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id="toc-African_origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>African origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regions_of_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regions_of_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Regions of Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regions_of_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Transport</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Colonial era</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Colonial_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Colonial era subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Colonial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Black_population_in_the_18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_population_in_the_18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Black population in the 18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_population_in_the_18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Revolution_and_early_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Revolution_and_early_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>American Revolution and early United States</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-American_Revolution_and_early_United_States-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle American Revolution and early United States subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-American_Revolution_and_early_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>American independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antebellum_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antebellum_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Antebellum period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Antebellum_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Antebellum period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Antebellum_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abolitionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolitionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Abolitionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolitionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Black_community" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Black_community"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>The Black community</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Black_community-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haiti's_effect_on_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haiti's_effect_on_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Haiti's effect on slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haiti's_effect_on_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dred_Scott_v._Sandford"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span><i>Dred Scott v. Sandford</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dred_Scott_v._Sandford-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Civil_War_and_emancipation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Civil_War_and_emancipation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>American Civil War and emancipation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Civil_War_and_emancipation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nadir_of_American_race_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nadir_of_American_race_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Nadir of American race relations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nadir_of_American_race_relations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Nadir of American race relations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Nadir_of_American_race_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Racial_terrorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_terrorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Racial terrorism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_terrorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_civil_rights_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_civil_rights_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Early civil rights movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_civil_rights_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Migration_and_the_Harlem_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Migration_and_the_Harlem_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Great Migration and the Harlem Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Migration_and_the_Harlem_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black-owned_businesses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black-owned_businesses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Black-owned businesses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Black-owned_businesses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Black-owned businesses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Black-owned_businesses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Women_in_the_beauty_business" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_the_beauty_business"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Women in the beauty business</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_the_beauty_business-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle World War I subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soldiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soldiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Soldiers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soldiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Home_front_and_postwar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Home_front_and_postwar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Home front and postwar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Home_front_and_postwar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Deal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Deal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>New Deal</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-New_Deal-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle New Deal subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-New_Deal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cotton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cotton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Cotton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cotton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle World War II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_call_for_"The_Double_Victory"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_call_for_"The_Double_Victory""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>A call for "The Double Victory"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_call_for_"The_Double_Victory"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wartime_service" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wartime_service"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Wartime service</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wartime_service-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Home_front" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Home_front"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Home front</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Home_front-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hollywood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hollywood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Hollywood</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hollywood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Great_Migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Great_Migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Second Great Migration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Great_Migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_rights_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_rights_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Civil rights era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_rights_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-civil_rights_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-civil_rights_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Post-civil rights era</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Post-civil_rights_era-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Post-civil rights era subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Post-civil_rights_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16.1</span> <span>Social issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Knowledge_of_Black_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knowledge_of_Black_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.1</span> <span>Knowledge of Black history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knowledge_of_Black_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholars_of_African-American_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholars_of_African-American_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.2</span> <span>Scholars of African-American history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholars_of_African-American_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regional_histories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_histories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.1</span> <span>Regional histories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_histories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_rights_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_rights_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.2</span> <span>Civil rights movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_rights_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reference_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21.1</span> <span>Reference books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21.2</span> <span>Surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Since_1914" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Since_1914"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21.3</span> <span>Since 1914</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Since_1914-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activism_and_urban_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activism_and_urban_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21.4</span> <span>Activism and urban culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Activism_and_urban_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_teaching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_teaching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21.5</span> <span>Historiography and teaching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_teaching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">21.6</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">22</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Runaway_Slave_Reward_Ads_Daily_Picayune_1857.jpg/128px-Runaway_Slave_Reward_Ads_Daily_Picayune_1857.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Runaway_Slave_Reward_Ads_Daily_Picayune_1857.jpg/170px-Runaway_Slave_Reward_Ads_Daily_Picayune_1857.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:97px;max-width:97px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:153px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte-de-visite_portrait_of_Harriet_Tubman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Carte-de-visite_portrait_of_Harriet_Tubman.jpg/95px-Carte-de-visite_portrait_of_Harriet_Tubman.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Carte-de-visite_portrait_of_Harriet_Tubman.jpg/143px-Carte-de-visite_portrait_of_Harriet_Tubman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Carte-de-visite_portrait_of_Harriet_Tubman.jpg/190px-Carte-de-visite_portrait_of_Harriet_Tubman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3973" data-file-height="6407" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:241px;max-width:241px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:153px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg/239px-Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg" decoding="async" width="239" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg/359px-Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg/478px-Tulsa_Aftermath.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="385" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:143px;max-width:143px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:211px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:March_on_Washington_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/March_on_Washington_edit.jpg/141px-March_on_Washington_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/March_on_Washington_edit.jpg/212px-March_on_Washington_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/March_on_Washington_edit.jpg/282px-March_on_Washington_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1271" data-file-height="1902" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:195px;max-width:195px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:211px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg/193px-MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="193" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg/290px-MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg/386px-MLK_and_Malcolm_X_USNWR_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2183" data-file-height="2392" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:113px;max-width:113px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:148px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_President_Barack_Obama_bends_down_to_allow_the_son_of_a_White_House_staff_member_to_touch_his_head_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/United_States_President_Barack_Obama_bends_down_to_allow_the_son_of_a_White_House_staff_member_to_touch_his_head_%28cropped%29.jpg/111px-United_States_President_Barack_Obama_bends_down_to_allow_the_son_of_a_White_House_staff_member_to_touch_his_head_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/United_States_President_Barack_Obama_bends_down_to_allow_the_son_of_a_White_House_staff_member_to_touch_his_head_%28cropped%29.jpg/167px-United_States_President_Barack_Obama_bends_down_to_allow_the_son_of_a_White_House_staff_member_to_touch_his_head_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/United_States_President_Barack_Obama_bends_down_to_allow_the_son_of_a_White_House_staff_member_to_touch_his_head_%28cropped%29.jpg/222px-United_States_President_Barack_Obama_bends_down_to_allow_the_son_of_a_White_House_staff_member_to_touch_his_head_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1752" data-file-height="2333" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:225px;max-width:225px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:148px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Minneapolis_05-28-20_(49947863357).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Minneapolis_05-28-20_%2849947863357%29.jpg/223px-Minneapolis_05-28-20_%2849947863357%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="223" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Minneapolis_05-28-20_%2849947863357%29.jpg/335px-Minneapolis_05-28-20_%2849947863357%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Minneapolis_05-28-20_%2849947863357%29.jpg/446px-Minneapolis_05-28-20_%2849947863357%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6240" data-file-height="4160" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Left-right from top: 1840 depiction of <a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">field hands</a> and child, 1857 newspaper ads for <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">runaway slave</a> rewards, <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a>, aftermath of 1921 <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a>, 1963 <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a>, civil rights leaders <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">MLK Jr.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a>, young boy touching <a href="/wiki/President_Obama" class="mw-redirect" title="President Obama">President Obama</a>'s hair, <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">2020 George Floyd protests</a></div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title{text-align:center;background:#bf0a30;color:#FFFFFF}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks US-history-sidebar vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b>This article is part of a series on the</b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States"><small>History of the </small><br />United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of United States history"><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">Timeline and periods</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b> and <b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">until 1607</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial Era</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1607–1765</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1765–1783</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1783–1788</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1788–1801</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1801–1817</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1817–1825</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1825–1849</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1849–1865</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1865–1877</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1877–1896</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1896–1917</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1917–1918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1918–1929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1929–1941</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1941–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">Post-World War II Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–1964</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1954–1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="United States in the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1964–1975</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Reagan_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reagan Era">Reagan Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1981–1991</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932016)" title="History of the United States (1991–2016)">1991–2016</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    <a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post-Cold War Era</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1991–2016</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2016%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2016–present)">2016–present</a></b></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">    Trump Era</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">2016–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">Civil unrest</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Racial violence</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_flags_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime history of the United States">Maritime</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">Social class</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/African_American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Indian Americans">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans#History" title="German Americans">German American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transgender_people_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of transgender people in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Places</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_regions_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Historic regions of the United States">Historic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Regions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">AL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">AK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">AZ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">AR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">CA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">CO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">CT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">DE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">FL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">GA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">HI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">ID</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">IL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">IN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">IA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">KS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">KY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">LA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">ME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">MD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">MA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">MI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">MN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">MS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">MO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">MT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">NE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">NV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">NH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">NJ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">NM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">NY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">NC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">ND</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">OH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">OK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">OR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">PA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">RI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">SC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">SD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">TN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">TX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">UT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">VT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">VA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">WA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">WV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">WI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">WY</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Territories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">DC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">AS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">GU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">MP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">PR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">VI</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li></ul> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_radical_tradition" title="Black radical tradition">Radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>African-American history</b> started with the forced transportation of <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Africans</a> to <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> in the 16th and 17th centuries. The <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>, and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>, encompassed a large-scale transportation of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic. Of the roughly 10–12 million Africans who were sold in the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary slave trade</a>, either to Europe or the Americas, approximately 388,000 were sent to North America.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After arriving in various European colonies in North America, the enslaved Africans were sold to white colonists, primarily to work on <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crop</a> plantations. A group of enslaved Africans <a href="/wiki/First_Africans_in_Virginia" title="First Africans in Virginia">arrived</a> in the English <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia Colony</a> in 1619, marking the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a>; by 1776, roughly 20% of the <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North American</a> population was of African descent, both <a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">free</a> and enslaved.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> gained independence and began to form the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Black soldiers</a> fought on both the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">American</a> sides. After after the conflict ended, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern United States</a> gradually abolished slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Foner_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foner-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the population of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">American South</a>, which had an economy dependent on <a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">plantations</a> operation by slave labor, increased their usage of Africans as slaves during the <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">westward expansion of the United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, numerous enslaved African Americans escaped into <a href="/wiki/Free_states_and_slave_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Free states and slave states">free states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disputes over slavery between the Northern and Southern states led to the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, in which 178,000 African Americans <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">served</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> side. During the war, President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a>, which abolished slavery in the U.S., except as punishment for a crime.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the war ended with a <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate</a> defeat, the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> began, in which African Americans living in the South were <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">granted limited rights</a> compared to their white counterparts. White opposition to these advancements led to most African Americans living in the South to be <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disfranchised</a>, and a system of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> was passed in the Southern states.<sup id="cite_ref-fremon_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fremon-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning in the early 20th century, in response to poor economic conditions, segregation and <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynchings</a>, over 6 million African Americans, primarily rural, were forced to <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">migrate out of the South</a> to other regions of the United States in search of opportunity.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">nadir of American race relations</a> led to <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">civil rights efforts</a> to overturn <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">racism</a> against African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954, these efforts coalesced into a <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">broad unified movement</a> led by civil rights activists such as <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> This succeeded in persuading the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> to pass the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, which outlawed racial discrimination.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_census" title="2020 United States census">2020 United States census</a> reported that 46,936,733 respondents identified as African Americans, forming roughly 14.2% of the <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">American population</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of those, over 2.1 million <a href="/wiki/African_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="African immigration to the United States">immigrated to the United States</a> as citizens of modern African states.<sup id="cite_ref-Voice_of_America_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voice_of_America-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> African Americans have made major contributions to the <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">culture of the United States</a>, including <a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">cinema</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">music</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Enslavement">Enslavement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Enslavement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Family_of_slaves_in_Georgia,_circa_1850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Family_of_slaves_in_Georgia%2C_circa_1850.jpg/220px-Family_of_slaves_in_Georgia%2C_circa_1850.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Family_of_slaves_in_Georgia%2C_circa_1850.jpg/330px-Family_of_slaves_in_Georgia%2C_circa_1850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Family_of_slaves_in_Georgia%2C_circa_1850.jpg/440px-Family_of_slaves_in_Georgia%2C_circa_1850.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>African-American slaves in Georgia</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African_origins">African origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: African origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>African Americans are the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Africa" title="Demographics of Africa">Africans</a> who were forced into slavery and sold after they were captured by other tribes during African wars or raids, and were brought to America by Europeans as part of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> African Americans are descended from various ethnic groups, mostly from ethnic groups that lived in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>. A smaller number of African Americans are descended from ethnic groups that lived in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Africa" title="Southeast Africa">Southeastern Africa</a>. The major ethnic groups that the enslaved Africans belonged to included the <a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Bakongo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Mandinka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akan_people" title="Akan people">Akan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fon_people" title="Fon people">Fon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Makua_people" title="Makua people">Makua</a>, among many others. Although these different groups varied in customs, religious theology, and language, what they had in common was a way of life which was different from that of the Europeans.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson,_Clayborne_2011-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once they were enslaved and sent to the Americas, these different peoples had European standards and beliefs forced upon them, causing them to do away with tribal differences and forge a new common culture that was a <a href="/wiki/Creolization" title="Creolization">creolization</a> of their original cultures and European cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People who belonged to specific African ethnic groups were more sought after and became more dominant in numbers than people who belonged to other African ethnic groups in certain regions of the land that is now the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regions_of_Africa">Regions of Africa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Regions of Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies of contemporary documents reveal seven regions from which Africans were sold or taken during the Atlantic slave trade. These regions were: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Senegambia" title="Senegambia">Senegambia</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Gambia" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a>) encompassing the coast from the <a href="/wiki/Senegal_River" title="Senegal River">Senegal River</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Casamance_River" title="Casamance River">Casamance River</a>, where captives as far away as the Upper and Middle <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River</a> Valley were sold;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> region included territory from the <a href="/wiki/Casamance_River" title="Casamance River">Casamance</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Assinie-Mafia" title="Assinie-Mafia">Assinie</a> in the modern countries of <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Côte d'Ivoire</a>;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast_(region)" title="Gold Coast (region)">Gold Coast</a> region consisted of mainly modern <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Benin" title="Bight of Benin">Bight of Benin</a> region stretched from the <a href="/wiki/Volta_River" title="Volta River">Volta River</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Benue_River" title="Benue River">Benue River</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>, and southwestern <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>;</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Bight_of_Biafra" title="Bight of Biafra">Bight of Biafra</a> extended from southeastern <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> through <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> into <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>;</li> <li>West Central Africa, the largest region, included the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Congo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>; and</li> <li>East and Southeast Africa, the region of Mozambique-Madagascar included the modern countries of <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, parts of <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The largest origin of Africans transported as slaves across the Atlantic Ocean for the New World was West Africa. Some West Africans were skilled iron workers and were therefore able to make tools that aided in their agricultural labor. While there were many unique tribes with their own customs and religions, by the 15th century many of the tribes had embraced Islam. Those villages in West Africa which were lucky enough to be in good conditions for growth and success, prospered. They also contributed their success to the slave trade for their own benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson,_Clayborne_2011-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In all, about 10–12 million Africans were transported to the Western Hemisphere. The vast majority of these people came from that stretch of the West African coast extending from present-day Senegal to Angola; a small percentage came from Madagascar and East Africa. Only 5% (about 500,000) went to the American colonies. The vast majority went to the West Indies and Brazil, where they died quickly. Demographic conditions were highly favorable in the American colonies, with less disease, more food, some medical care, and lighter work loads than prevailed in the sugar fields.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Origins and percentages of African Americans imported to the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (1700–1820):<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#efefef;">Region </th> <th style="background:#ffdead;">Percentage </th></tr> <tr> <td>West Central Africa </td> <td>26.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bight of Biafra </td> <td>24.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sierra Leone </td> <td>15.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Senegambia </td> <td>14.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gold Coast </td> <td>13.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bight of Benin </td> <td>4.3% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mozambique-Madagascar </td> <td>1.8% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Total </td> <td>100.0% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the account of <a href="/wiki/Olaudah_Equiano" title="Olaudah Equiano">Olaudah Equiano</a>, he described the process of being transported to the colonies and being on the slave ships as a horrific experience. On the ships, the enslaved Africans were separated from their family long before they boarded the ships.<sup id="cite_ref-white_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once aboard the ships the captives were then segregated by gender.<sup id="cite_ref-white_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the deck, the enslaved Africans were cramped and did not have enough space to walk around freely. Enslaved males were generally kept in the ship's hold, where they experienced the worst of crowding.<sup id="cite_ref-white_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The captives stationed on the floor beneath low-lying bunks could barely move and spent much of the voyage pinned to the floorboards, which could, over time, wear the skin on their elbows down to the bone.<sup id="cite_ref-white_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the lack of basic hygiene, malnourishment, and dehydration diseases spread wildly and death was common. </p><p>The women on the ships were often raped by the crewmen.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson,_Clayborne_2011-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women and children were often kept in rooms set apart from the main hold to give crewmen access to the women.<sup id="cite_ref-white_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these rooms also gave enslaved women better access to information on the ship's crew, fortifications, and daily routine, but little opportunity to communicate this to the men confined in the ship's hold.<sup id="cite_ref-white_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women instigated, among other attempts at mutiny, a 1797 insurrection aboard the <a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">slave ship</a> <i>Thomas</i> by stealing weapons and passing them to the men below as well as engaging in hand-to-hand combat with the ship's crew.<sup id="cite_ref-white_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enslaved males were the most likely candidates to mutiny but were only able to at times they were on deck.<sup id="cite_ref-white_24-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While rebellions did not happen often, they were usually unsuccessful. In order for the crew members to keep the enslaved Africans under control and prevent future rebellions, the crews were often twice as large and members would instill fear into the enslaved Africans through brutality and harsh punishments.<sup id="cite_ref-white_24-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-white-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It took about six months from the time of capture for enslaved Africans to arrive on the plantations of their European masters.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson,_Clayborne_2011-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Africans were completely cut off from their families, home, and community life and were forced to adjust to a new way of life.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonial_era">Colonial era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Colonial era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/African-American_history" title="Special:EditPage/African-American history">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22African-American+history%22">"African-American history"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22African-American+history%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22African-American+history%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22African-American+history%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22African-American+history%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22African-American+history%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AfricansatJamestown1619.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/AfricansatJamestown1619.jpg/220px-AfricansatJamestown1619.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/AfricansatJamestown1619.jpg/330px-AfricansatJamestown1619.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/AfricansatJamestown1619.jpg 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><i>"Landing Negroes at <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown</a> from Dutch man-of-war, 1619"</i>, 1901.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg/220px-1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg/330px-1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg/440px-1670_virginia_tobacco_slaves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption><i>"Slaves working in 17th-century Virginia"</i>, by an unknown artist, 1670.