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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Palsa_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palsa_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Palsa development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palsa_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Geographic distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effects of climate change</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_of_climate_change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects of climate change subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effect_on_palsa_forms_due_to_change_in_climatic_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_palsa_forms_due_to_change_in_climatic_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Effect on palsa forms due to change in climatic conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_palsa_forms_due_to_change_in_climatic_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palsa_and_GHG-fluxes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palsa_and_GHG-fluxes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Palsa and GHG-fluxes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palsa_and_GHG-fluxes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_continued_occurrence_of_palsa_mires_in_Fennoscandia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_continued_occurrence_of_palsa_mires_in_Fennoscandia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>The continued occurrence of palsa mires in Fennoscandia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_continued_occurrence_of_palsa_mires_in_Fennoscandia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_ecosystems_and_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_ecosystems_and_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Effects on ecosystems and species</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_ecosystems_and_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_and_commonalities_between_pingos_and_palsas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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<span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" 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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Palsa</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Palsa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palso" title="Palso – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Palso" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palse" title="Palse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Palse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsa" title="Palsa – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Palsa" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BAstir_(jar%C3%B0fr%C3%A6%C3%B0i)" title="Rústir (jarðfræði) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rústir (jarðfræði)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsa" title="Palsa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Palsa" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsa" title="Palsa – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Palsa" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsa" title="Palsa – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Palsa" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsa" title="Palsa – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Palsa" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pals" title="Pals – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pals" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pals" title="Pals – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Pals" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugier_mrozowy" title="Bugier mrozowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bugier mrozowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsasuo" title="Palsasuo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Palsasuo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pals" title="Pals – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pals" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsa" title="Palsa – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Palsa" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Пальза – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Пальза" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> 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searchaux" style="display:none">A low, often oval, frost heave occurring in polar and subpolar climates</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palsaaerialview.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Palsaaerialview.jpg/300px-Palsaaerialview.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Palsaaerialview.jpg/450px-Palsaaerialview.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Palsaaerialview.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="382" /></a><figcaption>A group of well developed palsas as seen from above</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Palsas</b> are <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> <a href="/wiki/Mound" title="Mound">mounds</a> with a permanently frozen peat and mineral soil core. They are a typical phenomenon in the <a href="/wiki/Polar_climate" title="Polar climate">polar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subarctic_climate" title="Subarctic climate">subpolar</a> zone of discontinuous <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>. One of their characteristics is having steep slopes that rise above the <a href="/wiki/Mire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mire">mire</a> surface. This leads to the accumulation of large amounts of snow around them. The summits of the palsas are free of snow even in winter, because the wind carries the snow and deposits on the slopes and elsewhere on the flat mire surface. Palsas can be up to 150 m (490 ft) in diameter and can reach a height of 12 m (39 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Permafrost is found on palsa <a href="/wiki/Mire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mire">mires</a> only in the palsas themselves, and its formation is based on the physical properties of peat. Dry peat is a good insulator, but wet peat conducts heat better, and frozen peat is even better at conducting heat. This means that cold can penetrate deep into the peat layers, and that heat can easily flow from deeper wet layers in winter, whereas the dry peat on the palsa surface insulates the frozen core and prevents it from thawing in the summer.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that palsas can survive in a climate where the mean annual temperature is just below the freezing point.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Lithalsa" title="Lithalsa">lithalsa</a> is a palsa without peat cover. They exist in a smaller range than palsas, commonly occurring in <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_climate" title="Oceanic climate">oceanic climate</a> regimes. However both palsas and lithalsas are relatively small compared to <a href="/wiki/Pingo" title="Pingo">pingos</a>, typically less than 3 m (9.8 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Elsevier_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsevier-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Palsa_development">Palsa development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Palsa development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Palsas may be initiated in areas of a moor or <a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">bog</a> where the winter freezing front penetrates relatively faster than surrounding areas, perhaps due to an unusually thin cover of <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of thermal insulation provided by thick snow permits much deeper freezing in winter. This ice may then last through the summer with a persistent 'bump' of up to several cm due to frost heave. The elevated surface of a palsa will tend also to have thinner snow cover, allowing greater winter cooling, while in summer the surface material (especially if <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic</a>) will dry out and provide <a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">thermal insulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus the interior temperature is consistently lower than that of adjacent ground. This contributes to the formation of an <a href="/wiki/Ice_lens" title="Ice lens">ice lens</a> which grows by drawing up surrounding water. The expansion of the ice upon freezing exerts pressure on the surrounding soil, further forcing water out of its pore spaces which then accumulates on and increases the volume of the growing ice lens. A <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> loop develops. Changes in surface moisture and vegetation will then be such as to preserve the newly formed permafrost.