Bidet">bidet</a> is common in predominantly <a href="/wiki/Catholic_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic countries">Catholic countries</a> where water is considered essential for <a href="/wiki/Anal_cleansing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anal cleansing">anal cleansing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-434">[434]</a><a href="#cite_note-435">[435]</a> and in some traditionally <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_by_country" title="Eastern Orthodoxy by country">Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_by_country" title="Protestantism by country">Protestant countries</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> respectively, where <a href="/wiki/Bidet_shower" title="Bidet shower">bidet showers</a> are common.<a href="#cite_note-436">[436]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world">Christian influences on the Islamic world</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Christian influences on the Islamic world">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Christian influences on the Islamic world</a></div> Christian influences in Islam could be traced back to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a>, which surrounded the origins of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-MNA-437">[437]</a> Islam, emerging in the context of the Middle East that was largely Christian, was first seen as a Christological <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a> known as the "heresy of the Ishmaelites", described as such in <a href="/wiki/John_of_Damascus#Teachings_and_dogmatic_works" title="John of Damascus">Concerning Heresy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Saint_John_of_Damascus" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint John of Damascus">Saint John of Damascus</a>, a Syriac scholar.<a href="#cite_note-438">[438]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_scientists_and_scholars_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world">Eastern Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorian</a> Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic civilization during the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasids">Abbasid</a> periods by translating works of <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophers">Greek philosophers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Language">Syriac</a> and afterwards to <a href="/wiki/Arabic_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic Language">Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hill,_Donald_1993._p.4-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-439">[439]</a><a href="#cite_note-440">[440]</a> During the 4th through the 7th centuries, scholarly work in the Syriac and Greek languages was either newly initiated, or carried on from the Hellenistic period. Centers of learning and of transmission of classical wisdom included colleges such as the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Nisibis" title="School of Nisibis">School of Nisibis</a>, and later the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Edessa" title="School of Edessa">School of Edessa</a>, and the renowned hospital and medical <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of Gondishapur">academy of Jundishapur</a>; libraries included the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Library_of_Constantinople" title="Imperial Library of Constantinople">Imperial Library of Constantinople</a>; other centers of translation and learning functioned at <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Salonika</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, situated just south of what later became Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-441">[441]</a><a href="#cite_note-442">[442]</a> The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">library</a>, <a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">translation</a> institute, and academy established in <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-443">[443]</a><a href="#cite_note-444">[444]</a> Nestorians played a prominent role in the formation of Arab culture,<a href="#cite_note-Nestorian-37">[37]</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Jundishapur" class="mw-redirect" title="Jundishapur">Jundishapur</a> school being prominent in the late <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanid</a>, Umayyad and early Abbasid periods.<a href="#cite_note-:1-445">[445]</a> Notably, eight generations of the Nestorian <a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a> family served as private doctors to caliphs and sultans between the 8th and 11th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-446">[446]</a><a href="#cite_note-447">[447]</a> Scholars and intellectuals agree <a href="/wiki/Christians_in_the_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Christians in the Middle East">Christians in the Middle East</a> have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the <a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Radai20082-448">[448]</a><a href="#cite_note-449">[449]</a><a href="#cite_note-Curtis_2017_173-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_Christianity_in_science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world">Role of Christianity in science in the medieval Islamic world</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Role of Christianity in science in the medieval Islamic world">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_scientists_and_scholars_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world">List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> especially <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorian</a> contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasids">Abbasids</a> by translating works of <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophers">Greek philosophers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Language">Syriac</a> and afterwards to <a href="/wiki/Arabic_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic Language">Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hill,_Donald_1993._p.4-33">[33]</a> They also excelled in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qusta_ibn_Luqa" title="Qusta ibn Luqa">Qusta ibn Luqa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masawaiyh" title="Masawaiyh">Masawaiyh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_Eutychius_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch Eutychius of Alexandria">Patriarch Eutychius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jabril_ibn_Bukhtishu" title="Jabril ibn Bukhtishu">Jabril ibn Bukhtishu</a> etc.) and <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Tatian" title="Tatian">Tatian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bar_Daisan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar Daisan">Bar Daisan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babai_the_Great" title="Babai the Great">Babai the Great</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nestorius" title="Nestorius">Nestorius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toma_bar_Yacoub" class="mw-redirect" title="Toma bar Yacoub">Toma bar Yacoub</a> etc.) and the personal <a href="/wiki/Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Physicians">physicians</a> of the Abbasid Caliphs were often <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> such as the long serving <a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a> dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-christiansofiraq.com-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nestorian-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_Christianity_in_medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world">Role of Christianity in medicine in the medieval Islamic world</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Role of Christianity in medicine in the medieval Islamic world">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manafe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Manafe.jpg/200px-Manafe.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Manafe.jpg/300px-Manafe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Manafe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="312" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>Ibn Bakhtishu's Manafi' al-Hayawan (منافع الحيوان ), dated 12th century. Captions appear in Persian language.</figcaption></figure> A hospital and medical training center existed at <a href="/wiki/Gundeshapur" title="Gundeshapur">Gundeshapur</a>. The city of <a href="/wiki/Gundeshapur" title="Gundeshapur">Gundeshapur</a> was founded in 271 by the Sassanid king <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a>. It was one of the major cities in <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan">Khuzestan</a> province of the Persian empire in what is today <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>. A large percentage of the population were <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Christians">Syriacs</a>, most of whom were Christians. Under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau I">Khosrau I</a>, refuge was granted to <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Christian">Nestorian Christian</a> philosophers including the scholars of the Persian School of <a href="/wiki/Edessa,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Edessa, Mesopotamia">Edessa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Urfa" title="Urfa">Urfa</a>) (also called the Academy of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> theological and medical university. These scholars made their way to Gundeshapur in 529 following the closing of the academy by Emperor Justinian. They were engaged in medical sciences and initiated the first translation projects of medical texts.<a href="#cite_note-:1-445">[445]</a> The arrival of these medical practitioners from Edessa marks the beginning of the hospital and medical center at Gundeshapur.<a href="#cite_note-450">[450]</a> It included a medical school and hospital (bimaristan), a pharmacology laboratory, a translation house, a library and an observatory.<a href="#cite_note-451">[451]</a> Indian doctors also contributed to the school at Gundeshapur, most notably the medical researcher Mankah. Later after Islamic invasion, the writings of Mankah and of the Indian doctor Sustura were translated into Arabic at <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-452">[452]</a> <a href="/wiki/Daud_al-Antaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Daud al-Antaki">Daud al-Antaki</a> was one of the last generation of influential Arab Christian writers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_merchants_and_the_silk_trade">Christian merchants and the silk trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Christian merchants and the silk trade">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vank_Cathedral_interior.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Vank_Cathedral_interior.jpg/200px-Vank_Cathedral_interior.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Vank_Cathedral_interior.jpg/300px-Vank_Cathedral_interior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Vank_Cathedral_interior.jpg/400px-Vank_Cathedral_interior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Vank_Cathedral" title="Vank Cathedral">Vank Cathedral</a>. The Armenians moved into the <a href="/wiki/Jolfa_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Jolfa district">Jolfa district</a> of Isfahan and were free to build their prayer houses, eventually becoming an integral part of the society.</figcaption></figure> The one valuable item, sought for in Europe, which Iran possessed and which could bring in silver in sufficient quantities was silk, which was produced in the northern provinces, along the Caspian coastline. The trade of this product was done by Persians to begin with, but during the 17th century the Christian <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a> became increasingly vital in the trade of this merchandise, as <a href="/wiki/Middleman_minority" title="Middleman minority">middlemen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Blow;_p._213-453">[453]</a><a href="#cite_note-454">[454]</a> Whereas domestic trade was largely in the hands of Persian and Jewish merchants, by the late 17th century, almost all foreign trade was controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-455">[455]</a> They were even hired by wealthy Persian merchants to travel to Europe when they wanted to create commercial bases there, and the Armenians eventually established themselves in cities like <a href="/wiki/Bursa" title="Bursa">Bursa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, Venice, Livorno, Marseilles and Amsterdam.<a href="#cite_note-Blow;_p._213-453">[453]</a> Realizing this, Shah Abbas resettled large numbers of Armenians from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> to his capital city and provided them with loans.<a href="#cite_note-Blow;_p._213-453">[453]</a> And as the shah realized the importance of doing trade with the Europeans, he assured that the Safavid society was one with religious tolerance. The Christian Armenians thus became a commercial elite in the Safavid society and managed to survive in the tough atmosphere of business being fought over by the British, Dutch, French, Indians and Persians, by always having large capital readily available and by managing to strike harder bargains ensuring cheaper prices than what, for instance, their British rivals ever were able to.<a href="#cite_note-456">[456]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fanarion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Fanarion.jpg/200px-Fanarion.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Fanarion.jpg/300px-Fanarion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Fanarion.jpg/400px-Fanarion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="973" data-file-height="621" /></a><figcaption>View of the <a href="/wiki/Phanarion" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanarion">Phanarion</a> quarter, the historical centre of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks" title="Ottoman Greeks">Greek community</a> of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman times</a>, c. 1900</figcaption></figure> Immediately after the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Constantinople">Conquest of Constantinople</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mehmet_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmet II">Mehmet II</a> released his portion of the city's captive Christian population with instructions to start the rebuilding of Constantinople which had been devastated by siege and war.<a href="#cite_note-457">[457]</a> Afterwards, he began to also repopulate the city bringing new inhabitants – both Christian and Muslim – from the whole empire and from the newly conquered territories.<a href="#cite_note-ma98-458">[458]</a> Phanar was then repopulated with Greeks deported from Mouchlion in the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a> and, <a href="/wiki/Trabzon#Ancient_and_medieval" title="Trabzon">after 1461</a>, with citizens of <a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trebizond</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ma99-459">[459]</a> The roots of <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> ascendancy can be traced to the need of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottomans</a> for skilled and educated negotiators as the power of their empire declined and they were compelled to rely on treaties more than the force of arms. From the 17th century onwards the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottomans</a> began facing problems in the conduct of their foreign relations, and were having difficulties in dictating terms to their neighbours; the Porte was faced for the first time with the need of participating in diplomatic negotiations. From 1669 until the Greek War of Independence in 1821, <a href="/wiki/Phanariots" title="Phanariots">Phanariots</a> made up the majority of the <a href="/wiki/Dragoman" title="Dragoman">dragomans</a> to the Ottoman government (the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Porte" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Porte">Porte</a>) and foreign <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_mission" title="Diplomatic mission">embassies</a> due to the Greeks' higher level of education than the general Ottoman population.<a href="#cite_note-BritA-460">[460]</a> Given the Ottoman tradition of generally ignoring <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western European</a> languages and cultures, officials found themselves unable to handle such affairs. The Porte subsequently assigned those tasks to the Greeks who had a long mercantile and educational tradition and could provide the necessary skills. As a result, the so−called <a href="/wiki/Phanariotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanariotes">Phanariotes</a>, Greek and Hellenized families mostly native to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, came to occupy high posts of secretaries and interpreters to Ottoman officials and officers. The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the <a href="/wiki/Phanariotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phanariotes">Phanariotes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BritB-461">[461]</a> It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence" title="Greek War of Independence">Greek War of Independence</a> in 1821.<a href="#cite_note-BritB-461">[461]</a> Not coincidentally, on the eve of 1821, the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated in <a href="/wiki/Chios" title="Chios">Chios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ayval%C4%B1k" title="Ayvalık">Aivali</a>, all three major centres of Greek commerce.<a href="#cite_note-BritB-461">[461]</a> Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination in the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> church. The <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Armenians in the Ottoman Empire">Armenians in the Ottoman Empire</a> was made up of three religious denominations: <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church" title="Armenian Catholic Church">Armenian Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Evangelical_Church" title="Armenian Evangelical Church">Armenian Protestant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic</a>, the Church of the vast majority of Armenians. The wealthy, Constantinople-based Amira class, a social elite whose members included the Duzians (Directors of the Imperial Mint), the <a href="/wiki/Balyan_family" title="Balyan family">Balyans</a> (Chief Imperial Architects) and the <a href="/wiki/Dadian_family" title="Dadian family">Dadians</a> (Superintendent of the Gunpowder Mills and manager of industrial factories).<a href="#cite_note-462">[462]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barsoumian-463">[463]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg/200px-Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg/300px-Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg/400px-Algunos_miembros_de_Al-Rabita_al-Qalamiyya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="786" /></a><figcaption>A 1920 photograph of four prominent members of The <a href="/wiki/Pen_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Pen League">Pen League</a> (from left to right): <a href="/wiki/Nasib_Arida" title="Nasib Arida">Nasib Arida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kahlil_Gibran" title="Kahlil Gibran">Kahlil Gibran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Masih_Haddad" title="Abd al-Masih Haddad">Abd al-Masih Haddad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Naimy" title="Mikhail Naimy">Mikhail Naimy</a></figcaption></figure> Scholars and intellectuals including <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Americans" title="Palestinian Americans">Palestinian-American</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Edward Said</a> affirm that Christians in the Arab world have made significant contributions to the Arab civilization since the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pacini1998-464">[464]</a> The top poets in <a href="/wiki/Arab_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab history">history</a> were Arab Christians, and many Arab Christians are physicians, philosophers, government officials and people of literature. Arab Christians traditionally formed the educated <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper class</a> and they have had a significant impact in the culture of the <a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Radai2008-465">[465]</a> Some of the most influential Arab nationalists were <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> Christians, like <a href="/wiki/George_Habash" title="George Habash">George Habash</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine">Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian">Syrian</a> intellectual <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Zureiq" title="Constantin Zureiq">Constantin Zureiq</a>. Many Palestinian Christians were also active in the formation and governing of the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_Authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian National Authority">Palestinian National Authority</a> since 1992. The suicide bomber <a href="/wiki/Jules_Jammal" title="Jules Jammal">Jules Jammal</a>, a Syrian military officer who blew himself up while ramming a French ship, was also an Arab Christian. While <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese</a> <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christian">Maronite Christian</a> were among the Masters and Fathers of the Arabic Renaissance <a href="/wiki/Al-Nahda" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Nahda">Al-Nahda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-466">[466]</a> Because <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a> formed the educated class, they had a significant impact on the politics and culture of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World">Arab World</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Radai2008-465">[465]</a> Christian colleges like <a href="/wiki/Saint_Joseph_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Joseph University">Saint Joseph University</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_University_of_Beirut" title="American University of Beirut">American University of Beirut</a> (Syrian Protestant College until 1920) thrived in Lebanon, <a href="/wiki/Al-Hikma_University_(Baghdad)" title="Al-Hikma University (Baghdad)">Al-Hikma University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> amongst others played leading role in the development of civilization and Arab culture.<a href="#cite_note-Lattouf_p._70-467">[467]</a> Given this role in politics and culture, Ottoman ministers began to include them in their governments. In the economic sphere, a number of Christian families like <a href="/wiki/Sursock_family" title="Sursock family">Sursock</a> became prominent. Thus, the Nahda led the Muslims and Christians to a cultural renaissance and national general despotism. This solidified Arab Christians as one of the pillars of the region and not a minority on the fringes.<a href="#cite_note-468">[468]</a> Today <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_East" title="Christianity in the Middle East">Middle Eastern Christians</a> are relatively wealthy, well educated, and politically moderate,<a href="#cite_note-469">[469]</a> as they have today an active role in various social, economical, sporting and political aspects in the Middle East. <a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians">Arab Christians</a> have significantly influenced and contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic culture">Arabic culture</a> in many fields both historically and in modern times,<a href="#cite_note-Pacini1998-464">[464]</a> including <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">literature</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pacini1998-464">[464]</a> politics,<a href="#cite_note-Pacini1998-464">[464]</a> business,<a href="#cite_note-Pacini1998-464">[464]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic Philosophers">philosophy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-470">[470]</a> music, theatre and cinema,<a href="#cite_note-471">[471]</a> medicine,<a href="#cite_note-Prioreschi2001-472">[472]</a> and science.<a href="#cite_note-473">[473]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholic culture</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 26em;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_University_Press-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_University_Press_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrookeNumbers2011" class="citation book cs1">Brooke, John H.; Numbers, Ronald L., eds. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W6HPW1TodZwC&pg=PA71">Science and Religion Around the World</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-195-32819-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-195-32819-6"><bdi>978-0-195-32819-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Religion+Around+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-195-32819-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW6HPW1TodZwC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Johnson, P. (2000). The Renaissance: a short history. Modern Library chronicles (Modern Library ed.). New York: Modern Library, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36105-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36105-2">0-521-36105-2</a>, pp. XIX–XX </li> <li id="cite_note-Verger-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Verger_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerger2009" class="citation journal cs1">Verger, Jacques (13 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/parisian-scholars-in-the-early-fourteenth-centurycourtenay-william-jcambridge-university-press-cambridge-1999-285-pages-4000-hardback-isbn-0521642124/B9C91F113903305984005C01FC058CE5">"Parisian Scholars in the Early Fourteenth Century"</a>. European Review. 8 (2). Cambridge Core: 268–269. Retrieved 8 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Review&rft.atitle=Parisian+Scholars+in+the+Early+Fourteenth+Century&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=268-269&rft.date=2009-07-13&rft.aulast=Verger&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Feuropean-review%2Farticle%2Fparisian-scholars-in-the-early-fourteenth-centurycourtenay-william-jcambridge-university-press-cambridge-1999-285-pages-4000-hardback-isbn-0521642124%2FB9C91F113903305984005C01FC058CE5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaskins1898" class="citation journal cs1">Haskins, Charles H. (1898). "The Life of Medieval Students as Illustrated by their Letters". The American Historical Review. 3 (2): 203–229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1832500">10.2307/1832500</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1832500">1832500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Life+of+Medieval+Students+as+Illustrated+by+their+Letters&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=203-229&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1832500&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1832500%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Haskins&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbergNumbers1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Numbers, Ronald L.</a> (1986), "Introduction", God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 5, 12, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05538-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05538-4"><bdi>978-0-520-05538-4</bdi></a>, <q>It would be indefensible to maintain, with <a href="/wiki/Reijer_Hooykaas" title="Reijer Hooykaas">Hooykaas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Jaki" title="Stanley Jaki">Jaki</a>, that Christianity was fundamentally responsible for the successes of seventeenth-century science. It would be a mistake of equal magnitude, however, to overlook the intricate interlocking of scientific and religious concerns throughout the century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=God+%26+Nature%3A+Historical+Essays+on+the+Encounter+Between+Christianity+and+Science&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=5%2C+12&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05538-4&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Numbers%2C+Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-abc.net.au-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-abc.net.au_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-abc.net.au_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2012" class="citation web cs1">Harrison, Peter (8 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm">"Christianity and the rise of western science"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Australian Broadcasting Corporation">Australian Broadcasting Corporation</a>. Retrieved 28 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Australian+Broadcasting+Corporation&rft.atitle=Christianity+and+the+rise+of+western+science&rft.date=2012-05-08&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Freligion%2Farticles%2F2012%2F05%2F08%2F3498202.