</figcaption></figure> <p>Some Africans assisted the Spanish and the Portuguese during their early exploration and conquest of the Americas. In the 16th century some Black explorers settled in the Mississippi valley and in the areas that became South Carolina and New Mexico. The most celebrated Black explorer of the Americas was <a href="/wiki/Estevanico" title="Estevanico">Estéban</a>, who traveled through the Southwest in the 1530s.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1619, the <a href="/wiki/First_Africans_in_Virginia" title="First Africans in Virginia">first captive Africans,</a> kidnapped by Portuguese slave traders, were brought and sold via a Dutch slave ship in <a href="/wiki/Old_Point_Comfort" title="Old Point Comfort">Point Comfort</a> (today <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hampton,_Virginia" title="Hampton, Virginia">Hampton, Virginia</a>), thirty miles downstream from <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown, Virginia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonizers in Virginia treated these captives as <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servants</a> and released them after a number of years. This practice was gradually abandoned in favor of the system of chattel slavery used in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because the colonizers realized when servants were freed, they became competition for resources. Additionally, releasing servants led to Europeans desiring to replace them, which was additional labor.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, combined with the ambiguous nature of the social status of African people and the difficulty in using any other group of people as forced servants, led to the choice of subjugating African people into slavery. <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> was the first colony to legalize slavery in 1641.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other colonies followed suit by passing laws that made slave status heritable and made non-Christian imported servants slaves for life.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1700, there were 25,000 enslaved Black people in the North American mainland colonies, forming roughly 10% of the population. Some enslaved Black people had been directly transported from Africa (most of them were from 1518 to the 1850s), but initially, in the very early stages of the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of North America</a>, occasionally they had been transported via the West Indies in small groups after being forced to work under harsh conditions on the islands.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.co.uk_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.co.uk-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concurrently, many were born to enslaved Africans and their descendants, and thus were native-born on the North American mainland. Their legal status was codified into law with the Virginia Statutes: ACT XII of 1662,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proclaiming all children upon birth would inherit the same status of enslavement as their mother.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As European colonists engaged in aggressive <a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">expansionism</a>, claiming and clearing more land— via the displacement of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a>— for large-scale farming. Plantations were constructed, and in the 1660s enslavement and transport of Africans rapidly increased.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The slave trade from the West Indies proved insufficient to meet demand in the now fast-growing North American slave market. Additionally, most North American buyers of enslaved people no longer wanted to purchase enslaved people who had already endured slavery in the West Indies—by now they were either harder to obtain, too expensive, undesirable, or more often, they had been exhausted in many ways by the brutality of the islands' <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">sugar plantations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 1680s onward, the majority of enslaved Africans imported into North America were directly from Africa, and most of them were sent to ports located in what is now the Southern U.S., particularly in the present-day states of Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Black_population_in_the_18th_century">Black population in the 18th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Black population in the 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The population of enslaved African Americans in North America grew rapidly during the 18th and early 19th centuries due to a variety of factors, including a lower prevalence of tropic diseases and rape of black women by white men.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonial society was divided over the religious and moral implications of slavery, though it remained legal in each of the Thirteen Colonies until the American Revolution. Slavery led to a gradual shift between the American South and North, both before and after independence, as the comparatively more urbanized and industrialized North required fewer slaves than the South.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1750s, the native-born enslaved population of African descent outnumbered that of the African-born enslaved.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By the time of the American Revolution, several Northern states were considering the abolition of slavery.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However some Southern colonies, such as Virginia, had produced such large and self-sustaining native-born enslaved Black populations that they stopped taking indirect imports of enslaved Africans altogether.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Other colonies such as Georgia and South Carolina still relied on steady enslavement of people to keep up with the ever-growing demand for agricultural labor among the burgeoning plantation economies. These colonies continued to import enslaved Africans until the trade was outlawed in 1808, save for a temporary lull during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a>. </p><p>South Carolina's Black population remained very high for most of the eighteenth century due to the continued import of enslaved Africans, with Blacks outnumbering whites three-to-one.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In contrast, Virginia had a consistent white majority despite its significant Black enslaved population.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was said that in the eighteenth century, the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">colony South Carolina</a> resembled an "extension of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="American_Revolution_and_early_United_States">American Revolution and early United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: American Revolution and early United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">History of the United States (1776–1789)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">African Americans in the Revolutionary War</a></div> <p>The latter half of the 18th century was a time of significant political upheaval on the North American continent. In the midst of cries for independence from <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> rule, many pointed out the hypocrisy inherent in colonial slaveholders' demands for freedom. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, a document which would become a <a href="/wiki/Manifesto" title="Manifesto">manifesto</a> for human rights and personal freedom around the world, was written by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, a man who owned over 200 enslaved people. Other Southern statesmen were also major slaveholders. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> considered freeing enslaved people to assist with the war effort, but they also removed language from the Declaration of Independence that included the promotion of slavery amongst the offenses of <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">King George III</a>. A number of free Black people, most notably <a href="/wiki/Prince_Hall" title="Prince Hall">Prince Hall</a>—founder of <a href="/wiki/Prince_Hall_Freemasonry" title="Prince Hall Freemasonry">Prince Hall Freemasonry</a>—submitted <a href="/wiki/Petition" title="Petition">petitions</a> which called for abolition, but these were largely ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This did not deter Black people, free and enslaved, from participating in the Revolution. <a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a>, a free Black tradesman, was the first casualty of the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a> and of the ensuing <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>. 5,000 Black people, including Prince Hall, fought in the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a>. Many fought side by side with <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">White</a> soldiers at the <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Lexington_and_Concord" title="Battles of Lexington and Concord">battles of Lexington and Concord</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bunker_Hill" title="Battle of Bunker Hill">Bunker Hill</a>. However, upon <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>'s ascension to commander of the Continental Army in 1775, the additional recruitment of Black people was forbidden.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Approximately 5,000 free African-American men helped the American Colonists in their struggle for freedom. One of these men, <a href="/wiki/Agrippa_Hull" title="Agrippa Hull">Agrippa Hull</a>, fought in the American Revolution for over six years. He and the other African-American soldiers fought in order to improve their white neighbor's views of them and advance their own fight of freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By contrast, the British and <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a> offered <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">emancipation</a> to any enslaved person owned by a <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">Patriot</a> who was willing to join the Loyalist forces. <a href="/wiki/John_Murray,_4th_Earl_of_Dunmore" title="John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore">Lord Dunmore</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Virginia" title="Governor of Virginia">Governor of Virginia</a>, recruited 300 African-American men into his <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Regiment">Ethiopian regiment</a> within a month of making this proclamation. In South Carolina 25,000 enslaved people, more than one-quarter of the total, escaped to join and fight with the British, or fled for freedom in the uproar of war.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Thousands of enslaved people also escaped in Georgia and Virginia, as well as New England and New York. Well-known African Americans who fought for the British include <a href="/wiki/Colonel_Tye" title="Colonel Tye">Colonel Tye</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston_King" title="Boston King">Boston King</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Thomas Peters was one of the large numbers of African Americans who <a href="/wiki/Black_Loyalist" title="Black Loyalist">fought for the British</a>. Peters was born in present-day Nigeria and belonged to the Yoruba tribe, and ended up being captured and sold into slavery in <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">French Louisiana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sold again, he was enslaved in <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> and escaped his master's farm in order to receive Lord Dunmore's promise of freedom. Peters had fought for the British throughout the war. When the war finally ended, he and other African Americans who fought on the losing side were taken to Nova Scotia. Here, they encountered difficulty farming the small plots of lands they were granted. They also did not receive the same privileges and opportunities as the white <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a> had. Peters sailed to London in order to complain to the government. "He arrived at a momentous time when <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">English abolitionists</a> were pushing a bill through Parliament to charter the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Company" title="Sierra Leone Company">Sierra Leone Company</a> and to grant it trading and settlement rights on the West African coast." Peters and the other African Americans on Nova Scotia left for <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> in 1792. Peters died soon after they arrived, but the other members of his party lived on in their new home where they formed the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierra Leone Creole">Sierra Leone Creole</a> ethnic identity.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thayer_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thayer-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Browne-Davies_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Browne-Davies-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walker_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_independence">American independence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: American independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The colonists eventually won the war and the United States was recognized as a sovereign nation. In the provisional treaty, they demanded the return of property, including enslaved people. Nonetheless, the British helped up to 3,000 documented African Americans to leave the country for <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Jamaica" title="Colony of Jamaica">Jamaica</a> and Britain rather than be returned to slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention</a> of 1787 sought to define the foundation for the government of the newly formed United States of America. The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">constitution</a> set forth the ideals of freedom and equality while providing for the continuation of the institution of slavery through the <a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_3:_Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">fugitive slave clause</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">three-fifths compromise</a>. Additionally, free Black people's rights were also restricted in many places. Most were denied the right to vote and were excluded from public schools. Some Black people sought to fight these contradictions in court. In 1780, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Freeman" title="Elizabeth Freeman">Elizabeth Freeman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quock_Walker" title="Quock Walker">Quock Walker</a> used language from the new <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> constitution that declared all men were born free and equal in <a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">freedom suits</a> to gain release from slavery. A free Black businessman in Boston named <a href="/wiki/Paul_Cuffe" title="Paul Cuffe">Paul Cuffe</a> sought to be excused from paying taxes since he had no voting rights.<sup id="cite_ref-new_nation_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-new_nation-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Northern states, the revolutionary spirit did help African Americans. Beginning in the 1750s, there was widespread sentiment during the American Revolution that slavery was a social evil (for the country as a whole and for the whites) that should eventually be abolished.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> All the Northern states passed emancipation acts between 1780 and 1804; most of these arranged for gradual emancipation and a special status for <a href="/wiki/Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen">freedmen</a>, so there were still a dozen "permanent apprentices" into the 19th century. In 1787 Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a> and barred slavery from the large Northwest Territory.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1790, there were more than 59,000 free Black people in the United States. By 1810, that number had risen to 186,446. Most of these were in the North, but Revolutionary sentiments also motivated Southern slaveholders. </p><p>For 20 years after the Revolution, more Southerners also freed enslaved people, sometimes by manumission or in wills to be accomplished after the slaveholder's death. In the Upper South, the percentage of free Black people rose from about 1% before the Revolution to more than 10% by 1810. <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a> worked to persuade slaveholders to free families. In Virginia, the number of free Black people increased from 10,000 in 1790 to nearly 30,000 in 1810, but 95% of Black people were still enslaved. In Delaware, three-quarters of all Black people were free by 1810.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1860, just over 91% of Delaware's Black people were free, and 49.1% of those in Maryland.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the successful free men was <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Banneker" title="Benjamin Banneker">Benjamin Banneker</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> astronomer, mathematician, almanac author, surveyor, and farmer, who in 1791 assisted in the initial survey of the boundaries of the future <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">District of Columbia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the challenges of living in the new country, most free Black people fared far better than the nearly 800,000 enslaved Blacks. Even so, many considered <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigrating</a> to Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-new_nation_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-new_nation-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antebellum_period">Antebellum period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Antebellum period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum South</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myrtles_Plantation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Myrtles_Plantation.jpg/220px-Myrtles_Plantation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Myrtles_Plantation.jpg/330px-Myrtles_Plantation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Myrtles_Plantation.jpg/440px-Myrtles_Plantation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5379" data-file-height="3559" /></a><figcaption>A plantation in <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>As the United States grew, the institution of slavery became more entrenched in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">southern states</a>, while northern states began to <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolish</a> it. <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> was the first, in 1780 passing an act for gradual abolition.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of events continued to shape views on slavery. One of these events was the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>, which was the only slave revolt that led to an independent country. Many slave owners fled to the United States with tales of horror and massacre that alarmed Southern whites.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cotton_gin" title="Cotton gin">cotton gin</a> in the 1790s allowed the cultivation of short staple cotton, which could be grown in much of the Deep South, where warm weather and proper soil conditions prevailed. The industrial revolution in Europe and New England generated a heavy demand for cotton for cheap clothing, which caused an enormous demand for slave labor to develop new <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">cotton plantations</a>. There was a 70% increase in the number of enslaved people in the United States in only 20 years. They were overwhelmingly concentrated on plantations in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>, and moved west as old cotton fields lost their productivity and new lands were purchased. Unlike the Northern States who put more focus into manufacturing and commerce, the South was heavily dependent on agriculture.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern political economists at this time supported the institution by concluding that nothing was inherently contradictory about owning people and that a future of slavery existed even if the South were to industrialize.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Racial, economic, and political turmoil reached an all-time high regarding slavery up to the events of the Civil War. </p><p>In 1807, at the urging of President <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, Congress abolished the importation of enslaved workers. While American Black people celebrated this as a victory in the fight against slavery, the ban increased the internal trade of enslaved people. Changing agricultural practices in the Upper South from tobacco to mixed farming decreased labor requirements, and enslaved people were sold to traders for the developing Deep South. In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a> allowed any Black person to be claimed as a runaway unless a White person testified on their behalf. A number of free Black people, especially <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured</a> children, were <a href="/wiki/Kidnap" class="mw-redirect" title="Kidnap">kidnapped</a> and sold into slavery with little or no hope of rescue. By 1819 there were exactly 11 free and 11 slave states, which increased <a href="/wiki/Sectionalism" title="Sectionalism">sectionalism</a>. Fears of an imbalance in Congress led to the 1820 <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a> that required states to be admitted to the union in pairs, one slave and one free.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1831, a <a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion" title="Nat Turner's Rebellion">rebellion</a> occurred under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner" title="Nat Turner">Nat Turner</a>, that lasted four days. During the rebellion, which had been the most deadly in the United States, 55 white people were killed, while 120 black people, most unaffiliated with the rebellion, were killed in a retaliation by soldiers aided by local residents angry at the killings. This led to a fear larger scale rebellions would occur.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1850, after winning the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>, a problem gripped the nation: what to do about the territories won from Mexico. Henry Clay, the man behind the <a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">compromise of 1820</a>, once more rose to the challenge, to craft the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">compromise of 1850</a>. In this compromise the territories of New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada would be organized but the issue of slavery would be decided later. Washington D.C. would abolish the slave trade but not slavery itself. California would be admitted as a free state but the South would receive a new <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">fugitive slave act</a> which required Northerners to return enslaved people who escaped to the North to their owners. The compromise of 1850 would maintain a shaky peace until the election of Lincoln in 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1851 the battle between enslaved people and slave owners was met in <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_County,_Pennsylvania" title="Lancaster County, Pennsylvania">Lancaster County, Pennsylvania</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_County,_Pennsylvania#Slavery_and_the_Christiana_incident" title="Lancaster County, Pennsylvania">The Christiana Riot</a> demonstrated the growing conflict between <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a> and Congress on the issue of slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Abolitionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">Abolitionism in the United Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionists</a> in Britain and the United States in the 1840–1860 period developed large, complex campaigns against slavery. </p><p>According to Patrick C. Kennicott, the largest and most effective abolitionist speakers were Black people who spoke before the countless local meetings of the <a href="/wiki/Colored_Conventions_Movement" title="Colored Conventions Movement">National Negro Conventions</a>. They used the traditional arguments against slavery, protesting it on moral, economic, and political grounds. Their role in the antislavery movement not only aided the abolitionist cause but also was a source of pride to the Black community.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1852, <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Beecher_Stowe" title="Harriet Beecher Stowe">Harriet Beecher Stowe</a> published a novel that changed how many would view slavery. <i><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Tom%27s_Cabin" title="Uncle Tom's Cabin">Uncle Tom's Cabin</a></i> tells the story of the life of an enslaved person and the brutality that is faced by that life day after day. It would sell over 100,000 copies in its first year. The popularity of <i>Uncle Tom's Cabin</i> would solidify the North in its opposition to slavery, and press forward the abolitionist movement. President Lincoln would later invite Stowe to the White House in honor of this book that changed America. </p><p>In 1856 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a>, a Massachusetts congressmen and antislavery leader, <a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">was assaulted and nearly killed</a> on the House floor by Preston Brooks of South Carolina. Sumner had been delivering an abolitionist speech to Congress when Brooks attacked him. Brooks received praise in the South for his actions while Sumner became a political icon in the North. Sumner later returned to the Senate, where he was a leader of the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a> in ending slavery and legislating equal rights for freed slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over 1 million enslaved people were moved from the older seaboard slave states, with their declining economies, to the rich cotton states of the southwest; many others were sold and moved locally.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ira Berlin (2000) argues that this <a href="/wiki/Second_Middle_Passage" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Middle Passage">Second Middle Passage</a> shredded the planters' paternalist pretenses in the eyes of Black people and prodded enslaved people and free Black people to create a host of oppositional ideologies and institutions that better accounted for the realities of endless deportations, expulsions, and flights that continually remade their world.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Benjamin Quarles' work <i>Black Abolitionists</i> provides the most extensive account of the role of Black abolitionists in the American anti-slavery movement.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Black_community">The Black community</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Black community"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black people generally settled in cities, creating the core of Black community life in the region. They established churches and fraternal orders. Many of these early efforts were weak and they often failed, but they represented the initial steps in the evolution of Black communities.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the early Antebellum period, the creation of free Black communities began to expand, laying out a foundation for African Americans' future. At first, only a few thousand African Americans had their freedom. As the years went by, the number of Blacks being freed expanded tremendously, building to 233,000 by the 1820s. They sometimes sued to gain their freedom or purchased it. Some slave owners freed their bondspeople and a few state legislatures abolished slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson_2007-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>African Americans tried to take the advantage of establishing homes and jobs in the cities. During the early 1800s free Black people took several steps to establish fulfilling work lives in urban areas.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise of industrialization, which depended on power-driven machinery more than human labor, might have afforded them employment, but many owners of textile mills refused to hire Black workers. These owners considered whites to be more reliable and educable. This resulted in many Black people performing unskilled labor. Black men worked as <a href="/wiki/Stevedore" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevedore">stevedores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Construction_worker" title="Construction worker">construction worker</a>, and as cellar-, well- and grave-diggers. As for Black women workers, they worked as servants for white families. Some women were also cooks, seamstresses, basket-makers, midwives, teachers, and nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson_2007-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black women worked as washerwomen or domestic servants for the white families. Some cities had independent Black seamstresses, cooks, basketmakers, confectioners, and more. </p><p>While the African Americans left the thought of slavery behind, they made a priority to reunite with their family and friends. The cause of the Revolutionary War forced many Black people to migrate to the west afterwards, and the scourge of poverty created much difficulty with housing. African Americans competed with the Irish and Germans in jobs and had to share space with them.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson_2007-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the majority of free Black people lived in poverty, some were able to establish successful businesses that catered to the Black community. <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">Racial discrimination</a> often meant that Black people were not welcome or would be mistreated in White businesses and other establishments. To counter this, Black people like <a href="/wiki/James_Forten" title="James Forten">James Forten</a> developed their own communities with Black-owned businesses. Black doctors, lawyers, and other businessmen were the foundation of the Black <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Black people organized to help strengthen the Black community and continue the fight against slavery. One of these organizations was the American Society of Free Persons of Colour, founded in 1830. This organization provided social aid to poor Black people and organized responses to political issues. Further supporting the growth of the Black Community was the <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a>, usually the first community institution to be established. Starting in the early 1800s<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Church">African Methodist Episcopal Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Zion_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church">African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church</a> and other churches, the Black church grew to be the focal point of the Black community. The Black church was both an expression of community and unique African-American spirituality, and a reaction to European American discrimination. The church also served as neighborhood centers where free Black people could celebrate their African heritage without intrusion by white detractors.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson_2007-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The church was the center of the Black communities, but it was also the center of education. Since the church was part of the community and wanted to provide education; they educated the freed and enslaved Black people.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first, Black preachers formed separate congregations within the existing <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">denominations</a>, such as social clubs or literary societies. Because of discrimination at the higher levels of the church hierarchy, some Black people like <a href="/wiki/Richard_Allen_(bishop)" title="Richard Allen (bishop)">Richard Allen (bishop)</a> simply founded separate Black denominations.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Free Black people also established Black churches in the South before 1800. After the <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">Great Awakening</a>, many Black people joined the <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist Church</a>, which allowed for their participation, including roles as elders and preachers. For instance, <a href="/wiki/First_Baptist_Church_(Petersburg,_Virginia)" title="First Baptist Church (Petersburg, Virginia)">First Baptist Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gillfield_Baptist_Church_(Petersburg,_Virginia)" title="Gillfield Baptist Church (Petersburg, Virginia)">Gillfield Baptist Church</a> of <a href="/wiki/Petersburg,_Virginia" title="Petersburg, Virginia">Petersburg, Virginia</a>, both had organized congregations by 1800 and were the first Baptist churches in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Petersburg, an industrial city, by 1860 had 3,224 free Black people (36% of Black people, and about 26% of all free persons), the largest population in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Virginia, free Black people also created communities in <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a> and other towns, where they could work as artisans and create businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-miller_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miller-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others were able to buy land and farm in frontier areas further from white control. </p><p>The Black community also established schools for Black children, since they were often banned from entering public schools.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Richard Allen organized the first Black Sunday school in America; it was established in Philadelphia during 1795.<sup id="cite_ref-nash1988_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nash1988-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then five years later, the priest <a href="/wiki/Absalom_Jones" title="Absalom Jones">Absalom Jones</a> established a school for Black youth.<sup id="cite_ref-nash1988_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nash1988-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Americans regarded education as the surest path to economic success, moral improvement and personal happiness. Only the sons and daughters of the Black middle class had the luxury of studying.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson_2007-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haiti's_effect_on_slavery"><span id="Haiti.27s_effect_on_slavery"></span>Haiti's effect on slavery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Haiti's effect on slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a></div> <p>The revolt of enslaved Haitians against their white slave owners, which began in 1791 and lasted until 1801, was a primary source of fuel for both enslaved people and abolitionists arguing for the freedom of Africans in the U.S. In the 1833 edition of <a href="/wiki/Hezekiah_Niles" title="Hezekiah Niles"><i>Nile's Weekly Register</i></a> it is stated that freed Black people in Haiti were better off than their Jamaican counterparts, and the positive effects of <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">American Emancipation</a> are alluded to throughout the paper.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These anti-slavery sentiments were popular among both white abolitionists and African-American slaves. Enslaved people rallied around these ideas with rebellions against their masters as well as white bystanders during the <a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey Conspiracy of 1822</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion" title="Nat Turner's Rebellion">Nat Turner's Rebellion</a> of 1831. Leaders and plantation owners were also very concerned about the consequences Haiti's revolution would have on early America. Thomas Jefferson, for one, was wary of the "instability of the West Indies", referring to Haiti.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dred_Scott_v._Sandford"><i>Dred Scott v. Sandford</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Dred Scott v. Sandford"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver,_1863,_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg/220px-Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg/330px-Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg/440px-Scourged_back_by_McPherson_%26_Oliver%2C_1863%2C_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="2020" /></a><figcaption>Peter<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> aka <a href="/wiki/Gordon_(slave)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gordon (slave)">Gordon</a>, a former enslaved person displays the telltale criss-cross, <a href="/wiki/Keloid" title="Keloid">keloid</a> scars from being <a href="/wiki/Bullwhip" title="Bullwhip">bullwhipped</a>, 1863.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott" title="Dred Scott">Dred Scott</a> was an enslaved man whose owner had taken him to live in the free state of Illinois. After his owner's death, Dred Scott sued in court for his freedom on the basis of his having lived in a free state for a long period. The Black community received an enormous shock with the Supreme Court's "Dred Scott" decision in March 1857.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black people were not American citizens and could never be citizens, the court said in a decision roundly denounced by the Republican Party as well as the abolitionists. Because enslaved people were "property, not people", by this ruling they could not sue in court. The decision was finally reversed by the Civil Rights Act of 1865.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In what is sometimes considered mere <a href="/wiki/Obiter_dictum" title="Obiter dictum">obiter dictum</a> the Court went on to hold that Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in federal territories because enslaved people are personal property and the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> to the Constitution protects property owners against deprivation of their property without due process of law. Although the Supreme Court has never explicitly overruled the Dred Scott case, the Court stated in the <a href="/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases" title="Slaughter-House Cases">Slaughter-House Cases</a> that at least one part of it had already been overruled by the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> in 1868, which begins by stating, "All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="American_Civil_War_and_emancipation">American Civil War and emancipation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: American Civil War and emancipation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> was an executive order issued by President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million enslaved people in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave" to "free." Its practical effect was that as soon as an enslaved person escaped from slavery, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the enslaved person became legally and actually free. The owners were never compensated. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their enslaved people as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all the designated enslaved people.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 200,000 free Black people and former enslaved people served in the Union Army and Navy, thus providing a basis for a claim to full citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dislocations of war and Reconstruction had a severe negative impact on the Black population, with much sickness and death.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reconstruction">Reconstruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>, and <a href="/wiki/African_American_officeholders_from_the_end_of_the_Civil_War_until_before_1900" title="African American officeholders from the end of the Civil War until before 1900">African American officeholders from the end of the Civil War until before 1900</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EmancipationProclamationPage1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/EmancipationProclamationPage1.jpg/220px-EmancipationProclamationPage1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/EmancipationProclamationPage1.jpg/330px-EmancipationProclamationPage1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/EmancipationProclamationPage1.jpg/440px-EmancipationProclamationPage1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2015" data-file-height="3150" /></a><figcaption>The Emancipation Proclamation.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a> made Black people full U.S. citizens (and this repealed the <i>Dred Scott</i> decision). In 1868, the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a> granted full U.S. citizenship to African Americans. The <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a>, ratified in 1870, extended the right to vote to Black males. The <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a> was an important institution established to create social and economic order in Southern states.