<sup id="cite_ref-Mattipalsa1986_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattipalsa1986-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The overlying soil layer is gradually lifted up by <a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">frost heaving</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In cross-section, the ice cores of a palsa show layering, which is caused by the successive winter freezing intervals. The pressing out of water from the pores is not crucial, however, since the boggy soil is water-saturated and thus always provides enough water for ice core growth. </p><p>Many scientists agree that the development of a palsa is cyclic where growth continues until a convex form of the palsa is reached. When this occurs an increasing pressure in the uppermost layer of peat will cause cracks in the peat layer which will result in the sliding of the peat layer toward the sides of the palsa. As this layer of peat generates an insulating effect the regression of the layer will thereby expose the permafrost in the palsa and initiate melting. In this case, the melting of the palsa is a normal part of the cyclic development and, it will be possible for new embryonic palsa forms to develop in the same area. However, the studies done on palsa forms has primarily been observing dome palsas in the northern regions. These study areas lie within the core area for palsa occurrences and therefore are the cyclic development applicable only to dome palsas within the core area.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palsa plateaus often lack the convex form which causes cracks in the peat layers and the decay of dome palsas. But in palsa plateaus, frost expansion which causes swelling will with time create an uneven surface and increase the possibility for water accumulation on the surface and cause local regression and melting. This process, which causes melting likewise the cracking of the peat layer in dome palsas, is a normal part in the life span of palsa plateaus but are not a part of a cyclic evolvement.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palsas appear to go through a developmental cycle that eventually leads to thawing and collapse. Open cracks that commonly accompany palsa growth and the water that tends to accumulate around palsas, probably as a result of their weight depressing the adjacent bog surface, are important factors in this process. The fact that palsas in various stages of growth and decay occur together shows that their collapse is not necessarily indicative of climatic change. All that is usually left after a palsa collapses is a depression surrounded by a rim.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Storflaket.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Storflaket.JPG/170px-Storflaket.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Storflaket.JPG/255px-Storflaket.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Storflaket.JPG/340px-Storflaket.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Storflaket" title="Storflaket">Storflaket</a> <a href="/wiki/Peat_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Peat bog">peat bog</a> near <a href="/wiki/Abisko" title="Abisko">Abisko</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> is a permafrost plateau. It shows some signs of collapse such as cracks at its borders.</figcaption></figure> <p>One specific type of <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">mire</a> at which palsa structures appear is called a palsa mire.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But, sometimes the nature type is described as palsa bogs,<sup id="cite_ref-:7_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, they both refer to a peaty <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> where palsa mounds occur. In palsa mires, palsas which are in different stages of development can appear due to the cyclic development of the structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Mattipalsa1986_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattipalsa1986-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:8_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the collapsed form of the palsas are common in these areas which can be seen as rounded ponds, open peat surfaces or low circular rim ridges.<sup id="cite_ref-Mattipalsa1986_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattipalsa1986-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The individual palsa is described as a mound or a larger elevation in peatland with a core of permanently frozen <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> and/or mineral soil with an uppermost active layer of peat.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The landform occurs in areas with discontinuous permafrost.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jahn1986_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jahn1986-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The core of palsas stays frozen permanently, including summertime, as the peat layer creates an insulating effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Mattipalsa1986_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattipalsa1986-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mostly palsas have an oval or elongated form but different shapes of palsas have been described. In some places (Laivadalen and Keinovuopio in northern <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>), palsa complexes which consist of several dome-shaped palsas have been found. At other places (Seitajaure in northern Sweden), another palsa structure is described. Here several palsa-plateaus have been found which have flatter surfaces and steep edges.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palsa forms include mounds, plateaus and ridges of different sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-Natenpals_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Natenpals-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Palsas in Iceland have been described as hump-shaped, dike-shaped, plateau-shaped, ring-shaped, and shield-shaped.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Those in Norway have been referred to as palsa plateaus, esker palsas, string palsas, conical or dome-shaped palsas, and palsa complexes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Widths are commonly 10–30 m (33–98 ft), and lengths 15–150 m (49–490 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, lengths of up to 500 m (1,600 ft) have been reported for esker-like palsa ridges running parallel to the gradient of a <a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">bog</a>. Heights range from less than 1 m (3 ft 3 in) up to 6–7 m (20–23 ft),<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but can reach about 10 m (33 ft) at a maximum above the surrounding area. Large forms tend to be considerably less conical than small ones. In places, palsas combine to form complexes several hundred meters in extent. The permafrost core contains <a href="/wiki/Ice_lens" title="Ice lens">ice lenses</a> no thicker than 2–3 cm (0.79–1.2 in), though locally lenses up to almost 40 cm (16 in) thick have been described. </p><p>During the cyclic development, the palsa goes through several stages at which the morphology differs. In the initial aggrading stage of development, the palsas have smooth surfaces with no cracks in the peat layer and no visible signs of <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> can be seen. They are often small and dome-shaped and often referred to as embryo palsas.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this stage ice layers are created which are commonly found in the frozen peat core. It has been suggested that these ice layers are created by <a href="/wiki/Ice_segregation" title="Ice segregation">ice segregation</a> but, it is most certainly <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> that is the reason for the formation of the ice layers. Buoyant rise of the core occurs which freezes when the permafrost reaches the area and creates the ice layers.