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiches2000" class="citation book cs1">Riches, John (2000). The Bible: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ch. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192853431" title="Special:BookSources/978-0192853431"><bdi>978-0192853431</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=Ch.+1&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0192853431&rft.aulast=Riches&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adrian_Hastings-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adrian_Hastings_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adrian_Hastings_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adrian_Hastings_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adrian_Hastings_9-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adrian_Hastings_9-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adrian_Hastings_9-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adrian_Hastings_9-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHastings1996" class="citation book cs1">Hastings, Adrian (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/churchinafrica140000hast">The Church in Africa, 1450–1950 (Oxford History of the Christian Church)</a>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198263999" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198263999"><bdi>978-0198263999</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Church+in+Africa%2C+1450%E2%80%931950+%28Oxford+History+of+the+Christian+Church%29&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0198263999&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchurchinafrica140000hast&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stark-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stark_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stark_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stark_10-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStark2020" class="citation book cs1">Stark, Rodney (2020). The Rise of Christianity A Sociologist Reconsiders History. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691214290" title="Special:BookSources/9780691214290"><bdi>9780691214290</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Christianity+A+Sociologist+Reconsiders+History&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780691214290&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kreeft61-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Kreeft61_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreeft2011" class="citation book cs1">Kreeft, Peter (21 February 2011). Catholic Christianity A Complete Catechism of Catholic Beliefs Based on the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Ignatius Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781681490700" title="Special:BookSources/9781681490700"><bdi>9781681490700</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catholic+Christianity+A+Complete+Catechism+of+Catholic+Beliefs+Based+on+the+Catechism+of+the+Catholic+Church&rft.pub=Ignatius+Press&rft.date=2011-02-21&rft.isbn=9781681490700&rft.aulast=Kreeft&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bokenkotter465-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bokenkotter465_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bokenkotter465_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBokenkotter2007" class="citation book cs1">Bokenkotter, Thomas (2007). A Concise History of the Catholic Church (Revised ed.). Crown Publishing Group. p. 465. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307423481" title="Special:BookSources/9780307423481"><bdi>9780307423481</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+Catholic+Church&rft.pages=465&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Crown+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780307423481&rft.aulast=Bokenkotter&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilley-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gilley_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gilley_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilley2006" class="citation book cs1">Gilley, Sheridan (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities c. 1815 – c. 1914. Brian Stanley. Cambridge University Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521814561" title="Special:BookSources/0521814561"><bdi>0521814561</bdi></a>. <q>... Many of the scientists who contributed to these developments were Christians...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity%3A+Volume+8%2C+World+Christianities+c.+1815+%E2%80%93+c.+1914&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0521814561&rft.aulast=Gilley&rft.aufirst=Sheridan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steane-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steane_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steane_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteane2014" class="citation book cs1">Steane, Andrew (2014). Faithful to Science: The Role of Science in Religion. OUP Oxford. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191025136" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191025136"><bdi>978-0191025136</bdi></a>. <q>... the Christian contribution to science has been uniformly at the top level, but it has reached that level and it has been sufficiently strong overall ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Faithful+to+Science%3A+The+Role+of+Science+in+Religion&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0191025136&rft.aulast=Steane&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-L._Johnson-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-L._Johnson_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-L._Johnson_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._Johnson2009" class="citation book cs1">L. Johnson, Eric (2009). Foundations for Soul Care: A Christian Psychology Proposal. InterVarsity Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0830875276" title="Special:BookSources/978-0830875276"><bdi>978-0830875276</bdi></a>. <q>... . Many of the early leaders of the scientific revolution were Christians, including Roger Bacon, Copernicus, Kepler, Francis Bacon, Galileo, Newton, Boyle, Pascal, Descartes, Ray, Linnaeus, and Gassendi...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+for+Soul+Care%3A+A+Christian+Psychology+Proposal&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0830875276&rft.aulast=L.+Johnson&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051119123204/http://www.adherents.com/people/100_scientists.html">"100 Scientists Who Shaped World History"</a>. Archived from the original on 19 November 2005. Retrieved 29 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=100+Scientists+Who+Shaped+World+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adherents.com%2Fpeople%2F100_scientists.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070524041145/http://www.adherents.com/people/100_Nobel.html">"50 Nobel Laureates and Other Great Scientists Who Believe in God"</a>. Archived from the original on 24 May 2007. Retrieved 29 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=50+Nobel+Laureates+and+Other+Great+Scientists+Who+Believe+in+God&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adherents.com%2Fpeople%2F100_Nobel.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-S._Kroger-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-S._Kroger_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-S._Kroger_18-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._Kroger2016" class="citation book cs1">S. Kroger, William (2016). Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis in Medicine, Dentistry and Psychology. Pickle Partners Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1787203044" title="Special:BookSources/978-1787203044"><bdi>978-1787203044</bdi></a>. <q>Many prominent Catholic physicians and psychologists have made significant contributions to hypnosis in medicine, dentistry, and psychology.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Clinical+and+Experimental+Hypnosis+in+Medicine%2C+Dentistry+and+Psychology&rft.pub=Pickle+Partners+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1787203044&rft.aulast=S.+Kroger&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051211024930/http://www.adherents.com/people/adh_art.html">"Religious Affiliation of the World's Greatest Artists"</a>. Archived from the original on 11 December 2005. Retrieved 29 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religious+Affiliation+of+the+World%27s+Greatest+Artists&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adherents.com%2Fpeople%2Fadh_art.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-adherents.com-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-adherents.com_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-adherents.com_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051119112115/http://www.adherents.com/people/100_business.html">"Wealthy 100 and the 100 Most Influential in Business"</a>. Archived from the original on 19 November 2005. Retrieved 29 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wealthy+100+and+the+100+Most+Influential+in+Business&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adherents.com%2Fpeople%2F100_business.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-E._McGrath-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-E._McGrath_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-E._McGrath_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-E._McGrath_21-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._McGrath2006" class="citation book cs1">E. McGrath, Alister (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christianityintr0000mcgr">Christianity: An Introduction</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christianityintr0000mcgr/page/336">336</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1405108991" title="Special:BookSources/1405108991"><bdi>1405108991</bdi></a>. <q>Virtually every major European composer contributed to the development of church music. Monteverdi, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Rossini, and Verdi are examples of composers who made significant contributions in this sphere. The Catholic Church was one of the most important patrons of musical developments, and a crucial stimulus to the development of the western musical tradition.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1405108991&rft.aulast=E.+McGrath&rft.aufirst=Alister&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristianityintr0000mcgr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-A._Spinello-22"><a href="#cite_ref-A._Spinello_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Spinello2012" class="citation book cs1">A. Spinello, Richard (2012). The Encyclicals of John Paul II: An Introduction and Commentary. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rowman & Littlefield Publishers">Rowman & Littlefield Publishers</a>. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442219427" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442219427"><bdi>978-1442219427</bdi></a>. <q>... The insights of Christian philosophy "would not have happened without the direct or indirect contribution of Christian faith" (FR 76). Typical Christian philosophers include St. Augustine, St. Bonaventure, and St. Thomas Aquinas. The benefits derived from Christian philosophy are twofold ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclicals+of+John+Paul+II%3A+An+Introduction+and+Commentary&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1442219427&rft.aulast=A.+Spinello&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vincelette-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Vincelette_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy_Vincelette2009" class="citation book cs1">Roy Vincelette, Alan (2009). Recent Catholic Philosophy: The Nineteenth Century. Marquette University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0874627565" title="Special:BookSources/978-0874627565"><bdi>978-0874627565</bdi></a>. <q>... .Catholic thinkers contributed extensively to philosophy during the Nineteenth Century. Besides pioneering the revivals of Augustinianism and Thomism, they helped initiate such philosophical movements as Romanticism, Traditionalism, Semi-Rationalism, Spiritualism, Ontologism, and Integralism...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recent+Catholic+Philosophy%3A+The+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pub=Marquette+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0874627565&rft.aulast=Roy+Vincelette&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hyman1967-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Hyman1967_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHymanWalsh1967" class="citation book cs1">Hyman, J.; Walsh, J. J. (1967). Philosophy in the Middle Ages: The Christian, Islamic, and Jewish Traditions. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Row" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper & Row">Harper & Row</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/370638">370638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+The+Christian%2C+Islamic%2C+and+Jewish+Traditions&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F370638&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Walsh%2C+J.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopaedia_Perthensis-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopaedia_Perthensis_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2014" class="citation book cs1">Brown, J. (24 July 2014). Encyclopaedia Perthensis, Or, Universal Dictionary of the Arts, Sciences, Literature, Etc. : Intended to Supersede the Use of Other Books of Reference, Volume 18. University of Minnesota. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0191025136" title="Special:BookSources/978-0191025136"><bdi>978-0191025136</bdi></a>. <q>... Christians has also contributed greatly to the abolition of slavery, or at least to the mitigation of the rigour of servitude.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Perthensis%2C+Or%2C+Universal+Dictionary+of+the+Arts%2C+Sciences%2C+Literature%2C+Etc.+%3A+Intended+to+Supersede+the+Use+of+Other+Books+of+Reference%2C+Volume+18&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota&rft.date=2014-07-24&rft.isbn=978-0191025136&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinn2021" class="citation book cs1">Pinn, Anthony B, ed. (9 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190921538.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780190921538">The Oxford Handbook of Humanism</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190921538.001.0001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190921538.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-092154-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-092154-5"><bdi>978-0-19-092154-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Humanism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021-09-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190921538.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-092154-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780190921538.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780190921538&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Davies, p. 477 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Löffler, Klemens (1910). "Humanism". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. VII. New York: Robert Appleton Company. pp. 538–542. </li> <li id="cite_note-J._Hillerbrand-29"><a href="#cite_ref-J._Hillerbrand_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillerbrand2016" class="citation book cs1">Hillerbrand, Hans J. (2016). Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set. Pickle Partners Publishing. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1787203044" title="Special:BookSources/978-1787203044"><bdi>978-1787203044</bdi></a>. <q>... In the centuries succeeding the Reformation the teaching of Protestantism was consistent on the nature of work. Some Protestant theologians also contributed to the study of economics, especially the nineteenth-century Scottish minister Thomas Chalmers ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Protestantism%3A+4-volume+Set&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Pickle+Partners+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1787203044&rft.aulast=Hillerbrand&rft.aufirst=Hans+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19991128185243/http://www.adherents.com/adh_influ.html">"Religion of History's 100 Most Influential People"</a>. Archived from the original on 28 November 1999. Retrieved 29 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religion+of+History%27s+100+Most+Influential+People&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adherents.com%2Fadh_influ.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000118210213/http://adherents.com/adh_phil.html">"Religion of Great Philosophers"</a>. Archived from the original on 18 January 2000. Retrieved 29 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religion+of+Great+Philosophers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adherents.com%2Fadh_phil.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Nobel_Prize-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_Prize_32-0">^</a> Baruch A. Shalev, 100 Years of Nobel Prizes (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religions. Most (65.4%) have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0935047370" title="Special:BookSources/978-0935047370">978-0935047370</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill,_Donald_1993._p.4-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hill,_Donald_1993._p.4_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hill,_Donald_1993._p.4_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hill,_Donald_1993._p.4_33-2">c</a> Hill, Donald. Islamic Science and Engineering. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-0455-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-0455-3">0-7486-0455-3</a>, p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrague2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9mi_Brague" title="Rémi Brague">Brague, Rémi</a> (15 April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC">The Legend of the Middle Ages</a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226070803" title="Special:BookSources/9780226070803"><bdi>9780226070803</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legend+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009-04-15&rft.isbn=9780226070803&rft.aulast=Brague&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9mi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc8YjEkLPXNYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferguson-2008-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Ferguson-2008_35-0">^</a> Ferguson, Kitty <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=trM7NJz011oC&dq=preserve+ancient+knowledge+syria&pg=PT100">Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe</a> Walker Publishing Company, New York, 2008, (page number not available – occurs toward end of Chapter 13, "The Wrap-up of Antiquity"). "It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language." </li> <li id="cite_note-christiansofiraq.com-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-christiansofiraq.com_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-christiansofiraq.com_36-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrague" class="citation web cs1">Brague, Remi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm">"Assyrian Contributions to the Islamic Civilization"</a>. www.christiansofiraq.com. Retrieved 18 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.christiansofiraq.com&rft.atitle=Assyrian+Contributions+to+the+Islamic+Civilization&rft.aulast=Brague&rft.aufirst=Remi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christiansofiraq.com%2Fassyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nestorian-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nestorian_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestorian_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nestorian_37-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nestorianism">"Nestorianism | Definition, History, & Churches | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. 18 April 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Nestorianism+%7C+Definition%2C+History%2C+%26+Churches+%7C+Britannica&rft.date=2023-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FNestorianism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gj6FDwAAQBAJ">The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success</a>. Random House Publishing. 26 September 2006. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812972337" title="Special:BookSources/9780812972337"><bdi>9780812972337</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victory+of+Reason%3A+How+Christianity+Led+to+Freedom%2C+Capitalism%2C+and+Western+Success&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Random+House+Publishing&rft.date=2006-09-26&rft.isbn=9780812972337&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGj6FDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goodreads.com/work/2449580-europe-a-history">"Europe: A History"</a>. Goodreads. Retrieved 30 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Goodreads&rft.atitle=Europe%3A+A+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.goodreads.com%2Fwork%2F2449580-europe-a-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2006" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Peter N. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jhi.2006.0035">"History of Religion Becomes Ethnology: Some Evidence from Peiresc's Africa"</a>. Journal of the History of Ideas. 67 (4): 675–696. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjhi.2006.0035">10.1353/jhi.2006.0035</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-3222">1086-3222</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170111458">170111458</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=History+of+Religion+Becomes+Ethnology%3A+Some+Evidence+from+Peiresc%27s+Africa&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=675-696&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170111458%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1086-3222&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjhi.2006.0035&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1353%2Fjhi.2006.0035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack_Zipes2001" class="citation book cs1">Jack Zipes (2001). The great fairy tale tradition : from Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm : texts, criticism. New York: W.W. 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Jews, Antisemitism, and the Middle East. Routledge. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351510721" title="Special:BookSources/9781351510721"><bdi>9781351510721</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+Antisemitism%2C+and+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781351510721&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._Barr2012" class="citation book cs1">D. Barr, Michael (2012). Cultural Politics and Asian Values. Routledge. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136001666" title="Special:BookSources/9781136001666"><bdi>9781136001666</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+Politics+and+Asian+Values&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781136001666&rft.aulast=D.+Barr&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis2018" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, Michael (2018). Secular Nationalism and Citizenship in Muslim Countries: Arab Christians in the Levant. 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Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76423-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76423-0"><bdi>978-0-521-76423-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantine%2C+Divine+Emperor+of+the+Christian+Golden+Age&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-76423-0&rft.aulast=Bardill&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cameron-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cameron_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cameron_65-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron2011" class="citation book cs1">Cameron, Alan (2011). The Last Pagans of Rome. US: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199747276" title="Special:BookSources/9780199747276"><bdi>9780199747276</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Pagans+of+Rome&rft.place=US&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199747276&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Cotten, Christopher Ryan. Ambrose and Stilicho. 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New York: Routledge. pp. 46–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-53577-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-53577-9"><bdi>978-0-415-53577-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+History+of+Terrorism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=46-48&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-415-53577-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hugo-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Hugo_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebeschuetzHill2005" class="citation book cs1">Liebeschuetz, John Hugo Wolfgang Gideon; Hill, Carole (2005). 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Ambrose of Milan: Church and Court in a Christian Capital. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520914551" title="Special:BookSources/9780520914551"><bdi>9780520914551</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ambrose+of+Milan%3A+Church+and+Court+in+a+Christian+Capital&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780520914551&rft.aulast=McLynn&rft.aufirst=Neil+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drake-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Drake_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrakeAlbuElmMaas2006" class="citation book cs1">Drake, Harold Allen; <a href="/wiki/Emily_Albu" title="Emily Albu">Albu, Emily</a>; Elm, Susanna; Maas, Michael; Rapp, Claudia; Salzman, Michael, eds. (2006). 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Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/authoritysacred00pete/page/49">49–54</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521595575" title="Special:BookSources/9780521595575"><bdi>9780521595575</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Authority+and+the+Sacred%3A+Aspects+of+the+Christianisation+of+the+Roman+World&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=49-54&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780521595575&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fauthoritysacred00pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lavan-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lavan_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lavan_74-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLavan2011" class="citation book cs1">Lavan, Luke (2011). Lavan, Luke; Mulryan, Michael (eds.). The Archaeology of Late Antique "paganism". Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004192379" title="Special:BookSources/9789004192379"><bdi>9789004192379</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Late+Antique+%22paganism%22&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9789004192379&rft.aulast=Lavan&rft.aufirst=Luke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sághy-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Sághy_75-0">^</a> Pagans and Christians in Late Antique Rome: Conflict, Competition, and Coexistence in the Fourth Century. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 2016. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14577d.htm">"Theodosius I"</a>. Catholic Encyclopedia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theodosius+I&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F14577d.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown1-77"><a href="#cite_ref-Brown1_77-0">^</a> Brown, Peter. Late antiquity. Harvard University Press, 1998 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bayliss-78"><a href="#cite_ref-Bayliss_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBayliss2004" class="citation book cs1">Bayliss, Richard (2004). Provincial Cilicia and the Archaeology of Temple Conversion. 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Auflage, Band VI (1962), col. 937 </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Original German title: Dass eine christliche Versammlung oder Gemeine Recht und Macht habe, alle Lehre zu beurteilen und Lehrer zu berufen, ein- und abzusetzen: Grund und Ursach aus der Schrift </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States, pp. 4–10 </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Karl Heussi, Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte, 11. Auflage, p. 325 </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Quoted in Jan Weerda, Calvin, in Evangelisches Soziallexikon, 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210 </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Clifton E. 