<sup id="cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carson,_Clayborne_2011-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Union victory over the Confederacy, a brief period of Southern Black progress, called Reconstruction, followed. During Reconstruction, the states that had seceded were readmitted into the Union.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1865 to 1877, under the protection of Union troops, some strides were made toward equal rights for African Americans. Southern Black men began to vote and they were also elected to serve in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> as well as in local offices such as the office of sheriff. The safety which was provided by the troops did not last long, however, and white Southerners frequently terrorized Black voters. Coalitions of white and Black Republicans passed bills in order to establish the first public school systems in most states of the South, although sufficient funding was hard to find. Black people established their own churches, towns, and businesses. Tens of thousands migrated to Mississippi for the chance to clear and own their own land, as 90 percent of the bottomlands were undeveloped. By the end of the 19th century, two-thirds of the farmers who owned land in the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Delta" title="Mississippi Delta">Mississippi Delta</a> bottomlands were Black.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cotton_field,_by_J._A._Palmer_9.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Cotton_field%2C_by_J._A._Palmer_9.png/220px-Cotton_field%2C_by_J._A._Palmer_9.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Cotton_field%2C_by_J._A._Palmer_9.png/330px-Cotton_field%2C_by_J._A._Palmer_9.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Cotton_field%2C_by_J._A._Palmer_9.png/440px-Cotton_field%2C_by_J._A._Palmer_9.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1234" /></a><figcaption>African-American children in South Carolina picking cotton, ca. 1870</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Hiram_Rhodes_Revels" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiram Rhodes Revels">Hiram Revels</a> became the first African-American senator in the U.S. Congress in 1870. Other African Americans soon came to Congress from South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. These new politicians supported the Republicans and tried to bring further improvements to the lives of African Americans. Revels and others understood that white people may have felt threatened by the African-American congressmen. Revels stated, "The white race has no better friend than I. I am true to my own race. I wish to see all done that can be done...to assist [Black men]in acquiring property, in becoming intelligent, enlightened citizens...but at the same time, I would not have anything done which would harm the white race,"<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche K. Bruce</a> was the other African American who became a U.S. senator during this period. African Americans elected to the House of Representatives during this time included Benjamin S. Turner, Josiah T. Walls, Joseph H. Rainey, Robert Brown Elliot, Robert D. De Large, and Jefferson H. Long. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a> also served in the different government jobs during Reconstruction, including Minister Resident and Counsel General to Haiti, Recorder of Deeds, and U.S. Marshall.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bruce became a Senator in 1874 and represented the state of Mississippi. He worked with white politicians from his region in order to hopefully help his fellow African Americans and other minority groups such as Chinese immigrants and Native Americans. He even supported efforts to end restrictions on former Confederates' political participation.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The aftermath of the Civil War accelerated the process of a national African-American <a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">identity formation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some civil rights activists, such as <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, disagree that identity was achieved after the Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> African Americans in the post-Civil War era were faced with many rules and regulations that, even though they were "free", prevented them from enjoying the same amount of freedom as white citizens had.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tens of thousands of Black northerners left homes and careers and also migrated to the defeated South, building schools, printing newspapers, and opening businesses. As Joel Williamson puts it: </p> <blockquote><p>Many of the migrants, women as well as men, came as teachers sponsored by a dozen or so benevolent societies, arriving in the still turbulent wake of Union armies. Others came to organize relief for the refugees.... Still others ... came south as religious missionaries.... Some came south as business or professional people seeking opportunity on this ... special Black frontier. Finally, thousands came as soldiers, and when the war was over, many of [their] young men remained there or after a stay of some months in the North, they returned in order to complete their education.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baptism_in_Buffalo_Bayou.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Baptism_in_Buffalo_Bayou.jpg/220px-Baptism_in_Buffalo_Bayou.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Baptism_in_Buffalo_Bayou.jpg/330px-Baptism_in_Buffalo_Bayou.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Baptism_in_Buffalo_Bayou.jpg/440px-Baptism_in_Buffalo_Bayou.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5694" data-file-height="4614" /></a><figcaption>A large group of African-American spectators stands on the banks of Buffalo Bayou to witness a baptism (ca. 1900).</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nadir_of_American_race_relations">Nadir of American race relations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Nadir of American race relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></div> <p>The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United States enacted between 1876 and 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly "separate but equal" status for Black Americans. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were usually inferior to those provided for white Americans, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the face of years of mounting violence and intimidation directed at Blacks as well as whites sympathetic to their cause, the U.S. government retreated from its pledge to guarantee constitutional protections to freedmen and women. When President <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> withdrew Union troops from the South in 1877 as a result of a national compromise on the election, Black people lost most of their political power. Men like <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_%22Pap%22_Singleton" title="Benjamin "Pap" Singleton">Benjamin "Pap" Singleton</a> began speaking of leaving the South. This idea culminated in the 1879–80 movement of the <a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a>, who migrated to Kansas, where Blacks had much more freedom and it was easier to acquire land.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1943_Colored_Waiting_Room_Sign.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1943_Colored_Waiting_Room_Sign.jpg/220px-1943_Colored_Waiting_Room_Sign.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1943_Colored_Waiting_Room_Sign.jpg/330px-1943_Colored_Waiting_Room_Sign.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1943_Colored_Waiting_Room_Sign.jpg/440px-1943_Colored_Waiting_Room_Sign.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1433" data-file-height="1503" /></a><figcaption>2Sign for "Colored waiting room", <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, 1943</figcaption></figure> <p>When Democrats took control of Tennessee in 1888, they passed laws making voter registration more complicated and ended the most competitive political state in the South. Voting by Black people in rural areas and small towns dropped sharply, as did voting by poor whites.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1890 to 1908, starting with Mississippi and ending with Georgia, ten of eleven Southern states adopted new constitutions or amendments that effectively <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchised</a> most Black people and many poor whites. Using a combination of provisions such as <a href="/wiki/Poll_taxes_in_the_United_States" title="Poll taxes in the United States">poll taxes</a>, residency requirements and <a href="/wiki/Literacy_test" title="Literacy test">literacy tests</a>, states dramatically decreased Black voter registration and turnout, in some cases to zero.<sup id="cite_ref-papers.ssrn.com_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papers.ssrn.com-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clause</a> was used in many states temporarily to exempt illiterate white voters from literacy tests. As power became concentrated under the Democratic Party in the South, the party positioned itself as a private club and instituted <a href="/wiki/White_primary" title="White primary">white primaries</a>, closing Black people out of the only competitive contests. By 1910 one-party white rule was firmly established across the South. </p><p>Although African Americans quickly started litigation to challenge such provisions, early court decisions at the state and national level went against them. In <i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Mississippi" title="Williams v. Mississippi">Williams v. Mississippi</a></i> (1898), the US <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> upheld state provisions. This encouraged other Southern states to adopt similar measures over the next few years, as noted above. <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a> secretly worked with Northern supporters to raise funds and provide representation for African Americans in additional cases, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Giles_v._Harris" title="Giles v. Harris">Giles v. Harris</a></i> (1903) and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giles_v._Teasley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giles v. Teasley (page does not exist)">Giles v. Teasley</a></i> (1904), but again the Supreme Court upheld the states.<sup id="cite_ref-papers.ssrn.com_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-papers.ssrn.com-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Segregation for the first time became a standard legal process in the South; it was informal in Northern cities. Jim Crow limited Black access to transportation, schools, restaurants and other public facilities. Most southern blacks for decades continued to struggle in grinding poverty as agricultural, domestic and menial laborers. Many became <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecroppers</a>, sharing the crop with the white land owners.. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial_terrorism">Racial terrorism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Racial terrorism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1865, the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, a secret <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacist</a> <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">criminal</a> organization dedicated to destroying the Republican Party in the South, especially by terrorizing Black leaders, was formed. Klansmen hid behind masks and robes to hide their identity while they carried out violence and property damage. The Klan used <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>, especially murder and threats of murder, arson and intimidation. The Klan's excesses led to the passage of legislation against it, and with Federal enforcement, it was destroyed by 1871.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The anti-Republican and anti-freedmen sentiment only briefly went underground, as violence arose in other incidents, especially after Louisiana's disputed state election in 1872, which contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coushatta_massacre" title="Coushatta massacre">Coushatta massacres</a> in Louisiana in 1873 and 1874. Tensions and rumors were high in many parts of the South. When violence erupted, African Americans consistently were killed at a much higher rate than were European Americans. Historians of the 20th century have renamed events long called "riots" in southern history. The common stories featured whites heroically saving the community from marauding Black people. Upon examination of the evidence, historians have called numerous such events "massacres", as at Colfax, because of the disproportionate number of fatalities for Black people as opposed to whites. The mob violence there resulted in 40–50 Black people dead for each of the three whites killed.<sup id="cite_ref-ftp.rootsweb.com_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ftp.rootsweb.com-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While not as widely known as the Klan, the <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary organizations</a> that arose in the South during the mid-1870s as the white Democrats mounted a stronger insurgency, were more directed and effective than the Klan in challenging Republican governments, suppressing the Black vote and achieving political goals. Unlike the Klan, paramilitary members operated openly, often solicited newspaper coverage, and had distinct political goals: to turn Republicans out of office and suppress or dissuade Black voting in order to regain power in 1876. Groups included the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a>, that started from white militias in Grant Parish, Louisiana, in 1874 and spread in the <a href="/wiki/Deep_South" title="Deep South">Deep South</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a>, that started in Mississippi in 1875 but had chapters arise and was prominent in the 1876 election campaign in South Carolina, as well as in North Carolina; and other White Line organizations such as rifle clubs.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_McDaniels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Robert_McDaniels.jpg/220px-Robert_McDaniels.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Robert_McDaniels.jpg/330px-Robert_McDaniels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Robert_McDaniels.jpg/440px-Robert_McDaniels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="586" /></a><figcaption>Robert McDaniels lynched. Apr. 13, 1937</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> era accompanied the most cruel wave of "racial" suppression that America has yet experienced. Between 1890 and 1940, millions of African Americans were disenfranchised, killed, and brutalized. According to newspaper records kept at the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee Institute</a>, about 5,000 men, women, and children were murdered in documented extrajudicial mob violence—called "<a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynchings</a>." The journalist <a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a> estimated that lynchings not reported by the newspapers, plus similar executions under the veneer of "<a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a>", may have amounted to about 20,000 killings.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the tens of thousands of lynchers and onlookers during this period, it is reported that fewer than 50 whites were ever indicted for their crimes, and only four were sentenced. Because Black people were disenfranchised, they could not sit on juries or have any part in the political process, including local offices. Meanwhile, the lynchings were used as a weapon of terror to keep millions of African-Americans living in a constant state of anxiety and fear.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Black people were denied their <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">right to keep and bear arms</a> under Jim Crow laws, and they were therefore unable to protect themselves or their families.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_civil_rights_movement">Early civil rights movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Early civil rights movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></div> <p>In response to these and other setbacks, in the summer of 1905, <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a> and 28 other prominent, African-American men met secretly at <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_Ontario" title="Niagara Falls, Ontario">Niagara Falls, Ontario</a>. There, they produced a manifesto in which they called for an end to racial discrimination, full civil liberties for African Americans and recognition of human brotherhood. The organization which they established came to be called the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a>. After the notorious <a href="/wiki/Springfield,_Illinois" title="Springfield, Illinois">Springfield, Illinois</a> race riot of 1908, a group of concerned Whites joined the leadership of the Niagara Movement and formed the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) a year later, in 1909. Under the leadership of Du Bois, the NAACP mounted legal challenges to segregation and it also lobbied legislatures on behalf of Black Americans. </p><p>While the NAACP used the court system to promote equality, at the local level, African Americans adopted a self-help strategy. They pooled their resources to create independent community and institutional lives for themselves. They established schools, churches, social welfare institutions, banks, <a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">African-American newspapers</a> and small businesses which could serve their communities.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main organizer of national and local self-help organizations was Alabama educator <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> reformers were concerned about the Black condition. In 1908 after the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Massacre_of_1906" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Massacre of 1906">1906 Atlanta Race Riot</a> got him involved, <a href="/wiki/Ray_Stannard_Baker" title="Ray Stannard Baker">Ray Stannard Baker</a> published the book <i>Following the Color Line: An Account of Negro Citizenship in the American Democracy</i>, becoming the first prominent journalist to examine America's racial divide; it was extremely successful. Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Vance" title="Rupert Vance">Rupert Vance</a> says it is: </p> <dl><dd>the best account of race relations in the South during the period—one that reads like field notes for the future historian. This account was written during the zenith of Washingtonian movement and shows the optimism that it inspired among both liberals and moderates. The book is also notable for its realistic accounts of Negro town life.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Great_Migration_and_the_Harlem_Renaissance">Great Migration and the Harlem Renaissance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Great Migration and the Harlem Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration (African American)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png/220px-GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png/330px-GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png/440px-GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="508" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> shown through changes in African American share of population in major U.S. cities, 1910–1940 and <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">1940–1970</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the first half of the 20th century, the largest internal population shift in U.S. history took place. Starting about 1910, through the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> over five million African Americans made choices and "voted with their feet" by moving from the South to northern and western cities in hopes of escaping political discrimination and hatred, violence, finding better jobs, voting and enjoying greater equality and education for their children.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1920s, the concentration of Black people in New York led to the cultural movement known as the <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a>, whose influence reached nationwide. Black intellectual and cultural circles were influenced by thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_C%C3%A9saire" title="Aimé Césaire">Aimé Césaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9opold_S%C3%A9dar_Senghor" title="Léopold Sédar Senghor">Léopold Sédar Senghor</a>, who celebrated Blackness, or <a href="/wiki/N%C3%A9gritude" title="Négritude">négritude</a>; arts and letters flourished. Writers <a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Zora Neale Hurston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Langston_Hughes" title="Langston Hughes">Langston Hughes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nella_Larsen" title="Nella Larsen">Nella Larsen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_McKay" title="Claude McKay">Claude McKay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wright_(author)" title="Richard Wright (author)">Richard Wright</a>; and artists <a href="/wiki/Lois_Mailou_Jones" title="Lois Mailou Jones">Lois Mailou Jones</a>, William H. Johnson, <a href="/wiki/Romare_Bearden" title="Romare Bearden">Romare Bearden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Lawrence" title="Jacob Lawrence">Jacob Lawrence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Motley" title="Archibald Motley">Archibald Motley</a> gained prominence.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/South_Side,_Chicago" title="South Side, Chicago">South Side of Chicago</a>, a destination for many on the trains up from Mississippi, Arkansas and Louisiana, joined Harlem as a sort of Black capital for the nation. It generated flourishing businesses, music, arts and foods. A new generation of powerful African-American political leaders and organizations also came to the fore, Typified by Congressman <a href="/wiki/William_L._Dawson_(politician)" title="William L. Dawson (politician)">William Dawson</a> (1886–1970). Membership in the NAACP rapidly increased as it mounted an anti-lynching campaign in reaction to ongoing southern white violence against blacks. <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a>, and union organizer <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a> (part of the American Federation of labor) all were established during this period and found support among African Americans, who became urbanized.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Black-owned_businesses">Black-owned businesses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Black-owned businesses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></div> <p>Businesses operated at the local level, and included beauty shops, barber shops, funeral parlors and the like. Booker T. Washington organized them nationally into the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more ambitious Black businessman with a larger vision avoided small towns and rural areas and headed to progressive large cities.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They sent their children to elite Black colleges such as Howard, Spellman, and Morehouse; by the 1970s they were accepted in more than token numbers at national schools such as the <a href="/wiki/Ivy_League" title="Ivy League">Ivy League</a>. Graduates were hired by major national corporations. They were active in the Urban League, the United Negro College Fund and the NAACP, and were much more likely to be Episcopalians than Baptists.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_the_beauty_business">Women in the beauty business</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Women in the beauty business"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although most prominent <a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">African-American businesses</a> have been owned by men, women played a major role especially in the area of beauty. Standards of beauty were different for whites and Black people, and the Black community developed its own standards, with an emphasis on hair care. Beauticians could work out of their own homes, and did not need storefronts. As a result, Black beauticians were numerous in the rural South, despite the absence of cities and towns. They pioneered the use of cosmetics, at a time when rural white women in the South avoided them. As Blain Roberts has shown, beauticians offered their clients a space to feel pampered and beautiful in the context of their own community because, "Inside Black beauty shops, rituals of beautification converged with rituals of socialization." Beauty contests emerged in the 1920s, and in the white community they were linked to agricultural county fairs. By contrast in the Black community, beauty contests were developed out of the homecoming ceremonies at their high schools and colleges.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most famous entrepreneur was <a href="/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker" title="Madam C. J. Walker">Madame C. J. Walker</a> (1867–1919); she built a national franchise business called <a href="/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker_Manufacturing_Company" title="Madam C. J. Walker Manufacturing Company">Madame C. J. Walker Manufacturing Company</a> based on her invention of the first successful hair straightening process.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_I">World War I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans#World_War_I" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history of African Americans § World War I</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race" title="Woodrow Wilson and race">Woodrow Wilson and race</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USA_infantry_Verdun_WWI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/USA_infantry_Verdun_WWI.jpg/220px-USA_infantry_Verdun_WWI.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/USA_infantry_Verdun_WWI.jpg/330px-USA_infantry_Verdun_WWI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/USA_infantry_Verdun_WWI.jpg/440px-USA_infantry_Verdun_WWI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1962" data-file-height="1539" /></a><figcaption>African-American soldiers of the U.S. Army marching northwest of Verdun, France 5 November 1918</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:369th_15th_New_York.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/369th_15th_New_York.jpg/220px-369th_15th_New_York.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/369th_15th_New_York.jpg/330px-369th_15th_New_York.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/369th_15th_New_York.jpg/440px-369th_15th_New_York.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/369th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="369th Infantry Regiment (United States)">369th (15th N.Y.)</a> who won the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Croix_de_guerre_1914%E2%80%931918_(France)" title="Croix de guerre 1914–1918 (France)">Croix de Guerre</a></span></span> for gallantry in action, 1919</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soldiers">Soldiers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Soldiers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The U.S. armed forces remained segregated during World War I. Still, many African Americans eagerly volunteered to join the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied</a> cause following America's entry into the war. More than two million African-American men rushed to register for the draft. By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">armistice with Germany</a> in November 1918, over 350,000 African Americans had served with the American Expeditionary Force on the Western Front.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most African American units were relegated to support roles and did not see combat. Still, African Americans played a significant role in America's war effort. Four African American regiments were integrated into French units because the French suffered heavy losses and badly needed men after three years of a terrible war. One of the most distinguished units was the <a href="/wiki/369th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="369th Infantry Regiment (United States)">369th Infantry Regiment</a>, known as the "Harlem Hellfighters", which was on the front lines for six months, longer than any other American unit in the war. 171 members of the 369th were awarded the <a href="/wiki/Legion_of_Merit" title="Legion of Merit">Legion of Merit</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Hand_Division.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Red_Hand_Division.jpg/220px-Red_Hand_Division.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Red_Hand_Division.jpg/330px-Red_Hand_Division.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Red_Hand_Division.jpg/440px-Red_Hand_Division.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>157th I.D. Red Hand flag<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> drawn by General <a href="/wiki/Mariano_Goybet" title="Mariano Goybet">Mariano Goybet</a></figcaption></figure> <p>From May 1918 to November 1918, the <a href="/wiki/371st_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="371st Infantry Regiment (United States)">371st</a> and the <a href="/wiki/372nd_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="372nd Infantry Regiment (United States)">372nd American Regiments</a> were integrated under the 157th Red Hand Division<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> commanded by the French General <a href="/wiki/Mariano_Goybet" title="Mariano Goybet">Mariano Goybet</a>. He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Medal_(U.S._Army)" title="Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)">Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)</a> by General Pershing.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The African American Regiments earned glory in the decisive final offensive in Champagne region of France. The two Regiments were decorated by the French <a href="/wiki/Croix_de_Guerre" title="Croix de Guerre">Croix de Guerre</a> for their gallantry in the <a href="/wiki/Meuse%E2%80%93Argonne_offensive" title="Meuse–Argonne offensive">Meuse-Argonne Offensive</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>December 12, 1918 </p><p>General Order No. 245 </p><p>"The red hand division during nine days of violent fight was always an exceptional model for the victorious advance of the fourth army. Dear Friends of America you will be back home to the other side of the ocean, don' t forget ‘’ The Red Hand Division." </p><p>"Our friendship has been cemented in the blood of the brave and such a link will be never destroyed Remember your General who is proud to have commanded you and be sure of his endless recognition. ." </p><p>General Goybet commanding the 157th Division. <sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During World War I, the 372nd Infantry Regiment was composed of segregated <a href="/wiki/Army_National_Guard" title="Army National Guard">National Guard</a> units as well as draftees.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among these <a href="/wiki/Army_National_Guard" title="Army National Guard">National Guard</a> units, the 1st <a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_National_Guard" title="District of Columbia National Guard">District of Columbia</a> was re-designated the 1st Battalion of the 372nd Infantry. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_room.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arms_room.jpg/220px-Arms_room.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arms_room.jpg/330px-Arms_room.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Arms_room.jpg/440px-Arms_room.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1334" data-file-height="999" /></a><figcaption>Enlisted men of the 1st Separate Battalion, an all African-American unit, examining weapons in the old army arms room prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1917, fearing espionage, D.C. National Guard elements were mobilized 12 days before the U.S. officially entered World War I to protect reservoirs and power plants around District of Columbia Military officials were concerned that too many of the D.C. units were made up of men with foreign roots, thus the job of protecting vital facilities fell to the all-black 1st Separate Infantry, the only unit the military believed could be trusted with this mission. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colored_messengers_of_Motorcycle_Corps,_372nd_Headquarters,_who_kept_communication_lines_alive_at_all_hours_during_the_big_drive_in_Champagne,_Argonne_and_at_Verdun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Colored_messengers_of_Motorcycle_Corps%2C_372nd_Headquarters%2C_who_kept_communication_lines_alive_at_all_hours_during_the_big_drive_in_Champagne%2C_Argonne_and_at_Verdun.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Colored_messengers_of_Motorcycle_Corps%2C_372nd_Headquarters%2C_who_kept_communication_lines_alive_at_all_hours_during_the_big_drive_in_Champagne%2C_Argonne_and_at_Verdun.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Colored_messengers_of_Motorcycle_Corps%2C_372nd_Headquarters%2C_who_kept_communication_lines_alive_at_all_hours_during_the_big_drive_in_Champagne%2C_Argonne_and_at_Verdun.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="312" /></a><figcaption>Colored messengers of Motorcycle Corps, 372nd Headquarters, who kept communication lines alive at all hours during the big drive in Champagne, Argonne and at Verdun.</figcaption></figure> <p>Eventually the 1st Separate was mustered into active service and re-designated the 1st Battalion of the <a href="/wiki/372nd_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="372nd Infantry Regiment (United States)">372nd Infantry</a>. In France, unsure of what to do with an African-American regiment, the 372nd was attached to the <a href="/wiki/157th_Infantry_Division_(France)" title="157th Infantry Division (France)">French Army's 157th "Red Hand" Division</a>. The soldiers fought in <a href="/wiki/Meuse-Argonne_Offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Meuse-Argonne Offensive">Meuse-Argonne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorraine" title="Lorraine">Lorraine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a>, where they were awarded the <a href="/wiki/Croix_de_Guerre" title="Croix de Guerre">Croix de Guerre</a>—one of the highest honors bestowed by the French military. <a href="/wiki/Mariano_Goybet" title="Mariano Goybet">Général <b>Goybet</b></a>, the 157th commanding general, gave the unit a Red Hand insignia in honor of their service. The red hand appears today on the crest of the 372nd Military Police Battalion. Although many D.C. National Guard units were mobilized, the 372nd was the only one to actually see combat during the war. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DC372MPBn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/DC372MPBn.jpg/100px-DC372MPBn.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/DC372MPBn.jpg/150px-DC372MPBn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/DC372MPBn.jpg/200px-DC372MPBn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>Distinctive unit Insignia: 372 MP Bn. Red hand on right side</figcaption></figure> <p>Corporal <a href="/wiki/Freddie_Stowers" title="Freddie Stowers">Freddie Stowers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/371st_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="371st Infantry Regiment (United States)">371st Infantry Regiment</a> was posthumously awarded a <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Honor" title="Medal of Honor">Medal of Honor</a>—the first African American to be so honored for actions in World War I. During action in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, Stowers had led an assault on German trenches, continuing to lead and encourage his men even after being wounded twice. Stowers died from his wounds, but his men continued the fight on a German machine gun nest near Bussy farm in Champagne, and eventually defeated the <a href="/wiki/Reichswehr" title="Reichswehr">German troops</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stowers_MOH_ceremony_-_Palmer,_Bowens_and_Bush.JPEG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Stowers_MOH_ceremony_-_Palmer%2C_Bowens_and_Bush.JPEG/220px-Stowers_MOH_ceremony_-_Palmer%2C_Bowens_and_Bush.JPEG" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Stowers_MOH_ceremony_-_Palmer%2C_Bowens_and_Bush.JPEG/330px-Stowers_MOH_ceremony_-_Palmer%2C_Bowens_and_Bush.JPEG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Stowers_MOH_ceremony_-_Palmer%2C_Bowens_and_Bush.JPEG/440px-Stowers_MOH_ceremony_-_Palmer%2C_Bowens_and_Bush.JPEG 2x" data-file-width="2900" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>Stowers' sisters, Georgina Palmer and Mary Bowens, with <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Bush" title="Barbara Bush">Barbara Bush</a> and President George H.W. Bush at the Medal of Honor presentation ceremony</figcaption></figure> <p>Stowers was recommended for the Medal of Honor shortly after his death, but according to the Army, the nomination was misplaced. Many believed the recommendation had been intentionally ignored due to <a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans_in_the_U.S._military" title="Racism against African Americans in the U.S. military">institutional racism in the Armed Forces</a>. In 1990, under pressure from <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Defense Department</a> launched an investigation. Based on findings from this investigation, the Army Decorations Board approved the award of the Medal of Honor to Stowers. On April 24, 1991–73 years after he was killed in action—Stowers' two surviving sisters received the Medal of Honor from President <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> at the White House.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Home_front_and_postwar">Home front and postwar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Home front and postwar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_I" title="United States home front during World War I">United States home front during World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration (African American)</a></div> <p>With an enormous demand for expansion of the defense industries, the new draft law in effect, and the cut off of immigration from Europe, demand was very high for underemployed farmers from the South. Hundreds of thousands of African-Americans took the trains to Northern industrial centers in a dramatic historical event known as the Great Migration. Migrants going to Pittsburgh and surrounding mill towns in western Pennsylvania between 1890 and 1930 faced racial discrimination and limited economic opportunities. The Black population in Pittsburgh jumped from 6,000 in 1880 to 27,000 in 1910. Many took highly paid, skilled jobs in the steel mills. Pittsburgh's Black population increased to 37,700 in 1920 (6.4% of the total) while the Black element in Homestead, Rankin, Braddock, and others nearly doubled. They succeeded in building effective community responses that enabled the survival of new communities.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Joe Trotter explains the decision process: </p> <dl><dd>Although African-Americans often expressed their views of the Great Migration in biblical terms and received encouragement from northern black newspapers, railroad companies, and industrial labor agents, they also drew upon family and friendship networks to help in the move to Western Pennsylvania. They formed migration clubs, pooled their money, bought tickets at reduced rates, and often moved ingroups. Before they made the decision to move, they gathered information and debated the pros and cons of the process....In barbershops, poolrooms, and grocery stores, in churches, lodge halls, and clubhouses, and in private homes, southern blacks discussed, debated, and decided what was good and what was bad about moving to the urban North.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>After the war ended and the soldiers returned home, tensions were very high, with serious labor union strikes and inter-racial riots in major cities. The summer of 1919 was known as the <a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a> with outbreaks of racial violence killing about 1,000 people across the nation, most of whom were Black.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, the newly established Black communities in the North nearly all endured. Joe Trotter explains how the Blacks built new institutions for their new communities in the Pittsburgh area: </p> <dl><dd>Black churches, fraternal orders, and newspapers (especially the <i><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Courier" title="Pittsburgh Courier">Pittsburgh Courier</a></i>); organizations such as the NAACP, Urban League, and Garvey Movement; social clubs, restaurants, and baseball teams; hotels, beauty shops, barber shops, and taverns, all proliferated.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="New_Deal">New Deal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: New Deal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Deal#African_Americans" title="New Deal">New Deal § African Americans</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WPA_Art_Poster,_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg/220px-WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg/330px-WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg/440px-WPA_Art_Poster%2C_Work_Promotes_Confidence.