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the stable, mature phase, the surface has risen further to a level at which the snow cover during winter is thinned by the wind which in turn makes it possible for deeper freezing. In the mature stage, the frozen core has reached beyond the peat layer into the underlying <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silty</a> <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> and during summer thawing of the core occurs but not to an extent where the core thaws completely. The thawing can sometimes create water filled ponds adjacent to the palsa and in some cases, cracks in the peat layer along these ponds can be present in the stable stage. However, these cracks are small in size and no visible signs of block <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> are seen during the sable stage. During the degrading stage, however, the palsas have large cracks up to several meters which divide the peat layer into blocks and so-called block erosion occurs. Adjacent to palsas in the degrading stage often several individual ponds are found, due to thawing of the frozen core.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">Wind erosion</a> often affect the peat layer to such a degree that it decreases in thickness with sometimes several decimeters.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When palsa plateaus are in the degrading stage several ponds on the flat plateau-surface can be seen which often have neighbouring block erosion. When block erosion occurs the mineral soil is often exposed along the cracks, especially when the peat layer is thin.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zoneofpalsas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Zoneofpalsas.jpg/290px-Zoneofpalsas.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Zoneofpalsas.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anders_Rapp" title="Anders Rapp">Anders Rapp</a>'s map of the limit of palsas and discontinuous permafrost in <a href="/wiki/Fennoscandia" title="Fennoscandia">Fennoscandia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Palsas are typical forms of the <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">discontinuous permafrost zone</a> regions and are therefore found in <a href="/wiki/Subarctic" title="Subarctic">Subarctic</a> regions of northern <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Fennoscandia" title="Fennoscandia">Fennoscandia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mattipalsa1986_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mattipalsa1986-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jahn1986_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jahn1986-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are almost exclusively associated with the presence of <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a><sup id="cite_ref-Jahn1986_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jahn1986-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and commonly occur in areas where the winters are long and the snow cover tends to be thin. In some places palsas extend into underlying permafrost; in others they rest on an unfrozen substratum. </p><p>In the southern hemisphere palsa remains from the <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_maximum" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial maximum">last glacial maximum</a> have been identified on the Argentine side of <a href="/wiki/Isla_Grande_de_Tierra_del_Fuego" title="Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego">Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego</a> just north of <a href="/wiki/Cami_Lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Cami Lake">Cami Lake</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Trombotto2008_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trombotto2008-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Remainders of <a href="/wiki/Ice-Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice-Age">Ice-Age</a> palsas are to be found also in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hochmooren&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hochmooren (page does not exist)">Hochmooren</a> of Central Europe, such as <a href="/wiki/High_Venn" class="mw-redirect" title="High Venn">Hohen Venn</a> in the German-Belgian border area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_climate_change">Effects of climate change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Effects of climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_palsa_forms_due_to_change_in_climatic_conditions">Effect on palsa forms due to change in climatic conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Effect on palsa forms due to change in climatic conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Erosion of palsa forms and the receding of the permafrost in the core of the palsa does not directly indicate a change in climatic conditions. As the palsas have a cyclic development the thawing of the core is a normal part of the palsa development. However, change in climatic conditions does affect palsa forms. The palsa forms that lay in the outskirt of the occurrence area are more dependent on climatic conditions for existence than the palsa forms near the core of the occurrence area.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study on palsa forms was done in 1998 at <a href="/wiki/Dovrefjell" title="Dovrefjell">Dovrefjell</a>, in southern Norway. At the time of observation, the mean annual temperature lied just under 0 °C (32 °F) in the area. These areas are certainly sensitive to changes in temperature; just a small temperature rise can have a great effect on the lasting existence of palsas in the specific region.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measurements from meteorological stations in the area show that the mean annual temperature rose 0.8 °C between the time periods of 1901–1930 and 1961–1990. Since the start of the warming trend in the 1930s, entire palsa bogs and large palsa plateaus have completely melted in the Dovrefjell area.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Palsa bogs' sensitivity to changes in temperature makes them a good climate indicator.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study in the Dovrefjell area concluded that if palsas are used as climate indicators it is essential to separate large changes in the distribution of permafrost from smaller changes. Smaller changes are caused by shorter climatic variations which only last a few years. Small dome palsas, which also can be called embryo palsas, can develop as a result of smaller variations in climatic conditions such as a few following cold winters. As these small palsas disappear after just a few years, they fail to establish as permanent formations. This phenomenon has been observed in the Dovrefjell in the last decades and is caused by a larger change in the climatic condition where the temperature has risen to a level at which the palsas cannot fully initiate their cyclic development. This is a consequence of climate change with the warming trend which has been observed in the Dovrefjell area. In this area, the climate has not been cold enough for new palsa forms to establish during the whole of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, some uncertainties of how the local conditions affect the formation of palsa forms and especially the <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a> of palsa mires still exist. Additionally, more active-layer monitoring and its correlation to local weather conditions is needed to better determine the effect of climate change on palsa mires.