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"Seven Gay Texts: Biblical Passages Used to Condemn Homosexuality". <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Theology_Bulletin" title="Biblical Theology Bulletin">Biblical Theology Bulletin</a>. 45 (2). <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a> on behalf of Biblical Theology Bulletin Inc.: 68–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146107915577097">10.1177/0146107915577097</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1945-7596">1945-7596</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170127256">170127256</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Theology+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Seven+Gay+Texts%3A+Biblical+Passages+Used+to+Condemn+Homosexuality&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=68-87&rft.date=2015-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170127256%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1945-7596&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0146107915577097&rft.aulast=Gnuse&rft.aufirst=Robert+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Noble,_p.230-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Noble,_p.230_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Noble,_p.230_177-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Noble,_p.230_177-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Noble,_p.230_177-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStraussNobleCohenOsheim2005" class="citation book cs1">Strauss, Barry S.; Noble, Thomas F. 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Retrieved 19 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Gazette&rft.atitle=Roman+Catholic+Church+ban+in+the+Middle+Ages+loosened+family+ties&rft.date=2019-11-07&rft.aulast=Correspondent&rft.aufirst=Caitlin+McDermott-Murphy+Harvard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.harvard.edu%2Fgazette%2Fstory%2F2019%2F11%2Froman-catholic-church-ban-in-the-middle-ages-loosened-family-ties%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|last=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19990819112057/http://adherents.com/adh_branches.html">"Major Branches of Religions Ranked by Number of Adherents"</a>. 19 August 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adherents.com/adh_branches.html">the original</a> on 19 August 1999. Retrieved 19 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Major+Branches+of+Religions+Ranked+by+Number+of+Adherents&rft.date=1999-08-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fadherents.com%2Fadh_branches.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-riggs_2006-187"><a href="#cite_ref-riggs_2006_187-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiggs2006" class="citation book cs1">Riggs, Thomas (2006). "Christianity: Coptic Christianity". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uTMOAQAAMAAJ">Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices: Religions and denominations</a>. Thomson Gale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-6612-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-6612-5"><bdi>978-0-7876-6612-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christianity%3A+Coptic+Christianity&rft.btitle=Worldmark+Encyclopedia+of+Religious+Practices%3A+Religions+and+denominations&rft.pub=Thomson+Gale&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7876-6612-5&rft.aulast=Riggs&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuTMOAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Columbia_encyc_2011_circ-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Columbia_encyc_2011_circ_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html">"Circumcision"</a>. Columbia Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Circumcision&rft.btitle=Columbia+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.infoplease.com%2Fencyclopedia%2Fscience%2Fcircumcision.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeMello2007" class="citation book cs1">DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. <a href="/wiki/ABC-Clio" title="ABC-Clio">ABC-Clio</a>. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313336959" title="Special:BookSources/9780313336959"><bdi>9780313336959</bdi></a>. <q>Coptic Christians, Ethiopian Orthodox, and Eritrean Orthodox churches on the other hand, do observe the ordainment, and circumcise their sons anywhere from the first week of life to the first few years.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Body+Adornment&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=ABC-Clio&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780313336959&rft.aulast=DeMello&rft.aufirst=Margo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-N._Stearns_2008_179-190"><a href="#cite_ref-N._Stearns_2008_179_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._Stearns2008" class="citation book cs1">N. Stearns, Peter (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 179. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195176322" title="Special:BookSources/9780195176322"><bdi>9780195176322</bdi></a>. <q>Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780195176322&rft.aulast=N.+Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreightonLiao2019" class="citation book cs1">Creighton, Sarah; Liao, Lih-Mei (2019). Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery: Solution to What Problem?. Cambridge University Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108435529" title="Special:BookSources/9781108435529"><bdi>9781108435529</bdi></a>. <q>Christians in Africa, for instance, often practise infant male circumcision.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Female+Genital+Cosmetic+Surgery%3A+Solution+to+What+Problem%3F&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781108435529&rft.aulast=Creighton&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft.au=Liao%2C+Lih-Mei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNga2019" class="citation web cs1">Nga, Armelle (30 December 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.africanews.com/2019/12/30/the-ritual-of-circumcision-in-africa-the-case-of-south-africa/">"The Ritual of Circumcision in Africa: The Case of South Africa"</a>. Africanews. <q>This practice is old and widespread among African Christians with very close links to their beliefs. It can be executed traditionally or in hospital.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Ritual+of+Circumcision+in+Africa%3A+The+Case+of+South+Africa&rft.pub=Africanews&rft.date=2019-12-30&rft.aulast=Nga&rft.aufirst=Armelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.africanews.com%2F2019%2F12%2F30%2Fthe-ritual-of-circumcision-in-africa-the-case-of-south-africa%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakos2011" class="citation book cs1">Bakos, Gergely Tibor (2011). On Faith, Rationality, and the Other in the Late Middle Ages:: A Study of Nicholas of Cusa's Manuductive Approach to Islam. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781606083420" title="Special:BookSources/9781606083420"><bdi>9781606083420</bdi></a>. <q>Although it is stated that circumcision is not a sacrament necessary for salvation, this rite is accepted for the Ethiopian Jacobites and other Middle Eastern Christians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Faith%2C+Rationality%2C+and+the+Other+in+the+Late+Middle+Ages%3A%3A+A+Study+of+Nicholas+of+Cusa%27s+Manuductive+Approach+to+Islam&rft.pages=228&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781606083420&rft.aulast=Bakos&rft.aufirst=Gergely+Tibor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._Sharkey2017" class="citation book cs1">J. Sharkey, Heather (2017). A History of Muslims, Christians, and Jews in the Middle East. Cambridge University Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521769372" title="Special:BookSources/9780521769372"><bdi>9780521769372</bdi></a>. <q>On the Coptic Christian practice of male circumcision in Egypt, and on its practice by other Christians in western Asia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Muslims%2C+Christians%2C+and+Jews+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780521769372&rft.aulast=J.+Sharkey&rft.aufirst=Heather&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Associated_Press-195"><a href="#cite_ref-Associated_Press_195-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba">"Circumcision protest brought to Florence"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. 30 March 2008. <q>However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Circumcision+protest+brought+to+Florence&rft.pub=Associated+Press&rft.date=2008-03-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2F19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Vivian C. Fox, "Poor Children's Rights in Early Modern England", Journal of Psychohistory, January 1996, Vol. 23 Issue 3, pp. 286–306 </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=20-04-020-f">"Children of the Reformation"</a>. Touchstone. Retrieved 11 January 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Children+of+the+Reformation&rft.pub=Touchstone&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.touchstonemag.com%2Farchives%2Farticle.php%3Fid%3D20-04-020-f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=18-01-040-f">"Onan's Onus"</a>. Touchstone. Retrieved 20 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Onan%27s+Onus&rft.pub=Touchstone&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.touchstonemag.com%2Farchives%2Farticle.php%3Fid%3D18-01-040-f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrinley1998" class="citation cs2">Brinley, Douglas E. (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/togetherforeverg00brin/page/48">Together forever: Gospel perspectives for marriage and family</a>, Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/togetherforeverg00brin/page/48">48</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57008-540-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-57008-540-4"><bdi>1-57008-540-4</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40185703">40185703</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Together+forever%3A+Gospel+perspectives+for+marriage+and+family&rft.place=Salt+Lake+City%2C+Utah&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Bookcraft&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40185703&rft.isbn=1-57008-540-4&rft.aulast=Brinley&rft.aufirst=Douglas+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftogetherforeverg00brin%2Fpage%2F48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bushman-200"><a href="#cite_ref-Bushman_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBushman2008" class="citation book cs1">Bushman, Richard Lyman (2008). Mormonism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199718696" title="Special:BookSources/9780199718696"><bdi>9780199718696</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mormonism%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780199718696&rft.aulast=Bushman&rft.aufirst=Richard+Lyman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pew-201201-MIA-201"><a href="#cite_ref-Pew-201201-MIA_201-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Mormon/mormons-in-america-executive-summary.aspx#family">"Mormons in America"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>. January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center&rft.atitle=Mormons+in+America&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2FChristian%2FMormon%2Fmormons-in-america-executive-summary.aspx%23family&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DN-20120112-202"><a href="#cite_ref-DN-20120112_202-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120116100601/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700214901/New-Pew-survey-reinforces-Mormons-top-goals-of-family-marriage.html?pg=1">"New Pew survey reinforces Mormons' top goals of family, marriage"</a>. Deseret News. 12 January 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700214901/New-Pew-survey-reinforces-Mormons-top-goals-of-family-marriage.html?pg=1">the original</a> on 16 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deseret+News&rft.atitle=New+Pew+survey+reinforces+Mormons%27+top+goals+of+family%2C+marriage&rft.date=2012-01-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deseretnews.com%2Farticle%2F700214901%2FNew-Pew-survey-reinforces-Mormons-top-goals-of-family-marriage.html%3Fpg%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-LDS-Family-Proc-203"><a href="#cite_ref-LDS-Family-Proc_203-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/eng/scriptures/the-family-a-proclamation-to-the-world/the-family-a-proclamation-to-the-world">"The Family Proclamation"</a>. www.churchofjesuschrist.org. Retrieved 19 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.churchofjesuschrist.org&rft.atitle=The+Family+Proclamation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.churchofjesuschrist.org%2Fstudy%2Feng%2Fscriptures%2Fthe-family-a-proclamation-to-the-world%2Fthe-family-a-proclamation-to-the-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pew-2019-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pew-2019_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pew-2019_204-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pew-2019_204-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/2019/12/12/religion-and-living-arrangements-around-the-world">"Religion and Living Arrangements Around the World"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>. 12 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center&rft.atitle=Religion+and+Living+Arrangements+Around+the+World&rft.date=2019-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2F2019%2F12%2F12%2Freligion-and-living-arrangements-around-the-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTjerngren2021" class="citation book cs1">Tjerngren, Beverly (2021). The Social Life of the Early Modern Protestant Clergy. University of Wales Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781786837158" title="Special:BookSources/9781786837158"><bdi>9781786837158</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Life+of+the+Early+Modern+Protestant+Clergy&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781786837158&rft.aulast=Tjerngren&rft.aufirst=Beverly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchorn-Schütte2003" class="citation book cs1">Schorn-Schütte, Luise (2003). The Social Life of the Early Modern Protestant Clergy. Springer. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780230518872" title="Special:BookSources/9780230518872"><bdi>9780230518872</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Life+of+the+Early+Modern+Protestant+Clergy&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780230518872&rft.aulast=Schorn-Sch%C3%BCtte&rft.aufirst=Luise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Braumüller2006" class="citation book cs1">W. Braumüller, W. (2006). The Rusyn-Ukrainians of Czechoslovakia: An Historical Survey. University of Michigan Press. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783700303121" title="Special:BookSources/9783700303121"><bdi>9783700303121</bdi></a>. <q>because Eastern Christian priests were allowed to marry and therefore the clergy soon became somewhat of a caste made up of a closely - knit families</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rusyn-Ukrainians+of+Czechoslovakia%3A+An+Historical+Survey&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783700303121&rft.aulast=W.+Braum%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Tarnavky, Spohady, cited in Jean-Paul Himka. (1986). The Greek Catholic Church and Ukrainian Society in Austrian Galicia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press pg. 444 </li> <li id="cite_note-Glenn_S._Sunshine-209"><a href="#cite_ref-Glenn_S._Sunshine_209-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunshine2009" class="citation book cs1">Sunshine, Glenn S. (2009). Why You Think the Way You Do: The Story of Western Worldviews from Rome to Home. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-310-29230-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-310-29230-2"><bdi>978-0-310-29230-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+You+Think+the+Way+You+Do%3A+The+Story+of+Western+Worldviews+from+Rome+to+Home&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Zondervan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-310-29230-2&rft.aulast=Sunshine&rft.aufirst=Glenn+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-starkrodney-210"><a href="#cite_ref-starkrodney_210-0">^</a> Stark, Rodney (1 July 2003). "The Truth About the Catholic Church and Slavery". Christianity Today. </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Greg16/g16sup.htm">"IN SUPREMO APOSTOLATUS"</a>. 3 December 1839.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IN+SUPREMO+APOSTOLATUS&rft.date=1839-12-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.papalencyclicals.net%2FGreg16%2Fg16sup.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stearns-212"><a href="#cite_ref-Stearns_212-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearnsMason2000" class="citation book cs1">Stearns, Peter N.; Mason, George (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/genderinworldhis0000stea">Gender in world history</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415223119" title="Special:BookSources/9780415223119"><bdi>9780415223119</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+in+world+history&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780415223119&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Peter+N.&rft.au=Mason%2C+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgenderinworldhis0000stea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Woods135-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Woods135_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woods135_213-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woods135_213-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woods135_213-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woods135_213-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woods135_213-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoods2012" class="citation book cs1">Woods, Thomas Jr. (2012). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Regnery Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781596983281" title="Special:BookSources/9781596983281"><bdi>9781596983281</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Catholic+Church+Built+Western+Civilization&rft.pub=Regnery+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781596983281&rft.aulast=Woods&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johansen-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johansen_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johansen_214-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohansen2005" class="citation book cs1">Johansen, Bruce Elliott (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nativepeoplesofn0000joha">The Native Peoples of North America A History · Volume 1</a>. Praeger Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275987206" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275987206"><bdi>978-0275987206</bdi></a>. <q>In the Americas, the Catholic priest Bartolome de las Casas avidly encouraged enquiries into the Spanish conquest's many cruelties. Las Casas chronicled Spanish brutality against the Native peoples in excruciating detail.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Native+Peoples+of+North+America+A+History+%C2%B7+Volume+1&rft.pub=Praeger+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0275987206&rft.aulast=Johansen&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Elliott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnativepeoplesofn0000joha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koschorke-215"><a href="#cite_ref-Koschorke_215-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpliesgart2007" class="citation book cs1">Spliesgart, Roland (2007). Koschorke, Klaus; Ludwig, Frieder; Delgado, Mariano; Spliesgart, Roland (eds.). A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1450–1990. Eerdmans Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802828897" title="Special:BookSources/9780802828897"><bdi>9780802828897</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christianity+in+Asia%2C+Africa%2C+and+Latin+America%2C+1450%E2%80%931990&rft.pub=Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780802828897&rft.aulast=Spliesgart&rft.aufirst=Roland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dussel145-216"><a href="#cite_ref-Dussel145_216-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDussel1981" class="citation book cs1">Dussel, Enrique (1981). A History of the Church in Latin America. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802821317" title="Special:BookSources/9780802821317"><bdi>9780802821317</bdi></a>. <q>The missionary Church opposed this state of affairs from the beginning, and nearly everything positive that was done for the benefit of the indigenous peoples resulted from the call and clamor of the missionaries. The fact remained, however, that widespread injustice was extremely difficult to uproot ... Even more important than Bartolome de Las Casas was the Bishop of Nicaragua, Antonio de Valdeviso, who ultimately suffered martyrdom for his defense of the Indian.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Church+in+Latin+America&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=9780802821317&rft.aulast=Dussel&rft.aufirst=Enrique&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferro221-217"><a href="#cite_ref-Ferro221_217-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerro2005" class="citation book cs1">Ferro, Marc (2005). Colonization A Global History. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134826537" title="Special:BookSources/9781134826537"><bdi>9781134826537</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonization+A+Global+History&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781134826537&rft.aulast=Ferro&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas66-218"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas66_218-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2013" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Hugh (2013). The Slave Trade The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781476737454" title="Special:BookSources/9781476737454"><bdi>9781476737454</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slave+Trade+The+Story+of+the+Atlantic+Slave+Trade%3A+1440%E2%80%931870&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781476737454&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Duffy221-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Duffy221_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffy221_219-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffy221_219-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffy221_219-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duffy221_219-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffy1997" class="citation book cs1">Duffy, Eamon (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/saintssinnershis00duff">Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300073324" title="Special:BookSources/9780300073324"><bdi>9780300073324</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saints+%26+Sinners%3A+A+History+of+the+Popes&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780300073324&rft.aulast=Duffy&rft.aufirst=Eamon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsaintssinnershis00duff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> Wolffe, John/ "Clapham Sect (act. 1792–1815)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 2005; online edn, October 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussel,_C.A.2002" class="citation book cs1">Russel, C.A. (2002). Ferngren, G.B. (ed.). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-7038-0"><bdi>0-8018-7038-0</bdi></a>. <q>The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+%26+Religion%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8018-7038-0&rft.au=Russel%2C+C.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lrb.co.uk/contribhome.php?get=heil01">"J.L. Heilbron"</a>. London Review of Books. Retrieved 15 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=J.L.+Heilbron&rft.pub=London+Review+of+Books&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lrb.co.uk%2Fcontribhome.php%3Fget%3Dheil01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg,_David_C.Numbers,_Ronald_L.2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Numbers" title="Ronald Numbers">Numbers, Ronald L.</a> (October 2003). When Science and Christianity Meet. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-48214-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-48214-6"><bdi>0-226-48214-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Science+and+Christianity+Meet&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003-10&rft.isbn=0-226-48214-6&rft.au=Lindberg%2C+David+C.&rft.au=Numbers%2C+Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1995" class="citation book cs1">Goldstein, Thomas (April 1995). Dawn of Modern Science: From the Ancient Greeks to the Renaissance. Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80637-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-80637-1"><bdi>0-306-80637-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dawn+of+Modern+Science%3A+From+the+Ancient+Greeks+to+the+Renaissance&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1995-04&rft.isbn=0-306-80637-1&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPope_John_Paul_II1998" class="citation web cs1">Pope John Paul II (September 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ewtn.com/library/ENCYC/JP2FIDES.HTM#Ch4b">"Fides et Ratio (Faith and Reason), IV"</a>. Retrieved 15 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fides+et+Ratio+%28Faith+and+Reason%29%2C+IV&rft.date=1998-09&rft.au=Pope+John+Paul+II&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ewtn.com%2Flibrary%2FENCYC%2FJP2FIDES.HTM%23Ch4b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinocchiaro2014" class="citation book cs1">Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2014). "Introduction". The Trial of Galileo : Essential Documents. Hackett Publishing Company Incorporated. pp. 1–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62466-132-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62466-132-7"><bdi>978-1-62466-132-7</bdi></a>. <q>..one of the most common myths widely held about the trial of Galileo, including several elements: that he "saw" the earth's motion (an observation still impossible to make even in the twenty-first century); that he was "imprisoned" by the Inquisition (whereas he was actually held under house arrest); and that his crime was to have discovered the truth. And since to condemn someone for this reason can result only from ignorance, prejudice, and narrow-mindedness, this is also the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Trial+of+Galileo+%3A+Essential+Documents&rft.pages=1-4&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company+Incorporated&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62466-132-7&rft.aulast=Finocchiaro&rft.aufirst=Maurice+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJules_Speller2008" class="citation book cs1">Jules Speller (2008). Galileo's Inquisition Trial Revisited. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publisher)" title="Peter Lang (publisher)">Peter Lang</a>. pp. 55–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-56229-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-631-56229-1"><bdi>978-3-631-56229-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%27s+Inquisition+Trial+Revisited&rft.pages=55-56&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-3-631-56229-1&rft.au=Jules+Speller&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Lennox2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Lennox" title="John Lennox">John Lennox</a> (2009). God's Undertaker. <a href="/wiki/Lion_Hudson#Publishing" title="Lion Hudson">Lion Books</a>. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7459-5371-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7459-5371-7"><bdi>978-0-7459-5371-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God%27s+Undertaker&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=Lion+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7459-5371-7&rft.au=John+Lennox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Reference-McMullin-2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McMullin, Ernan (2008). "Robert Bellarmine". In Gillispie, Charles (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Scientific_Biography" title="Dictionary of Scientific Biography">Dictionary of Scientific Biography</a>. Scribner & American Council of Learned Societies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Robert+Bellarmine&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Scientific+Biography&rft.pub=Scribner+%26+American+Council+of+Learned+Societies&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=McMullin&rft.aufirst=Ernan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNumbers2010" class="citation book cs1">Numbers, Ronald L. (8 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ILIPEAAAQBAJ">Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674057418" title="Special:BookSources/9780674057418"><bdi>9780674057418</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Goes+to+Jail+and+Other+Myths+about+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010-11-08&rft.isbn=9780674057418&rft.aulast=Numbers&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DILIPEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNumbers2010" class="citation book cs1">Numbers, Ronald L. (8 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ILIPEAAAQBAJ">Galileo Goes to Jail and Other Myths about Science and Religion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. pp. 80–81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674057418" title="Special:BookSources/9780674057418"><bdi>9780674057418</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo+Goes+to+Jail+and+Other+Myths+about+Science+and+Religion&rft.pages=80-81&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010-11-08&rft.isbn=9780674057418&rft.aulast=Numbers&rft.aufirst=Ronald+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DILIPEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Polish_Biographical_Dictionary-232"><a href="#cite_ref-Polish_Biographical_Dictionary_232-0">^</a> Pro forma candidate to Prince-Bishop of Warmia, cf. Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", <a href="/wiki/Polski_s%C5%82ownik_biograficzny" class="mw-redirect" title="Polski słownik biograficzny">Polski słownik biograficzny</a> (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol. XIV, Wrocław, <a href="/wiki/Polish_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Polish Academy of Sciences">Polish Academy of Sciences</a>, 1969, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharratt1994" class="citation book cs1">Sharratt, Michael (1994). Galileo: Decisive Innovator. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 17, 213. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56671-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-56671-1"><bdi>0-521-56671-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Galileo%3A+Decisive+Innovator&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=17%2C+213&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-521-56671-1&rft.aulast=Sharratt&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> "Because he would not accept the Formula of Concord without some reservations, he was excommunicated from the Lutheran communion. Because he remained faithful to his Lutheranism throughout his life, he experienced constant suspicion from Catholics." John L. Treloar, "Biography of Kepler shows man of rare integrity. Astronomer saw science and spirituality as one." National Catholic Reporter, 8 October 2004, p. 2a. A review of James A. Connor Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order amid Religious War, Political Intrigue and Heresy Trial of His Mother, Harper San Francisco. </li> <li id="cite_note-Newton_-_1-235"><a href="#cite_ref-Newton_-_1_235-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Westfall" title="Richard S. Westfall">Richard S. Westfall</a> – <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html">The Galileo Project</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rice_University" title="Rice University">Rice University</a>. Retrieved 5 July 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Galileo+Project&rft.pub=Rice+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgalileo.rice.edu%2FCatalog%2FNewFiles%2Fnewton.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stmarylebow.co.uk/?Boyle_Lecture">"The Boyle Lecture"</a>. St. Marylebow Church.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=St.+Marylebow+Church&rft.atitle=The+Boyle+Lecture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stmarylebow.co.uk%2F%3FBoyle_Lecture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoll" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Noll" title="Mark Noll">Noll, Mark</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf">Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology"</a> (PDF), The Biologos Foundation, p. 4, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 22 March 2015, retrieved 14 January 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Religion%2C+and+A.D.+White%3A+Seeking+Peace+in+the+%22Warfare+Between+Science+and+Theology%22&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=The+Biologos+Foundation&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbiologos.org%2Fuploads%2Fprojects%2Fnoll_scholarly_essay2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbergNumbers1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ronald L. Numbers">Numbers, Ronald L.</a> (1986), "Introduction", God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 5, 12, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05538-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05538-4"><bdi>978-0-520-05538-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=God+%26+Nature%3A+Historical+Essays+on+the+Encounter+Between+Christianity+and+Science&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=5%2C+12&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-520-05538-4&rft.aulast=Lindberg&rft.aufirst=David+C.&rft.au=Numbers%2C+Ronald+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilley1-239"><a href="#cite_ref-Gilley1_239-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilley2006" class="citation book cs1">Gilley, Sheridan (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities c. 1815–c. 1914. Brian Stanley. Cambridge University Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521814561" title="Special:BookSources/0521814561"><bdi>0521814561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity%3A+Volume+8%2C+World+Christianities+c.+1815%E2%80%93c.+1914&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0521814561&rft.aulast=Gilley&rft.aufirst=Sheridan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nobel_prize-240"><a href="#cite_ref-Nobel_prize_240-0">^</a> Baruch A. Shalev, 100 Years of Nobel Prizes (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religion Most 65.4% have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. </li> <li id="cite_note-Shalev,_Baruch-241">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shalev,_Baruch_241-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shalev,_Baruch_241-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shalev,_Baruch_241-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shalev,_Baruch_241-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shalev,_Baruch_241-4">e</a> Shalev, Baruch (2005). 100 Years of Nobel Prizes. p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-WDL-242"><a href="#cite_ref-WDL_242-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/8787/">"Bona, Algeria"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a>. 1899. Retrieved 25 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Bona%2C+Algeria&rft.date=1899&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F8787%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CC-243"><a href="#cite_ref-CC_243-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurant1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a> (1992). <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Caesar and Christ: a History of Roman Civilization and of Christianity from Their Beginnings to A.D. 325</a>. New York: MJF Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56731-014-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56731-014-1"><bdi>1-56731-014-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar+and+Christ%3A+a+History+of+Roman+Civilization+and+of+Christianity+from+Their+Beginnings+to+A.D.+325&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=MJF+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-56731-014-1&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilken_2003_291-244">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilken_2003_291_244-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilken_2003_291_244-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilken2003" class="citation book cs1">Wilken, Robert L. (2003). The Spirit of Early Christian Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10598-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10598-3"><bdi>0-300-10598-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+Early+Christian+Thought&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=291&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-300-10598-3&rft.aulast=Wilken&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Averil_Cameron" title="Averil Cameron">Cameron, Averil</a> (2006). The Byzantines. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 42–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9833-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9833-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-9833-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Byzantines&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=42-49&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Averil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saliba-246"><a href="#cite_ref-Saliba_246-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_Saliba2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Saliba" title="George Saliba">George Saliba</a> (27 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=3883">"Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. Retrieved 1 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=Islamic+Science+and+the+Making+of+Renaissance+Europe&rft.date=2006-04-27&rft.au=George+Saliba&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Ftoday%2Fcyberlc%2Ffeature_wdesc.php%3Frec%3D3883&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200402055524/http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/antiqua/byzantine">"Byzantine Medicine – Vienna Dioscurides"</a>. Antiqua Medicina. University of Virginia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/antiqua/byzantine">the original</a> on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Antiqua+Medicina&rft.atitle=Byzantine+Medicine+%E2%80%93+Vienna+Dioscurides&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fexhibits.hsl.virginia.edu%2Fantiqua%2Fbyzantine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> The faculty was composed exclusively of philosophers, scientists, rhetoricians, and <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philologists</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTatakesMoutafakis,_Nicholas_J.2003" class="citation book cs1">Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003). Byzantine Philosophy. Hackett Publishing. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-563-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87220-563-0"><bdi>0-87220-563-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Philosophy&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-87220-563-0&rft.aulast=Tatakes&rft.aufirst=Vasileios+N.&rft.au=Moutafakis%2C+Nicholas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988">) </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> "The Formation of the Hellenic Christian Mind" by <a href="/wiki/Demetrios_Constantelos" title="Demetrios Constantelos">Demetrios Constantelos</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89241-588-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-89241-588-6">0-89241-588-6</a>: "The fifth century marked a definite turning point in Byzantine higher education. Theodosios ΙΙ founded in 425 a major university with 31 chairs for law, philosophy, medicine, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, rhetoric and other subjects. Fifteen chairs were assigned to Latin and 16 to Greek. The university was reorganized by Michael III (842–867) and flourished down to the fourteenth century". </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> John H. Rosser, Historical Dictionary of Byzantium, Scarecrow Press, 2001, p. xxx. </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> Aleksandr Petrovich Kazhdan, Annabel Jane Wharton, Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries, University of California Press, 1985, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-Loukaki_1997,_1553-252"><a href="#cite_ref-Loukaki_1997,_1553_252-0">^</a> Marina Loukaki: "Université. Domaine byzantin", in: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dictionnaire_encyclop%C3%A9dique_du_Moyen_%C3%82ge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dictionnaire encyclopédique du Moyen Âge (page does not exist)">Dictionnaire encyclopédique du Moyen Âge</a>, Vol. 2, Éditions du Cerf, Paris, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-204-05866-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-204-05866-1">2-204-05866-1</a>, p. 1553: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Le nom "université" désigne au Moyen Âge occidental une organisation corporative des élèves et des maîtres, avec ses fonctions et privilèges, qui cultive un ensemble d'études supérieures. L'existence d'une telle institution est fort contestée pour Byzance. Seule l'école de Constantinople sous Théodose Il peut être prise pour une institution universitaire. Par la loi de 425, l'empereur a établi l'"université de Constantinople", avec 31 professeurs rémunérés par l'État qui jouissaient du monopole des cours publics.</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anastos-253"><a href="#cite_ref-Anastos_253-0">^</a> Anastos, M. "The History of Byzantine Science." Dumbarton Oaks papers. p. 16 (1962) </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Alexander Jones, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ams.org/notices/200505/rev-jones.pdf">"Book Review, Archimedes Manuscript"</a> American Mathematical Society, May 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> King, David. "The Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades. Volume I: Zīj al-⊂ Alā⊃ ī by Gregory Chioniades; David Pingree; An Eleventh-Century Manual of Arabo-Byzantine Astronomy by Alexander Jones." (1991). </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1994" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, H. Floris (1994). The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry. University of Chicago Press. p. 395. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226112799" title="Special:BookSources/0226112799"><bdi>0226112799</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Revolution%3A+A+Historiographical+Inquiry&rft.pages=395&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0226112799&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=H.+Floris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> Dickson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roma.unisa.edu.au/07305/medmm.htm">Mathematics Through the Middle Ages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513152720/http://www.roma.unisa.edu.au/07305/medmm.htm">Archived</a> 13 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> Robins, Robert H. "The Byzantine Grammarians." Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure 51 (1998): 29–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-TM189-259"><a href="#cite_ref-TM189_259-0">^</a> Tatakis, Basil, Vasileios N. Tatakēs, and Vasileios N. Tatakes. Byzantine philosophy. Hackett Publishing, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> TROÏANOS, S., and VELISSAROPOULOU-I. KARAKOSTA. "Histoire du droit." (1997). </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-261">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_261-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_261-1">b</a> Kenneth Clark; Civilisation, BBC, SBN 563 10279 9; first published 1969 </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> How The Irish Saved Civilization: The Untold Story of Ireland's Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cahill" title="Thomas Cahill">Thomas Cahill</a>, 1995. </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1995" class="citation journal cs1">King, David (1995). "A forgotten Cistercian system of numerical notation". Citeaux Commentarii Cistercienses. 46 (3–4): 183–217.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Citeaux+Commentarii+Cistercienses&rft.atitle=A+forgotten+Cistercian+system+of+numerical+notation&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=183-217&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chrisomalis-264"><a href="#cite_ref-chrisomalis_264-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrisomalis2010" class="citation book cs1">Chrisomalis, Stephen (2010). Numerical notation : a comparative history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511676062">10.1017/CBO9780511676062</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-67683-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-67683-3"><bdi>978-0-511-67683-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/630115876">630115876</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Numerical+notation+%3A+a+comparative+history&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=350&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F630115876&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511676062&rft.isbn=978-0-511-67683-3&rft.aulast=Chrisomalis&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeskensBonteDe_GrootDe_Jonghe1999" class="citation journal cs1">Meskens, Ad; Bonte, Germain; De Groot, Jacques; De Jonghe, Mieke & King, David A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/hism_0982-1783_1999_num_14_1_1501">"Wine-Gauging at Damme [The evidence of a late medieval manuscript]"</a>. Histoire & Mesure. 14 (1): 51–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fhism.1999.1501">10.3406/hism.1999.1501</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Histoire+%26+Mesure&rft.atitle=Wine-Gauging+at+Damme+%5BThe+evidence+of+a+late+medieval+manuscript%5D&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=51-77&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fhism.1999.1501&rft.aulast=Meskens&rft.aufirst=Ad&rft.au=Bonte%2C+Germain&rft.au=De+Groot%2C+Jacques&rft.au=De+Jonghe%2C+Mieke&rft.au=King%2C+David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fhism_0982-1783_1999_num_14_1_1501&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeaujouan1950" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Beaujouan, Guy (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhs_0048-7996_1950_num_3_2_2795">"Les soi-disant chiffres grecs ou chaldéens (XIIe – XVIe siècle)"</a>. Revue d'histoire des sciences (in French). 3 (2): 170–174. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frhs.1950.2795">10.3406/rhs.1950.2795</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27histoire+des+sciences&rft.atitle=Les+soi-disant+chiffres+grecs+ou+chald%C3%A9ens+%28XIIe+%E2%80%93+XVIe+si%C3%A8cle%29&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=170-174&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Frhs.1950.2795&rft.aulast=Beaujouan&rft.aufirst=Guy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Frhs_0048-7996_1950_num_3_2_2795&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSesiano1985" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sesiano, Jacques (1985). "Un système artificiel de numérotation au Moyen Age". In Folkerts, Menso & <a href="/wiki/Uta_Lindgren" title="Uta Lindgren">Lindgren, Uta</a> (eds.). Mathemata : Festschrift für Helmuth Gericke (in French). Stuttgart: F. Steiner Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-515-04324-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-515-04324-1"><bdi>3-515-04324-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12644728">12644728</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Un+syst%C3%A8me+artificiel+de+num%C3%A9rotation+au+Moyen+Age&rft.btitle=Mathemata+%3A+Festschrift+f%C3%BCr+Helmuth+Gericke&rft.place=Stuttgart&rft.pub=F.+Steiner+Verlag&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F12644728&rft.isbn=3-515-04324-1&rft.aulast=Sesiano&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SpringBankBaedekerSFChron-268">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SpringBankBaedekerSFChron_268-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SpringBankBaedekerSFChron_268-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaedeker2008" class="citation web cs1">Baedeker, Rob (24 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/g/a/2008/03/24/moneytales.DTL&hw=lasermonks&sn=001&sc=1000">"Good Works: Monks build multimillion-dollar business and give the money away"</a>. <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle" title="San Francisco Chronicle">San Francisco Chronicle</a>. Retrieved 7 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=San+Francisco+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Good+Works%3A+Monks+build+multimillion-dollar+business+and+give+the+money+away&rft.date=2008-03-24&rft.aulast=Baedeker&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ff%3D%2Fg%2Fa%2F2008%2F03%2F24%2Fmoneytales.DTL%26hw%3Dlasermonks%26sn%3D001%26sc%3D1000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gimpel-269"><a href="#cite_ref-Gimpel_269-0">^</a> Gimpel, p. 67. Cited by Woods. </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> Woods, p. 33 </li> <li id="cite_note-NewAdvent-271">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NewAdvent_271-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NewAdvent_271-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurston" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thurston, Herbert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/16025b.htm">"Cistercians in the British Isles"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a>. NewAdvent.org. Retrieved 18 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cistercians+in+the+British+Isles&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=NewAdvent.org&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F16025b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> Charles B. Schmitt, et al. The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 1991), "Printing and censorship after 1550", p. 45ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 145 </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285220/Index-Librorum-Prohibitorum">"Index Librorum Prohibitorum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. 8 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Index+Librorum+Prohibitorum&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-06-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F285220%2FIndex-Librorum-Prohibitorum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P2P.HTM">"Code of Canon Law: text"</a>. IntraText.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IntraText&rft.atitle=Code+of+Canon+Law%3A+text&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.intratext.com%2FIXT%2FENG0017%2F_P2P.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sztompka2003-276">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sztompka2003_276-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sztompka2003_276-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Piotr_Sztompka" title="Piotr Sztompka">Sztompka, Piotr</a> (2003), Robert King Merton, in <a href="/wiki/George_Ritzer" title="George Ritzer">Ritzer, George</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Blackwell_Companion_to_Major_Contemporary_Social_Theorists" class="mw-redirect" title="The Blackwell Companion to Major Contemporary Social Theorists">The Blackwell Companion to Major Contemporary Social Theorists</a>, Malden, Massachusetts Oxford: Blackwell, p. 13, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405105958" title="Special:BookSources/9781405105958">9781405105958</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-gregory1998-277"><a href="#cite_ref-gregory1998_277-0">^</a> Gregory, Andrew (1998), Handout for course 'The Scientific Revolution' at The Scientific Revolution </li> <li id="cite_note-becker1992-278"><a href="#cite_ref-becker1992_278-0">^</a> Becker, George (1992), The Merton Thesis: Oetinger and German Pietism, a significant negative case, <a href="/wiki/Sociological_Forum" title="Sociological Forum">Sociological Forum</a> (Springer) 7 (4), pp. 642–660 </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/astronomical-applications/astronomical-information-center/calendars">Introduction to Calendars</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111019043524/http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/astronomical-applications/astronomical-information-center/calendars">Archived</a> 19 October 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Observatory" title="United States Naval Observatory">United States Naval Observatory</a>. Retrieved 15 January 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://astro.nmsu.edu/~lhuber/leaphist.html">Calendars</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040401234715/http://astro.nmsu.edu/~lhuber/leaphist.html">Archived</a> 1 April 2004 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by L. E. Doggett. Section 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> The international standard for the representation of dates and times <a href="/wiki/ISO_8601" title="ISO 8601">ISO 8601</a> uses the Gregorian calendar. Section 3.2.1. </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> See <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Inter_gravissimas" class="extiw" title="s:Inter gravissimas">Wikisource English translation</a> of the (Latin) 1582 papal bull '<a href="/wiki/Inter_gravissimas" title="Inter gravissimas">Inter gravissimas</a>' instituting Gregorian calendar reform. </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2009" class="citation news cs1">Johnson, George (23 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/23/science/23Vatican.html?hpw">"Vatican's Celestial Eye, Seeking Not Angels but Data"</a>. The New York Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Vatican%27s+Celestial+Eye%2C+Seeking+Not+Angels+but+Data&rft.date=2009-06-23&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F06%2F23%2Fscience%2F23Vatican.html%3Fhpw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-284">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_284-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_284-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Bronowski" title="Jacob Bronowski">Jacob Bronowski</a>; The Ascent of Man; <a href="/wiki/Angus_%26_Robertson" title="Angus & Robertson">Angus & Robertson</a>, 1973 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-563-17064-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-563-17064-6">0-563-17064-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> Favaro, Antonio (ed.). Le Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale [The Works of Galileo Galilei, National Edition] (in Italian) (1890–1909; reprinted 1929–1939 and 1964–1966 ed.). Florence: Barbera. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-09-20881-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-09-20881-0">978-88-09-20881-0</a>. A searchable online copy is available on the Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence, and a brief overview of Le Opere is available at Finn's fine books, and here. </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> <a href="#Reference-Drake-1978">Drake (1978, p.367)</a>, <a href="#Reference-Sharratt-1994">Sharratt (1994, p.184)</a>, <a href="#Reference-Favaro-1890">Favaro</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=209">(1905, 16:209</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230">230)</a>(in Italian). When Fulgenzio Micanzio, one of Galileo's friends in Venice, sought to have Galileo's Discourse on Floating Bodies reprinted in 1635, he was informed by the Venetian Inquisitor that the Inquisition had forbidden further publication of any of Galileo's works <a href="#Reference-Favaro-1890">(Favaro</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=209">1905, 16:209)</a>(in Italian), and was later shown a copy of the order <a href="#Reference-Favaro-1890">(Favaro</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=16&VOLPAG=230">1905, 16:230)</a>. (in Italian) When the Dutch publishers <a href="/wiki/House_of_Elzevir" title="House of Elzevir">Elzevir</a> published Galileo's Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences in 1638, some five years after his trial, they did so under the pretense that a manuscript he had presented to the French Ambassador to Rome for preservation and circulation to interested intellectuals had been used without his knowledge (<a href="#Reference-Sharratt-1994">Sharratt, 1994, p.184</a>; <a href="#Reference-Galileo-1954">Galilei, 1954</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=753&chapter=109888&layout=html">p.xvii</a>; <a href="#Reference-Favaro-1890">Favaro</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://moro.imss.fi.it/lettura/LetturaWEB.DLL?VOL=8&VOLPAG=43">1898, 8:43</a> (in Italian)). Return to other article: <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei#note-publication-ban" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> <a href="/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems#note-publication-ban" title="Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems">; Dialogue</a> <a href="/wiki/Two_New_Sciences#note-publication-ban" title="Two New Sciences">; Two New Sciences</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> Choupin, Valeur des Decisions Doctrinales du Saint Siege </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> An abstract of the acts of the process against Galileo is available at the <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Secret_Archives" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatican Secret Archives">Vatican Secret Archives</a>, which reproduces part of it on its website. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170712005046/http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/history/world/wh0101.html">"How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization"</a>. Catholic Education Resource Center. May 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/history/world/wh0101.html">the original</a> on 12 July 2017. Retrieved 4 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+the+Catholic+Church+Built+Western+Civilization&rft.pub=Catholic+Education+Resource+Center&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catholiceducation.org%2Farticles%2Fhistory%2Fworld%2Fwh0101.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImprimatur_Robert_H._Brom,_Bishop_of_San_Diego" class="citation web cs1">Imprimatur Robert H. Brom, Bishop of San Diego. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080329020837/http://www.catholic.com/library/Adam_Eve_and_Evolution.asp">"Adam, Eve, and Evolution"</a>. Catholic Answers. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholic.com/library/adam_eve_and_evolution.asp">the original</a> on 29 March 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Catholic+Answers&rft.atitle=Adam%2C+Eve%2C+and+Evolution&rft.au=Imprimatur+Robert+H.+Brom%2C+Bishop+of+San+Diego&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catholic.com%2Flibrary%2Fadam_eve_and_evolution.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren_Kurt_VonRoeschlaub" class="citation web cs1">Warren Kurt VonRoeschlaub. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-god.html">"God and Evolution"</a>. The Talk Origins Archive. Retrieved 10 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Talk+Origins+Archive&rft.atitle=God+and+Evolution&rft.au=Warren+Kurt+VonRoeschlaub&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.talkorigins.org%2Ffaqs%2Ffaq-god.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichelis1946" class="citation book cs1">Michelis, Panayotis A. (1946). An Aesthetic Approach to Byzantine Art. Athens: Pyrsoú.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Aesthetic+Approach+to+Byzantine+Art&rft.place=Athens&rft.pub=Pyrso%C3%BA&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Michelis&rft.aufirst=Panayotis+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzmann1981" class="citation book cs1">Weitzmann, Kurt (1981). Classical Heritage in Byzantine and Near Eastern Art. London: Variorum Reprints.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Heritage+in+Byzantine+and+Near+Eastern+Art&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Variorum+Reprints&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Weitzmann&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitzinger1977" class="citation book cs1">Kitzinger, Ernst (1977). Byzantine Art in the Making: Main Lines of Stylistic Development in Mediterranean Art, 3rd‒7th Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1‒3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0571111541" title="Special:BookSources/978-0571111541"><bdi>978-0571111541</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Art+in+the+Making%3A+Main+Lines+of+Stylistic+Development+in+Mediterranean+Art%2C+3rd%E2%80%927th+Century&rft.pages=1%E2%80%923&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0571111541&rft.aulast=Kitzinger&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hall100-295"><a href="#cite_ref-Hall100_295-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallBattaniNeitz2004" class="citation book cs1">Hall, John R.; Battani, Marshall; Neitz, Mary Jo (2004). Sociology On Culture. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134452378" title="Special:BookSources/9781134452378"><bdi>9781134452378</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology+On+Culture&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781134452378&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rft.au=Battani%2C+Marshall&rft.au=Neitz%2C+Mary+Jo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray45-296"><a href="#cite_ref-Murray45_296-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1997" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Chris (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarts00broc">Dictionary of the Arts</a>. Brockhampton Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781860195020" title="Special:BookSources/9781860195020"><bdi>9781860195020</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Arts&rft.pub=Brockhampton+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9781860195020&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofarts00broc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraciaReichbergSchumacher2003" class="citation book cs1">Gracia, Jorge J. E.; Reichberg, Gregory M.; Schumacher, Bernard N. (7 March 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6jAcwGItzssC&dq=james%20f%20ross%20philosopher&pg=PA165">The Classics of Western Philosophy: A Reader's Guide</a>. Wiley. p. 165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23611-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23611-5"><bdi>978-0-631-23611-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Classics+of+Western+Philosophy%3A+A+Reader%27s+Guide&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003-03-07&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23611-5&rft.aulast=Gracia&rft.aufirst=Jorge+J.+E.&rft.au=Reichberg%2C+Gregory+M.&rft.au=Schumacher%2C+Bernard+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6jAcwGItzssC%26dq%3Djames%2520f%2520ross%2520philosopher%26pg%3DPA165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> Particularly through <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Dionysius">Pseudo-Dionysius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a>, and through the influence of <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a> on Muslim philosophers. In the case of Aquinas, for instance, see Jan Aertsen, "Aquinas' philosophy in its historical setting" in The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas, ed. Norman Kretzmann and Eleonore Stump (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Jean Leclerq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970). </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoffetti2001" class="citation web cs1">Boffetti, Jason (November 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060821111145/http://www.crisismagazine.com/november2001/feature7.htm">"Tolkien's Catholic Imagination"</a>. Crisis Magazine. Morley Publishing Group. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crisismagazine.com/november2001/feature7.htm">the original</a> on 21 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Crisis+Magazine&rft.atitle=Tolkien%27s+Catholic+Imagination&rft.date=2001-11&rft.aulast=Boffetti&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crisismagazine.com%2Fnovember2001%2Ffeature7.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoss2002" class="citation web cs1">Voss, Paul J. (July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110222065053/http://www.crisismagazine.com/julaug2002/feature4.">"Assurances of faith: How Catholic Was Shakespeare? How Catholic Are His Plays?"</a>. Crisis Magazine. Morley Publishing Group. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crisismagazine.com/julaug2002/feature4.htm">the original</a> on 22 February 2011. 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New York, Random House. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/protestantestabl00baltrich/page/9">9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Protestant+Establishment&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Random+House&rft.date=1964&rft.au=Baltzell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprotestantestabl00baltrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-W._Williams-331">^ <a href="#cite_ref-W._Williams_331-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-W._Williams_331-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-W._Williams_331-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-W._Williams_331-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-W._Williams_331-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFW._Williams2016" class="citation book cs1">W. Williams, Peter (2016). Religion, Art, and Money: Episcopalians and American Culture from the Civil War to the Great Depression. University of North Carolina Press. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469626987" title="Special:BookSources/9781469626987"><bdi>9781469626987</bdi></a>. <q>The names of fashionable families who were already Episcopalian, like the Morgans, or those, like the Fricks, who now became so, goes on interminably: Aldrich, Astor, Biddle, Booth, Brown, Du Pont, Firestone, Ford, Gardner, Mellon, Morgan, Procter, the Vanderbilt, Whitney. Episcopalians branches of the Baptist Rockefellers and Jewish Guggenheims even appeared on these family trees.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion%2C+Art%2C+and+Money%3A+Episcopalians+and+American+Culture+from+the+Civil+War+to+the+Great+Depression&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781469626987&rft.aulast=W.+Williams&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-332"><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB._Rosenbaum2006" class="citation book cs1">B. Rosenbaum, Julia (2006). Visions of Belonging: New England Art and the Making of American Identity. Cornell University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801444708" title="Special:BookSources/9780801444708"><bdi>9780801444708</bdi></a>. <q>By the late nineteenth century, one of the strongest bulwarks of Brahmin power was Harvard University. 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Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing: 102–118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781849809603" title="Special:BookSources/9781849809603"><bdi>9781849809603</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Beyond+Welfare+State+Models.+Transnational+Historical+Perspectives+on+Social+Policy&rft.atitle=The+Lutheran+Nordic+Welfare+States&rft.pages=102-118&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781849809603&rft.aulast=Markkola&rft.aufirst=Pirjo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4ChHcCoq7f0C%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kettunen-338"><a href="#cite_ref-Kettunen_338-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKettunen2010" class="citation journal cs1">Kettunen, Pauli (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/41875/nordwel1.pdf?sequence=1#page=18">"The Sellers of Labour Power as Social Citizens: A Utopian Wage Work Society in the Nordic Visions of Welfare"</a> (PDF). 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Bristol: ISD. pp. 21, 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-7184-416-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-7184-416-0"><bdi>978-87-7184-416-0</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lutheranism+and+the+Nordic+Spirit+of+Social+Democracy%3A+A+Different+Protestant+Ethic&rft.place=Bristol&rft.pages=21%2C+121&rft.pub=ISD&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-87-7184-416-0&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj4FaDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilson2008" class="citation book cs1">Hilson, Mary (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_xi60bdHXoC&pg=PA112">The Nordic Model: Scandinavia since 1945</a>. 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Geopolitics. 15 (1): 39–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14650040903420388">10.1080/14650040903420388</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144793259">144793259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geopolitics&rft.atitle=Deus+Vult%3A+The+Geopolitics+of+Catholic+Church&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-61&rft.date=2010-02-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14650040903420388&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144793259%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Agnew&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-World_Development_p.40-343"><a href="#cite_ref-World_Development_p.40_343-0">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Calderisi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Calderisi (page does not exist)">Robert Calderisi</a>; Earthly Mission – The Catholic Church and World Development; TJ International Ltd; 2013; p. 40 </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/18624/catholic-hospitals-comprise-one-quarter-of-worlds-healthcare-council-reports">"Catholic hospitals comprise one quarter of world's healthcare, council reports :: Catholic News Agency (CNA)"</a>. Catholic News Agency. 10 February 2010. Retrieved 17 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catholic+hospitals+comprise+one+quarter+of+world%27s+healthcare%2C+council+reports+%3A%3A+Catholic+News+Agency+%28CNA%29&rft.pub=Catholic+News+Agency&rft.date=2010-02-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.catholicnewsagency.com%2Fnews%2F18624%2Fcatholic-hospitals-comprise-one-quarter-of-worlds-healthcare-council-reports&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gerhard_Uhlhorn-345"><a href="#cite_ref-Gerhard_Uhlhorn_345-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlhorn1883" class="citation book cs1">Ulhorn, Gerhard (1883). Christian Charity in the Ancient Church. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 2–44, 321.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Charity+in+the+Ancient+Church&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=2-44%2C+321&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1883&rft.aulast=Ulhorn&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Charles_Schmidt-346"><a href="#cite_ref-Charles_Schmidt_346-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt1889" class="citation book cs1">Schmidt, Charles (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_X-UROGF6ZcUC">"Chapter Five: The Poor and Unfortunate"</a>. The Social Results of Early Christianity. London, England: William Isbister Ltd. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_X-UROGF6ZcUC/page/n279">245</a>–256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780790531052" title="Special:BookSources/9780790531052"><bdi>9780790531052</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Five%3A+The+Poor+and+Unfortunate&rft.btitle=The+Social+Results+of+Early+Christianity&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=245-256&rft.pub=William+Isbister+Ltd.&rft.date=1889&rft.isbn=9780790531052&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_X-UROGF6ZcUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Albert_R._Jonsen-347"><a href="#cite_ref-Albert_R._Jonsen_347-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonsen2000" class="citation book cs1">Jonsen, Albert (2000). A Short History of Medical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513455-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513455-9"><bdi>0-19-513455-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Medical+Ethics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-513455-9&rft.aulast=Jonsen&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robert_H._Bremner-348"><a href="#cite_ref-Robert_H._Bremner_348-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBremner2017" class="citation book cs1">Bremner, Robert H. (2017). Giving: Charity and Philanthropy in History. New York: Routledge. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-884-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-884-2"><bdi>978-1-56000-884-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Giving%3A+Charity+and+Philanthropy+in+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-56000-884-2&rft.aulast=Bremner&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-W.K.Lowther_Clarke-349"><a href="#cite_ref-W.K.Lowther_Clarke_349-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1913" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, W.K.Lowther (1913). St.Basil the Great A Study in Monasticism. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 155.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=St.Basil+the+Great+A+Study+in+Monasticism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=155&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=W.K.Lowther&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas_Max_Safley-350"><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_Max_Safley_350-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafley2003" class="citation book cs1">Safley, Thomas Max (2003). The Reformation of Charity: The Secular and the Religious in Early Modern Poor Relief. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. p. introduction,193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-391-04211-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-391-04211-4"><bdi>0-391-04211-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reformation+of+Charity%3A+The+Secular+and+the+Religious+in+Early+Modern+Poor+Relief&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=introduction%2C193&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-391-04211-4&rft.aulast=Safley&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> Lindberg, David. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science. University of Chicago Press. p. 349. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bouras-Vallianatos-352"><a href="#cite_ref-Bouras-Vallianatos_352-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouras-Vallianatos2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bouras-Vallianatos, Petros (25 April 2015). "The Art of Healing in the Byzantine Empire". Pera Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pera+Museum&rft.atitle=The+Art+of+Healing+in+the+Byzantine+Empire&rft.date=2015-04-25&rft.aulast=Bouras-Vallianatos&rft.aufirst=Petros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRisse1999" class="citation book cs1">Risse, Guenter B (April 1999). Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505523-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505523-3"><bdi>0-19-505523-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mending+Bodies%2C+Saving+Souls%3A+A+History+of+Hospitals&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999-04&rft.isbn=0-19-505523-3&rft.aulast=Risse&rft.aufirst=Guenter+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStiftungs-Administration" class="citation web cs1">Stiftungs-Administration, Fürstlich und Gräflich Fuggersche. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210507062015/https://www.fugger.de/en/singleview/article/unparalleled-worldwide-for-500-years/1.html">"Unparalleled worldwide for 500 years"</a>. www.fugger.de. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fugger.de/en/singleview/article/unparalleled-worldwide-for-500-years/1.html">the original</a> on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fugger.de&rft.atitle=Unparalleled+worldwide+for+500+years&rft.aulast=Stiftungs-Administration&rft.aufirst=F%C3%BCrstlich+und+Gr%C3%A4flich+Fuggersche&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fugger.de%2Fen%2Fsingleview%2Farticle%2Funparalleled-worldwide-for-500-years%2F1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeil2014" class="citation news cs1">Keil, Lars-Broder (24 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.welt.de/geschichte/article126129696/Wer-guenstig-leben-will-muss-dreimal-taeglich-beten.html">"Sozialer Wohnungsbau: Wer günstig leben will, muss dreimal täglich beten"</a>. Retrieved 9 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Sozialer+Wohnungsbau%3A+Wer+g%C3%BCnstig+leben+will%2C+muss+dreimal+t%C3%A4glich+beten&rft.date=2014-03-24&rft.aulast=Keil&rft.aufirst=Lars-Broder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.welt.de%2Fgeschichte%2Farticle126129696%2FWer-guenstig-leben-will-muss-dreimal-taeglich-beten.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeibold" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Seibold, Karin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.augsburger-allgemeine.de/bayern/Fuggerei-Leben-im-Denkmal-id5379771.html">"Fuggerei: Leben im Denkmal"</a>. Augsburger Allgemeine (in German). Retrieved 9 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Augsburger+Allgemeine&rft.atitle=Fuggerei%3A+Leben+im+Denkmal&rft.aulast=Seibold&rft.aufirst=Karin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.augsburger-allgemeine.de%2Fbayern%2FFuggerei-Leben-im-Denkmal-id5379771.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> Felictity O'Brien, Pius XII, London 2000, p.13 </li> <li id="cite_note-Establishments-358"><a href="#cite_ref-Establishments_358-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modelsforchristi0000unse">Models for Christian Higher Education: Strategies for Survival and Success in the Twenty-First Century</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_B._Eerdmans_Publishing_Company" title="William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company">William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company</a>. 1997. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modelsforchristi0000unse/page/290">290</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802841216" title="Special:BookSources/9780802841216"><bdi>9780802841216</bdi></a>. Retrieved 18 October 2007. <q>Wesleyan institutions, whether hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens, or schools, historically were begun with the spirit to serve all people and to transform society.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Models+for+Christian+Higher+Education%3A+Strategies+for+Survival+and+Success+in+the+Twenty-First+Century&rft.pages=290&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780802841216&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodelsforchristi0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teasdale2014-359">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Teasdale2014_359-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teasdale2014_359-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeasdale2014" class="citation book cs1">Teasdale, Mark R. (17 March 2014). Methodist Evangelism, American Salvation: The Home Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1860–1920. <a href="/wiki/Wipf_and_Stock_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Wipf and Stock Publishers">Wipf and Stock Publishers</a>. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781620329160" title="Special:BookSources/9781620329160"><bdi>9781620329160</bdi></a>. <q>The new view of evangelism called for the denomination to undertake two new forms of activities: humanitarian aid and social witness. Humanitarian aid went beyond the individual help that many home missionaries were already providing to people within their care. It involved creating new structures that would augment the political, economic, and social systems so that those systems might be more humane. It included the establishment of Methodist hospitals in all the major cities in the United States. These hospitals were required to provide the best treatment possible free of charge to all who needed it, and were often staffed by deaconesses who trained as nurses. Homes for the aged and orphanages were also part of this work.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methodist+Evangelism%2C+American+Salvation%3A+The+Home+Missions+of+the+Methodist+Episcopal+Church%2C+1860%E2%80%931920&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2014-03-17&rft.isbn=9781620329160&rft.aulast=Teasdale&rft.aufirst=Mark+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-360">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_360-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_360-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_360-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSack2011" class="citation news cs1">Sack, Kevin (20 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/21/us/21nuns.html">"Nuns, a 'Dying Breed', Fade From Leadership Roles at Catholic Hospitals"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 5 November 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nuns%2C+a+%27Dying+Breed%27%2C+Fade+From+Leadership+Roles+at+Catholic+Hospitals&rft.date=2011-08-20&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Sack&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F08%2F21%2Fus%2F21nuns.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170905093141/http://www.cha.org.au/site.php?id=24">"Nation must respond to looming dementia crisis"</a>. www.cha.org.au. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cha.org.au/site.php?id=24">the original</a> on 5 September 2017. Retrieved 9 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cha.org.au&rft.atitle=Nation+must+respond+to+looming+dementia+crisis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cha.org.au%2Fsite.php%3Fid%3D24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWithrow1894" class="citation book cs1">Withrow, W. H. (1894). "Medical Missions in China". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?q=%22David+W.+Stevenson%22+%22peter+parker%22&tbm=bks">China and its People</a>. Toronto: William Briggs. p. 230. <q>David W. Stevenson, M.D., of the Canadian Mission, writes as follows: ... ' 'Dr. Peter Parker, who went out in 1835, almost opened China to the Gospel at the point of his lancet. His great eye hospital become noted the world over.' ' ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medical+Missions+in+China&rft.btitle=China+and+its+People&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=230&rft.pub=William+Briggs&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Withrow&rft.aufirst=W.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3D%2522David%2BW.%2BStevenson%2522%2B%2522peter%2Bparker%2522%26tbm%3Dbks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEstes1895" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Sumner_Estes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Sumner Estes (page does not exist)">Estes, Charles Sumner</a> (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christianmissio00estegoog">Christian missions in China (PH. D. Thesis)</a>. 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Sharkey, Cultural Conversions: Unexpected Consequences of Christian Missionary Encounters in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia (Syracuse UP, 2013). </li> <li id="cite_note-391"><a href="#cite_ref-391">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhan" class="citation web cs1">Khan, Taimur. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thedp.com/article/2002/10/religion_in_colonial_africa">"Religion in colonial Africa: Professor Heather Sharkey spoke about the role of Christian missionaries in the region"</a>. www.thedp.com. 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Oxford University Press. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195359053" title="Special:BookSources/9780195359053"><bdi>9780195359053</bdi></a>. <q>Of all these northern schools, only Columbia and the University of Pennsylvania were historically Anglican; the rest are associated with revivalist Presbyterianism or Congregationalism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Standing+Against+the+Whirlwind%3A+Evangelical+Episcopalians+in+Nineteenth-Century+America&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780195359053&rft.aulast=Hochstedt+Butler&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khalaf_2012_31-403">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Khalaf_2012_31_403-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Khalaf_2012_31_403-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalaf2012" class="citation book cs1">Khalaf, Samir (2012). Protestant Missionaries in the Levant: Ungodly Puritans, 1820–1860. Routledge. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136249808" title="Special:BookSources/9781136249808"><bdi>9781136249808</bdi></a>. <q>Princeton was Presbyterian, while Columbia and Pennsylvania were Episcopalian.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Protestant+Missionaries+in+the+Levant%3A+Ungodly+Puritans%2C+1820%E2%80%931860&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781136249808&rft.aulast=Khalaf&rft.aufirst=Samir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Marshall_Barker-404"><a href="#cite_ref-John_Marshall_Barker_404-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarker1894" class="citation book cs1">Barker, John Marshall (1894). Colleges in America. The University of Wooster. p. 130.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colleges+in+America&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=The+University+of+Wooster&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=John+Marshall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-405"><a href="#cite_ref-405">^</a> Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), History of Religion in the United States, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 69–80, 88–89, 114–117, 186–188 </li> <li id="cite_note-406"><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a> M. Schmidt, Kongregationalismus, in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 3. Auflage, Band III (1959), Tübingen (Germany), col. 1770 </li> <li id="cite_note-mainline2000-407"><a href="#cite_ref-mainline2000_407-0">^</a> McKinney, William. "Mainline Protestantism 2000." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 558, Americans and Religions in the Twenty-First Century (July 1998), pp. 57–66. </li> <li id="cite_note-408"><a href="#cite_ref-408">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Davison_Hunter2010" class="citation book cs1">James Davison Hunter (31 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NYpEwnnIIqAC&pg=PA85">To Change the World: The Irony, Tragedy, and Possibility of Christianity in the Late Modern World</a>. Oxford UP. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199779529" title="Special:BookSources/9780199779529"><bdi>9780199779529</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Change+the+World%3A+The+Irony%2C+Tragedy%2C+and+Possibility+of+Christianity+in+the+Late+Modern+World&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Oxford+UP&rft.date=2010-03-31&rft.isbn=9780199779529&rft.au=James+Davison+Hunter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNYpEwnnIIqAC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olúfémi_Táíwò-409"><a href="#cite_ref-Olúfémi_Táíwò_409-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTáíwò2010" class="citation book cs1">Táíwò, Olúfémi (2010). How Colonialism Preempted Modernity in Africa. Bloomington, Indiana: University of Indiana Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35374-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35374-0"><bdi>978-0-253-35374-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Colonialism+Preempted+Modernity+in+Africa&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=University+of+Indiana+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-253-35374-0&rft.aulast=T%C3%A1%C3%ADw%C3%B2&rft.aufirst=Ol%C3%BAf%C3%A9mi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Christopher_Thao_Vang-410"><a href="#cite_ref-Christopher_Thao_Vang_410-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVang2016" class="citation book cs1">Vang, Christopher Thao (2016). Hmong Refugees in the New World: Culture, Community and Opportunity. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland and Company. p. 291. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6216-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-6216-9"><bdi>978-1-4766-6216-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hmong+Refugees+in+the+New+World%3A+Culture%2C+Community+and+Opportunity&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pages=291&rft.pub=McFarland+and+Company&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4766-6216-9&rft.aulast=Vang&rft.aufirst=Christopher+Thao&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pedersen-1999-411"><a href="#cite_ref-Pedersen-1999_411-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPedersen1999" class="citation journal cs1">Pedersen, Kirsten Stoffregen (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115645/http://pwtw.pl/wp-content/uploads/wst/12-2/Pedersen.pdf">"Is the Church of Ethiopia a Judaic Church?"</a> (PDF). Warszawskie Studia Teologiczne. XII (2): 203–216. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pwtw.pl/wp-content/uploads/wst/12-2/Pedersen.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 17 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Warszawskie+Studia+Teologiczne&rft.atitle=Is+the+Church+of+Ethiopia+a+Judaic+Church%3F&rft.volume=XII&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=203-216&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.aufirst=Kirsten+Stoffregen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpwtw.pl%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fwst%2F12-2%2FPedersen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-412"><a href="#cite_ref-412">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eotc.faithweb.com/liturgy.htm">"The Origin and History of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Liturgy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a>. Retrieved 29 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ethiopian+Orthodox+Tewahedo+Church&rft.atitle=The+Origin+and+History+of+the+Ethiopian+Orthodox+Tewahedo+Church+Liturgy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eotc.faithweb.com%2Fliturgy.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warsh-413"><a href="#cite_ref-Warsh_413-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarsh2006" class="citation book cs1">Warsh, Cheryl Krasnick (2006). Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective. Veronica Strong-Boag. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780889209121" title="Special:BookSources/9780889209121"><bdi>9780889209121</bdi></a>. <q>... From Fleming's perspective, the transition to Christianity required a good dose of personal and public hygiene ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Children%27s+Health+Issues+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=315&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780889209121&rft.aulast=Warsh&rft.aufirst=Cheryl+Krasnick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Squatriti-414"><a href="#cite_ref-Squatriti_414-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarsh2006" class="citation book cs1">Warsh, Cheryl Krasnick (2006). Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective. Veronica Strong-Boag. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780889209121" title="Special:BookSources/9780889209121"><bdi>9780889209121</bdi></a>. <q>... Thus bathing also was considered a part of good health practice. For example, Tertullian attended the baths and believed them hygienic. Clement of Alexandria, while condemning excesses, had given guidelines for Christians who wished to attend the baths ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Children%27s+Health+Issues+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=315&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780889209121&rft.aulast=Warsh&rft.aufirst=Cheryl+Krasnick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mary_Thurlkill-415"><a href="#cite_ref-Mary_Thurlkill_415-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurlkill2016" class="citation book cs1">Thurlkill, Mary (2016). Sacred Scents in Early Christianity and Islam: Studies in Body and Religion. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. pp. 6–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0739174531" title="Special:BookSources/978-0739174531"><bdi>978-0739174531</bdi></a>. <q>... Clement of Alexandria (d. c. 215 CE) allowed that bathing contributed to good health and hygiene ... Christian skeptics could not easily dissuade the baths' practical popularity, however; popes continued to build baths situated within church basilicas and monasteries throughout the early medieval period ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sacred+Scents+in+Early+Christianity+and+Islam%3A+Studies+in+Body+and+Religion&rft.pages=6-11&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0739174531&rft.aulast=Thurlkill&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Paolo_Squatriti-416">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paolo_Squatriti_416-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paolo_Squatriti_416-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSquatriti2002" class="citation book cs1">Squatriti, Paolo (2002). Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, AD 400-1000, Parti 400–1000. Cambridge University Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521522069" title="Special:BookSources/9780521522069"><bdi>9780521522069</bdi></a>. <q>... but baths were normally considered therapeutic until the days of Gregory the Great, who understood virtuous bathing to be bathing "on account of the needs of body" ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water+and+Society+in+Early+Medieval+Italy%2C+AD+400-1000%2C+Parti+400%E2%80%931000&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780521522069&rft.aulast=Squatriti&rft.aufirst=Paolo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-417"><a href="#cite_ref-417">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKazhdan1991" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Kazhdan" title="Alexander Kazhdan">Kazhdan, Alexander</a>, ed. (1991), Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504652-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504652-6"><bdi>978-0-19-504652-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504652-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ArthurAshpitel1851-418"><a href="#cite_ref-ArthurAshpitel1851_418-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshpitel1851" class="citation cs2">Ashpitel, Arthur (1851), Observations on baths and wash-houses, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/60239734">60239734</a>, <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/501833155">501833155</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Observations+on+baths+and+wash-houses&rft.date=1851&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F501833155&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F60239734%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ashpitel&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-419"><a href="#cite_ref-419">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2019" class="citation book cs1">Black, Winston (2019). The Middle Ages: Facts and Fictions. ABC-CLIO. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781440862328" title="Special:BookSources/9781440862328"><bdi>9781440862328</bdi></a>. <q>Public baths were common in the larger towns and cities of Europe by the twelfth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Middle+Ages%3A+Facts+and+Fictions&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9781440862328&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Winston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-420"><a href="#cite_ref-420">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinschmidt2005" class="citation book cs1">Kleinschmidt, Harald (2005). Perception and Action in Medieval Europe. Boydell & Brewer. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781843831464" title="Special:BookSources/9781843831464"><bdi>9781843831464</bdi></a>. <q>The evidence of early medieval laws that enforced punishments for the destruction of bathing houses suggests that such buildings were not rare. That they ... took a bath every week. At places in southern Europe, Roman baths remained in use or were even restored ... The Paris city scribe Nicolas Boileau noted the existence of twenty-six public baths in Paris in 1272</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Perception+and+Action+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781843831464&rft.aulast=Kleinschmidt&rft.aufirst=Harald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-421"><a href="#cite_ref-421">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHembry1990" class="citation book cs1">Hembry, Phyllis (1990). The English Spa, 1560–1815: A Social History. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780838633915" title="Special:BookSources/9780838633915"><bdi>9780838633915</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+English+Spa%2C+1560%E2%80%931815%3A+A+Social+History&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+Univ+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780838633915&rft.aulast=Hembry&rft.aufirst=Phyllis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ASpiritualHistory-422">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ASpiritualHistory_422-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ASpiritualHistory_422-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2012" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Ian (2012). Water: A Spiritual History. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441167675" title="Special:BookSources/9781441167675"><bdi>9781441167675</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Water%3A+A+Spiritual+History&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781441167675&rft.aulast=Bradley&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-423"><a href="#cite_ref-423">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnell" class="citation web cs1">Snell, Melissa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170130223521/http://historymedren.about.com/od/dailylifesociety/a/bod_weddings.htm">"The Bad Old Days – Weddings and Hygiene"</a>. About.com Education. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historymedren.about.com/od/dailylifesociety/a/bod_weddings.htm">the original</a> on 30 January 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=About.com+Education&rft.atitle=The+Bad+Old+Days+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3B+Weddings+and+Hygiene&rft.aulast=Snell&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistorymedren.about.com%2Fod%2Fdailylifesociety%2Fa%2Fbod_weddings.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-424"><a href="#cite_ref-424">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/black_death.html">"The Great Famine and the Black Death – 1315–1317, 1346–1351 – Lectures in Medieval History – Dr. Lynn H. Nelson, Emeritus Professor, Medieval History, KU"</a>. 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Bistline Jr., in Anionic Surfactants: Organic Chemistry, Helmut Stache, ed., Volume 56 of Surfactant science series, CRC Press, 1996, chapter 11, p. 632, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8247-9394-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8247-9394-3">0-8247-9394-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Eveleigh,_Bogs_2002-427"><a href="#cite_ref-Eveleigh,_Bogs_2002_427-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEveleigh2002" class="citation book cs1">Eveleigh, David J. (2002). Bogs, Baths and Basins: The Story of Domestic Sanitation. Stroud, England: <a href="/wiki/Sutton_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutton Publishing">Sutton Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780750927932" title="Special:BookSources/9780750927932"><bdi>9780750927932</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bogs%2C+Baths+and+Basins%3A+The+Story+of+Domestic+Sanitation&rft.place=Stroud%2C+England&rft.pub=Sutton+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9780750927932&rft.aulast=Eveleigh&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-428"><a href="#cite_ref-428">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salvationarmy-newyork.org/SSGNY/index.php?id=_about-history">History of The Salvation Army – Social Services of Greater New York</a>, retrieved 30 January 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070107004550/http://www.salvationarmy-newyork.org/SSGNY/index.php?id=_about-history">Archived</a> 7 January 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-429"><a href="#cite_ref-429">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuth_Deardorff2018" class="citation book cs1">Ruth Deardorff, Neva (2018). The Promotion of the Welfare and Hygiene of Maternity and Infancy. Ohio State University Press. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191503023" title="Special:BookSources/9780191503023"><bdi>9780191503023</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Promotion+of+the+Welfare+and+Hygiene+of+Maternity+and+Infancy&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=Ohio+State+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780191503023&rft.aulast=Ruth+Deardorff&rft.aufirst=Neva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-430"><a href="#cite_ref-430">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLillian_Taiz2001" class="citation book cs1">Lillian Taiz (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/hallelujahladsla00taiz_0">Hallelujah lads & lasses</a>. 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Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4841-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4841-3"><bdi>978-0-8028-4841-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+action%3A+the+international+history+of+the+Salvation+Army&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-4841-3&rft.aulast=Gariepy&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristianityinac0000gari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-432"><a href="#cite_ref-432">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreaves2017" class="citation book cs1">Greaves, Ian (2017). Oxford Manual of Major Incident Management. Oxford University Press. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191503023" title="Special:BookSources/9780191503023"><bdi>9780191503023</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Manual+of+Major+Incident+Management&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780191503023&rft.aulast=Greaves&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-433"><a href="#cite_ref-433">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Clark2006" class="citation book cs1">E. Clark, Mary (2006). Contemporary Biology: Concepts and Implications. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780721625973" title="Special:BookSources/9780721625973"><bdi>9780721625973</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Biology%3A+Concepts+and+Implications&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780721625973&rft.aulast=E.+Clark&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-434"><a href="#cite_ref-434">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Clark2006" class="citation book cs1">E. Clark, Mary (2006). Contemporary Biology: Concepts and Implications. University of Michigan Press. p. 613. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780721625973" title="Special:BookSources/9780721625973"><bdi>9780721625973</bdi></a>. <q>Douching is commonly practiced in Catholic countries. The bidet ... is still commonly found in France and other Catholic countries.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Biology%3A+Concepts+and+Implications&rft.pages=613&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780721625973&rft.aulast=E.+Clark&rft.aufirst=Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-435"><a href="#cite_ref-435">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Made in Naples. Come Napoli ha civilizzato l'Europa (e come continua a farlo) [Made in Naples. How Naples civilised Europe (And still does it)] (in Italian). Addictions-Magenes Editoriale. 2013. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8866490395" title="Special:BookSources/978-8866490395"><bdi>978-8866490395</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Made+in+Naples.+Come+Napoli+ha+civilizzato+l%27Europa+%28e+come+continua+a+farlo%29&rft.pub=Addictions-Magenes+Editoriale&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-8866490395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-436"><a href="#cite_ref-436">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSantiago2014" class="citation web cs1">Santiago (8 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.biginfinland.com/hose-always-next-every-finnish-toilet/">"A hose: the strange device next to every Finnish toilet"</a>. Big In Finland. Retrieved 19 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Big+In+Finland&rft.atitle=A+hose%3A+the+strange+device+next+to+every+Finnish+toilet&rft.date=2014-07-08&rft.au=Santiago&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.biginfinland.com%2Fhose-always-next-every-finnish-toilet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MNA-437"><a href="#cite_ref-MNA_437-0">^</a> Michael Nazir-Ali. Islam, a Christian perspective, Westminster John Knox Press, 1983, p. 66 </li> <li id="cite_note-438"><a href="#cite_ref-438">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith2010" class="citation book cs1">Griffith, Sidney H. (4 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IwV2G-A-Oz0C&q=Islam+Christian+heresy+Damascus&pg=PA41">The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: Christians and Muslims in the World of Islam</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14628-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14628-7"><bdi>978-0-691-14628-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Church+in+the+Shadow+of+the+Mosque%3A+Christians+and+Muslims+in+the+World+of+Islam&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010-04-04&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14628-7&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Sidney+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIwV2G-A-Oz0C%26q%3DIslam%2BChristian%2Bheresy%2BDamascus%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-439"><a href="#cite_ref-439">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrague,_Rémi2009" class="citation book cs1">Brague, Rémi (15 April 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC&q=House+of+Wisdom">The Legend of the Middle Ages</a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226070803" title="Special:BookSources/9780226070803"><bdi>9780226070803</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legend+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009-04-15&rft.isbn=9780226070803&rft.au=Brague%2C+R%C3%A9mi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc8YjEkLPXNYC%26q%3DHouse%2Bof%2BWisdom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-440"><a href="#cite_ref-440">^</a> Ferguson, Kitty <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=trM7NJz011oC&dq=preserve+ancient+knowledge+syria&pg=PT100">Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe</a> Walker Publishing Company, New York, 2008, (page number not available – occurs toward end of Chapter 13, "The Wrap-up of Antiquity"). "It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language." </li> <li id="cite_note-441"><a href="#cite_ref-441">^</a> Kaser, Karl <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC&dq=preserve+ancient+knowledge+syria&pg=PA137">The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History</a> p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-442"><a href="#cite_ref-442">^</a> Yazberdiyev, Dr. Almaz <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.turkmenhost.com/documents/Journal2/merv.html">Libraries of Ancient Merv</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304032324/http://www.turkmenhost.com/documents/Journal2/merv.html">Archived</a> 2016-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Dr. Yazberdiyev is Director of the Library of the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan, Ashgabat. </li> <li id="cite_note-443"><a href="#cite_ref-443">^</a> Hyman and Walsh Philosophy in the Middle Ages Indianapolis, 3rd edition, p. 216 </li> <li id="cite_note-444"><a href="#cite_ref-444">^</a> Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach, Editors, Medieval Islamic Civilization Vol.1, A – K, Index, 2006, p. 451 </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-445">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_445-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_445-1">b</a> The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 22:2 Mehmet Mahfuz Söylemez, The Jundishapur School: Its History, Structure, and Functions, p.3. </li> <li id="cite_note-446"><a href="#cite_ref-446">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonnerEnerSinger2003" class="citation book cs1">Bonner, Bonner; Ener, Mine; Singer, Amy (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zBp3y5lWz58C&pg=PA97">Poverty and charity in Middle Eastern contexts</a>. SUNY Press. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5737-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5737-5"><bdi>978-0-7914-5737-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poverty+and+charity+in+Middle+Eastern+contexts&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5737-5&rft.aulast=Bonner&rft.aufirst=Bonner&rft.au=Ener%2C+Mine&rft.au=Singer%2C+Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzBp3y5lWz58C%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-447"><a href="#cite_ref-447">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuanoBurgos1992" class="citation book cs1">Ruano, Eloy Benito; Burgos, Manuel Espadas (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JXUoAQAAIAAJ&q=bukhtishu">17e Congrès international des sciences historiques: Madrid, du 26 août au 2 septembre 1990</a>. Comité international des sciences historiques. p. 527. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-600-8154-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-600-8154-8"><bdi>978-84-600-8154-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=17e+Congr%C3%A8s+international+des+sciences+historiques%3A+Madrid%2C+du+26+ao%C3%BBt+au+2+septembre+1990&rft.pages=527&rft.pub=Comit%C3%A9+international+des+sciences+historiques&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-84-600-8154-8&rft.aulast=Ruano&rft.aufirst=Eloy+Benito&rft.au=Burgos%2C+Manuel+Espadas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJXUoAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dbukhtishu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Radai20082-448"><a href="#cite_ref-Radai20082_448-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadai2008" class="citation journal cs1">Radai, Itamar (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weblaw.haifa.ac.il/he/faculty/kedar/lecdb/general/421.pdf">"The collapse of the Palestinian-Arab middle class in 1948: The case of Qatamon"</a> (PDF). Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (6): 961–982. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00263200701568352">10.1080/00263200701568352</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-3206">0026-3206</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143649224">143649224</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171018134857/http://weblaw.haifa.ac.il/he/faculty/kedar/lecdb/general/421.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+collapse+of+the+Palestinian-Arab+middle+class+in+1948%3A+The+case+of+Qatamon&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=961-982&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143649224%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0026-3206&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00263200701568352&rft.aulast=Radai&rft.aufirst=Itamar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweblaw.haifa.ac.il%2Fhe%2Ffaculty%2Fkedar%2Flecdb%2Fgeneral%2F421.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-449"><a href="#cite_ref-449">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPacini1998" class="citation book cs1">Pacini, Andrea (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ">Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future</a>. Clarendon Press. pp. 38, 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829388-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-829388-0"><bdi>978-0-19-829388-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310101859/https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Communities+in+the+Arab+Middle+East%3A+The+Challenge+of+the+Future&rft.pages=38%2C+55&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-829388-0&rft.aulast=Pacini&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKMfYAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-450"><a href="#cite_ref-450">^</a> Gail Marlow Taylor, The Physicians of Gundeshapur, (University of California, Irvine), p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-451"><a href="#cite_ref-451">^</a> Cyril Elgood, A Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate, (Cambridge University Press, 1951), p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-452"><a href="#cite_ref-452">^</a> Cyril Elgood, A Medical History of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate, (Cambridge University Press, 1951), p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-Blow;_p._213-453">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blow;_p._213_453-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blow;_p._213_453-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blow;_p._213_453-2">c</a> Blow; p. 213. </li> <li id="cite_note-454"><a href="#cite_ref-454">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/knowledge-bank/end-silk-route">"The End of the Silk Route | Silk Roads Programme"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Silk+Route+%26%23124%3B+Silk+Roads+Programme&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.unesco.org%2Fsilkroad%2Fknowledge-bank%2Fend-silk-route&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-455"><a href="#cite_ref-455">^</a> Savory; p. 195-8 </li> <li id="cite_note-456"><a href="#cite_ref-456">^</a> Savory; p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-457"><a href="#cite_ref-457">^</a> Cigdem Kafescioglu, Constantinopolis/Istanbul: Cultural Encounter, Imperial Vision, and the Construction of the Ottoman Capital (Pennsylvania State University Press, 2009), p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-ma98-458"><a href="#cite_ref-ma98_458-0">^</a> Mamboury (1953), p. 98 </li> <li id="cite_note-ma99-459"><a href="#cite_ref-ma99_459-0">^</a> Mamboury (1953), p. 99 </li> <li id="cite_note-BritA-460"><a href="#cite_ref-BritA_460-0">^</a> Encyclopædia Britannica, The Phanariots, 2008, O.Ed. </li> <li id="cite_note-BritB-461">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BritB_461-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritB_461-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BritB_461-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/topic/Phanariote">"Phanariote"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. United States: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2016. Online Edition.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phanariote&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.place=United+States&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Inc.