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">WPA</a> poster promoting the benefits of employment</figcaption></figure> <p>The Great Depression hit Black America hard. In 1930, it was reported that 4 out of 5 Black people lived in the South, the average life expectancy for Black people was 15 years less than whites, and the Black infant mortality rate at 12% was double that of whites.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Chicago, Black people made up 4% of the population and 16% of the unemployed while in Pittsburgh blacks were 8% of the population and 40% of the unemployed.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 1934, the journalist <a href="/wiki/Lorena_Hickok" title="Lorena Hickok">Lorena Hickok</a> reported from rural Georgia that she had seen "half-starved Whites and Blacks struggle in competition for less to eat than my dog gets at home, for the privilege of living in huts that are infinitely less comfortable than his kennel".<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy-p193_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-p193-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She also described most Southern Black people who made worked as sharecroppers as living under a system very close to slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy-p193_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-p193-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A visiting British journalist wrote she "had traveled over most of Europe and part of Africa, but I have never seen such terrible sights as I saw yesterday among the sharecroppers of Arkansas".<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The New Deal did not have a specific program for Black people only, but it sought to incorporate them in all the relief programs that it began.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important relief agencies were the <a href="/wiki/Civilian_Conservation_Corps" title="Civilian Conservation Corps">CCC</a> for young men (who worked in segregated units), the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration" title="Federal Emergency Relief Administration">FERA</a> relief programs in 1933–35 (run by local towns and cities), and especially the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">WPA</a>, which employed 2,000,000 or more workers nationwide under federal control, 1935–42. All races had had the same wage rates and working conditions in the WPA.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A rival federal agency was the <a href="/wiki/Public_Works_Administration" title="Public Works Administration">Public Works Administration</a> (PWA), headed by long-time civil rights activist <a href="/wiki/Harold_L._Ickes" title="Harold L. Ickes">Harold Ickes</a>. It set quotas for private firms hiring skilled and unskilled Black people in construction projects financed through the PWA, overcoming the objections of labor unions. In this way, the New Deal ensured that blacks were 13% of the unskilled PWA jobs in Chicago, 60% in Philadelphia and 71% in Jacksonville, Florida; their share of the skilled jobs was 4%, 6%, and 17%, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Department of Agriculture, there was a lengthy bureaucratic struggle in 1933–35 between one faction which favored rising prices for farmers vs. another faction which favored reforms to assist sharecroppers, especially Black ones. When one Agriculture Department official, <a href="/wiki/Alger_Hiss" title="Alger Hiss">Alger Hiss</a>, in early 1935 wrote up a directive to ensure that Southern landlords were paying sharecroppers for their labor (which most of them did not), Senator <a href="/wiki/Ellison_D._Smith" title="Ellison D. Smith">Ellison D. Smith</a> stormed into his office and shouted: "Young fella, you can't do this to my niggers, paying checks to them".<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Agriculture Secretary, <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Wallace" title="Henry A. Wallace">Henry A. Wallace</a>, sided with Smith and agreed to cancel the directive.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As it turned out, the most effective way for Black sharecroppers to escape a life of poverty in the South was to move to the North or California. </p><p>An immediate response was a shift in the Black vote in Northern cities from the GOP to the Democrats (blacks seldom voted in the South.)<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Southern states where few Black people voted, Black leaders seized the opportunity to work inside the new federal agencies as social workers and administrators, with an eye to preparing a new generation who would become leaders of grass-roots constituencies that could be mobilized at some future date for civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> appointed the first federal black judge, <a href="/wiki/William_H._Hastie" title="William H. Hastie">William H. Hastie</a>, and created an unofficial "black cabinet" led by <a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a> to advise him.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy-p378_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-p378-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt ordered that federal agencies such as the CCC, WPA and PWA were not to discriminate against Black Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy-p378_153-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-p378-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The president's wife, <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a> (who was a close friend of Bethune's), was notably sympathetic towards African-Americans and constantly in private urged her husband to do more to try help Black Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy-p378_153-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy-p378-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fact that the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Works_Administration" title="Civil Works Administration">Civil Works Administration</a> paid the same wages to Black workers as white workers sparked much resentment in the South and as early as 1933 conservative Southern politicians who claiming that federal relief payments were causing Black people to move to the cities to become a "permanent welfare class".<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies showed that Black people were twice likely to be unemployed as whites, and one-fifth of all people receiving federal relief payments were Black, which was double their share of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Chicago the Black community had been a stronghold of the Republican machine, but in the Great Depression the machine fell apart. Voters and leaders moved en masse into the Democratic Party as the New Deal offered relief programs and the city Democratic machine offered suitable positions in the Democratic Party for leaders such as <a href="/wiki/William_L._Dawson_(politician)" title="William L. Dawson (politician)">William Dawson</a>, who went to Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Militants demanded a federal anti-lynching bill, but President Roosevelt knew it would never pass Congress but would split his New Deal coalition.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because conservative white Southerners tended to vote as a bloc for the Democratic Party with all of the Senators and Congressmen from the South in the 1930s being Democrats, this tended to pull the national Democratic Party to the right on many issues while Southern politicians formed a powerful bloc in Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._341_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._341-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a Black minister, <a href="/wiki/Marshall_L._Shepard" title="Marshall L. Shepard">Marshall L. Shepard</a>, delivered the opening prayer at the Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia in 1936, Senator <a href="/wiki/Ellison_D._Smith" title="Ellison D. Smith">Ellison D. Smith</a> stormed out, screaming: "This mongrel meeting ain't no place for a white man!"<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._341_158-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._341-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Smith's reaction was extreme, other Democratic politicians from the South made it clear to Roosevelt that they were very displeased. In the 1936 election, African-Americans who could vote overwhelmingly did so for Roosevelt, marking the first time that a Democratic candidate for president had won the Black vote.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In November 1936, the American duo <a href="/wiki/John_W._Bubbles" title="John W. Bubbles">Buck and Bubbles</a> became the first Black people to appear on television, albeit <a href="/wiki/First_day_of_BBC_television" title="First day of BBC television">on a British television channel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTimes_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTimes-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 1937, Congressman <a href="/wiki/Earl_C._Michener" title="Earl C. Michener">Earl C. Michener</a> read out on the floor of the House of Representatives an account of the <a href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Roosevelt_Townes_and_Robert_McDaniels" title="Lynching of Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels">lynching of Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels</a> in <a href="/wiki/Duck_Hill,_Mississippi" title="Duck Hill, Mississippi">Duck Hill, Mississippi</a> on 13 April 1937, describing in much detail how a white mob tied two Black men to a tree, tortured them with blowtorches, and finally killed them.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Michener introduced an anti-lynching bill that passed the House, but which was stopped in the Senate as Southern senators filibustered the bill until it was withdrawn on 21 February 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both civil rights leaders and the First Lady, <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a>, pressed President Roosevelt to support the anti-lynching bill, but his support was half-hearted at best.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._343_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._343-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt told <a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a> of the NAACP that he personally supported the anti-lynching bill, but that: "I did not choose the tools with which I must work. Had I been permitted to choose them I would have selected quite different ones. But I've got to get legislation passed to save America. The Southerners by reason of the seniority rule in Congress are chairmen or occupy strategic places on most of the Senate and House committees. If I came out for the antilynching bill now, they will block every bill I ask Congress to pass to keep America from collapsing. I just can't take the risk".<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._343_163-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._343-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through Roosevelt was sympathetic, and his wife even more so towards the plight of African-Americans, but the power of the Southern Democratic bloc in Congress, whom he did not wish to take on, limited his options.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._343_163-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._343-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through not explicitly designed to assist Black Americans, Roosevelt supported the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which imposed a national minimum wage of 40 cents per hour and a forty-hour work week while banning child labor, which was intended to assist poorer Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Southern congressional bloc were vehemently opposed to the Fair Labor Standards Act, which they saw as an attack on the entire Southern way of life, which was based upon extremely low wages (for example the minimum wage was 50 cents per day in South Carolina), and caused some of them to break with Roosevelt.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1938, Roosevelt campaigned in the Democratic primaries to defeat three conservative Southern Democratic senators, <a href="/wiki/Walter_F._George" title="Walter F. George">Walter F. George</a>, <a href="/wiki/Millard_Tydings" title="Millard Tydings">Millard Tydings</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ellison_D._Smith" title="Ellison D. Smith">Ellison "Cotton Ed" Smith</a>, whom were all returned.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later in 1938, the conservative Southern Democrats allied themselves with conservative Republicans, forming an alliance in Congress which sharply limited Roosevelt's ability to pass liberal legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Congress passed the Selective Service Act in September 1940 establishing the draft, <a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a>, the president of all black <a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a> union had his union issue a resolution calling for the government to desegregate the military.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._764_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._764-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the First Lady <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a> had attended the meeting of the brotherhood that passed the resolution, it was widely believed that the president was supportive.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._764_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._764-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Randolph subsequently visited the White House on 27 September 1940, where President Roosevelt seemed to be equally sympathetic.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Randolph felt very betrayed where he learned the military was to remain segregated after all despite the president's warm words.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._766_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._766-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt had begun a program of rearmament, and feeling the president was not to be trusted, Randolph formed the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a>, announcing plans for a huge civil rights march in Washington DC that would demand desegregation of the military and the factories in the defense industry on 1 July 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._766_170-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._766-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 1941 as the deadline for the march approached, Roosevelt asked for it to be cancelled, saying that 100, 000 Black people demonstrating in Washington would create problems for him.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._766_170-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._766-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 18 June 1941, Randolph met with Roosevelt with the mayor of New York, <a href="/wiki/Fiorello_La_Guardia" title="Fiorello La Guardia">Fiorello H. La Guardia</a> serving as a mediator, where in a compromise it was agreed that the march would be cancelled in exchange for <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_8802" title="Executive Order 8802">Executive Order 8802</a>, which banned discrimination in factories making weapons for the military.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._767_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._767-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1941, the Roosevelt administration, through officially neutral, was leaning in very Allied direction with the United States providing weapons to Great Britain and China (to be joined by the Soviet Union after 22 June 1941), and the president needed the co-operation of Congress as much possible, where isolationist voices were frequently heard. Roosevelt argued to Randolph that he could not antagonize the powerful bloc of conservative Southern Democrats in Congress, and desegregation of the military was out of the question as the Southern Democrats would never accept it; by contrast, as La Guardia pointed out, most of the factories in the defense industry were located in California, the Midwest and the Northeast.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._767_171-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._767-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cotton">Cotton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Cotton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The largest group of Black people worked in the cotton farms of the Deep South as sharecroppers or tenant farmers; a few owned their farms. Large numbers of whites also were tenant farmers and <a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">sharecroppers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">Tenant farming</a> characterized the cotton and tobacco production in the post-Civil War South. As the agricultural economy plummeted in the early 1930s, all farmers in all parts of the nation were badly hurt. Worst hurt were the tenant farmers (who had relatively more control) and sharecroppers (who had less control), as well as daily laborers (mostly Black, with least control).<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The problem was very low prices for farm products and the New Deal solution was to raise them by cutting production. It accomplished this in the South by the <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Adjustment_Act" title="Agricultural Adjustment Act">AAA</a>, which gave landowners acreage reduction contracts, by which they were paid to <i>not</i> grow cotton or tobacco on a portion of their land. By law, they were required to pay the tenant farmers and sharecroppers on their land a portion of the money, but some cheated on this provision, hurting their tenants and croppers. The farm wage workers who worked directly for the landowner were mostly the ones who lost their jobs. For most tenants and sharecroppers the AAA was a major help. Researchers at the time concluded, "To the extent that the AAA control-program has been responsible for the increased price [of cotton], we conclude that it has increased the amount of goods and services consumed by the cotton tenants and croppers." Furthermore, the landowners typically let their tenants and croppers use the land taken out of production for their own personal use in growing food and feed crops, which further increased their standard of living. Another consequence was that the historic high levels of turnover from year to year declined sharply, as tenants and coppers tend to stay with the same landowner. Researchers concluded, "As a rule, planters seem to prefer Negroes to whites as tenants and coppers."<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once mechanization came to cotton (after 1945), the tenants and sharecroppers were largely surplus; they moved to towns and cities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans#World_War_II" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history of African Americans § World War II</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans_in_the_U.S._military#World_War_II" title="Racism against African Americans in the U.S. military">Racism against African Americans in the U.S. military § World War II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_platoon_of_Negro_troops_surrounds_a_farm_house_in_a_town_in_France,_as_they_prepare_to_eliminate_a_German_sniper..._-_NARA_-_531188.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/A_platoon_of_Negro_troops_surrounds_a_farm_house_in_a_town_in_France%2C_as_they_prepare_to_eliminate_a_German_sniper..._-_NARA_-_531188.jpg/220px-A_platoon_of_Negro_troops_surrounds_a_farm_house_in_a_town_in_France%2C_as_they_prepare_to_eliminate_a_German_sniper..._-_NARA_-_531188.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/A_platoon_of_Negro_troops_surrounds_a_farm_house_in_a_town_in_France%2C_as_they_prepare_to_eliminate_a_German_sniper..._-_NARA_-_531188.jpg/330px-A_platoon_of_Negro_troops_surrounds_a_farm_house_in_a_town_in_France%2C_as_they_prepare_to_eliminate_a_German_sniper..._-_NARA_-_531188.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/A_platoon_of_Negro_troops_surrounds_a_farm_house_in_a_town_in_France%2C_as_they_prepare_to_eliminate_a_German_sniper..._-_NARA_-_531188.jpg/440px-A_platoon_of_Negro_troops_surrounds_a_farm_house_in_a_town_in_France%2C_as_they_prepare_to_eliminate_a_German_sniper..._-_NARA_-_531188.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2946" data-file-height="2286" /></a><figcaption>Black soldiers tracking a sniper Omaha Beachhead, near <a href="/wiki/Vierville-sur-Mer" title="Vierville-sur-Mer">Vierville-sur-Mer</a>, France. 10 June 1944</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_call_for_"The_Double_Victory""><span id="A_call_for_.22The_Double_Victory.22"></span>A call for "The Double Victory"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: A call for "The Double Victory""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The African-American newspaper <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Courier" title="Pittsburgh Courier"><i>The Pittsburgh Courier</i></a> called for the "double victory" or "<a href="/wiki/Double_V_campaign" title="Double V campaign">Double V campaign</a>" in a 1942 editorial, saying that all Black people should work for "victory over our enemies at home and victory over our enemies on the battlefield abroad".<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._768_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._768-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newspaper argued that a victory of the Axis powers, especially Nazi Germany, would be a disaster for African-Americans while at the same time the war presented the opportunity "to persuade, embarrass, compel and shame our government and our nation...into a more enlightened attitude towards a tenth of its people".<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._768_174-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._768-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The slogan of a "double victory" over fascism abroad and racism at home was widely taken up by African-Americans during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._768_174-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._768-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wartime_service">Wartime service</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Wartime service"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg/220px-Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg/330px-Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg/440px-Tuskegee_Airmen_-_Circa_May_1942_to_Aug_1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2692" data-file-height="2088" /></a><figcaption>Eight <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</a> in front of a <a href="/wiki/Curtiss_P-40" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtiss P-40">P-40</a> fighter aircraft</figcaption></figure> <p>Over 1.9 million Black people served in uniform during World War II. They served in segregated units.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black women served in the Army's WAAC and WAC, but very few served in the Navy.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The draft starkly exposed the poor living conditions of most African-Americans with the Selective Service Boards turning down 46% of the Black men called up on health grounds as compared to 30% of the white men called up.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._768_174-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._768-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least a third of the black men in the South called up by the draft boards turned out to be illiterate.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._768_174-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._768-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern Black people fared badly on the Army General Classification Test (AGCT), an aptitude test designed to determine the most suitable role for those who were drafted, and which was not an IQ test.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the Black men from the South drafted, 84% fell into the two lowest categories on the AGCT.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._772_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._772-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Owing to the high failure rate caused by the almost non-existent education system for African-Americans in the South, the Army was forced to offer remedial instruction for Afro-Americans who fell into the lower categories of the AGCT.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._772_179-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._772-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1945, about 150, 000 Black men had learned how to read and write while in the Army.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._772_179-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._772-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The poor living conditions in rural America which afflicted both white and Black Americans led the Army to undertake remedial health work as well. Army optometrists fitted 2.25 million men suffering from poor eyesight with eyeglasses to allow them to be drafted while Army dentists fitted 2.5 million draftees who would have been otherwise disqualified for the bad state of their teeth with dentures.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the Army's 231 training camps were located in the South, which was mostly rural and where land was cheaper.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black people from outside of the South that were sent to the training camps found life in the South almost unbearable.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._771_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._771-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tensions at army and navy training bases between Black and white trainees resulted in several outbreaks of racial violence with Black trainees sometimes being lynched.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._771_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._771-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the so-called <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bamber_Bridge" title="Battle of Bamber Bridge">Battle of Bamber Bridge</a> on 24–25 June 1943 in the Lancashire town of <a href="/wiki/Bamber_Bridge" title="Bamber Bridge">Bamber Bridge</a> saw a shoot-out between white and Black soldiers that left one dead.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an attempt to solve the problem of racial violence, the War Department in 1943 commissioned the director <a href="/wiki/Frank_Capra" title="Frank Capra">Frank Capra</a> to make the propaganda film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Soldier" title="The Negro Soldier">The Negro Soldier</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._771_182-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._771-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The segregated <a href="/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="92nd Infantry Division (United States)">92nd Division</a>, which served in Italy, was noted for the antagonistic relations between its white officers and Black soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._772_179-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._772-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an attempt to ease the racial tensions, the 92nd Division was integrated in 1944 by having the all Japanese-American <a href="/wiki/442nd_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)">442nd Regimental Combat Team</a> together with one white regiment assigned to it.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._772_179-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._772-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The segregated <a href="/wiki/93rd_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="93rd Infantry Division (United States)">93rd Division</a>, which served in the Pacific, was assigned "mopping up" duties on the islands that the Americans mostly controlled.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._772_179-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._772-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black servicemen greatly resented segregation and those serving in Europe complained that German POWs were served better food than what they were.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._771_182-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._771-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Navy was segregated and Black sailors were usually assigned menial work such as stevedores.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._773_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._773-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Port_Chicago,_California" title="Port Chicago, California">Port Chicago</a> on 17 July 1944, while mostly Black stevedores were loading up two Navy supply ships, an <a href="/wiki/Port_Chicago_disaster" title="Port Chicago disaster">explosion</a> occurred that killed 320 men, of which 202 were Black.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The explosion was widely blamed on the lack of training for Black stevedores, and 50 of the survivors of the explosion refused an order to return to work, demanding safety training first.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._774_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._774-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the subsequent court martial for the "Port Chicago 50" on the charges of mutiny, their defense lawyer, <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> stated: "Negroes in the Navy don't mind loading ammunition. They just want to know why they are the only ones doing the loading! They want to know why they are segregated; why they don't get promoted, and why the Navy disregarded official warnings by the San Francisco waterfront unions...that an explosion was inevitable if they persisted in using untrained seamen in the loading of ammunition".<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._774_186-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._774-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the sailors were convicted, the Port Chicago disaster led the Navy in August 1944 to allow Black sailors to serve alongside white sailors on ships, through Black people could only make up 10% of the crew.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._774_186-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._774-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Through the Army was reluctant to send Black units into combat, famous segregated units, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</a> and the <a href="/wiki/761st_Tank_Battalion_(United_States)" title="761st Tank Battalion (United States)">U.S. 761st Tank Battalion</a> proved their value in combat.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 75 percent of the soldiers who served in the European theater as truckers for the <a href="/wiki/Red_Ball_Express" title="Red Ball Express">Red Ball Express</a> and kept Allied supply lines open were African-American.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the crisis of the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944, the Army allowed several integrated infantry platoons to be formed, through these were broken up once the crisis passed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._773_184-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._773-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the experiment of the integrated platoons in December 1944 showed that integration did not mean the collapse of military discipline as many claimed that it would, and was a factor in the later desegregation of the armed forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._773_184-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._773-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A total of 708 African Americans were killed in combat during World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The distinguished service of these units was a factor in President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>'s order to end discrimination in the Armed Forces in July 1948, with the promulgation of <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a>. This led in turn to the integration of the Air Force and the other services by the early 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book <i>A Rising Wind</i>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a> of the NAACP wrote: "World War II has immeasurably magnified the Negro's awareness of the American profession and practice of democracy...[Black veterans] will return home convinced that whatever betterment of their lot is achieved must come largely from their own efforts. They will return determined to use those efforts to the utmost".<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Home_front">Home front</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Home front"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosie_the_Riveter_(Vultee)_DS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Rosie_the_Riveter_%28Vultee%29_DS.jpg/220px-Rosie_the_Riveter_%28Vultee%29_DS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Rosie_the_Riveter_%28Vultee%29_DS.jpg/330px-Rosie_the_Riveter_%28Vultee%29_DS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Rosie_the_Riveter_%28Vultee%29_DS.jpg/440px-Rosie_the_Riveter_%28Vultee%29_DS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4036" data-file-height="3224" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rosie_the_Riveter" title="Rosie the Riveter">Rosie the Riveter</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Due to massive shortages as a result of the American entry into World War II, defense employers from Northern and Western cities went to the South to convince blacks and whites there to leave the region in promise of higher wages and better opportunities. As a result, African Americans left the South in large numbers to munitions centers in the North and West to take advantage of the shortages caused by the war, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a>. While they somewhat lived in better conditions than the South (for instance, they could vote and send children to better schools), they nevertheless faced widespread discrimination due to bigotry and fear of competition of housing and jobs among white residents.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When Roosevelt learned that many companies in the defense industry were violating the spirit, if not the letter of Executive Order 8802 by only employing Black people in menial positions such as janitors and denying them the opportunity to work as highly paid skilled laborers, he significantly strengthened the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practice_Committee" title="Fair Employment Practice Committee">Fair Employment Practice Committee</a> (FEPC) with orders to fine the corporations that did not treat their Black employees equally.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._775_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._775-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1943, Roosevelt gave the FEPC a budget of half-million dollars and replaced the unpaid volunteers who had previously staffed the FEPC with a paid staff concentrated in regional headquarters across the nation with instructions to inspect the defense industry's factories to ensure the spirit and letter of Executive Order 8802 was being obeyed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._775_193-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._775-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt believed that having Black men and women employed in the defense industry working as skilled laborers would give them far higher wages than what they ever had before, and ultimately form the nucleus of a Black middle class.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._775_193-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._775-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the president learned that some unions were pushing for black employees to be given menial "auxiliary" jobs in the factories, he instructed the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> to decertify those unions.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._775_193-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._775-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1944, when the union for trolley drivers in Philadelphia went on strike to protest plans to hire African-Americans as trolley drivers, Roosevelt sent in troops to break the strike.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._775_193-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._775-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1942, Black people made up 3% of the workforce in the defense industry; by 1945 Black people made up 8% of the workforce in defense industry factories (Black people made up 10% of the population).<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._775_193-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._775-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Racial tensions were also high between whites and ethnic minorities that cities like <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/1943_Detroit_race_riot" title="1943 Detroit race riot">Detroit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoot_Suit_Riots" title="Zoot Suit Riots">Los Angeles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harlem_riot_of_1943" title="Harlem riot of 1943">Harlem</a> experienced race riots in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 1943, in Mobile, Alabama, when the local shipyard promoted some Black men up to be trained as welders, white workers rioted and seriously injured 11 of their Black co-workers.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_183-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Los Angeles, the Zoot Suit riots of 3–8 June 1943 saw white servicemen attacking <i>Chicano</i> (Mexican-American) and Black youths for wearing <a href="/wiki/Zoot_suit" title="Zoot suit">zoot suits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_183-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 15 June 1943, in Beaumont, Texas, a <a href="/wiki/Beaumont_race_riot_of_1943" title="Beaumont race riot of 1943">pogrom</a> saw a white mob smash up Black homes while lynching 2 Black men.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_183-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Detroit, which expanded massively during the war years with 50, 000 Black people from the South and 200, 000 "hillbilly" whites from <a href="/wiki/Appalachia" title="Appalachia">Appalachia</a> moving to the city to work in the factories, competition for sparse rental housing had pushed tensions to the brink.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_183-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 20 June 1943, false rumors that a white mob had lynched 3 Black men led to an outbreak of racial rioting in Detroit that left 34 dead, of whom 25 were Black.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_183-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 1–2 August 1943, another race riot in Harlem left 6 Black people dead.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_183-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Politically, Black people left the Republican Party and joined the Democratic <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="New Deal Coalition">New Deal Coalition</a> of President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, whom they widely admired.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The political leaders, ministers and newspaper editors who shaped opinion resolved on a Double V campaign: Victory over German and Japanese fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. Black newspapers created the Double V campaign to build Black morale and head off radical action.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the war years, the NAACP expanded tenfold, having over half a million members by 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._768_174-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._768-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new civil rights group <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Committee of Racial Equality</a> (CORE), founded in 1942, started demonstrations demanding desegregation of buses, theaters and restaurants.<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._768_174-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._768-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At one CORE demonstration outside a segregated restaurant in Washington, DC in 1944 had signs reading "We Die Together', Let's Eat Together" and "Are you for Hitler's Way or the American Way?".<sup id="cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._768_174-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._768-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1944, the Swedish economist <a href="/wiki/Gunnar_Myrdal" title="Gunnar Myrdal">Gunnar Myrdal</a> published his bestselling book <a href="/wiki/An_American_Dilemma" title="An American Dilemma"><i>An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy</i></a> where he described in much detail the effects of white supremacy upon Black Americans, and predicated in the long run the Jim Crow regime was unsustainable, as he argued that after the war African-Americans would be not willing to accept a permanent second class status.