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palsa_and_GHG-fluxes">Palsa and GHG-fluxes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Palsa and GHG-fluxes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because the top mounds of the palsas are more dry and nutrient poor than their wet surroundings, they create a mosaic of <a href="/wiki/Microhabitats" class="mw-redirect" title="Microhabitats">microhabitats</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Mire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mire">mire</a>. The occurrence of a palsa is determined by several climatological factors, such as air temperature, precipitation and snow thickness. Therefore, an increase in temperature and precipitation may induce thawing of frozen peat and subsidence of the peat surface. This results in a thicker <a href="/wiki/Active_layer" title="Active layer">active layer</a> and wetter conditions. The vegetation, therefore, changes in adaptation to the wetter conditions. The expanding wetness is projected to benefit <a href="/wiki/Sphagnum_mosses" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphagnum mosses">sphagnum mosses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Graminoid" title="Graminoid">graminoids</a>, at the expense of the dryer palsa vegetation. The associated changes in <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> fluxes are increased CO<sub>2</sub> uptake and increased methane emission, mainly due to the expansion of tall graminoids.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_continued_occurrence_of_palsa_mires_in_Fennoscandia">The continued occurrence of palsa mires in Fennoscandia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The continued occurrence of palsa mires in Fennoscandia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The lasting occurrence of palsa mires is endangered by several factors. Foremost of these is climate change, with palsa mires located on the margins of their climatic distribution being the most vulnerable. Climate change causes an increase in the average annual temperature, which must lay under 0 °C (32 °F) for palsas to persist.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  Palsas also generally require relatively low precipitation (generally < 500 mm annually <sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and increases in precipitation due to climate change may result in palsa degradation and thaw. Increases in snowfall can mean that the palsas are more insulated and therefore do not get as cold in winter. Conversely, increased rainfall in the summer months can result in higher ground thermal conductivities and greater heat transfer to the palsa core. The effects are already visible: many studies<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> report degradation of palsa mires during the last decades with the primary cause for the loss of habitat area being climate change. <a href="/wiki/Climate_envelope_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate envelope model">Climate envelope models</a> have been used to predict the future distribution of palsas under different <a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">climate change scenarios</a>: one such study found that Fennoscandia is likely to become climatically unsuitable for palsas by 2040, and that strong mitigation (SSP1-2.6) is required to retain a significant suitable area for palsas in Western Siberia.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another factor is particles from atmospheric fallout which can influence the <a href="/wiki/Hydrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrochemistry">hydrochemistry</a> and degradation rate of <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>. Furthermore, community building and primarily such that have an impact on the <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a> and hydrochemistry can damage the habitat of palsa mires. But, the impact from this kind of activity is minimal considering the extent of the occurrence area which is relatively large compared to the impacted area.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Palsa mires are a prioritized habitat type in <a href="/wiki/Habitats_Directive" title="Habitats Directive">EU's Species and Habitats Directive</a> and therefore conservation of palsa mires within Sweden and Finland is of great interest.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conservation of this habitat can be fulfilled with measures of such kind that they sustain a favourable conservation status and degradation of the palsa mires are avoided. But in 2013 Sweden reported the conservation status for the palsa mires to be poor and in many areas the palsas have collapsed and there is a high risk for extinction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_ecosystems_and_species">Effects on ecosystems and species</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Effects on ecosystems and species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A typical palsa mire has a high level of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, ranging from several different types of bird species to tiny organisms like bacteria. This is largely because of particularly due to its outstanding <a href="/wiki/Minerotrophic" title="Minerotrophic">minerotrophic</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ombrotrophic" title="Ombrotrophic">ombrotrophic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> gradients, which enables the presence of several microhabitats distributed in different degrees of wetness. Palsa mires are listed as a priority habitat type by the European Union, and climate change may pose a great risk to its ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although much research has been carried out on degradation of palsa mires, there is still an enormous information gap on what implications on biodiversity disruptions in ecosystems may have. In fact, there is not much at all known about many organisms inhabiting palsas. It is vital to gain more knowledge about the distribution of these organisms, as well as patterns of species richness long-term, in order to understand and predict possible implications of potential loss of palsa. Without this key knowledge, understanding the biological importance of palsa mires is hard to assess. </p><p>In palsa mire zones in Northern Europe, abundance of bird species breeding finds it peak. This is particularly true in the case of North European <a href="/wiki/Wader" title="Wader">waders</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the northernmost of Finland, palsa mires host the highest bird species density of all compared to several different biotopes, and there are most likely the <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogeneity">heterogeneity</a> of habitats and availability of shallow waters (a basic source of food) that creates such a massive diversity of birds. Due to likely loss of palsa mires in this century, effects on wildlife and biodiversity is undeniable. Shallow waters might disappear or decrease dramatically, creating a more homogenous environment. This will likely have a negative impact on certain species of breeding birds as well as other organisms inhabiting palsa mires permanently or seasonally.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>   </p><p>The available research on ecological effects of palsa regression is scarce. As many breeding species are not exclusive to palsa mires, the question of possible extinction as a result of declining palsa mires are yet not certain. It is not a reach though, to suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Homogeneity" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity">homogenization</a> of palsa mires will bring biological consequences. There are some (however few) studies conducted on the ecological factors responsible for <a href="/wiki/Species_abundance" class="mw-redirect" title="Species abundance">species abundance</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table depth</a> is a suggested factor. To successfully conduct a comprehensive study on biodiversity effects in this area, much more research is needed to map out a lot of species living in palsa areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>   </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Differences_and_commonalities_between_pingos_and_palsas">Differences and commonalities between pingos and palsas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Differences and commonalities between pingos and palsas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both palsas and <a href="/wiki/Pingo" title="Pingo">pingos</a> are perennial frost mounds; however, pingos are typically larger than palsas and can reach heights greater than 50 m,<sup id="cite_ref-Elsevier_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsevier-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the highest palsas rarely exceed 7-10 m.