&rft.date=2016&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FPhanariote&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-462"><a href="#cite_ref-462">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarsoumian1982" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Hagop_Barsoumian" title="Hagop Barsoumian">Barsoumian, Hagop</a> (1982), "The Dual Role of the Armenian Amira Class within the Ottoman Government and the Armenian Millet (1750–1850)", in Braude, Benjamin; Lewis, Bernard (eds.), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society, vol. I, New York: Holmes & Meier</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Dual+Role+of+the+Armenian+Amira+Class+within+the+Ottoman+Government+and+the+Armenian+Millet+%281750%E2%80%931850%29&rft.btitle=Christians+and+Jews+in+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+The+Functioning+of+a+Plural+Society&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Holmes+%26+Meier&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Barsoumian&rft.aufirst=Hagop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barsoumian-463"><a href="#cite_ref-Barsoumian_463-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarsoumian1997" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-long-vol">Barsoumian, Hagop (1997), "The Eastern Question and the Tanzimat Era", in <a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hovannisian" title="Richard G. Hovannisian">Hovannisian, Richard G</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/armenianpeoplefr00rich_0/page/175">The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times</a>, vol. II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century, New York: St. Martin's, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/armenianpeoplefr00rich_0/page/175">175–201</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-10168-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-10168-6"><bdi>0-312-10168-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Eastern+Question+and+the+Tanzimat+Era&rft.btitle=The+Armenian+People+From+Ancient+to+Modern+Times&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=175-201&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-312-10168-6&rft.aulast=Barsoumian&rft.aufirst=Hagop&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farmenianpeoplefr00rich_0%2Fpage%2F175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pacini1998-464">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pacini1998_464-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pacini1998_464-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pacini1998_464-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pacini1998_464-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pacini1998_464-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPacini1998" class="citation book cs1">Pacini, Andrea (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ">Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future</a>. 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Middle Eastern Studies. 43 (6): 961–982. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00263200701568352">10.1080/00263200701568352</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-3206">0026-3206</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143649224">143649224</a>. 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Musallam, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm">Arab Press, Society and Politics at the End of The Ottoman Era</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719151528/http://admusallam.bethlehem.edu/publications/EndofTheOttomanEra.htm">Archived</a> 2011-07-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lattouf_p._70-467"><a href="#cite_ref-Lattouf_p._70_467-0">^</a> Lattouf, 2004, p. 70 </li> <li id="cite_note-468"><a href="#cite_ref-468">^</a> محطات مارونية من تاريخ لبنان، مرجع سابق، ص.185 </li> <li id="cite_note-469"><a href="#cite_ref-469">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/pope-to-arab-christians-k_b_203943">"Pope to Arab Christians: Keep the Faith"</a>. HuffPost. 15 June 2009. Retrieved 19 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HuffPost&rft.atitle=Pope+to+Arab+Christians%3A+Keep+the+Faith&rft.date=2009-06-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffpost.com%2Fentry%2Fpope-to-arab-christians-k_b_203943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-470"><a href="#cite_ref-470">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC._Ellis2004" class="citation book cs1">C. Ellis, Kail (2004). Nostra Aetate, Non-Christian Religions, and Interfaith Relations. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27423-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27423-4"><bdi>978-0-521-27423-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic+Thought+in+the+Liberal+Age%2C+1798%E2%80%931939&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27423-4&rft.aulast=Hourani&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Prioreschi2001-472"><a href="#cite_ref-Prioreschi2001_472-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrioreschi2001" class="citation book cs1">Prioreschi, Plinio (1 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q0IIpnov0BsC&pg=PA223">A History of Medicine: Byzantine and Islamic medicine</a>. Horatius Press. p. 223. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781888456042" title="Special:BookSources/9781888456042"><bdi>9781888456042</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Medicine%3A+Byzantine+and+Islamic+medicine&rft.pages=223&rft.pub=Horatius+Press&rft.date=2001-01-01&rft.isbn=9781888456042&rft.aulast=Prioreschi&rft.aufirst=Plinio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq0IIpnov0BsC%26pg%3DPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARole+of+Christianity+in+civilization" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-473"><a href="#cite_ref-473">^</a> Ira M. Lapidus, Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History, (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 200. </li> </ol></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Origins_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Christianity">Origins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a> (30–100)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus_in_the_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="Life of Jesus in the New Testament">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commissioning_of_the_Twelve_Apostles" title="Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles">Commissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split with Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> <ul><li><a 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Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Pope Clement I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> (313–476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Great_Church(180–451)Romanstate_church(380–451)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a> (180–451) <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Roman state church</a> (380–451)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arian_controversy" title="Arian controversy">Arian controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran" title="Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran">Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="Old St. Peter's Basilica">Old St. Peter's Basilica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_I" title="Pope Sylvester I">Pope Sylvester I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Council of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Second Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Third Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Second Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople_(Catholic_Church)" title="Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic Church)">Fourth Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_clash_between_the_Church_and_the_Empire" title="The clash between the Church and the Empire">Clash against the empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="First Council of the Lateran">First Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Second Council of the Lateran">Second Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Third Council of the Lateran">Third Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Lyon" title="First Council of Lyon">First Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Vienne" title="Council of Vienne">Council of Vienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Dissolution of the monasteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V" title="Pope Pius V">Pope Pius V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridentine_Mass" title="Tridentine Mass">Tridentine Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_the_Cross" title="John of the Cross">John of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Canisius" title="Peter Canisius">Peter Canisius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Neri" title="Philip Neri">Philip Neri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque period</a> to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI" title="Pope Innocent XI">Pope Innocent XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">Suppression of the Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pope Pius VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimabara_Rebellion" title="Shimabara Rebellion">Shimabara Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church and politics in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_La_Salette" title="Our Lady of La Salette">Our Lady of La Salette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Lourdes" title="Our Lady of Lourdes">Our Lady of Lourdes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">First Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility" title="Papal infallibility">Papal infallibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_of_the_Divine_Heart" title="Mary of the Divine Heart">Mary of the Divine Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Consecration_to_the_Sacred_Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart">Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_20th_century" title="Catholic Church in the 20th century">20th century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_F%C3%A1tima" title="Our Lady of Fátima">Our Lady of Fátima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecutions_of_the_Catholic_Church_and_Pius_XII" title="Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII">Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_1942_consecration_to_the_Immaculate_Heart_of_Mary" title="Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary">Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Nazi_Germany" title="Catholic Church and Nazi Germany">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mit_brennender_Sorge" title="Mit brennender Sorge">Mit brennender Sorge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacem_in_terris" title="Pacem in terris">Pacem in terris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Pope Paul VI</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Pope_Paul_VI" title="Coronation of Pope Paul VI">coronation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_I" title="Pope John Paul I">Pope John Paul I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_1995" title="World Youth Day 1995">1995</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Sexual abuse scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2000" title="World Youth Day 2000">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2002" title="World Youth Day 2002">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2005" title="World Youth Day 2005">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2008" title="World Youth Day 2008">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2011" title="World Youth Day 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2013" title="World Youth Day 2013">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2016" title="World Youth Day 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2019" title="World Youth Day 2019">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2023" title="World Youth Day 2023">2023</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_of_Pope_Francis_and_Patriarch_Kirill" title="Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill">Patriarch Kirill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Vatican_City" title="Portal:Vatican City">Vatican City portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Catholic_Church" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist wraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Catholic_Church_footer" title="Template:Catholic Church footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Catholic_Church_footer" title="Template talk:Catholic Church footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic_Church_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Catholic Church footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Catholic_Church" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:gold"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Catholic_Church_articles" title="Index of Catholic Church articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Outline of the Catholic Church">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Glossary of the Catholic Church">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Catholics" title="Lists of Catholics">Lists of Catholics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History</a> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a> <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Legal history of the Catholic Church">Legal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a> <a href="/wiki/Christ_(title)" title="Christ (title)">Christ</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_Peter" title="Primacy of Peter">Petrine primacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">History of the papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Primacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Islamic conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Schism (1054)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Schism (1378)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church and Protestant">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Nazi_Germany" title="Catholic Church and Nazi Germany">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Sexual abuse scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Theology</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Bible</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic tradition">Tradition</a> <a href="/wiki/Catechism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Catechism of the Catholic Church">Catechism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="General" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingship_and_kingdom_of_God" title="Kingship and kingdom of God">Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology_on_the_body" title="Catholic theology on the body">Body and soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_grace" title="Divine grace">Divine grace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogma_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Dogma in the Catholic Church">Dogma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_saints" title="List of Catholic saints">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments_in_Catholic_theology" title="Ten Commandments in Catholic theology">Ten Commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li>Official Bible <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixtine_Vulgate" title="Sixtine Vulgate">Sixtine Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixto-Clementine_Vulgate" title="Sixto-Clementine Vulgate">Sixto-Clementine Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Vulgata" title="Nova Vulgata">Nova Vulgata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecclesiology" title="Catholic ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communitas_perfecta" title="Communitas perfecta">Communitas perfecta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholicity" title="Catholicity">Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibility_of_the_Church" title="Infallibility of the Church">Infallibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystici_Corporis_Christi" title="Mystici Corporis Christi">Mystici Corporis Christi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Churches_Militant,_Penitent,_and_Triumphant" title="Churches Militant, Penitent, and Triumphant">Three states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsistit_in" title="Subsistit in">Subsistit in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">In canon law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Sacraments of the Catholic Church">Sacraments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Confirmation in the Catholic Church">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Eucharist in the Catholic Church">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament_of_Penance" title="Sacrament of Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_Sick_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church">Anointing of the Sick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Last_rites" title="Last rites">Last rites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Holy orders in the Catholic Church">Holy orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marriage in the Catholic Church">Matrimony</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Mariology" title="Catholic Mariology">Mariology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Assumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Catholic_Mariology" title="History of Catholic Mariology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Immaculate Conception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology_of_the_popes" title="Mariology of the popes">Mariology of the popes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology_of_the_saints" title="Mariology of the saints">Mariology of the saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Mother of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_virginity_of_Mary" title="Perpetual virginity of Mary">Perpetual virginity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_Mary_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church">Veneration</a></li> <li>See also:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephology" title="Josephology">Josephology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_moral_theology" title="Catholic moral theology">Moral theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism_(Catholic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Personalism (Catholic)">Personalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Social teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_philosophers_and_theologians" title="List of Catholic philosophers and theologians">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">Philosophy of canon law</a></li> <li>See also:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_the_Catholic_Church" title="Science and the Catholic Church">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_and_the_Catholic_Church" title="Evolution and the Catholic Church">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relations_between_the_Catholic_Church_and_the_state" title="Relations between the Catholic Church and the state">Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics" title="Catholic Church and politics">Politics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Saint_(Catholic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint (Catholic)">Saints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Family" title="Holy Family">Holy Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Joseph" title="Saint Joseph">Joseph</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">Patriarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archangel" title="Archangel">Archangels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_martyr" title="Christian martyr">Martyrs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church" title="Doctor of the Church">Doctors of the Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Evangelists" title="Four Evangelists">Evangelists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessor_of_the_Faith" title="Confessor of the Faith">Confessors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disciple_(Christianity)" title="Disciple (Christianity)">Disciples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgin_(title)" title="Virgin (title)">Virgins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Organisation <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Hierarchy of the Catholic Church">Hierarchy</a> <a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Canon law</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_laity" title="Catholic laity">Laity</a> <a href="/wiki/Order_of_precedence_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Order of precedence in the Catholic Church">Precedence</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_by_country" title="Catholic Church by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_popes" title="List of popes">List of popes</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Pope</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Ecumenical councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Cardinals" title="College of Cardinals">College</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_(Catholic_Church)" title="Cardinal (Catholic Church)">Cardinals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_living_cardinals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of living cardinals">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Cardinal_Advisers" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Cardinal Advisers">Advisers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Curia" title="Roman Curia">Roman Curia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dicastery" title="Dicastery">Dicasteries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Bishops_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Synod of Bishops in the Catholic Church">Synod of Bishops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Properties_of_the_Holy_See" title="Properties of the Holy See">Properties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Vatican_City%E2%80%93related_articles" title="Index of Vatican City–related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Vatican_City" title="Outline of Vatican City">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Palace" title="Apostolic Palace">Apostolic Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Rota" title="Roman Rota">Roman Rota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Guard" title="Swiss Guard">Swiss Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_polity" title="Ecclesiastical polity">Polity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Holy orders in the Catholic Church">Holy orders</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_dioceses_(structured_view)" title="List of Catholic dioceses (structured view)">Diocese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Episcopal_conference" title="Episcopal conference">Episcopal conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eparchy#Church_hierarchy" title="Eparchy">Eparchy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishops_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Bishops in the Catholic Church">Bishop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">Patriarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_archbishop" title="Major archbishop">Major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_(bishop)" title="Primate (bishop)">Primate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" title="Metropolitan bishop">Metropolitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archbishop" title="Archbishop">Archbishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocesan_bishop" title="Diocesan bishop">Diocesan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coadjutor_bishop" title="Coadjutor bishop">Coadjutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_bishop" title="Auxiliary bishop">Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titular_bishop" title="Titular bishop">Titular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_emeritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope emeritus">Emeritus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parish_(Catholic_Church)" title="Parish (Catholic Church)">Parish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Priesthood in the Catholic Church">Priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacon" title="Deacon">Deacon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Consecrated_life" title="Consecrated life">Consecrated life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_(Western_Christianity)" title="Religious (Western Christianity)">Religious</a>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_(hierarchy)" title="Superior (hierarchy)">Superior</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbot" title="Abbot">Abbot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbess" title="Abbess">Abbess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_general_(Christianity)" title="Superior general (Christianity)">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincial_superior" title="Provincial superior">Provincial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_(ecclesiastical)" title="Prior (ecclesiastical)">Prior, Prioress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_master_(order)" title="Grand master (order)">Grand master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_brother" title="Religious brother">Brother</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friar" title="Friar">Friar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_sister" title="Religious sister">Sister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_nun" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">Hermit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novitiate" title="Novitiate">Novice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novice_master" title="Novice master">Master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblate" title="Oblate">Oblate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postulant" title="Postulant">Postulant</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_particular_churches_and_liturgical_rites" title="Catholic particular churches and liturgical rites">Particular churches</a> <a href="/wiki/Sui_iuris" title="Sui iuris">sui iuris</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic Churches</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Albanian Greek Catholic Church">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Catholic_Church" title="Armenian Catholic Church">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Belarusian Greek Catholic Church">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Bulgarian Greek Catholic Church">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholic_Church" title="Chaldean Catholic Church">Chaldean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Catholic_Church" title="Coptic Catholic Church">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Catholic_Church_of_Croatia_and_Serbia" title="Greek Catholic Church of Croatia and Serbia">Croatian and Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Catholic_Church" title="Eritrean Catholic Church">Eritrean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Catholic_Church" title="Ethiopian Catholic Church">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Georgia" title="Catholic Church in Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Byzantine_Catholic_Church" title="Greek Byzantine Catholic Church">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Hungarian Greek Catholic Church">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Albanian_Catholic_Church" title="Italo-Albanian Catholic Church">Italo-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Macedonian Greek Catholic Church">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maronite_Church" title="Maronite Church">Maronite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Melkite Greek Catholic Church">Melkite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Romanian Greek Catholic Church">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Russian Greek Catholic Church">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruthenian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Slovak Greek Catholic Church">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Catholic_Church" title="Syriac Catholic Church">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Malabar_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Syro-Malabar Catholic Church">Syro-Malabar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Malankara_Catholic_Church" title="Syro-Malankara Catholic Church">Syro-Malankara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church" title="Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church">Ukrainian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:12em"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic liturgy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_liturgical_rites" title="Alexandrian liturgical rites">Alexandrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochene_Rite" title="Antiochene Rite">Antiochian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Rite" title="Armenian Rite">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Rite" title="Byzantine Rite">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Syriac_Rite" title="East Syriac Rite">East Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_Rite" title="West Syriac Rite">West Syriac</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malankara_Rite" title="Malankara Rite">Malankara</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_liturgical_rites" title="Latin liturgical rites">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambrosian_Rite" title="Ambrosian Rite">Ambrosian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rite_of_Braga" title="Rite of Braga">Braga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_Rite" title="Mozarabic Rite">Mozarabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Rite" title="Roman Rite">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_of_Paul_VI" title="Mass of Paul VI">Paul VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridentine_Mass" title="Tridentine Mass">Tridentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_Use" title="Anglican Use">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaire_Use" title="Zaire Use">Zaire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Marian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_artists" title="List of Catholic artists">Artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_writers" title="List of Catholic writers">Writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Catholic_church_buildings" title="Lists of Catholic church buildings">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altarpiece" title="Altarpiece">Altarpieces</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_Catholicism" title="Folk Catholicism">Folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_Library" title="Vatican Library">Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Catholic_music" title="Category:Catholic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_the_Holy_See" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of the Holy See">Distinctions</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Role in civilisation</a></li> <li>See also:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Criticism of the Catholic Church">Criticism of the Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Anti-Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Catholic_media" title="Category:Catholic media">Media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See_Press_Office" title="Holy See Press Office">Holy See Press Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_Media" title="Vatican Media">Vatican Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_News" title="Vatican News">Vatican News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_Television_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Vatican Television Center">Vatican Television Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_Radio" title="Vatican Radio">Vatican Radio</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vatican Polyglot Press</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Osservatore_Romano" title="L'Osservatore Romano">L'Osservatore Romano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acta_Apostolicae_Sedis" title="Acta Apostolicae Sedis">Acta Apostolicae Sedis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annuario_Pontificio" title="Annuario Pontificio">Annuario Pontificio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_order_(Catholic)" title="Religious order (Catholic)">Religious orders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_institute" title="Religious institute">institutes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Society_of_apostolic_life" title="Society of apostolic life">societies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assumptionists" title="Assumptionists">Assumptionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Annunciation_of_the_Blessed_Virgin_Mary" title="Order of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary">Annonciades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinians" title="Augustinians">Augustinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Saint_Basil_the_Great" title="Order of Saint Basil the Great">Basilians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedictines" title="Benedictines">Benedictines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethlehemites" title="Bethlehemites">Bethlehemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Most_Holy_Annunciation" title="Order of the Most Holy Annunciation">Blue nuns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camaldolese" title="Camaldolese">Camaldoleses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillians" title="Camillians">Camillians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmelites" title="Carmelites">Carmelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthusians" title="Carthusians">Carthusians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_Clares" title="Poor Clares">Clarisses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptionists" title="Conceptionists">Conceptionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canons_Regular_of_the_Order_of_the_Holy_Cross" title="Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross">Crosiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregation_of_Our_Lady_of_Charity_of_the_Good_Shepherd" title="Congregation of Our Lady of Charity of the Good Shepherd">Good Shepherd Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymites" title="Hieronymites">Hieronymites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legionaries_of_Christ" title="Legionaries of Christ">Legionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Blessed_Virgin_Mary_of_Mercy" title="Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mercy">Mercedarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Minims" title="Order of Minims">Minims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olivetans" title="Olivetans">Olivetans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oratory_of_Saint_Philip_Neri" title="Oratory of Saint Philip Neri">Oratorians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piarists" title="Piarists">Piarists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premonstratensians" title="Premonstratensians">Premonstratensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redemptoristines" title="Redemptoristines">Redemptoristines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servite_Order" title="Servite Order">Servites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatines" title="Theatines">Theatines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trappists" title="Trappists">Trappists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinitarians" title="Trinitarians">Trinitarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Visitation_of_Holy_Mary" title="Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary">Visitandines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Association_of_the_Christian_faithful" title="Association of the Christian faithful">Associations of the faithful</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confraternity" title="Confraternity">Confraternities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_lay_organisations" title="Catholic lay organisations">Lay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Marian_movements_and_societies" title="Catholic Marian movements and societies">Marian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_youth_work" title="Catholic youth work">Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Movement_of_Christian_Workers" title="World Movement of Christian Workers">Workers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_order" title="Third order">Third orders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Third_Order_of_Saint_Dominic" title="Third Order of Saint Dominic">Saint Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lay_Carmelites" title="Lay Carmelites">Lay Carmelites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Order_of_Discalced_Carmelites" title="Secular Order of Discalced Carmelites">Discalced</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Order_of_Saint_Francis" title="Third Order of Saint Francis">Saint Francis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Franciscan_Order" title="Secular Franciscan Order">Secular</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_order_(religious_society)#International" title="Military order (religious society)">Military orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimcap" title="Fimcap">Fimcap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Action" title="Catholic Action">Catholic Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Charismatic_Renewal" title="Catholic Charismatic Renewal">Charismatic Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communion_and_Liberation" title="Communion and Liberation">Communion and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_of_Sant%27Egidio" title="Community of Sant'Egidio">Sant'Egidio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focolare_Movement" title="Focolare Movement">Focolare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Catholic_Knights" title="International Alliance of Catholic Knights">International Alliance of Catholic Knights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Catholic_Conference_of_Scouting" title="International Catholic Conference of Scouting">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Mary" title="Legion of Mary">Legion of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocatechumenal_Way" title="Neocatechumenal Way">Neocatechumenal Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opus_Dei" title="Opus Dei">Opus Dei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schoenstatt_Apostolic_Movement" title="Schoenstatt Apostolic Movement">Schoenstatt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_charities" title="Catholic charities">Charities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aid_to_the_Church_in_Need" title="Aid to the Church in Need">Aid to the Church in Need</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caritas_Internationalis" title="Caritas Internationalis">Caritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Charities_USA" title="Catholic Charities USA">Catholic Charities USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Home_Missions" title="Catholic Home Missions">Home Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Relief_Services" title="Catholic Relief Services">Relief Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIDSE" title="CIDSE">CIDSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Christi" title="Pax Christi">Pax Christi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Saint_Vincent_de_Paul" title="Society of Saint Vincent de Paul">Society of Saint Vincent de Paul</a> </li> <li>See also:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_health_care" title="Catholic Church and health care">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_school" title="Catholic school">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_higher_education" title="Catholic higher education">Universities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:gold"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholic_Church" title="Portal:Catholic Church">Catholic Church portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Catholic_Church" title="Category:Catholic Church">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity" title="Template talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five solae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Relations with other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture" title="Template:Culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture" title="Template talk:Culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_culture" title="Outline of culture">Outline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Cultural astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_ecology" title="Cultural ecology">Cultural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturology" title="Culturology">Culturology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioculture" title="Bioculture">Bioculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_leadership" title="Cross-cultural leadership">Cross-cultural leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychiatry" title="Cross-cultural psychiatry">Cross-cultural psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_analytics" title="Cultural analytics">Cultural analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects in culture">Cultural entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mapping" title="Cultural mapping">Cultural mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mediation" title="Cultural mediation">Cultural mediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Cultural values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturomics" title="Culturomics">Culturomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_learning" title="Intercultural learning">Intercultural learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_relations" title="Intercultural relations">Intercultural relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_culture" title="Internet culture">Internet culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture_studies" title="Popular culture studies">Popular culture studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics_of_culture" title="Semiotics of culture">Semiotics of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Sociology of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound culture">Sound culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_culture" title="Theology of culture">Theology of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcultural_nursing" title="Transcultural nursing">Transcultural nursing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed culture">Constructed culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_culture" title="Dominant culture">Dominant culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk culture">Folk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualistic_culture" title="Individualistic culture">Individualistic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">Legal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_culture" title="Low culture">Low culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microculture" title="Microculture">Microculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_culture" title="Official culture">Official culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">Political culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civic_political_culture" title="Civic political culture">Civic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">Popular culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_pop_culture" title="Urban pop culture">Urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive culture">Primitive culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_through_culture" title="Resistance through culture">Resistance through culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">Subculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_culture" title="Alternative culture">Alternative culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fandom" title="Fandom">Fandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_subcultures" title="Far-right subcultures">Far-right subcultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_subculture" title="Youth subculture">Youth subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcultures" title="List of subcultures">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_culture" title="Super culture">Super culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_culture" title="Vernacular culture">Vernacular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_by_location" title="Category:Culture by location">Culture by location</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">Acculturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appreciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural appreciation">Cultural appreciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_area" title="Cultural area">Cultural area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">Cultural artifact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_baggage" title="Cultural baggage">Cultural baggage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_behavior" title="Cultural behavior">Cultural behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">Cultural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_capital" title="Cross-cultural capital">Cross-cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_communication" title="Cultural communication">Cultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_conflict" title="Cultural conflict">Cultural conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_cringe" title="Cultural cringe">Cultural cringe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_dissonance" title="Cultural dissonance">Cultural dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_emphasis" title="Cultural emphasis">Cultural emphasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_framework" title="Cultural framework">Cultural framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_destroyed_heritage" title="List of destroyed heritage">Destroyed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_icon" title="Cultural icon">Cultural icon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">Cultural identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural industry">Cultural industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_invention" title="Cultural invention">Cultural invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_landscape" title="Cultural landscape">Cultural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_learning" title="Cultural learning">Cultural learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_leveling" title="Cultural leveling">Cultural leveling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_practice" title="Cultural practice">Cultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_property" title="Cultural property">Cultural property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_reproduction" title="Cultural reproduction">Cultural reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_system" title="Cultural system">Cultural system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_technology" title="Cultural technology">Cultural technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Cultural universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultureme" title="Cultureme">Cultureme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enculturation" title="Enculturation">Enculturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-_and_low-context_cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="High- and low-context cultures">High- and low-context cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interculturality" class="mw-redirect" title="Interculturality">Interculturality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript_culture" title="Manuscript culture">Manuscript culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">Material culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-material_culture" title="Non-material culture">Non-material culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">Organizational culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_culture" title="Print culture">Print culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoculture" title="Protoculture">Protoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_mobility" title="Relational mobility">Relational mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_culture" title="Safety culture">Safety culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoculture" title="Technoculture">Technoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Trans-cultural diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transculturation" title="Transculturation">Transculturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">Visual culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_mentality" title="Colonial mentality">Colonial mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_capitalism" title="Consumer capitalism">Consumer capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_cultural_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross cultural sensitivity">Cross cultural sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_attach%C3%A9" title="Cultural attaché">Cultural attaché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_backwardness" title="Cultural backwardness">Cultural backwardness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Bolshevism" title="Cultural Bolshevism">Cultural Bolshevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_conservatism" title="Cultural conservatism">Cultural conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_contracts" title="Cultural contracts">Cultural contracts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_deprivation" title="Cultural deprivation">Cultural deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_diplomacy" title="Cultural diplomacy">Cultural diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_exception" title="Cultural exception">Cultural exception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalization" title="Cultural globalization">Cultural globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_intelligence" title="Cultural intelligence">Cultural intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_nationalism" title="Cultural nationalism">Cultural nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_policy" title="Cultural policy">Cultural policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_racism" title="Cultural racism">Cultural racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_radicalism" title="Cultural radicalism">Cultural radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_retention" title="Cultural retention">Cultural retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_rights" title="Cultural rights">Cultural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_safety" title="Cultural safety">Cultural safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_silence" title="Cultural silence">Cultural silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_subsidy" title="Cultural subsidy">Cultural subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Zionism" title="Cultural Zionism">Cultural Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_change" title="Culture change">Culture change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_minister" title="Culture minister">Culture minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_fear" title="Culture of fear">Culture of fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">Culture war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deculturalization" title="Deculturalization">Deculturalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominator_culture" title="Dominator culture">Dominator culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Interculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Monoculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biculturalism" title="Biculturalism">Biculturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiracial_democracy" title="Multiracial democracy">Multiracial democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluriculturalism" title="Pluriculturalism">Pluriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transculturism" class="mw-redirect" title="Transculturism">Transculturism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_culture" title="Protestant culture">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Role of Christianity in civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox Culture">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Hindus" title="Cultural Hindus">Cultural Hindus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslims" title="Cultural Muslims">Cultural Muslims</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_art_and_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh art and culture">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">Archaeological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bennett_scale" title="Bennett scale">Bennett scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_culture" title="Cannabis culture">Cannabis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_of_culture" title="Circuit of culture">Circuit of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_culture" title="Coffee culture">Coffee culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural" title="Cross-cultural">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_center" title="Cultural center">Cultural center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence" title="Cultural competence">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural critic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">Cultural diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolutionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural evolutionism">Cultural evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_homogenization" title="Cultural homogenization">Cultural homogenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_institution" title="Cultural institution">Cultural institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_jet_lag" title="Cultural jet lag">Cultural jet lag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_lag" title="Cultural lag">Cultural lag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mosaic" title="Cultural mosaic">Cultural mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_movement" title="Cultural movement">Cultural movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mulatto" title="Cultural mulatto">Cultural mulatto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_probe" title="Cultural probe">Cultural probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_tourism" title="Cultural tourism">Cultural tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pop-culture_tourism" title="Pop-culture tourism">Pop-culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_translation" title="Cultural translation">Cultural translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_turn" title="Cultural turn">Cultural turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_sensibility" title="Cultural sensibility">Cultural sensibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_menstruation" title="Culture and menstruation">Culture and menstruation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_positive_psychology" title="Culture and positive psychology">Culture and positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_social_cognition" title="Culture and social cognition">Culture and social cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_gap" title="Culture gap">Culture gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_hero" title="Culture hero">Culture hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_industry" title="Culture industry">Culture industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_shock" title="Culture shock">Culture shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturgen" title="Culturgen">Culturgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_culture" title="Children's culture">Children's culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyberculture">Cyberculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_culture" title="Death and culture">Death and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_culture" title="Disability culture">Disability culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deaf_culture" title="Deaf culture">Deaf culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_culture" title="Drinking culture">Drinking culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_culture" title="Drug culture">Drug culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_culture" title="Eastern culture">Eastern culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotions_and_culture" title="Emotions and culture">Emotions and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_competence" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercultural competence">Intercultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languaculture" title="Languaculture">Languaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_things_in_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Living things in culture">Living things in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppositional_culture" title="Oppositional culture">Oppositional culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_culture" title="Participatory culture">Participatory culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permission_culture" title="Permission culture">Permission 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