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most Black women had been farm laborers or domestics before the war.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite discrimination and segregated facilities throughout the South, they escaped the cotton patch and took blue-collar jobs in the cities. Working with the federal Fair Employment Practices Committee, the NAACP and CIO unions, these Black women fought a Double V campaign against the Axis abroad and against restrictive hiring practices at home. Their efforts redefined citizenship, equating their patriotism with war work, and seeking equal employment opportunities, government entitlements, and better working conditions as conditions appropriate for full citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the South, Black women worked in segregated jobs; in the West and most of the North they were integrated, but wildcat strikes erupted in Detroit, Baltimore, and Evansville where white migrants from the South refused to work alongside Black women.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most largest of the "hate strikes" was the strike by white women at the Western Electric factory in Baltimore, who objected to sharing a bathroom with Black women.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_183-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hollywood">Hollywood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Hollywood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Stormy_Weather_(1943_film)" title="Stormy Weather (1943 film)">"Stormy Weather"</a> (1943) (starring <a href="/wiki/Lena_Horne" title="Lena Horne">Lena Horne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bill_Robinson" title="Bill Robinson">Bill "Bojangles" Robinson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cab_Calloway" title="Cab Calloway">Cab Calloway's Band</a>), along with <i><a href="/wiki/Cabin_in_the_Sky_(film)" title="Cabin in the Sky (film)">Cabin in the Sky</a></i> (1943) (starring <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Waters" title="Ethel Waters">Ethel Waters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eddie_%22Rochester%22_Anderson" title="Eddie "Rochester" Anderson">Eddie "Rochester" Anderson</a>, Lena Horne, and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis "Satchmo" Armstrong</a>), and other musicals of the 1940s opened new roles for Black people in Hollywood. They broke through old stereotypes and far surpassed the limited, poorly paid roles available in <a href="/wiki/Race_film" title="Race film">race films</a> produced for all-Black audiences.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Great_Migration">Second Great Migration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Second Great Migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration (African American)</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Percentage_of_African_American_population_living_in_the_American_South.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Percentage_of_African_American_population_living_in_the_American_South.png/400px-Percentage_of_African_American_population_living_in_the_American_South.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Percentage_of_African_American_population_living_in_the_American_South.png/600px-Percentage_of_African_American_population_living_in_the_American_South.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Percentage_of_African_American_population_living_in_the_American_South.png/800px-Percentage_of_African_American_population_living_in_the_American_South.png 2x" data-file-width="823" data-file-height="643" /></a><figcaption>Graph showing the percentage of the African American population living in the American South, 1790–2010.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png/220px-GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png/330px-GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png/440px-GreatMigration1910to1970-UrbanPopulation.png 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="508" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">First</a> and Second Great Migrations shown through changes in African American share of population in major U.S. cities, 1916–1930 and 1940–1970</figcaption></figure> <p>The Second Great Migration was the <a href="/wiki/Human_migration" title="Human migration">migration</a> of more than 5 million African Americans from <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">the South</a> to the other three regions of the United States. It took place from 1941 through <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and it lasted until 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-AAME_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAME-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was much larger and of a different character than the first <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> (1910–1940). Some historians prefer to distinguish between the movements for those reasons. </p><p>In the Second Great Migration, more than five million African Americans moved to cities in states in the Northeast, Midwest, and West, including the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a>, where many skilled jobs in the defense industry were concentrated. More of these migrants were already urban laborers who came from the cities of the South. They were better educated and they had better skills than the people who did not migrate.<sup id="cite_ref-AAME_204-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAME-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Compared to the more rural migrants of the period 1910–40, many African Americans in the South were already living in urban areas and had urban job skills before they relocated. They moved to take jobs in the burgeoning industrial cities and especially the many jobs in the defense industry during World War II. Workers who were limited to segregated, low-skilled jobs in Southern cities were able to get highly skilled, well-paid jobs at West Coast shipyards.<sup id="cite_ref-AAME_204-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAME-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effect of racially homogeneous communities composed largely of Black immigrants that formed because of spatial segregation in destination cities was that they were largely influenced by the Southern culture they brought with them. The food, music and even the discriminatory white police presence in these neighborhoods were all imported to a certain extent from the collective experiences of the highly concentrated African-American migrants.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Writers have often assumed that Southern migrants contributed disproportionately to changes in the African-American family in the inner city. However, census data for 1940 through 1990 show that these families actually exhibited more traditional family patterns—more children living with two parents, more ever-married women living with their spouses, and fewer never-married mothers.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the Second Great Migration, African Americans had become an urbanized population. More than 80 percent of them lived in cities. Fifty-three percent of them remained in the Southern United States, 40 percent of them lived in the Northeast and North Central states and 7 percent of them lived in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-AAME_204-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAME-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_rights_era">Civil rights era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Civil rights era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/African-American_history" title="Special:EditPage/African-American history">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22African-American+history%22">"African-American history"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22African-American+history%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22African-American+history%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22African-American+history%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22African-American+history%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22African-American+history%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> handed down a landmark decision in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954) of <a href="/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas" title="Topeka, Kansas">Topeka</a>. This decision applied to public facilities, especially public schools. Reforms occurred slowly and only after concerted activism by African Americans. The ruling also brought new momentum to the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>. <a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycotts</a> against segregated public transportation systems sprang up in the South, the most notable of which was the <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Civil rights groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC) organized across the South with tactics such as boycotts, voter registration campaigns, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> and other nonviolent direct action, such as marches, pickets and sit-ins to mobilize around issues of equal access and voting rights. Southern segregationists fought back to block reform. The conflict grew to involve steadily escalating physical violence, bombings and intimidation by Southern whites. Law enforcement responded to protesters with batons, electric cattle prods, fire hoses, attack dogs and mass arrests.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a>, state legislators, school board members and other public officials mounted a campaign of obstructionism and outright defiance to integration called <a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">Massive Resistance</a>. It entailed a series of actions to deny state funding to integrated schools and instead fund privately run "segregation academies" for white students. <a href="/wiki/Farmville,_Virginia" title="Farmville, Virginia">Farmville, Virginia</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_County,_Virginia" title="Prince Edward County, Virginia">Prince Edward County</a>, was one of the plaintiff African-American communities involved in the 1954 <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i> Supreme Court decision. As a last-ditch effort to avoid court-ordered desegregation, officials in the county shut down the county's entire public school system in 1959 and it remained closed for five years.<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White students were able to attend private schools established by the community for the sole purpose of circumventing integration. The largely Black rural population of the county had little recourse. Some families were split up as parents sent their children to live with relatives in other locales to attend public school; but the majority of Prince Edward's more than 2,000 black children, as well as many poor whites, simply remained unschooled until federal court action forced the schools to reopen five years later.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg/220px-Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg/330px-Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg/440px-Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1403" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> delivers his famous "<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>" speech during the March on Washington</figcaption></figure> <p>Perhaps the high point of the Civil Rights Movement was the 1963 <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a>, which brought more than 250,000 marchers to the grounds of the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Memorial" title="Lincoln Memorial">Lincoln Memorial</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Mall" title="National Mall">National Mall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, to speak out for an end to southern racial violence and police brutality, equal opportunity in employment, equal access in education and public accommodations. The organizers of the march were called the "<a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a>" of the Civil Rights Movement: <a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a> the strategist who has been called the "invisible man" of the Civil Rights Movement; labor organizer and initiator of the march, A. Philip Randolph; <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a> of the NAACP; <a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young, Jr.</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a>; <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC); <a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress on Racial Equality</a> (CORE); and <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a> (SNCC). Also active behind the scenes and sharing the podium with King was <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a>, head of the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a>. It was at this event, on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, that King delivered his historic "<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>" speech.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>This march, the 1963 <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham Children's Crusade</a>, and other events were credited with putting pressure on President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, and then <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>, that culminated in the passage the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and labor unions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act,_July_2,_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg/220px-Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg/330px-Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg/440px-Lyndon_Johnson_signing_Civil_Rights_Act%2C_July_2%2C_1964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7000" data-file-height="4687" /></a><figcaption>President Johnson signs the historic <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The "Mississippi Freedom Summer" of 1964 brought thousands of idealistic youth, black and white, to the state to run "freedom schools", to teach basic literacy, history and civics. Other volunteers were involved in voter registration drives. The season was marked by harassment, intimidation and violence directed at civil rights workers and their host families. The disappearance of three youths, <a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia,_Mississippi" title="Philadelphia, Mississippi">Philadelphia, Mississippi</a>, captured the attention of the nation. Six weeks later, searchers found the savagely beaten body of Chaney, a Black man, in a muddy dam alongside the remains of his two white companions, who had been shot to death. There was national outrage at the escalating injustices of the "Mississippi Blood Summer", as it by then had come to be known, and at the brutality of the murders.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1965, the <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma Voting Rights Movement</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a>, and the tragic murders of two activists associated with the march, inspired President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> to call for the full <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>, which struck down barriers to black enfranchisement. In 1966 the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Open Housing Movement</a>, followed by the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968 Fair Housing Act</a>, was a capstone to more than a decade of major legislation during the civil rights movement.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By this time, African Americans who questioned the effectiveness of nonviolent protest had gained a greater voice. More militant Black leaders, such as <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a>, called for Black people to defend themselves, using violence, if necessary. From the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power">Black Power</a> movement urged African Americans to look to Africa for inspiration and emphasized Black solidarity, rather than integration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-civil_rights_era">Post-civil rights era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Post-civil rights era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Post-Civil_Rights_era_in_African-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Civil Rights era in African-American history">Post-Civil Rights era in African-American history</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Black_flight" title="Black flight">Black flight</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/African-American_history" title="Special:EditPage/African-American history">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22African-American+history%22">"African-American history"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22African-American+history%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22African-American+history%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22African-American+history%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22African-American+history%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22African-American+history%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg/220px-Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg/330px-Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg/440px-Official_portrait_of_Barack_Obama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1916" data-file-height="2608" /></a><figcaption>The first <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African-American</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Politically and economically, Black people have made substantial strides in the post-civil rights era. Civil rights leader <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a>, who ran for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988, brought unprecedented support and leverage to Black people in politics.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1989, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Wilder" title="Douglas Wilder">Douglas Wilder</a> became the first African-American elected governor in U.S. history. In 1992 <a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley-Braun</a> of <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> became the first Black woman elected to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senate</a>. There were 8,936 Black officeholders in the United States in 2000, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001 there were 484 Black mayors.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 39 African-American members of Congress form the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a>, which serves as a political bloc for issues relating to African Americans. The appointment of Black people to high federal offices—including General <a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a>, Chairman of the U.S. Armed Forces Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1989–93, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">United States Secretary of State</a>, 2001–05; <a href="/wiki/Condoleezza_Rice" title="Condoleezza Rice">Condoleezza Rice</a>, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, 2001–04, Secretary of State in, 2005–09; <a href="/wiki/Ron_Brown" title="Ron Brown">Ron Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce" title="United States Secretary of Commerce">United States Secretary of Commerce</a>, 1993–96; and Supreme Court justices <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a>—also demonstrates the increasing visibility of Black people in the political arena.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic progress for Black people reaching the extremes of wealth has been slow. According to Forbes richest lists, <a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a> was the richest African American of the 20th century and has been the world's only <a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Black billionaire</a> in 2004, 2005, and 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only was Winfrey the world's only Black billionaire but she has been the only Black person on the <a href="/wiki/Forbes_400" title="Forbes 400">Forbes 400</a> list nearly every year since 1995. <a href="/wiki/BET" title="BET">BET</a> founder <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Johnson" title="Robert L. Johnson">Bob Johnson</a> briefly joined her on the list from 2001 to 2003 before his ex-wife acquired part of his fortune; although he returned to the list in 2006, he did not make it in 2007. With Winfrey the only African American wealthy enough to rank among America's 400 richest people,<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> African Americans currently comprise 0.25% of America's economic elite and comprise 13.6% of the U.S. population.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The dramatic political breakthrough came in the 2008 election, with the election of <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>, the son of a Black Kenyan father and a white American mother. He won overwhelming support from African-American voters in the Democratic primaries, even as his main opponent Hillary Clinton had the support of many Black politicians. African Americans continued to support Obama throughout his term.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After completing his first term, Obama ran for a second term. In 2012, he won the <a href="/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election" title="2012 United States presidential election">presidential election</a> against candidate <a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Mitt Romney</a> and was re-elected as the president of the United States. </p><p>The post-civil rights era is also notable for the <a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a>, in which millions of African Americans have returned to the South including <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, often to pursue increased economic opportunities in now-desegregated southern cities.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On August 11, 2020, <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Senator Kamala Harris</a> (D-CA) was announced as the first African-American woman to run for vice-president on a major party presidential ticket.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was elected vice president in the <a href="/wiki/2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="2020 United States presidential election">2020 United States presidential election</a>. On August 5, 2024 Harris became the second woman and first African American woman to be a major party's presidential nominee following a virtual roll call from the <a href="/wiki/2024_Democratic_National_Convention" title="2024 Democratic National Convention">DNC</a>, in the aftermath of president <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> <a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_Joe_Biden_from_the_2024_United_States_presidential_election" title="Withdrawal of Joe Biden from the 2024 United States presidential election">suspended his campaign</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KHnom_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KHnom-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She would <a href="/wiki/2024_United_States_presidential_election" title="2024 United States presidential election">lose the election</a> to <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_issues">Social issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Social issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> gains of the 1950s–1970s, due to government neglect, unfavorable social policies, high <a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty rates</a>, changes implemented in the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">criminal justice</a> system and laws, and a breakdown in traditional family units, African-American communities have been suffering from extremely high <a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration rates</a>. African Americans have the highest <a href="/wiki/The_New_Jim_Crow" title="The New Jim Crow">imprisonment rate</a> of any major <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a> in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Southern states, which historically had been involved in <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">post-Reconstruction oppression</a>, now produce the highest rates of incarceration and <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">death penalty</a> application.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion of Black Americans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></div> <p>By 1800, a small number of slaves had joined Christian churches. Free Black people in the North set up their own networks of churches and in the South the slaves sat in the upper galleries of white churches. Central to the growth of community among Blacks was the <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a>, usually the first communal institution to be established. The Black church was both an expression of community and unique African-American spirituality, and a reaction to discrimination. The churches also served as neighborhood centers where free Black people could celebrate their African heritage without intrusion from white detractors. The church also served as the center of education. Since the church was part of the community and wanted to provide education; it educated the freed and enslaved Black people. Seeking autonomy, some Black people like <a href="/wiki/Richard_Allen_(bishop)" title="Richard Allen (bishop)">Richard Allen</a> founded separate Black denominations.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a> (1800–1830s) has been called the "central and defining event in the development of Afro-Christianity."<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The history of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery in the United States</a> has always been a major research topic among white scholars, but until the 1950s, they generally focused on the political and constitutional themes of slavery which were debated over by white politicians; they did not study the lives of the enslaved <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">black people</a>. During <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a> and the late 19th century, Black people became major actors in the South. The <a href="/wiki/Dunning_School" title="Dunning School">Dunning School</a> of white scholars generally cast Black people as pawns of white Carpetbaggers during this period, but <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, a Black historian, and <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Bonnell_Phillips" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Bonnell Phillips">Ulrich B. Phillips</a>, a white historian, studied the African-American experience in depth. Du Bois' study of Reconstruction provided a more objective context for evaluating its achievements and weaknesses; Additionally, he conducted studies of contemporary Black life. Phillips set the main topics of inquiry that still guide the analysis of slave economics.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the first half of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a> was the major Black scholar who studied and promoted the Black historical experience. Woodson insisted that the scholarly study of the African-American experience should be sound, creative, restorative, and, most important, it should be directly relevant to the Black community. He popularized Black history with a variety of innovative strategies, including the founding of the Association for the Study of Negro Life, the development of outreach activities, the creation of Negro History Week (now <a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a>, in February), and the publication of a popular Black history magazine. Woodson democratized, legitimized, and popularized Black history.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Arthur_Quarles" title="Benjamin Arthur Quarles">Benjamin Quarles</a> (1904–1996) had a significant impact on the teaching of African-American history. Quarles and <a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a> provided a bridge between the work of historians in <a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">historically Black colleges</a>, such as Woodson, and the Black history that is now well established in mainline universities. Quarles grew up in Boston, attended <a href="/wiki/Shaw_University" title="Shaw University">Shaw University</a> as an undergraduate, and received a graduate degree at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin</a>. In 1953, he began teaching at <a href="/wiki/Morgan_State_University" title="Morgan State University">Morgan State College</a> in Baltimore, where he stayed, despite the fact that he received a lucrative offer from <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a>. Quarles' books included <i>The Negro in the Civil War</i> (1953), <i>The Negro in the American Revolution</i> (1961), <i>Lincoln and the Negro</i> (1962), <i>The Negro in the Making of America</i> (1964, updated 1987), and <i>Black Abolitionists</i> (1969), which are all narrative accounts of critical wartime episodes that focused on how Black people interacted with their white allies.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Black historians attempted to reverse centuries of ignorance. While they were not alone in advocating a new examination of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism in the United States</a>, the study of African-American history has frequently been a political and scholarly struggle which has been waged by historians who wish to refute incorrect assumptions. One of the foremost assumptions was the belief that enslaved people did not rebel because they were passive. A series of historians transformed the image of African Americans, revealing that they had a much richer and a more complex experience. Historians such as <a href="/wiki/Leon_F._Litwack" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon F. Litwack">Leon F. Litwack</a> documented how former enslaved people fought to keep their families together and he also documented that they struggled against tremendous odds in order to define themselves as free people. Other historians wrote about rebellions, both small and large. </p><p>In the 21st century, Black history is considered mainstream. Since it was recognized by President <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> in 1976, "Black History Month" is celebrated in the United States every year during the month of February. Proponents of Black history believe that it promotes diversity, develops self-esteem, and corrects myths and stereotypes. Opponents of it argue that such curricula are dishonest, divisive, and lack academic credibility and rigor.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, <a href="/wiki/College_Board" title="College Board">College Board</a> announced that it will pilot an <a href="/wiki/AP_African_American_Studies" title="AP African American Studies">AP African American Studies</a> course between 2022 and 2024. The course is expected to be launched in 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-TIG_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIG-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal of the course is to expand student understanding of black history, culture, art, literature, and academics.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knowledge_of_Black_history">Knowledge of Black history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Knowledge of Black history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surveys of 11th- and 12th-grade students and adults in 2005 show that American schools have given students an awareness of some famous figures in Black history. Both groups were asked to name 10 famous Americans, excluding presidents. Of those named, the three most mentioned were Black: 67% named Martin Luther King Jr., 60% Rosa Parks, and 44% Harriet Tubman. Among adults, King was second (at 36%) and Parks was tied for fourth with 30%, while Tubman tied for 10th place with Henry Ford, at 16%. When distinguished historians were asked in 2006 to name the most prominent Americans, Parks and Tubman did not make the top 100.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholars_of_African-American_history">Scholars of African-American history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Scholars of African-American history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Aptheker" title="Herbert Aptheker">Herbert Aptheker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lerone_Bennett,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Lerone Bennett, Jr.">Lerone Bennett, Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Berlin" title="Ira Berlin">Ira Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Blassingame" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wesley Blassingame">John Wesley Blassingame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Henrik_Clarke" title="John Henrik Clarke">John Henrik Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Bunch" title="Lonnie Bunch">Lonnie Bunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hope_Franklin" title="John Hope Franklin">John Hope Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Louis Gates, Jr.">Henry Louis Gates, Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Genovese" title="Eugene Genovese">Eugene Genovese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annette_Gordon-Reed" title="Annette Gordon-Reed">Annette Gordon-Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Greene" title="Lorenzo Greene">Lorenzo Greene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Gutman" title="Herbert Gutman">Herbert Gutman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Hahn" title="Steven Hahn">Steven Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Grant_Hilliard_III" title="Asa Grant Hilliard III">Asa Grant Hilliard III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikole_Hannah-Jones" title="Nikole Hannah-Jones">Nikole Hannah-Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Loren_Katz" title="William Loren Katz">William Loren Katz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kolchin" title="Peter Kolchin">Peter Kolchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Krauthamer" title="Barbara Krauthamer">Barbara Krauthamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brent_Leggs" title="Brent Leggs">Brent Leggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Levering_Lewis" title="David Levering Lewis">David Levering Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_F._Litwack" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon F. Litwack">Leon F. Litwack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayford_Logan" title="Rayford Logan">Rayford Logan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manning_Marable" title="Manning Marable">Manning Marable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Midlo_Hall" title="Gwendolyn Midlo Hall">Gwendolyn Midlo Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zora_Neale_Hurston" title="Zora Neale Hurston">Zora Neale Hurston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nell_Irvin_Painter" title="Nell Irvin Painter">Nell Irvin Painter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Quarles" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Quarles">Benjamin Quarles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedric_Robinson" title="Cedric Robinson">Cedric Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Augustus_Rogers" title="Joel Augustus Rogers">Joel Augustus Rogers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_S._Weiner" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark S. Weiner">Mark S. Weiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Wesley" title="Charles H. Wesley">Charles H. Wesley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabel_Wilkerson" title="Isabel Wilkerson">Isabel Wilkerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 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Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline of African-American history</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Destination_Freedom" title="Destination Freedom">Destination Freedom</a></i> – 1948–1949 radio dramas that retell African-American history, many written by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Durham" title="Richard Durham">Richard Durham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_Vietnam_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the Vietnam War">Military history of African Americans in the Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture" title="National Museum of African American History and Culture">National Museum of African American History and Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Heritage_Sites" title="African-American Heritage Sites">African-American Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">African-American history of agriculture in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">African-American Historic Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">List of monuments to African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a> – the notion that African Americans have been subjected to <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_expulsions_of_African_Americans" title="List of expulsions of African Americans">List of expulsions of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race and ethnicity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_racial_and_ethnic_demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Historical racial and ethnic demographics of the United States">Historical racial and ethnic demographics of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">Racial segregation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_of_churches_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation of churches in the United States">Racial segregation of churches in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">Racism against African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">Racism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">List of museums focused on African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantation complexes in the Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">African-American culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion of Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="Culture of the Southern United States">Culture of the Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">History of the Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="Politics of the Southern United States">Politics of the Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African-American_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African-American communities">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African-American communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_Lives" title="African American Lives">African American Lives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_Museum_of_African_American_History" title="Legacy Museum of African American History">Legacy Museum of African American History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_African_American_History_Memorial" title="Texas African American History Memorial">Texas African American History Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_Military_History_Museum" title="African American Military History Museum">African American Military History Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_African_American_Museum" title="International African American Museum">International African American Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_Museum_of_Racist_Memorabilia" title="Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia">Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_veterans_lynched_after_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American veterans lynched after World War I">African-American veterans lynched after World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_histories">Regional histories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Regional histories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alabama" title="History of slavery in Alabama">History of slavery in Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Florida" title="History of slavery in Florida">History of slavery in Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kentucky" title="History of slavery in Kentucky">History of slavery in Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">History of slavery in Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_York_(state)" title="History of slavery in New York (state)">History of slavery in New York (state)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">History of slavery in Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Texas" title="History of slavery in Texas">History of slavery in Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_West_Virginia" title="History of slavery in West Virginia">History of slavery in West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Missouri" title="History of slavery in Missouri">History of slavery in Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">History of slavery in Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Carolina" title="History of slavery in North Carolina">History of slavery in North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Carolina" title="History of slavery in South Carolina">History of slavery in South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Tennessee" title="History of slavery in Tennessee">History of slavery in Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Delaware" title="History of slavery in Delaware">History of slavery in Delaware</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_rights_movement">Civil rights movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Civil rights movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">Civil rights movement in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">History of civil rights in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">Timeline of the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_19th-century_African-American_civil_rights_activists" title="List of 19th-century African-American civil rights activists">19th-century African-American civil rights activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civil_rights_leaders" title="List of civil rights leaders">List of civil rights leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">List of photographers of the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_house" title="Plantation house">Plantation house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era in African-American history</a></li></ul> <p><b>By state</b>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width: auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/20px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/30px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></td><td class="mbox-text" style="width: auto;"><div class="mbox-text-span">This list is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Lists#Incomplete_lists" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Lists">incomplete</a>; you can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit">adding missing items</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">African Americans in Alabama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_(region_of_Alabama)" title="Black Belt (region of Alabama)">Black Belt (region of Alabama)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">African Americans in Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">African Americans in Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">African Americans in Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">History of African Americans in Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">History of African Americans in Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Kentucky_women_in_the_civil_rights_era" title="List of Kentucky women in the civil rights era">List of Kentucky women in the civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">African Americans in Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">African Americans in Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">African Americans in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">African American history of Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">African Americans in New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">African Americans in New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">African Americans in North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">African Americans in Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Oregon" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Oregon">History of African Americans in Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">African Americans in South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">African Americans in Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">African Americans in Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">African Americans in Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">African Americans in Virginia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Africans_in_Virginia" title="First Africans in Virginia">First Africans in Virginia</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b>In other regions:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">African Americans in Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">African Americans in New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Black Belt (region of Chicago)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Black history in Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">History of African Americans in Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">History of African Americans in Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">History of African Americans in Dallas-Ft. Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">History of African Americans in Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">History of African Americans in Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">History of African Americans in Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">History of African Americans in San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">African Americans in Davenport, Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">History of African Americans in Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Washington,_D.C." class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Washington, D.C.">African Americans in Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">African Americans in Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">African Americans in Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">African Americans in France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">History of African Americans in Baltimore</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGates2014" class="citation web cs1">Gates, Henry Louis (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theroot.com/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us-1790873989">"How Many Slaves Landed in the US?"</a>. <i>The Root</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 8,</span> 2018</span>. <q>Incredibly, most of the 42 million members of the African-American community descend from this tiny group of less than half a million Africans.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Root&rft.atitle=How+Many+Slaves+Landed+in+the+US%3F&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Gates&rft.aufirst=Henry+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theroot.com%2Fhow-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us-1790873989&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abhmuseum.org/how-many-africans-were-really-taken-to-the-u-s-during-the-slave-trade/">"America's Black Holocaust Museum | How Many Africans Were Really Taken to the U.S During the Slave Trade?"</a>. <i>abhmuseum.org</i>. January 6, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 5,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=abhmuseum.org&rft.atitle=America%27s+Black+Holocaust+Museum+%7C+How+Many+Africans+Were+Really+Taken+to+the+U.S+During+the+Slave+Trade%3F&rft.date=2014-01-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabhmuseum.org%2Fhow-many-africans-were-really-taken-to-the-u-s-during-the-slave-trade%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Schneider" class="citation book cs1">Schneider, Dorothy; Schneider, Carl J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QlemwRTsY20C"><i>Slavery in America</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 554. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438108131" title="Special:BookSources/978-1438108131"><bdi>978-1438108131</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+America&rft.pages=554&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1438108131&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Dorothy&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Carl+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQlemwRTsY20C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKolchin2003" class="citation book cs1">Kolchin, Peter (2003). <i>American Slavery, 1619–1877</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Hill and Wang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0809016303" title="Special:BookSources/978-0809016303"><bdi>978-0809016303</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Slavery%2C+1619%E2%80%931877&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Hill+and+Wang&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0809016303&rft.aulast=Kolchin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="bibko2016" class="citation journal cs1">Bibko, Julia (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.brockport.edu/hashtaghistory/vol1/iss1/5">"The American Revolution and the Black Loyalist Exodus"</a>. <i>History: A Journal of Student Research</i>. <b>1</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History%3A+A+Journal+of+Student+Research&rft.atitle=The+American+Revolution+and+the+Black+Loyalist+Exodus&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Bibko&rft.aufirst=Julia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.brockport.edu%2Fhashtaghistory%2Fvol1%2Fiss1%2F5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foner-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Foner_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoner,_Eric2010" class="citation book cs1">Foner, Eric (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creatingblackame00pain/page/14"><i>The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery</i></a>. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creatingblackame00pain/page/14">14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195137552" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195137552"><bdi>978-0195137552</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fiery+Trial%3A+Abraham+Lincoln+and+American+Slavery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company%2C+Inc&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0195137552&rft.au=Foner%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcreatingblackame00pain%2Fpage%2F14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_J._Cooper,_Jr._and_Thomas_E._Terrill2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_J._Cooper,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William J. Cooper, Jr.">William J. Cooper, Jr.</a> and Thomas E. Terrill (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-aB-KVztmjcC&pg=PA363"><i>The American South: A History</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 363. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780742563995" title="Special:BookSources/9780742563995"><bdi>9780742563995</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+South%3A+A+History&rft.pages=363&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780742563995&rft.au=William+J.+Cooper%2C+Jr.+and+Thomas+E.+Terrill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-aB-KVztmjcC%26pg%3DPA363&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leonard L. Richards, <i>Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860</i> (2000) p. 3)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBordewich,_Fergus_M.2005" class="citation book cs1">Bordewich, Fergus M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/boundforcanaanun00bord"><i>Bound for Canaan: The Underground Railroad and the War for the Soul of America</i></a>. Harper Collins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060524308" title="Special:BookSources/0060524308"><bdi>0060524308</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bound+for+Canaan%3A+The+Underground+Railroad+and+the+War+for+the+Soul+of+America&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0060524308&rft.au=Bordewich%2C+Fergus+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fboundforcanaanun00bord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1988" class="citation book cs1">McPherson, James M. 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"Slaves of Colonial Virginia: Where They Came From". <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>42</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">228–</span>237. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1920429">10.2307/1920429</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-5597">0043-5597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1920429">1920429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Slaves+of+Colonial+Virginia%3A+Where+They+Came+From&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E228-%3C%2Fspan%3E237&rft.date=1985&rft.issn=0043-5597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1920429%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1920429&rft.aulast=Westbury&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carson,_Clayborne_2011-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carson,_Clayborne_2011_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carson, Clayborne, Emma Lapsansky-Werner, and Gary Nash. <i>The Struggle for Freedom: A History of African Americans</i>. New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0205832422" title="Special:BookSources/978-0205832422">978-0205832422</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerry" class="citation web cs1">Perry, James A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070305182001/http://www.black-collegian.com/issues/1998-12/africanroots12.shtml">"African Roots of African-American Culture"</a>. The Black Collegian Online. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 4,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=African+Roots+of+African-American+Culture&rft.pub=The+Black+Collegian+Online&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.black-collegian.com%2F%2Fissues%2F1998-12%2Fafricanroots12.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/race/000_About/002_03-godeeper.htm">"RACE - The Power of an Illusion . Go Deeper"</a>. <i>PBS</i>. 2003<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Chapel Hill, 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-white-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-white_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-white_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-white_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-white_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-white_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-white_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-white_24-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-white_24-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-white_24-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteBayMartin2013" class="citation book cs1">White, Deborah Gray; Bay, Mia; Martin, Waldo E. Jr. (2013). <i>Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans</i>. Boston/ New York: Bedford/ St. Martin's. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312648831" title="Special:BookSources/9780312648831"><bdi>9780312648831</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+on+My+Mind%3A+A+History+of+African+Americans&rft.place=Boston%2F+New+York&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Bedford%2F+St.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780312648831&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Deborah+Gray&rft.au=Bay%2C+Mia&rft.au=Martin%2C+Waldo+E.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clayborne Carson, ed., <i>The Struggle For Freedom</i> (Prentice Hall, 2011), 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirzer2007" class="citation web cs1">Birzer, D (January 19, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/esteban-1539/">"Esteban (?-1539). 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David (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7716878">"From '20. and odd' to 10 million: The growth of the slave population in the United States"</a>. <i>Slavery & Abolition</i>. <b>41</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">840–</span>855. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0144039x.2020.1755502">10.1080/0144039x.2020.1755502</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0144-039X">0144-039X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7716878">7716878</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33281246">33281246</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavery+%26+Abolition&rft.atitle=From+%2720.+and+odd%27+to+10+million%3A+The+growth+of+the+slave+population+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E840-%3C%2Fspan%3E855&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7716878%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0144-039X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33281246&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0144039x.2020.1755502&rft.aulast=Hacker&rft.aufirst=J.+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7716878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsvrc.org/blogs/resource-online-magazine/part-2-sexual-violence-against-african-american-slaves-and-its">"Part 2 - Sexual Violence Against African American Slaves And Its Legacy Today"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Part+2+-+Sexual+Violence+Against+African+American+Slaves+And+Its+Legacy+Today&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsvrc.org%2Fblogs%2Fresource-online-magazine%2Fpart-2-sexual-violence-against-african-american-slaves-and-its&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithers2012" class="citation book cs1">Smithers, Gregory D. 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University Press of Florida. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-5915-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8130-5915-0"><bdi>978-0-8130-5915-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slave+Breeding%3A+Sex%2C+Violence%2C+and+Memory+in+African+American+History&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Florida&rft.date=2012-11&rft.isbn=978-0-8130-5915-0&rft.aulast=Smithers&rft.aufirst=Gregory+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ4DSEAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dblack%2Bwomen%2Bwhite%2Bmen%2Bslaves%2Braped%2Bslave%2Btrade%2Bslaves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanyawp.com/text/11-the-cotton-revolution/">"11. 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(Summer 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&hid=103&sid=724d124b-75dd-44b9-a32f-b519ad6de8a8%40sessionmgr110">"African-American"</a>. <i>Phi Kappa Phi Forum</i>. <b>83</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phi+Kappa+Phi+Forum&rft.atitle=African-American&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=Gary+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fehis.ebscohost.com%2Feds%2Fpdfviewer%2Fpdfviewer%3Fvid%3D2%26hid%3D103%26sid%3D724d124b-75dd-44b9-a32f-b519ad6de8a8%2540sessionmgr110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073848/http://www.learnquebec.ca/en/content/curriculum_elem/socialsciences/cycle3_resources/loyalists/background/loybkgr_peters.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Who Were the Loyalists?"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>learnquebec.ca</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=learnquebec.ca&rft.atitle=%22Who+Were+the+Loyalists%3F%22.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.learnquebec.ca%2Fen%2Fcontent%2Fcurriculum_elem%2Fsocialsciences%2Fcycle3_resources%2Floyalists%2Fbackground%2Floybkgr_peters.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNash2006" class="citation journal cs1">Nash, Gary B. (Summer 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&hid=103&sid=724d124b-75dd-44b9-a32f-b519ad6de8a8%40sessionmgr110">"African-American"</a>. <i>Phi Kappa Phi Forum</i>. <b>83</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">2–</span>3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phi+Kappa+Phi+Forum&rft.atitle=African-American&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=Gary+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fehis.ebscohost.com%2Feds%2Fpdfviewer%2Fpdfviewer%3Fvid%3D2%26hid%3D103%26sid%3D724d124b-75dd-44b9-a32f-b519ad6de8a8%2540sessionmgr110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thayer-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thayer_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThayer1991" class="citation book cs1">Thayer, James Steel (1991). <i>A Dissenting View of Creole Culture in Sierra Leone</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">215–</span>230.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dissenting+View+of+Creole+Culture+in+Sierra+Leone&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E215-%3C%2Fspan%3E230&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Thayer&rft.aufirst=James+Steel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1991_num_31_121_2116">https://www.persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1991_num_31_121_2116</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Browne-Davies-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Browne-Davies_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowne-Davies2014" class="citation book cs1">Browne-Davies, Nigel (2014). <i>A Precis of Sources relating to genealogical research on the Sierra Leone Krio people</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Precis+of+Sources+relating+to+genealogical+research+on+the+Sierra+Leone+Krio+people&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Browne-Davies&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span> Journal of Sierra Leone Studies, Vol. 3; Edition 1, 2014 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.academia.edu/40720522/A_Precis_of_Sources_relating_to_genealogical_research_on_the_Sierra_Leone_Krio_people">https://www.academia.edu/40720522/A_Precis_of_Sources_relating_to_genealogical_research_on_the_Sierra_Leone_Krio_people</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Walker_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker1992" class="citation book cs1">Walker, James W (1992). "Chapter Five: Foundation of Sierra Leone". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackloyalistsse0000walk"><i>The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783–1870</i></a></span>. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackloyalistsse0000walk/page/94">94</a>–114. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802074027" title="Special:BookSources/978-0802074027"><bdi>978-0802074027</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+Five%3A+Foundation+of+Sierra+Leone&rft.btitle=The+Black+Loyalists%3A+The+Search+for+a+Promised+Land+in+Nova+Scotia+and+Sierra+Leone%2C+1783%E2%80%931870&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=94-114&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0802074027&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=James+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackloyalistsse0000walk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span>, originally published by Longman & Dalhousie University Press (1976).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2014" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Bankole Kamara (February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I__jAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68"><i>Sierra Leone: The Land, Its People and History</i></a>. New Africa Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789987160389" title="Special:BookSources/9789987160389"><bdi>9789987160389</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sierra+Leone%3A+The+Land%2C+Its+People+and+History&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=New+Africa+Press&rft.date=2014-02&rft.isbn=9789987160389&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Bankole+Kamara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI__jAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2narr4.html">"The Revolutionary War"</a>. <i>Revolution</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610005854/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2narr4.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 10, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 15,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Revolution&rft.atitle=The+Revolutionary+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart2%2F2narr4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-new_nation-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-new_nation_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-new_nation_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2narr5.html">"The Constitution and the New Nation"</a>. <i>Revolution</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 15,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Revolution&rft.atitle=The+Constitution+and+the+New+Nation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart2%2F2narr5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Kolchin, <i>American Slavery: 1619–1877</i>, New York: Hill and Wang, paperback, 1994, pp. 78–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Kolchin, <i>American Slavery: 1619–1877</i>, New York: Hill and Wang, paperback, 1994, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Kolchin, <i>American Slavery: 1619–1877</i>, New York: Hill and Wang, paperback, 1994, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBedini1999" class="citation book cs1">Bedini, Silvio A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifeofbenjaminba00bedi"><i>The Life of Benjamin Banneker: The First African-American Man of Science</i></a> (2nd ed.). Maryland Historical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0938420590" title="Special:BookSources/978-0938420590"><bdi>978-0938420590</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Benjamin+Banneker%3A+The+First+African-American+Man+of+Science&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Maryland+Historical+Society&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0938420590&rft.aulast=Bedini&rft.aufirst=Silvio+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifeofbenjaminba00bedi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Raymond Turner, "The Abolition of Slavery in Pennsylvania". <i>Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography</i>, (1912): 129–142. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20085586">20085586</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Franklin W. Knight, "The Haitian Revolution", <i>American Historical Review</i> (2000), 105#1, pp. 103–115; <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2652438">2652438</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas R, Egerton, "Slaves to the Marketplace: Economic Liberty and Black Rebelliousness in the Atlantic World". <i>Journal of the Early Republic</i> 26, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 617–639.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlanderBrownlee2006" class="citation journal cs1">Carlander, Jay; Brownlee, Elliot (September 2006). "Antebellum Southern Political Economists and the Problem of Slavery". <i>American Nineteenth Century History</i>. <b>7</b> (3): 393. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14664650600956585">10.1080/14664650600956585</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145385967">145385967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Nineteenth+Century+History&rft.atitle=Antebellum+Southern+Political+Economists+and+the+Problem+of+Slavery&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=393&rft.date=2006-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14664650600956585&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145385967%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Carlander&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft.au=Brownlee%2C+Elliot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3narr6.html">"Growth and Entrenchment of Slavery"</a>. <i>Brotherly Love</i>. PBS<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 16,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brotherly+Love&rft.atitle=Growth+and+Entrenchment+of+Slavery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart3%2F3narr6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2951.html">"The Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Act"</a>. PBS<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 12,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Compromise+of+1850+and+the+Fugitive+Slave+Act&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart4%2F4p2951.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carson, Clayborne, Emma J. Lapsansky-Werner, and Gary B. Nash, "A Prelude to War: The 1850s," in <i>The Struggle for Freedom: A History of African Americans</i> (Boston: Prentice Hall, 2011), 206–207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennicott1970" class="citation journal cs1">Kennicott, Patrick C. (1970). "Black Persuaders in the Antislavery Movement". <i>Journal of Black Studies</i>. <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">5–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002193477000100102">10.1177/002193477000100102</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143734647">143734647</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Black+Studies&rft.atitle=Black+Persuaders+in+the+Antislavery+Movement&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002193477000100102&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143734647%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kennicott&rft.aufirst=Patrick+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williamjames Hull Hoffer, <i>The Caning of Charles Sumner</i> (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Caning-Charles-Witness-History-ebook/dp/B003X4L554/">excerpt and text search</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Rothman, <i>Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South</i> (2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ira Berlin, <i>Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America</i> (2000).32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Benjamin Quarles, <i>Black Abolitionists</i> (London, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1969).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The number of free Blacks grew during this time as well. By 1830 there were 319,000 free Blacks in the United States. About 150,000 lived in the northern states.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1979" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Quintard_Taylor" title="Quintard Taylor">Taylor, Quintard</a> (1979). "The Emergence of Black communities in the Pacific Northwest: 1865–1910". <i>The Journal of Negro History</i>. <b>64</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">342–</span>354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2716942">10.2307/2716942</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716942">2716942</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:132137921">132137921</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+Black+communities+in+the+Pacific+Northwest%3A+1865%E2%80%931910.&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E342-%3C%2Fspan%3E354&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A132137921%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2716942%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2716942&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Quintard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carson_2007-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carson_2007_70-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarson2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Carson, Clayborne</a> (2011). <i>The Struggle for Freedom: A History of African Americans</i>. Penguin academics (2 ed.). Boston: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780205832408" title="Special:BookSources/9780205832408"><bdi>9780205832408</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Freedom%3A+A+History+of+African+Americans&rft.place=Boston&rft.series=Penguin+academics&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780205832408&rft.aulast=Carson&rft.aufirst=Clayborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2001" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Stephen Grant (2001). <i>As long as they don't move next door: segregation and racial conflict in American neighborhoods</i>. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0847697014" title="Special:BookSources/978-0847697014"><bdi>978-0847697014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=As+long+as+they+don%27t+move+next+door%3A+segregation+and+racial+conflict+in+American+neighborhoods&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md.&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0847697014&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Grant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3narr1.html">"Philadelphia"</a>. <i>Brotherly Love</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 17,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brotherly+Love&rft.atitle=Philadelphia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart3%2F3narr1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopkins1986" class="citation journal cs1">Hopkins, Leroy T. (1986). "Bethel African Methodist Church in Lancaster: Prolegomenon to a Social History". <i>Journal of the Lancaster County Historical Society</i>. <b>90</b> (4): 205‒236.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Lancaster+County+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Bethel+African+Methodist+Church+in+Lancaster%3A+Prolegomenon+to+a+Social+History&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=205%E2%80%92236&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Leroy+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRohrs2012" class="citation journal cs1">Rohrs, Richard C. (August 2012). "The Free Black Experience in Antebellum Wilmington, North Carolina: Refining Generalization about Race Relations". <i>Journal of Southern History</i>. <b>78</b> (3): 615‒638. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-4642">0022-4642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Southern+History&rft.atitle=The+Free+Black+Experience+in+Antebellum+Wilmington%2C+North+Carolina%3A+Refining+Generalization+about+Race+Relations.&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=615%E2%80%92638&rft.date=2012-08&rft.issn=0022-4642&rft.aulast=Rohrs&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3narr3.html">"The Black Church"</a>. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070604102217/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3narr3.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 4, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 17,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Black+Church&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart3%2F3narr3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaboteau2004" class="citation book cs1">Raboteau, Albert J. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C3AQUK-6A2cC&q=Gillfield+Baptist+Church,+Petersburg,+VA&pg=PA188"><i>Slave religion: the "invisible institution" in the antebellum South</i></a> (Updated ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195174137" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195174137"><bdi>978-0195174137</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 27,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slave+religion%3A+the+%22invisible+institution%22+in+the+antebellum+South&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.edition=Updated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0195174137&rft.aulast=Raboteau&rft.aufirst=Albert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC3AQUK-6A2cC%26q%3DGillfield%2BBaptist%2BChurch%2C%2BPetersburg%2C%2BVA%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2006" class="citation book cs1">Greene, A. Wilson (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C-ie-ioW0s8C&pg=PA8"><i>Civil War Petersburg: Confederate city in the crucible of war</i></a>. A nation divided. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813925707" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813925707"><bdi>978-0813925707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+War+Petersburg%3A+Confederate+city+in+the+crucible+of+war&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.series=A+nation+divided&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0813925707&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=A.+Wilson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC-ie-ioW0s8C%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVegaRustin_Quaide2008" class="citation news cs1">Vega, Caridad de la; Rustin Quaide (February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/crdi/publications/HM14.pdf">"National Register Nominations: Pocahontas Island Historic District"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Heritage Matters</i>. pp. 6‒7<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heritage+Matters&rft.atitle=National+Register+Nominations%3A+Pocahontas+Island+Historic+District&rft.pages=6%E2%80%927&rft.date=2008-02&rft.aulast=Vega&rft.aufirst=Caridad+de+la&rft.au=Rustin+Quaide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhistory%2Fcrdi%2Fpublications%2FHM14.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-miller-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-miller_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandall_M._Miller2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Randall M. Miller, ed. (2009). "The New Nation Takes Shape, 1789‒1820". <i>The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Daily Life in America</i>. The Greenwood Press "Daily life through history" series. Vol. 1. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp. 177‒366. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313336997" title="Special:BookSources/9780313336997"><bdi>9780313336997</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+New+Nation+Takes+Shape%2C+1789%E2%80%921820&rft.btitle=The+Greenwood+Encyclopedia+of+Daily+Life+in+America&rft.place=Westport%2C+Conn&rft.series=The+Greenwood+Press+%22Daily+life+through+history%22+series&rft.pages=177%E2%80%92366&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780313336997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3narr2.html">"Freedom and Resistance"</a>. PBS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070603041319/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3narr2.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 3, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 17,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freedom+and+Resistance&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart3%2F3narr2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nash1988-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nash1988_81-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nash1988_81-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNash1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gary_B._Nash" title="Gary B. Nash">Nash, Gary B.</a> (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgingfreedomfo00nash/page/204"><i>Forging freedom: the formation of Philadelphia's Black community, 1720‒1840</i></a>. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forgingfreedomfo00nash/page/204">204</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674309340" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674309340"><bdi>978-0674309340</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forging+freedom%3A+the+formation+of+Philadelphia%27s+Black+community%2C+1720%E2%80%921840&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0674309340&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=Gary+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforgingfreedomfo00nash%2Fpage%2F204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305063303/http://atlanticslaverydebate.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/shared/ASD/Module3/FreeNgrosandSlves1833.pdf">"<i>Nile's Weekly Register</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>stanford.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atlanticslaverydebate.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/shared/ASD/Module3/FreeNgrosandSlves1833.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on March 5, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=stanford.edu&rft.atitle=Nile%27s+Weekly+Register.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fatlanticslaverydebate.stanford.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fshared%2FASD%2FModule3%2FFreeNgrosandSlves1833.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305125222/http://atlanticslaverydebate.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/shared/ASD/Module3/JffrsnToRufusKing1802.pdf">"<i>The Works of thomas Jefferson</i>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>stanford.edu</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=stanford.edu&rft.atitle=The+Works+of+thomas+Jefferson.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fatlanticslaverydebate.stanford.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fshared%2FASD%2FModule3%2FJffrsnToRufusKing1802.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historylink101.com/bw/American_Image/slides/4-j-IMG_1583.html">"Ten days from today I left the plantation"</a>. <i>historylink101.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Sandford</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Vorenberg, ed., <i>The Emancipation Proclamation: A Brief History with Documents</i> (2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hondon B. Hargrove, <i>Black Union Soldiers in the Civil War</i> (2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jim Downs, <i>Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction</i> (2015)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130122085159/http://history-world.org/reconstruction_period.htm">"The Reconstruction Period, an Overview"</a>. Archived from the original on January 22, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Charlottesville: University of Virginia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813919713" title="Special:BookSources/978-0813919713"><bdi>978-0813919713</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forgotten+Time%3A+The+Yazoo-Mississippi+Delta+after+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Charlottesville&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0813919713&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarsonLapsansky-WernerNash2011" class="citation book cs1">Carson, Clayborne; Lapsansky-Werner, Emma J.; Nash, Gary B. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journalofamericanhistory.org/projects/lincoln/contents/ross.html">the original</a> on April 21, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+History&rft.atitle=Lincoln+and+the+Ethics+of+Emancipation%3A+Universalism%2C+Nationalism%2C+Exceptionalism&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E379-%3C%2Fspan%3E399&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjahist%2F96.2.379&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Dorothy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalofamericanhistory.org%2Fprojects%2Flincoln%2Fcontents%2Fross.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDu_Bois" class="citation web cs1">Du Bois, W. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://voices.yahoo.com/post-civil-war-history-african-americans-after-reconstruction-1721233.html">the original</a> on May 11, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Post-Civil+War+History%3A+African+Americans+After+Reconstruction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvoices.yahoo.com%2Fpost-civil-war-history-african-americans-after-reconstruction-1721233.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joel Williamson, <i>New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States</i> (New York 1980), 79–80. December 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williamjames Hull Hoffer, <i>Plessy v. Ferguson: race and inequality in Jim Crow America</i> (UP of Kansas, 2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glen Schwendemann, "St. Louis and the" Exodusters" of 1879." <i>Journal of Negro History</i> 46.1 (1961): 32–46 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716077">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=380">Connie L. Lester, "Disenfranchising Laws", Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture</a>, accessed 17 April 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=224731">Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", <i>Constitutional Commentary</i>, Vol. 17, 2000, p. 27</a>, accessed March 10, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-papers.ssrn.com-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-papers.ssrn.com_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-papers.ssrn.com_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=224731">Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon"</a>, <i>Constitutional Commentary</i>, Vol. 17, 2000, pp. 12–13, accessed March 10, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen W. Trelease, <i> White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction</i> (1995)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ftp.rootsweb.com-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ftp.rootsweb.com_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ftp.rootsweb.com/pub/usgenweb/la/state/history/military/uncat/colfaxr.txt">"Military Report on Colfax Riot, 1875", from the <i>Congressional Record</i></a>, accessed 6 April 2008. A state historical marker erected in 1950 noted that 150 blacks died and three whites.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholas Lemann, <i>Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War</i>, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2007, pp. 70–76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHistory2008" class="citation book cs1">History, Adeyemi College of Education Dept of (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GGw8AQAAIAAJ&q=lynching+ida+b+wells+20,000+killings+veneer"><i>Themes in humanities and African experience</i></a>. Dept. of History, Adeyemi College of Education.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Themes+in+humanities+and+African+experience&rft.pub=Dept.+of+History%2C+Adeyemi+College+of+Education&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=History&rft.aufirst=Adeyemi+College+of+Education+Dept+of&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGGw8AQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dlynching%2Bida%2Bb%2Bwells%2B20%2C000%2Bkillings%2Bveneer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the story of the lynchings, see Philip Dray, <i>At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America</i> (New York: Random House, 2002). For the systematic oppression and terror inflicted, see Leon F. Litwack, <i>Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow</i> (New York, 1998).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond" class="citation web cs1">Diamond, Robert J. Cottrol and Raymond T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guncite.com/journals/cd-recon.html">"The Second Amendment: Toward an Afro-Americanist Reconsideration"</a>. <i>Guncite.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Reich, ed. <i>The Great Black Migration: A Historical Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic</i> (2014)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nathan Irvin Huggins, <i>Harlem renaissance</i> (Oxford University Press, 2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allan H. Spear, <i>Black Chicago: The making of a Negro ghetto, 1890–1920</i> (1967).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Franklin Frazier, <i>Black bourgeoisie: The rise of a new middle class</i> (1957) pp. 53–59. 135–137. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28%27%27Black%20bourgeoisie%29">Online free to borrow</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juliet E.K. Walker, "Black Entrepreneurship: An Historical Inquiry." <i>Business and Economic History</i> (1983): 37–55. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ww.thebhc.org/sites/default/files/beh/BEHprint/v012/p0037-p0055.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161105172912/http://ww.thebhc.org/sites/default/files/beh/BEHprint/v012/p0037-p0055.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-11-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawrence Otis Graham, <i>Our kind of people: Inside America's black upper class</i> (2009) pp. 1–18, 63–65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elijah Anderson, <i>The Social Situation of the Black Executive: Black and White Identities in the Corporate World in Problem of the Century: Racial Stratification in the United States</i>. in Elijah Anderson and Douglas S. Massey, ed. (Russell Sage Foundation, 2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blaine J. Branchik, and Judy Foster Davis, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ojs.library.carleton.ca/index.php/pcharm/article/view/1553/1401">Black Gold: A History of the African-American Elite Market Segment</a>". <i>Charm 2007</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blain Roberts, <i>Pageants, Parlors, and Pretty Women: Race and Beauty in the Twentieth-Century South</i> (2014), quote p. 96. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/3119/reviews/57654/brown-roberts-pageants-parlors-and-pretty-women-race-and-beauty">online review</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Pageants-Parlors-Pretty-Women-Twentieth-Century-ebook/dp/B00IZCGAAO/">excerpt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susannah Walker, <i>Style and Status: Selling Beauty to African American Women, 1920–1975</i> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Style-Status-Selling-American-1920-1975/dp/0813124336/">excerpt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A'Lelia Bundles, <i>On Her Own Ground: The Life and Times of Madam C.J. Walker</i> (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/On-Her-Own-Ground-Paperback/dp/0743431723">excerpt</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amhistory.si.edu/militaryhistory/printable/section.asp?id=8">"The Price of Freedom: Printable Exhibition"</a>. <i>amhistory.si.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=amhistory.si.edu&rft.atitle=The+Price+of+Freedom%3A+Printable+Exhibition&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famhistory.si.edu%2Fmilitaryhistory%2Fprintable%2Fsection.asp%3Fid%3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldwar1centennial.org/index.php/educate/places/why-commemorate.html">"Commemorating the Great War – World War I Centennial"</a>. <i>www.worldwar1centennial.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.worldwar1centennial.org&rft.atitle=Commemorating+the+Great+War+%E2%80%93+World+War+I+Centennial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldwar1centennial.org%2Findex.php%2Feducate%2Fplaces%2Fwhy-commemorate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan2014" class="citation book cs1">Jordan, John (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=grbkAwAAQBAJ&q=The+U.S.+armed+forces+remained+segregated+during+World+War+I.+Still,+many+African+Americans+eagerly+volunteered+to+join+the+Allied+cause+following+America's+entry+into+the+war.+More+than+two+million+African+American+men+rushed+to+register+for+the+draft.+By+the+time+of+the+armistice+with+Germany+in+November+1918,+over+350,000+African+Americans+had+served+with+the+American+Expeditionary+Force+on+the+Western+Front&pg=PA129"><i>Born Black in the U.S.A.</i></a> Dorrance Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1434914842" title="Special:BookSources/978-1434914842"><bdi>978-1434914842</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Born+Black+in+the+U.S.A.&rft.pub=Dorrance+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1434914842&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgrbkAwAAQBAJ%26q%3DThe%2BU.S.%2Barmed%2Bforces%2Bremained%2Bsegregated%2Bduring%2BWorld%2BWar%2BI.%2BStill%2C%2Bmany%2BAfrican%2BAmericans%2Beagerly%2Bvolunteered%2Bto%2Bjoin%2Bthe%2BAllied%2Bcause%2Bfollowing%2BAmerica%27s%2Bentry%2Binto%2Bthe%2Bwar.%2BMore%2Bthan%2Btwo%2Bmillion%2BAfrican%2BAmerican%2Bmen%2Brushed%2Bto%2Bregister%2Bfor%2Bthe%2Bdraft.%2BBy%2Bthe%2Btime%2Bof%2Bthe%2Barmistice%2Bwith%2BGermany%2Bin%2BNovember%2B1918%2C%2Bover%2B350%2C000%2BAfrican%2BAmericans%2Bhad%2Bserved%2Bwith%2Bthe%2BAmerican%2BExpeditionary%2BForce%2Bon%2Bthe%2BWestern%2BFront%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/investigations/602_redhandflag.html">"Red Hand Flag – History Detectives"</a>. <i>Pbs.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pbs.org&rft.atitle=Red+Hand+Flag+%E2%80%93+History+Detectives&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fopb%2Fhistorydetectives%2Finvestigations%2F602_redhandflag.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">My dear General, the President delegated me to confer you the Distinguished Service Medal in the name of the United States government: As Commander of the 157th French Division of Infantry, you have been an important factor in the success of the allies by your valiant leadership and eminent tactical ability. The officers and soldiers of the 371st and 372nd American Infantry Regiments count it a great honor to have served as part of your command in the operations conducted by you in Champagne and in the Vosges. General John J. Pershing quoted in Chester D. Heywood, <i>Negro Combat Troops in the World War :The Story of the 371st Infantry</i>, 1928.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chester D. Heywood, <i>Negro Combat Troops in the World War. The story of the 371 St Infantry</i>, Éditeur Worcester, Mass : Commonwealth Press, 1929, p. 57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mairie-chateau-thierry.net/1418/labase/dosmonum372th_Inf_US_93eDI_octbre1918.pdf">Mairie de Château-Thierry, base monument du 372<sup>e</sup> US régiment</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emmet J. Scott, <i>Scott'Official History of the American Negro in the world war</i>, 1919]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rinaldi, Richard A. (2004). The US Army In World War I: Orders Of Battle. Tiger Lily Publications LLC. ISBN 9780972029643. - Total pages: 244"Rinaldi p. 98".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/fstowers.htm">"Freddie Stowers, Corporal, United States Army"</a>. March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freddie+Stowers%2C+Corporal%2C+United+States+Army&rft.date=2024-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arlingtoncemetery.net%2Ffstowers.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/fstowers.htm">"Freddie Stowers, Corporal, United States Army"</a>. March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freddie+Stowers%2C+Corporal%2C+United+States+Army&rft.date=2024-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arlingtoncemetery.net%2Ffstowers.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joe W. Trotter, "Reflections on the Great Migration to Western Pennsylvania." <i>Western Pennsylvania History</i> (1995) 78#4: 153–158 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.psu.edu/wph/article/download/4502/4319">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joe W. Trotter, and Eric Ledell Smith, eds. <i>African Americans in Pennsylvania: Shifting Historical Perspectives</i> (Penn State Press, 2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trotter, "Reflections on the Great Migration to Western Pennsylvania", p. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jam Voogd, <i>Race Riots & Resistance: The Red Summer of 1919</i> (Peter Lang, 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David F. Krugler, <i>1919, The Year of Racial Violence</i> (Cambridge UP, 2014).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trotter, "Reflections on the Great Migration to Western Pennsylvania", pp. 156–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy-p193-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy-p193_143-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy-p193_143-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 193</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roger Biles, <i> A New Deal for the American People</i> (1991), pp. 172–193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher G. Wye, The New Deal and the Negro community: Toward a broader conceptualization." The Journal of American History 59.3 (1972): 621–639. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1900661">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raymond Wolters, "The New Deal and the Negro." in John Braeman, ed. <i>The New Deal: The National Level</i> (1975) 1:170–217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruman1975" class="citation journal cs1">Kruman, Mark S. (1975). "Quotas for Blacks: The Public Works Administration and the Black Construction Worker". <i>Labor History</i>. <b>16</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">37–</span>51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00236567508584321">10.1080/00236567508584321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Labor+History&rft.atitle=Quotas+for+Blacks%3A+The+Public+Works+Administration+and+the+Black+Construction+Worker&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00236567508584321&rft.aulast=Kruman&rft.aufirst=Mark+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, p. 212</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harvard Sitkoff, <i>A New Deal for Blacks: The Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue: The Depression Decade</i> (1978) ch. 3, 4 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/New-Deal-Blacks-Emergence-Depression/dp/B005K5VYS2/">excerpt and text search</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karen Ferguson, <i>Black Politics in New Deal Atlanta</i> (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy-p378-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy-p378_153-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy-p378_153-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy-p378_153-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 378</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Robert Reed. "Black Chicago Political Realignment during the Great Depression and New Deal." <i>Illinois Historical Journal</i> (1985) 78#4 pp. 242–256. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40191889">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConrad_Black2005" class="citation book cs1">Conrad Black (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lYVCi70HaigC&pg=PA437"><i>Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion Of Freedom</i></a>. PublicAffairs. pp. <span class="nowrap">437–</span>438. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781586482824" title="Special:BookSources/9781586482824"><bdi>9781586482824</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt%3A+Champion+Of+Freedom&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E437-%3C%2Fspan%3E438&rft.pub=PublicAffairs&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781586482824&rft.au=Conrad+Black&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlYVCi70HaigC%26pg%3DPA437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._341-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._341_158-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._341_158-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 341</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTimes-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYTimes_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/05/20/obituaries/john-bubbles-the-dancer-is-dead-at-84.html">"John Bubbles, The Dancer, Is Dead at 84"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. May 20, 1986.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=John+Bubbles%2C+The+Dancer%2C+Is+Dead+at+84&rft.date=1986-05-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F05%2F20%2Fobituaries%2Fjohn-bubbles-the-dancer-is-dead-at-84.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 342</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 342–343</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._343-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._343_163-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._343_163-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._343_163-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 343</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 344–346</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 345–346</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 347</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 pp. 348–349</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._764-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._764_168-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._764_168-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 764</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 764 & 766</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._766-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._766_170-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._766_170-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._766_170-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 766</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kennedy,_David_p._767-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._767_171-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kennedy,_David_p._767_171-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kennedy, David <i>Freedom From Fear</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 p. 767</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony J. Badger, <i>The New Deal</i> (1989), pp. 147–189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fred C. Frey and T. 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American Armed Forces Press Service, February 15, 2002. Retrieved 2007-06-10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Micheal Clodfelter. Seven African Americans were awarded for their work in the war. Their names were: First Lieutenant Vernon J. Baker, Staff Sergeant Edward A. Carter, Jr., First Lieutenant John R. Fox, Private First Class Willy F. James, Jr., Staff Sergeant Ruben Rivers, Captain Charles L. 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Tolnay, "The great migration and changes in the northern black family, 1940 to 1990." <i>Social Forces</i> 75.4 (1997): 1213–1238. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2580669">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mercyseatfilms.com/filmcredits.html">"Mercy Seat Films – 'THEY CLOSED OUR SCHOOLS' – Film Credits"</a>. <i>Mercyseatfilms.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Washington, DC: College Board.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Teacher+Information+Guide+AP+African+American+Studies+Pilot&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=College+Board&rft.date=2022-02&rft.aulast=Waters&rft.aufirst=Brandi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoderstrom" class="citation web cs1">Soderstrom, Daniel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/d/1X10_wfDNxu8j4G0tMHkiYVu_e5UlT_iD/p/131Psa-NQnOC0mIAcqv47eMfa-gV6GL01/edit">"The Birth of Black Studies"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 10,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Black+Studies&rft.aulast=Soderstrom&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fd%2F1X10_wfDNxu8j4G0tMHkiYVu_e5UlT_iD%2Fp%2F131Psa-NQnOC0mIAcqv47eMfa-gV6GL01%2Fedit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sam Wineburg and Chauncey Monte-Sano, "'Famous Americans': The Changing Pantheon of American Heroes," <i>Journal of American History</i> (March 2008), 94, #4, pp. 1186–1202.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Journal-of-Negro-History1922.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Journal-of-Negro-History1922.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="467" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="124" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_books">Reference books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Reference books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. <i>The Jim Crow Encyclopedia</i> (Greenwood, 2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6bnOEAAAQBAJ&dq=+%27%27The+Jim+Crow+Encyclopedia%27%27+&pg=PR5">online</a></li> <li>Earle, Jonathan, and Malcolm Swanston. <i>The Routledge Atlas of African American History</i> (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415921422/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Finkelman, Paul, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass</i> (3 vols, 2006)</li> <li>Finkelman, Paul, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of African American History, 1896 to the Present: From the Age of Segregation to the Twenty-first Century</i> (5 vols, 2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195167791/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Hine, Darlene Clark, <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Terborg-Penn" title="Rosalyn Terborg-Penn">Rosalyn Terborg-Penn</a> and Elsa Barkley Brown, eds. <i>Black Women in America – An Historical Encyclopedia</i> (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0253327741/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Loewenberg, Bert James and Ruth Bogin. <i>Black Women in Nineteenth-Century American Life: Their Words, Their Thoughts, Their Feelings</i> (Pennsylvania State UP, 1976).</li> <li>Lowery, Charles D., and John F. Marszalek, eds. <i>Encyclopedia of African-American Civil Rights: From Emancipation to the Present</i> (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=71235565">online edition</a></li> <li>Palmer, Colin A., ed. <i>Encyclopedia Of African American Culture And History: The Black Experience In The Americas</i> (6 vols, 2005)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson,_Christopher_M.Ralph_E._Luker2014" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, Christopher M.; Ralph E. Luker, eds. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CafcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR13"><i>Historical Dictionary of the Civil Rights Movement (2nd ed.)</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810880375" title="Special:BookSources/9780810880375"><bdi>9780810880375</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Civil+Rights+Movement+%282nd+ed.%29&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780810880375&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCafcAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Salzman, Jack, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West, eds. <i>Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History</i> (5 vols, 1996).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallwood,_Arwin_D." class="mw-redirect" title="Smallwood, Arwin D.">Smallwood, Arwin D.</a> <i>The Atlas of African-American History and Politics: From the Slave Trade to Modern Times</i> (1997).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography of slavery in the United States</a></div> <ul><li>Bennett, Lerone, <i>Before the Mayflower: A History of Black America, 1619–1962</i> (2018), classic survey; <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Standard_Identification_Number" title="Amazon Standard Identification Number">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B08SCBR8WY">B08SCBR8WY</a></li> <li>Franklin, John Hope, and Alfred Moss, <i>From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans</i> (2001), standard textbook; first edition in 1947 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0375406719/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Harris, William H. <i>The Harder We Run: Black Workers Since the Civil War</i> (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=16297018">online edition</a></li> <li>Hine, Darlene Clark, et al. <i>The African-American Odyssey</i> (2 vols, 4th edn 2007), textbook <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0136150136/">excerpt and text search vol 1</a></li> <li>Holt, Thomas C., ed. <i>Major Problems in African-American History: From Freedom to "Freedom Now," 1865–1990s</i> (2000), reader in primary and secondary sources</li> <li>Holt, Thomas C. <i>Children of Fire: A History of African Americans</i> (Hill & Wang; 2010), 438 pp.</li> <li>Kelley, Robin D. G., and Earl Lewis, eds. <i>To Make Our World Anew: A History of African Americans</i> (2000). 672pp; 10 long essays by leading scholars <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/108611978?title=To%20Make%20Our%20World%20Anew%3a%20A%20History%20of%20African%20Americans">online edition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibram_X._Kendi" title="Ibram X. Kendi">Kendi, Ibram X.</a> and <a href="/wiki/Keisha_N._Blain" title="Keisha N. Blain">Keisha N. Blain</a>, eds. <i><a href="/wiki/Four_Hundred_Souls" title="Four Hundred Souls">Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019</a></i> (One World, 2021). 528pp; anthology of 80 essays</li> <li>Litwack, Leon, and August Meier. <i>Black Leaders of the 19th Century</i>. (1988) <ul><li>Franklin, John Hope, and August Meier, eds. <i>Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century</i>. (1982), short biographies by scholars.</li></ul></li> <li>Mandle, Jay R. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120224031954/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3099697">Not Slave, Not Free: The African American Economic Experience since the Civil War</a></i> (1992).</li> <li>Nash, Gary B. "The African Americans' Revolution" in <i>The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution</i> ed. by Jane Kamensky and Edward G. Gray (2012), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199746705.013.0015">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199746705.013.0015</a>.</li> <li>Painter, Nell Irvin. <i>Creating Black Americans: African American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present</i> (2006), 480 pp.</li> <li>Pinn, Anthony B. <i>The African American Religious Experience in America</i> (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0813031974/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Tuck, Stephen. <i>We Ain't What We Ought To Be: The Black Freedom Struggle from Emancipation to Obama</i> (2011).</li> <li>Weiner, Mark S. <i>Black Trials: Citizenship from the Beginnings of Slavery to the End of Caste</i> (2004).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Since_1914">Since 1914</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Since 1914"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Allen, Walter R., et al. "From Bakke to Fisher: African American Students in US Higher Education over Forty Years." <i>RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences</i> 4.6 (2018): 41–72 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/rsfjss/4/6/41.full.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Breen, William J. “Black Women and the Great War: Mobilization and Reform in the South.” <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 44#3 (1978), pp. 421–440. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2208050">online</a>, World War I</li> <li>Finley, Randy. "Black Arkansans and World War One." <i>Arkansas Historical Quarterly</i> 49#3 (1990): 249–77. doi:10.2307/40030800.</li> <li>Graham, Hugh Davis. <i>The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960–1972</i> (1990)</li> <li>Hemmingway, Theodore. “Prelude to Change: Black Carolinians in the War Years, 1914–1920.” <i>Journal of Negro History</i> 65#3 (1980), pp. 212–227. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717096">online</a></li> <li>Patler, Nicholas. <i>Jim Crow and the Wilson administration: protesting federal segregation in the early twentieth century</i> (2007).</li> <li>Patterson, James T. <i>Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974</i> (Oxford History of the United States) (1997)</li> <li>Patterson, James T. <i>Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush v. Gore</i> (Oxford History of the United States) (2007)</li> <li>Scheiber, Jane Lang, and Harry N. Scheiber. "The Wilson administration and the wartime mobilization of black Americans, 1917–18." <i>Labor History</i> 10.3 (1969): 433–458.</li> <li>Wynn, Neil A. <i>African American Experience During World War II</i> (2011)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYellin2013" class="citation book cs1">Yellin, Eric S. (2013). <i>Racism in the Nation's Service</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5149%2F9781469607214_Yellin">10.5149/9781469607214_Yellin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469607207" title="Special:BookSources/9781469607207"><bdi>9781469607207</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153118305">153118305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racism+in+the+Nation%27s+Service&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153118305%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5149%2F9781469607214_Yellin&rft.isbn=9781469607207&rft.aulast=Yellin&rft.aufirst=Eric+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Activism_and_urban_culture">Activism and urban culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Activism and urban culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement#Further_reading" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement § Further reading</a></div> <ul><li>Bernstein, Shana. <i>Bridges of Reform: Interracial Civil Rights Activism in Twentieth-Century Los Angeles</i> (Oxford University Press, 2010)</li> <li>Black Jr., Timuel D. <i>Bridges of Memory; Chicago's First Wave of Black Migration: An Oral History</i>, (2005). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/081012315-0" title="Special:BookSources/081012315-0">081012315-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herb_Boyd" title="Herb Boyd">Boyd, Herb</a>, ed. <i>The Harlem Reader: A Celebration of New York's Most Famous Neighborhood, from the Renaissance Years to the 21st Century</i> (2003), primary sources</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Branch, Taylor</a>. <i>Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963</i> (1988); <i>Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–1965</i> (1998); <i>At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–1968</i> (2006)</li> <li>Carle, Susan D. <i>Defining the Struggle: National Racial Justice Organizing, 1880–1915</i> (Oxford University Press, 2013)</li> <li>Cash, Floris Loretta Barnett. <i>African American Women and Social Action: The Clubwomen and Volunteerism from Jim Crow to the New Deal, 1896–1936</i> (Praeger, 2001)</li> <li>Garrow, David. <i>Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference</i> (1999)</li> <li>Gasman, Marybeth and Roger L. Geiger. <i>Higher Education for African Americans before the Civil Rights Era, 1900–1964</i> (2012)</li> <li>Grossman, James R. <i>Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration</i> (1991)</li> <li>Hornsby, Alton. <i>Black Power in Dixie: A Political History of African Americans in Atlanta</i> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darnell_Hunt" title="Darnell Hunt">Hunt, Darnell</a>, and Ana-Christina Ramon, eds. <i>Black Los Angeles: American Dreams and Racial Realities</i> (2010)</li> <li>Kusmer, Kenneth L. and Joe W. Trotter, eds. <i>African-American Urban History since World War II</i> (2009)</li> <li>Moore, Shirley Ann Wilson. <i>To Place Our Deeds: The African American Community in Richmond, California, 19101963</i> (2000)</li> <li>Osofsky, Gilbert. <i>Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890–1930</i> (1966)</li> <li>Orser, W. Edward. "Secondhand Suburbs: Black Pioneers in Baltimore's Edmondson Village, 1955–1980." <i>Journal of Urban History</i> <b>10</b>, no. 3 (May 1990): 227–62.</li> <li>Pattillo-McCoy, Mary. <i>Black Pickett Fences: Privilege and Peril among the Black Middle Class</i> (1999)</li> <li>Player, Tiffany Angel. <i>The Anti-lynching Crusaders: A Study of Black Women's Activism</i> (PhD dissertation, University of Georgia, 2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://getd.libs.uga.edu/pdfs/player_tiffany_a_200805_ma.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Rabaka, Reiland. <i>Hip Hop's Amnesia: From Blues and the Black Women's Club Movement to Rap and the Hip Hop Movement</i> (Lexington Books, 2012)</li> <li>Self, Robert O. <i>American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland</i> (2003)</li> <li>Spear, Allan H. <i>Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890–1920</i> (1969)</li> <li>Sugrue, Thomas J. <i>Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North </i> (2008)- 720pp comprehensive history of civil rights issue in the North, 1930s–2000s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sweetlandofliber0000thom">online</a></li> <li>Sugrue, Thomas J. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_the_Urban_Crisis" title="The Origins of the Urban Crisis">The Origins of the Urban Crisis</a>: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit</i> (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofurbancr0000sugr">online</a></li> <li>Thomas, Richard Walter. <i>Life for Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915–1945</i> (1992)</li> <li>Washburn, Patrick S. <i>The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom</i> (Northwestern University Press, 2006)</li> <li>Wiese, Andrew. <i>Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century</i> (2004).</li> <li>Wiese, Andrew. "Black Housing, White Finance: African American Housing and Home Ownership in Evanston, Illinois, before 1940." <i>Journal of Social History</i> <b>33</b>, no. 2 (Winter 1999): 429–60.</li> <li>Wiese, Andrew. "Places of Our Own: Suburban Black Towns before 1960." <i>Journal of Urban History</i> <b>19</b>, no. 3 (1993): 30–54.</li> <li>Williams, Doretha. "Kansas Grows the Best Wheat and the Best Race Women: Black Women's Club Movement in Kansas 1900–30." (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/10685/1/Williams_ku_0099D_11540_DATA_1.pdf">online</a>.</li> <li>Wilson, William H. <i>Hamilton Park: A Planned Black Community in Dallas</i> (1998)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_teaching">Historiography and teaching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Historiography and teaching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Arnesen, Eric. "Up From Exclusion: Black and White Workers, Race, and the State of Labor History," <i>Reviews in American History</i> <b>26</b>(1) March 1998, pp. 146–174 in <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a></li> <li>Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo. <i>African American History Reconsidered</i> (2010); 255 pages; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0252077016/">excerpt and text search</a> <ul><li>Dagbovie, Pero. <i>The Early Black History Movement, Carter G. Woodson, and Lorenzo Johnston Greene</i> (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0252074351/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Dagbovie, Pero Gaglo. "Exploring a Century of Historical Scholarship on Booker T. Washington". <i>Journal of African American History</i> 2007 <b>92</b>(2): 239–264. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1548-1867">1548-1867</a> Fulltext: <a href="/wiki/EBSCO_Information_Services" title="EBSCO Information Services">Ebsco</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dorsey, Allison. "Black History Is American History: Teaching African American History in the Twenty-first Century." <i>Journal of American History</i> 2007 <b>93</b>(4): 1171–1177. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0021-8723">0021-8723</a> Fulltext: <a href="/wiki/History_Cooperative" title="History Cooperative">History Cooperative</a></li> <li>Ernest, John. "Liberation Historiography: African-American Historians before the Civil War," <i>American Literary History</i> <b>14</b>(3), Fall 2002, pp. 413–443 in <a href="/wiki/Project_MUSE" class="mw-redirect" title="Project MUSE">Project MUSE</a></li> <li>Eyerman, Ron. <i>Cultural Trauma: Slavery and the Formation of African American Identity</i> (2002) argues that slavery emerged as a central element of the collective identity of African Americans in the post-Reconstruction era.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_J._Fields" title="Barbara J. Fields">Fields, Barbara J.</a> "Ideology and Race in American History," in J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson, eds, <i>Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward</i> (1982),</li> <li>Franklin, John Hope. "Afro-American History: State of the Art," <i>Journal of American History</i> (June 1988): 163–173. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1889663">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Goggin, Jacqueline. <i>Carter G. Woodson: A Life in Black History</i> (1993)</li> <li>Hall, Stephen Gilroy. "'To Give a Faithful Account of the Race': History and Historical Consciousness in the African-American Community, 1827–1915". PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 1999. 470 pp. DAI 2000 60(8): 3084-A. DA9941339 Fulltext: <a href="/wiki/ProQuest_Dissertations_%26_Theses" class="mw-redirect" title="ProQuest Dissertations & Theses">ProQuest Dissertations & Theses</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1982" class="citation journal cs1">Harris, Robert L (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161221073456/https://blogs.stockton.edu/hist4690/files/2012/06/Robert-Harris-Coming-of-Age-The-Transformation-of-Afro-American-Historiography.pdf">"Coming of Age: The Transformation of Afro-American Historiography"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Negro History</i>. <b>57</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">107–</span>121. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2717569">10.2307/2717569</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2717569">2717569</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149836969">149836969</a></span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.stockton.edu/hist4690/files/2012/06/Robert-Harris-Coming-of-Age-The-Transformation-of-Afro-American-Historiography.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on December 21, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 1,</span> 2017</span> – via Stockton Wordpress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=Coming+of+Age%3A+The+Transformation+of+Afro-American+Historiography&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E107-%3C%2Fspan%3E121&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149836969%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2717569%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2717569&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Robert+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.stockton.edu%2Fhist4690%2Ffiles%2F2012%2F06%2FRobert-Harris-Coming-of-Age-The-Transformation-of-Afro-American-Historiography.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Harris, Robert L., Jr. "The Flowering of Afro-American History". <i>American Historical Review</i>, 1987, <b>92</b>(5): 1150–1161. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0002-8762">0002-8762</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1868489">1868489</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham1992" class="citation journal cs1">Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks (1992). "African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race". <i>Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society</i>. <b>17</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">251–</span>274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F494730">10.1086/494730</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144201941">144201941</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Signs%3A+Journal+of+Women+in+Culture+and+Society&rft.atitle=African-American+Women%27s+History+and+the+Metalanguage+of+Race&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E251-%3C%2Fspan%3E274&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F494730&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144201941%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Evelyn+Brooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHine2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hine, Darlene Clark (2007). "African American Women and Their Communities in the Twentieth Century: The Foundation and Future of Black Women's Studies". <i>Black Women, Gender & Families</i>. <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>23. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/blacwomegendfami.1.1.0001">10.5406/blacwomegendfami.1.1.0001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Black+Women%2C+Gender+%26+Families&rft.atitle=African+American+Women+and+Their+Communities+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+The+Foundation+and+Future+of+Black+Women%27s+Studies&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5406%2Fblacwomegendfami.1.1.0001%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hine&rft.aufirst=Darlene+Clark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hine, Darlene Clark, ed. <i>Afro-American History: Past, Present, and Future</i> (1980).</li> <li>Hine, Darlene Clark. <i>Hine Sight: Black Women and the Re-Construction of American History</i> (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0253211247/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Hornsby Jr., Alton, et al. eds. <i>A Companion to African American History</i> (2005). 580 pp. 31 long essays by experts covering African and diasporic connections in the context of the transatlantic slave trade; colonial and antebellum African, European, and indigenous relations; processes of cultural exchange; war and emancipation; post-emancipation community and institution building; intersections of class and gender; migration; and struggles for civil rights. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631230661" title="Special:BookSources/0631230661">0631230661</a></li> <li>McMillen, Neil R. "Up from Jim Crow: Black History Enters the Profession's Mainstream." <i>Reviews in American History</i> 1987 <b>15</b>(4): 543–549. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0048-7511">0048-7511</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2701928">in Jstor</a></li> <li>Meier, August, and Elliott Rudwick. <i>Black History and the Historical Profession, 1915–1980</i> (1986)</li> <li>Nelson, Hasker. <i>Listening For Our Past: A Lay Guide To African American Oral History Interviewing</i> (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0964732106/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Quarles, Benjamin. <i>Black Mosaic: Essays in Afro-American History and Historiography</i> (1988).</li> <li>Rabinowitz, Howard N. "More Than the Woodward Thesis: Assessing The Strange Career of Jim Crow", <i>Journal of American History</i> <b>75</b> (December 1988): 842–56. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1901533">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Reidy, Joseph P. "Slave Emancipation Through the Prism of Archives Records" (1997), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1997/summer/slave-emancipation.html">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roper,_John_Herbert" class="mw-redirect" title="Roper, John Herbert">Roper, John Herbert</a>. <i>U. B. Phillips: A Southern Mind</i> (1984), on the white historian of slavery</li> <li>Strickland, Arvarh E., and Robert E. Weems, eds. <i>The African American Experience: An Historiographical and Bibliographical Guide</i> (Greenwood, 2001). 442pp; 17 topical chapters by experts.</li> <li>Trotter, Joe W. "African-American History: Origins, Development, and Current State of the Field," <i>OAH Magazine of History</i> <b>7</b>(4), Summer 1993, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100511053511/http://www.oah.org/pubs/magazine/africanamerican/trotter.html">online edition</a></li> <li>Wright, William D. <i>Black History and Black Identity: A Call for a New Historiography</i> (2002), proposes new racial and ethnic terminology and classifications for the study of black people and history.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0275974421/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYacovone2018" class="citation news cs1">Yacovone, Donald (April 8, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/How-Scholars-Sustained-White/243053">"Textbook Racism. How scholars sustained white supremacy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_Higher_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronicle of Higher Education">Chronicle of Higher Education</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 18,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chronicle+of+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=Textbook+Racism.+How+scholars+sustained+white+supremacy&rft.date=2018-04-08&rft.aulast=Yacovone&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chronicle.com%2Farticle%2FHow-Scholars-Sustained-White%2F243053&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Aptheker, Herbert, ed. <i>A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States</i>. (7 vols, 1951–1994)</li> <li>Baker, Ray Stannard. <i>Following the Color Line: An Account of Negro Citizenship in the American Democracy</i> (1908) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/followingcolorli00bake">online</a>.</li> <li>Berlin, Ira, ed. <i>Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War</i> (1995)</li> <li>Bracey, John H., and Manisha Sinha, eds. <i>African American Mosaic: A Documentary History from the Slave Trade to the Twenty-First Century</i>, (2 vols, 2004)</li> <li>Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. <i>Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States, Volume II. (Bulletin, 1916, No. 39) </i> (1917) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED542635">online</a></li> <li>Chafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, eds. <i>Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South</i> (2003) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1565847784/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Finkenbine, Roy E. <i>Sources of the African-American Past: Primary Sources in American History</i> (2nd edn 2003)</li> <li>Hampton, Henry, and Steve Fayer, eds. <i>Voices of Freedom</i> (1990), oral histories of civil rights movement</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart,_Albert_Bushnell1910" class="citation book cs1">Hart, Albert Bushnell (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/southernsouth00hart"><i>The Southern South</i></a>. D. Appleton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780837118901" title="Special:BookSources/9780837118901"><bdi>9780837118901</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Southern+South&rft.pub=D.+Appleton&rft.date=1910&rft.isbn=9780837118901&rft.au=Hart%2C+Albert+Bushnell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsouthernsouth00hart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfrican-American+history" class="Z3988"></span> by a white Harvard professor; focus on race relations</li> <li>King Jr., Martin Luther. <i>I Have a Dream: Writings and Speeches That Changed the World</i> (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0062505521/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>King Jr., Martin Luther. <i><a href="/wiki/Why_We_Can%27t_Wait" title="Why We Can't Wait">Why We Can't Wait</a></i> (1963/1964; 2000)</li> <li>King Jr., Martin Luther. <i>The Papers of Martin Luther King, Jr.: Volume VI: Advocate of the Social Gospel, September 1948–March 1963</i> (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0520248740/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Levy, Peter B. <i>Let Freedom Ring: A Documentary History of the Modern Civil Rights Movement</i> (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/27510341?title=Let%20Freedom%20Ring%3a%20A%20Documentary%20History%20of%20the%20Modern%20Civil%20Rights%20Movement">online edition</a></li> <li>Rawick, George P. ed. <i>The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography</i> (19 vols, 1972), oral histories with ex-slaves conducted in the 1930s by <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a></li> <li>Sernett, Milton C. <i>African American Religious History: A Documentary Witness</i> (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0822305941/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Wright, Kai, ed. <i>The African-American Archive: The History of the Black Experience Through Documents</i> (2001)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=African-American_history&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071017063102/http://www.africanamericanhistory.tv/">"African American History Channel"</a> – African-American History Channel</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia">"Africans in America"</a> – PBS 4-Part Series (2007)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0465043895">Living Black History:</a> How Reimagining the African-American Past Can Remake America's Racial Future by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.manningmarable.net/">Manning Marable</a> (2006)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/mss/guide/african.html">Library of Congress</a> – African American History and Culture</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/aaohtml/exhibit/aointro.html">Library of Congress</a> – African American Odyssey</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Events495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Events</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Colonial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_North_America" title="Geological history of North America">Prehistoric</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian Era</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United 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href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution#Origin" title="American Revolution">Prelude to Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Proclamation of 1763</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp 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title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">and Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Mutiny_of_1783" title="Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783">Pennsylvania Mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Ordinance" title="Northwest Ordinance">Northwest Ordinance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of the Constitution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings" title="Era of Good Feelings">Era of Good Feelings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Compromise" title="Missouri Compromise">Missouri Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner's slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullification_crisis" title="Nullification crisis">Nullification crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Westward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Falls_Convention" title="Seneca Falls Convention">Seneca Falls Convention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Gold_Rush" class="mw-redirect" title="California Gold Rush">California Gold Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Prelude to War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1850" title="Compromise of 1850">Compromise of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas%E2%80%93Nebraska_Act" title="Kansas–Nebraska Act">Kansas–Nebraska Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_Kansas" title="Bleeding Kansas">Bleeding Kansas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott decision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election" title="1860 United States presidential election">Election of Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America#Secession" title="Confederate States of America">Secession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">Assassination of Abraham Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">First transcontinental railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution#United_States" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_of_Wealth" title="The Gospel of Wealth">The Gospel of Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield" title="Assassination of James A. Garfield">Assassination of James A. Garfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendleton_Civil_Service_Reform_Act" title="Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act">Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymarket_affair" title="Haymarket affair">Haymarket affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_William_McKinley" title="Assassination of William McKinley">Assassination of William McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_Deal" title="Square Deal">Square Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)#American_approach" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Red_Scare" title="First Red Scare">First Red Scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan#Second_Klan:_1915–1944" title="Ku Klux Klan">Second Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bath_School_disaster" title="Bath School disaster">Bath School disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_crash_of_1929" title="Wall Street crash of 1929">Wall Street crash of 1929</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust_Bowl" title="Dust Bowl">Dust Bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_strike_wave_of_1945%E2%80%931946" title="United States strike wave of 1945–1946">Strike wave of 1945–1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1947%E2%80%931948)" title="Cold War (1947–1948)">Start of Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1948%E2%80%931953)" title="Cold War (1948–1953)">Early Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Treaty" title="North Atlantic Treaty">North Atlantic Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivy_Mike" title="Ivy Mike">Ivy Mike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion" title="Post–World War II economic expansion">Post-war boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Early–mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Project Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Mid Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Saigon" title="Fall of Saigon">Fall of Saigon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second-wave feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">Gay liberation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_riots" title="Stonewall riots">Stonewall riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_Majority" title="Moral Majority">Moral Majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_era" title="Reagan era">Reagan era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Contra_affair" title="Iran–Contra affair">Iran–Contra affair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">Crack epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1979%E2%80%931985)" title="Cold War (1979–1985)">Late Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">Invasion of Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985%E2%80%931991)" title="Cold War (1985–1991)">End of the Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_drugs" title="War on drugs">War on drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">Invasion of Panama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">NAFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots"> Los Angeles riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_World_Trade_Center_bombing" title="1993 World Trade Center bombing">WTC bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waco_siege" title="Waco siege">Waco siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Revolution" title="Republican Revolution">Republican Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbine_High_School_massacre" title="Columbine High School massacre">Columbine</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Tech_shooting" title="Virginia Tech shooting">Virginia Tech shooting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden" title="Killing of Osama bin Laden">Killing of Osama bin Laden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="List of mass shootings in the United States">Rise in mass shootings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Tucson_shooting" title="2011 Tucson shooting">Tucson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Aurora_theater_shooting" title="2012 Aurora theater shooting">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting">Sandy Hook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_nightclub_shooting" title="Pulse nightclub shooting">Orlando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Las_Vegas_shooting" title="2017 Las Vegas shooting">Las Vegas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkland_high_school_shooting" title="Parkland high school shooting">Parkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">El Paso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uvalde_school_shooting" title="Uvalde school shooting">Uvalde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_recession" title="COVID-19 recession">recession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_6_United_States_Capitol_attack" title="January 6 United States Capitol attack">January 6 insurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_US_troop_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan">Afghanistan withdrawal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dobbs_v._Jackson_Women%27s_Health_Organization" title="Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization">Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Support of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump#Investigations,_criminal_charges,_civil_lawsuits" title="Donald Trump">Indictments of Donald Trump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history_of_the_United_States" title="Cultural history of the United States">Cultural</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cinema_in_the_United_States" title="History of cinema in the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_the_United_States" title="Music history of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sports_in_the_United_States" title="History of sports in the United States">Sports</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demography</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economy</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_banking_in_the_United_States" title="History of banking in the United States">Banking</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of education in the United States">Education</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="History of higher education in the United States">Higher education</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">Flag</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_government" title="History of the United States government">Government</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_abortion_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_civil_rights_in_the_United_States" title="History of civil rights in the United States">Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_corruption_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">The Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of the United States debt ceiling">Debt ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_direct_democracy_in_the_United_States" title="History of direct democracy in the United States">Direct democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_foreign_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of United States foreign policy">Foreign policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_taxation_in_the_United_States" title="History of taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">Voting rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Merchant_Marine" title="History of the United States Merchant Marine">Merchant Marine</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Army" title="History of the United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Marine_Corps" title="History of the United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="History of the United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Air_Force" title="History of the United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Space_Force" title="History of the United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Coast_Guard" title="History of the United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_eras_of_the_United_States" title="Political eras of the United States">Party Systems</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Party_System" title="Second Party System">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">Religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technology and industry</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_lumber_industry_in_the_United_States" title="History of the lumber industry in the United States">Lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="History of medicine in the United States">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="History of rail transportation in the United States">Railway</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Groups495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Groups</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">African American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">Asian American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">Chinese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Filipino_Americans" title="History of Filipino Americans">Filipino American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian-American_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian-American history">Indian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans" title="History of Japanese Americans">Japanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Americans">Korean American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thai_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Thai Americans">Thai American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnamese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/European_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Albanian Americans">Albanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of English Americans">English American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Estonian Americans">Estonian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finnish_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Finnish Americans">Finnish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans#History" title="Irish Americans">Irish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_American#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuanian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poles_in_the_United_States" title="History of Poles in the United States">Polish American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Serbian Americans">Serbian American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">Mexican American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">Jewish American</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Middle_Eastern_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern American</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egyptian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Egyptian Americans">Egyptian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iranian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iranian Americans">Iranian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraqi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Iraqi Americans">Iraqi American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanese_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Lebanese Americans">Lebanese American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestinian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palestinian Americans">Palestinian American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Saudi Americans">Saudi American</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_history" title="Cherokee history">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_history" title="Comanche history">Comanche</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">Women</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_history_in_the_United_States" title="LGBTQ history in the United States">LGBTQ</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_gay_men_in_the_United_States" title="History of gay men in the United States">Gay men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_lesbianism_in_the_United_States" title="History of lesbianism in the United States">Lesbians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_history_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender history in the United States">Transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Places495" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Places</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_admission_to_the_Union" title="List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_regions_of_the_United_States" title="Historical regions of the United States">Historical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_England" title="History of New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Southern United States">The South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">The West Coast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alaska" title="History of Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arizona" title="History of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Arkansas" title="History of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_California" title="History of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colorado" title="History of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Connecticut" title="History of Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="History of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hawaii" title="History of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Idaho" title="History of Idaho">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Illinois" title="History of Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indiana" title="History of Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iowa" title="History of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kansas" title="History of Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kentucky" title="History of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Louisiana" title="History of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maine" title="History of Maine">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maryland" title="History of Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts" title="History of Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Michigan" title="History of Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mississippi" title="History of Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Missouri" title="History of Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montana" title="History of Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nebraska" title="History of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nevada" title="History of Nevada">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Jersey" title="History of New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Mexico" title="History of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_(state)" title="History of New York (state)">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Carolina" title="History of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Dakota" title="History of North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ohio" title="History of Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oklahoma" title="History of Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oregon" title="History of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pennsylvania" title="History of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rhode_Island" title="History of Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Carolina" title="History of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Dakota" title="History of South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tennessee" title="History of Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Texas" title="History of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Utah" title="History of Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vermont" title="History of Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Virginia" title="History of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington_(state)" title="History of Washington (state)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Virginia" title="History of West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wisconsin" title="History of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wyoming" title="History of Wyoming">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Federal District</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Washington,_D.C." title="History of Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Insular areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_Samoa" title="History of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guam" title="History of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Northern Mariana Islands">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico" title="History of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outlying islands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Baker_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Baker Island">Baker Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Howland_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Howland Island">Howland Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jarvis_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Johnston_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kingman_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kingman Reef">Kingman Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Midway_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Navassa_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Navassa Island">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palmyra_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Palmyra Atoll">Palmyra Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wake_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Wake Island">Wake Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_urban_history" title="American urban history">Urban history</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Histories_of_cities_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Histories of cities in the United States">Cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_United_States" title="List of years in the United States">List of years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_United_States" title="Historiography of the United States">Historiography</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_United_States" title="Category:History of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans629" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans629" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Black genocide in the United States">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_African_diaspora" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African diaspora">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBTQ_community" title="African-American LGBTQ community">LGBTQ community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" class="mw-redirect" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Freedmen" title="Cherokee Freedmen">Cherokee Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Choctaw Freedmen">Choctaw Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_Nebraska" title="African-American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_(state)" title="African Americans in New York (state)">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_jurists" title="List of African American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_firsts" title="Timeline of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)366" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)366" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_and_Birmingham_bus_attacks" title="Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks">Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Friends_Service_Committee" title="American Friends Service Committee">American Friends Service Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juanita_Abernathy" title="Juanita Abernathy">Juanita Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut_Jr." title="J. L. Chestnut Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_song" title="Freedom song">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gullah_people_topics158" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gullah_topics" title="Template:Gullah topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gullah_topics" title="Template talk:Gullah topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gullah_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gullah topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gullah_people_topics158" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah people</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Film and television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Conrack" title="Conrack">Conrack</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_House_Divided:_Denmark_Vesey%27s_Rebellion" title="A House Divided: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion">A House Divided: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Soldier%27s_Story" title="A Soldier's Story">A Soldier's Story</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Glory_(1989_film)" title="Glory (1989 film)">Glory</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daughters_of_the_Dust" title="Daughters of the Dust">Daughters of the Dust</a></i> (1991)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gullah_Gullah_Island" title="Gullah Gullah Island">Gullah Gullah Island</a></i> (1994–2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bruh_Rabbit_and_the_Tar_Baby_Girl" title="Bruh Rabbit and the Tar Baby Girl">Bruh Rabbit and the Tar Baby Girl</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vibration_Cooking" title="Vibration Cooking">Vibration Cooking</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Religion and folklore</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-American religion">Afro-American religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Church_(African_American)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Church (African American)">Black church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boo_Hag" class="mw-redirect" title="Boo Hag">Boo Hag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Africans" title="Flying Africans">Flying Africans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(folk_magic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoodoo (folk magic)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mojo_(African-American_culture)" title="Mojo (African-American culture)">Mojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cat_bone" title="Black cat bone">Black cat bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goofer_dust" title="Goofer dust">Goofer dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haint_blue" title="Haint blue">Haint blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_foot_powder" title="Hot foot powder">Hot foot powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Conqueror" title="John the Conqueror">John the Conqueror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbit%27s_foot" title="Rabbit's foot">Rabbit's foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_shout" title="Ring shout">Ring shout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_and_Seventh_Books_of_Moses" title="Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses">Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Music and culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_red_rice" title="Charleston red rice">Charleston red rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah/Geechee_Cultural_Heritage_Corridor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor">Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">Kumbaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Row_the_Boat_Ashore" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Row the Boat Ashore">Michael Row the Boat Ashore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranky_Tanky" title="Ranky Tanky">Ranky Tanky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot_Hive/Exodus" title="Robot Hive/Exodus">Robot Hive/Exodus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Related culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">African-American culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Africa" title="Culture of Africa">Culture of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg/100px-Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg/150px-Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg/200px-Wooden_rice_mortar_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1452" data-file-height="1161" /></a></span><br /> <span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gullah_basket.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gullah_basket.JPG/100px-Gullah_basket.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gullah_basket.JPG/150px-Gullah_basket.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Gullah_basket.JPG/200px-Gullah_basket.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3796" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%;text-align:center;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">History topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilali_Document" title="Bilali Document">Bilali Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Landing" title="Igbo Landing">Igbo Landing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Royal_Experiment" title="Port Royal Experiment">Port Royal Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stono_Rebellion" title="Stono Rebellion">Stono Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaufort,_South_Carolina" title="Beaufort, South Carolina">Beaufort, South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daufuskie_Island" title="Daufuskie Island">Daufuskie Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulonia,_Georgia" title="Eulonia, Georgia">Eulonia, Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Isles_of_Georgia" title="Golden Isles of Georgia">Golden Isles of Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapelo_Island" title="Sapelo Island">Sapelo Island</a> (protected site) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hog_Hammock,_Georgia" title="Hog Hammock, Georgia">Hog Hammock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Lowcountry" title="South Carolina Lowcountry">South Carolina Lowcountry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Related history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">African-American history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline of African-American history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Angola" title="History of Angola">History of Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Benin" title="History of Benin">History of Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Republic of the Congo">History of Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ghana" title="History of Ghana">History of Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of Guinea-Bissau">History of Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liberia" title="History of Liberia">History of Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria" title="History of Nigeria">History of Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Senegambia_Confederation" title="Senegambia Confederation">Senegambia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Senegal" title="History of Senegal">History of Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Gambia" title="History of the Gambia">History of the Gambia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sierra_Leone" title="History of Sierra Leone">History of Sierra Leone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunce_Island" title="Bunce Island">Bunce Island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Related ethnic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Ambundu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baga_people" title="Baga people">Baga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jola_people" title="Jola people">Jola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissi_people" title="Kissi people">Kissi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_people" title="Kpelle people">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limba_people_(Sierra_Leone)" title="Limba people (Sierra Leone)">Limba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Mandinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_people" title="Mende people">Mende</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susu_people" title="Susu people">Susu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temne_people" title="Temne people">Temne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_people" title="Vai people">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_people" title="Serer people">Serer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serer-Laalaa" title="Serer-Laalaa">Laalaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer-Ndut_people" title="Serer-Ndut people">Ndut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niominka_people" title="Niominka people">Niominka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer-Noon" title="Serer-Noon">Noon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palor_people" title="Palor people">Palor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saafi_people" title="Saafi people">Saafi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toucouleur_people" title="Toucouleur people">Toucouleur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" 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