<sup id="cite_ref-Jahn1986_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jahn1986-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More importantly, palsas do not have an intrusive ice core, or ice that forms as a result of local <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. However, for pingos, the defining characteristic is the presence of intrusive ice throughout most of the core. Palsas form as a result of ice-lens accumulation by <a href="/wiki/Cryosuction" title="Cryosuction">cryosuction</a>, and pingos as the result of <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic pressure">hydraulic pressure</a> if it is open, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic pressure">hydrostatic pressure</a> if it is closed.<sup id="cite_ref-Elsevier_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elsevier-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, contrary to pingos which are usually isolated, palsas usually arise in groups with other palsas, such as in a so-called <a href="/wiki/Palsa_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Palsa bog">palsa bog</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jahn1986_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jahn1986-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike pingos, palsas do not require surrounding permafrost to grow, seeing as palsa are permafrost. Pingos also grow below the active layer, which is the depth that the annual freeze-thaw cycle occurs, and palsas grow in the active layer.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both palsas and pingos result from freezing of water to an ice core. Palsas, however, do not necessarily require positive hydrostatic pressure (to inject water), since the boggy soil is water-saturated and therefore has sufficient supply for the growing ice core.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Palsas can grow laterally to a wide extent forming a "palsa plateau", also known as a "permafrost plateau". Pingos do not grow laterally to the same extent because the growth of pingos is chiefly upward; thus they are always hills. Similarly, palsas can laterally decrease in size while maintaining their height; the decay of pingos follows a different pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology_and_synonyms">Terminology and synonyms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Terminology and synonyms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Palsa (plural: palsas) is a term from the <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish language</a> meaning "a hummock rising out of a bog with a core of ice", which in turn is a borrowing from <a href="/wiki/Northern_Sami" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Sami">Northern Sami</a>, <i>balsa</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As palsas particularly develop in <a href="/wiki/Moorland" title="Moorland">moorlands</a>, they are therefore also named <i>palsamoors</i>. <i>Bugor</i> and <i>bulginniakhs</i> are general terms in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian language</a> (the latter of <a href="/wiki/Sakha_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakha language">Yakutian</a> origin) for both palsas and pingos. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKujalaSeppäläHolappa2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kujala, Kauko; Seppälä, Matti; Holappa, Teuvo (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165232X07001644">"Physical properties of peat and palsa formation"</a>. <i>Cold Regions Science and Technology</i>. <b>52</b> (3): 408–414. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Elsevier Science. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/latecenozoicpata00raba/page/n263">255</a>–268. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52954-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-52954-1"><bdi>978-0-444-52954-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geocryology+of+Southern+South+America&rft.btitle=The+Late+Cenozoic+of+Patagonia+and+Tierra+del+Fuego&rft.pages=255-268&rft.pub=Elsevier+Science&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-444-52954-1&rft.aulast=Trombotto+Liaudat&rft.aufirst=Dar%C3%ADo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flatecenozoicpata00raba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231218174937/https://public-old.wmo.int/en/resources/bulletin/using-indicators-explain-our-changing-climate-policymakers-and-public">Using indicators to explain our changing climate to policymakers and the public WMO</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarlgård,_Julia2008" class="citation book cs1">Karlgård, Julia (2008). <i>Degrading palsa mires in northern Europe: changing vegetation in an altering climate and its potential impact on greenhouse gas fluxes</i>. Lunds universitet/Institutionen för naturgeografi och ekosystemvetenskap. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1001436074">1001436074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Degrading+palsa+mires+in+northern+Europe%3A+changing+vegetation+in+an+altering+climate+and+its+potential+impact+on+greenhouse+gas+fluxes&rft.pub=Lunds+universitet%2FInstitutionen+f%C3%B6r+naturgeografi+och+ekosystemvetenskap&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1001436074&rft.au=Karlg%C3%A5rd%2C+Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naturvardsverket.se/Stod-i-miljoarbetet/Vagledningar/Skyddad-natur/Natura-2000/Natura-2000-Myrar/">"Natura 2000: Myrar -> Palsmyrar"</a>. <i>Naturvårdsverket</i> (in Swedish)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Naturv%C3%A5rdsverket&rft.atitle=Natura+2000%3A+Myrar+-%3E+Palsmyrar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naturvardsverket.se%2FStod-i-miljoarbetet%2FVagledningar%2FSkyddad-natur%2FNatura-2000%2FNatura-2000-Myrar%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParviainenLuoto2007" class="citation journal cs1">Parviainen, Miia; Luoto, Miska (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1468-0459.2007.00314.x">"Climate envelopes of mire complex types in fennoscandia"</a>. <i>Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography</i>. <b>89</b> (2): 137–151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0459.2007.00314.x">10.1111/j.1468-0459.2007.00314.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0435-3676">0435-3676</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geografiska+Annaler%3A+Series+A%2C+Physical+Geography&rft.atitle=Climate+envelopes+of+mire+complex+types+in+fennoscandia&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=137-151&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0459.2007.00314.x&rft.issn=0435-3676&rft.aulast=Parviainen&rft.aufirst=Miia&rft.au=Luoto%2C+Miska&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0459.2007.00314.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorgeWestermannSolheimEtzelmüller2017" class="citation journal cs1">Borge, Amund F.; Westermann, Sebastian; Solheim, Ingvild; Etzelmüller, Bernd (2 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.the-cryosphere.net/11/1/2017/">"Strong degradation of palsas and peat plateaus in northern Norway during the last 60 years"</a>. <i>The Cryosphere</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017TCry...11....1B">2017TCry...11....1B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Ftc-11-1-2017">10.5194/tc-11-1-2017</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10852%2F62031">10852/62031</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1994-0416">1994-0416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cryosphere&rft.atitle=Strong+degradation+of+palsas+and+peat+plateaus+in+northern+Norway+during+the+last+60+years&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=2017-01-02&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10852%2F62031&rft.issn=1994-0416&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5194%2Ftc-11-1-2017&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017TCry...11....1B&rft.aulast=Borge&rft.aufirst=Amund+F.&rft.au=Westermann%2C+Sebastian&rft.au=Solheim%2C+Ingvild&rft.au=Etzelm%C3%BCller%2C+Bernd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-cryosphere.net%2F11%2F1%2F2017%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuidhoffKolstrup2000" class="citation journal cs1">Zuidhoff, Frieda S; Kolstrup, Else (2000). "Changes in palsa distribution in relation to climate change in Laivadalen, northern Sweden, especially 1960-1997". <i>Permafrost and Periglacial Processes</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 55–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28sici%291099-1530%28200001%2F03%2911%3A1%3C55%3A%3Aaid-ppp338%3E3.0.co%3B2-t">10.1002/(sici)1099-1530(200001/03)11:1<55::aid-ppp338>3.0.co;2-t</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1045-6740">1045-6740</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Permafrost+and+Periglacial+Processes&rft.atitle=Changes+in+palsa+distribution+in+relation+to+climate+change+in+Laivadalen%2C+northern+Sweden%2C+especially+1960-1997&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-69&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28sici%291099-1530%28200001%2F03%2911%3A1%3C55%3A%3Aaid-ppp338%3E3.0.co%3B2-t&rft.issn=1045-6740&rft.aulast=Zuidhoff&rft.aufirst=Frieda+S&rft.au=Kolstrup%2C+Else&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFewsterMorrisIvanovicSwindles2022" class="citation journal cs1">Fewster, Richard E.; Morris, Paul J.; Ivanovic, Ruza F.; Swindles, Graeme T.; Peregon, Anna M.; Smith, Christopher J. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-022-01296-7">"Imminent loss of climate space for permafrost peatlands in Europe and Western Siberia"</a>. <i>Nature Climate Change</i>. <b>12</b> (4): 373–379. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41558-022-01296-7">10.1038/s41558-022-01296-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1758-6798">1758-6798</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Climate+Change&rft.atitle=Imminent+loss+of+climate+space+for+permafrost+peatlands+in+Europe+and+Western+Siberia&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=373-379&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41558-022-01296-7&rft.issn=1758-6798&rft.aulast=Fewster&rft.aufirst=Richard+E.&rft.au=Morris%2C+Paul+J.&rft.au=Ivanovic%2C+Ruza+F.&rft.au=Swindles%2C+Graeme+T.&rft.au=Peregon%2C+Anna+M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Christopher+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41558-022-01296-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuotoHeikkinenCarter2004" class="citation journal cs1">Luoto, Miska; Heikkinen, Risto K.; Carter, Timothy R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0376892904001018/type/journal_article">"Loss of palsa mires in Europe and biological consequences"</a>. <i>Environmental Conservation</i>. <b>31</b> (1): 30–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0376892904001018">10.1017/S0376892904001018</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0376-8929">0376-8929</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86157282">86157282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Conservation&rft.atitle=Loss+of+palsa+mires+in+Europe+and+biological+consequences&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30-37&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A86157282%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0376-8929&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0376892904001018&rft.aulast=Luoto&rft.aufirst=Miska&rft.au=Heikkinen%2C+Risto+K.&rft.au=Carter%2C+Timothy+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0376892904001018%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss_Mackay1978" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Ross_Mackay" title="John Ross Mackay">Ross Mackay, J.</a> (1978). "Contemporary pingos: A discussion". <i><a href="/wiki/Biuletyn_Peryglacjalny" title="Biuletyn Peryglacjalny">Biuletyn Peryglacjalny</a></i>. <b>27</b>: 133–154.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biuletyn+Peryglacjalny&rft.atitle=Contemporary+pingos%3A+A+discussion&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=133-154&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Ross+Mackay&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/palsa">"Definition of palsa | Dictionary.com"</a>. <i>www.dictionary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 May</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dictionary.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+palsa+%7C+Dictionary.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2Fpalsa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownKupsch_W.O.1974" class="citation book cs1">Brown, R.J.W.; Kupsch W.O. (1974). <i>Permafrost terminology</i>. Altona, Manitoba: National Research Council Canada.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Permafrost+terminology&rft.place=Altona%2C+Manitoba&rft.pub=National+Research+Council+Canada&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=R.J.W.&rft.au=Kupsch+W.O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashburn1980" class="citation book cs1">Washburn, A.L. (1980). <i>Geocryology</i>. New York: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-470-26582-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-470-26582-5"><bdi>0-470-26582-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geocryology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-470-26582-5&rft.aulast=Washburn&rft.aufirst=A.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsMichael_W._Smith1989" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Peter J.; Michael W. Smith (1989). <i>The frozen Earth</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36534-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36534-1"><bdi>0-521-36534-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+frozen+Earth&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-521-36534-1&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Michael+W.+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APalsa" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Palsa&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pictures of palsas and further information: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121211085119/http://www.isgs.illinois.edu/shilts/shilts-palsa.shtml">Palsa</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Fennoscandian" class="mw-redirect" title="Fennoscandian">Fennoscandian</a> term for a round or elongated <a href="/wiki/Hillock" title="Hillock">hillock</a> or mound, maximum height of about 10 m, composed of a <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> layer overlying mineral soil.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100218081813/http://www.isgs.illinois.edu/shilts/shilts-gallery.shtml">William W. Shilts Geologic Image Gallery (Illinois State Geological Survey)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718111419/http://www.geo.wvu.edu/~kite/Geo321Lect19_2006Periglacial_files/frame.htm">Field trip guide on periglacial (cryogenic) geomorphology (html)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718111436/http://www.geo.wvu.edu/~kite/Geo321Lect17_2009Periglacial.pdf">Field trip guide on periglacial (cryogenic) geomorphology (pdf)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120229042513/http://www.cits.rncan.gc.ca/site/eng/resoress/guide/palspals/index.html">Interpretation guide of natural geographic features: Palsa bog (index)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120229042523/http://www.cits.rncan.gc.ca/site/eng/resoress/guide/palspals/pg07.html">Interpretation guide of natural geographic features: Palsa bog (aerial photographs)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727155718/http://ougseurope.org/rockon/surface/palsas.asp">€U(RO)CK article from a 2005 issue</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Periglacial_environment" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#addfad;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Periglacial_environment" title="Template:Periglacial environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Periglacial_environment" title="Template talk:Periglacial environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Periglacial_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Periglacial environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Periglacial_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Periglaciation" title="Periglaciation">Periglacial environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#addfad;;width:1%">Landforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blockfield" title="Blockfield">Blockfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bratschen" title="Bratschen">Bratschen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryoplanation" title="Cryoplanation">Cryoplanation terrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_erratic" title="Glacial erratic">Glacial erratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurum_(landform)" title="Kurum (landform)">Kurum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithalsa" title="Lithalsa">Lithalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paha_(landform)" title="Paha (landform)">Paha</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Palsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periglacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Periglacial">Periglacial lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingo" title="Pingo">Pingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protalus_rampart" title="Protalus rampart">Protalus rampart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_glacier" title="Rock glacier">Rock glacier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strandflat" title="Strandflat">Strandflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciokarst" title="Glaciokarst">Glaciokarst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermokarst" title="Thermokarst">Thermokarst</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Patterned_ground" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;background: #addfad;"><a href="/wiki/Patterned_ground" title="Patterned ground">Patterned ground</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frost_boil" title="Frost boil">Frost boil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterned_ground#Polygons" title="Patterned ground">Polygons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solifluction_lobes_and_sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Solifluction lobes and sheets">Solifluction lobes and sheets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterned_ground#Stripes" title="Patterned ground">Sorted stripe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone ring">Stone ring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#addfad;;width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryoplanation" title="Cryoplanation">Cryoplanation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosuction" title="Cryosuction">Cryosuction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryoturbation" title="Cryoturbation">Cryoturbation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluvio-thermal_erosion" title="Fluvio-thermal erosion">Fluvio-thermal erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_heaving" title="Frost heaving">Frost heave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_weathering" title="Frost weathering">Frost weathering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelifluction" title="Gelifluction">Gelifluction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_segregation" title="Ice segregation">Ice segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_release" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctic methane release">Methane release</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivation" title="Nivation">Nivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solifluction" title="Solifluction">Solifluction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syngenetic_permafrost_growth" title="Syngenetic permafrost growth">Syngenetic permafrost growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero-curtain_effect" title="Zero-curtain effect">Zero-curtain effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#addfad;;width:1%">Soils and deposits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_layer" title="Active layer">Active layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelisols" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelisols">Gelisols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_wedge" title="Ice wedge">Ice wedge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loess" title="Loess">Loess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratified_slope_deposit" title="Stratified slope deposit">Stratified slope deposit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talik" title="Talik">Talik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yedoma" title="Yedoma">Yedoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#addfad;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">ecotones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tundra#Arctic" title="Tundra">Arctic tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_line#Arctic_tree_lines" title="Tree line">Arctic tree line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_oasis" title="Antarctic oasis">Antarctic oasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golets_(geography)" title="Golets (geography)">Golets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tundra#Antarctic" title="Tundra">Antarctic tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">Alpine tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_line#Alpine" title="Tree line">Alpine tree line</a> (<a href="/wiki/Massenerhebung_effect" title="Massenerhebung effect">Massenerhebung effect</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a> (<a href="/wiki/Drunken_trees" title="Drunken trees">Drunken trees</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#addfad;;width:1%">Climate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_climate" title="Alpine climate">Alpine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_climate" title="Polar climate">Polar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subpolar_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Subpolar climate">Subpolar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#addfad;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Periglacial_landforms" title="Category:Periglacial landforms">Category:Periglacial landforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Glaciers" title="Template:Glaciers">Template:Glaciers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wetlands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wetlands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wetlands" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetlands</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types and landforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backswamp" title="Backswamp">Backswamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayou" title="Bayou">Bayou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_meadow" title="Beach meadow">Beach meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_river" title="Blackwater river">Blackwater river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bofedales" title="Bofedales">Bofedales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blanket_bog" title="Blanket bog">Blanket bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataract_bog" title="Cataract bog">Cataract bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal bog">Coastal bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermi_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Kermi bog">Kermi bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Plateau bog">Plateau bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygonal_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygonal bog">Polygonal bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_bog" title="Raised bog">Raised bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_bog" title="String bog">String bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_bog" class="mw-redirect" title="Upland bog">Upland bog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callows" title="Callows">Callows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carr_(landform)" title="Carr (landform)">Carr</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alder_carr" title="Alder carr">Alder carr</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ci%C3%A9nega" title="Ciénega">Ciénega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearwater_river_(river_type)" title="Clearwater river (river type)">Clearwater river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypress_dome" title="Cypress dome">Cypress dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dambo" title="Dambo">Dambo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fen-meadow" title="Fen-meadow">Fen-meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_fen" class="mw-redirect" title="Poor fen">Poor fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rich_fen" class="mw-redirect" title="Rich fen">Rich fen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flark" title="Flark">Flark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood-meadow" title="Flood-meadow">Flood-meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grass_valley" title="Grass valley">Grass valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelta" title="Guelta">Guelta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamun" title="Hamun">Hamun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igap%C3%B3" title="Igapó">Igapó</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ings" title="Ings">Ings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interdunal_wetland" title="Interdunal wetland">Interdunal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kettle_(landform)" title="Kettle (landform)">Kettle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagg_(landform)" title="Lagg (landform)">Lagg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">Marsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inland_salt_marsh" title="Inland salt marsh">Inland salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">Tidal marsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_marsh" title="High marsh">High marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_marsh" title="Low marsh">Low marsh</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mere_(lake)" title="Mere (lake)">Mere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misse" title="Misse">Misse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorland" title="Moorland">Moorland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskeg" title="Muskeg">Muskeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">Oasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakihi" title="Pakihi">Pakihi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Palsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palustrine_wetland" title="Palustrine wetland">Palustrine wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peatland" title="Peatland">Peatland, mire, and quagmire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocosin" title="Pocosin">Pocosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pothole_(landform)" title="Pothole (landform)">Pothole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_bed" title="Reed bed">Reed bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slough_(hydrology)" title="Slough (hydrology)">Slough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp">Swamp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coniferous_swamp" title="Coniferous swamp">Coniferous swamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">Mangrove forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myristica_swamp" title="Myristica swamp"><i>Myristica</i> swamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peat_swamp_forest" title="Peat swamp forest">Peat swamp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub_swamp" title="Shrub swamp">Shrub swamp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_meadow" title="Wet meadow">Wet meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1rzea_forest" title="Várzea forest">Várzea forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernal_pool" title="Vernal pool">Vernal pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_river_(river_type)" title="Whitewater river (river type)">Whitewater river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C3%A9r%C3%A9" title="Yaéré">Yaéré</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artificial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog_garden" title="Bog garden">Bog garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_wetland" title="Constructed wetland">Constructed wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converted_wetland" title="Converted wetland">Converted wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swale_(landform)" title="Swale (landform)">Swale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-meadow" title="Water-meadow">Water-meadow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wetland_plants" title="List of wetland plants">List of wetland plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fen_plants" title="List of fen plants">List of fen plants</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sphagnum" title="Sphagnum">Sphagnum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soil mechanics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrotelm" title="Acrotelm">Acrotelm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histosol" title="Histosol">Histosol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">Peat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapric" title="Sapric">Sapric or muck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_peat" title="Tropical peat">Tropical peat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydric_soil" title="Hydric soil">Hydric soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_gas" title="Marsh gas">Marsh gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ombrotrophic" title="Ombrotrophic">Ombrotrophic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halosere" title="Halosere">Halosere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosere" title="Hydrosere">Hydrosere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paludification" title="Paludification">Paludification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh_dieback" title="Salt marsh dieback">Salt marsh dieback</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wetland_classification" title="Wetland classification">Classifications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_Directory_of_Important_Wetlands_in_Australia" title="A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia">A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Wetlands_Inventory" title="National Wetlands Inventory">National Wetlands Inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Classification_System_for_Wetland_Type" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type">Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wetland_conservation" title="Wetland conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_organ" title="Marsh organ">Marsh organ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_site" title="Ramsar site">Ramsar site</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ramsar_Wetlands_of_International_Importance" title="List of Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh_die-off" title="Salt marsh die-off">Salt marsh die-off</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland_indicator_status" title="Wetland indicator status">Wetland indicator status</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Haor_and_Wetland_Development_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Bangladesh Haor and Wetland Development Board">Bangladesh Haor and Wetland Development Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_Waterfowl_Foundation" title="Delta Waterfowl Foundation">Delta Waterfowl Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ducks_Unlimited" title="Ducks Unlimited">Ducks Unlimited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Peatland_Conservation_Council" title="Irish Peatland Conservation Council">Irish Peatland Conservation Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadowview_Biological_Research_Station" title="Meadowview Biological Research Station">Meadowview Biological Research Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Wetland_Scientists" title="Society of Wetland Scientists">Society of Wetland Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetlands_International" title="Wetlands International">Wetlands International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfowl_%26_Wetlands_Trust" title="Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust">Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bog_body" title="Bog body">Bog body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bog_butter" title="Bog butter">Bog butter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bog_iron" title="Bog iron">Bog iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bog-wood" title="Bog-wood">Bog-wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bogs" title="List of bogs">List of bogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Drainage basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">River delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telmatology" title="Telmatology">Telmatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbary" title="Turbary">Turbary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will-o%27-the-wisp" title="Will-o'-the-wisp">Will-o'-the-wisp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg/16px-Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg/24px-Atchafalaya_Basin.jpg 1.5x, 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