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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Amounts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Amounts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Amounts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Amounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Methane" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methane"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Methane</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methane-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nitrous_oxide_fluxes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nitrous_oxide_fluxes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Nitrous oxide fluxes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nitrous_oxide_fluxes-sublist" 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diffusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diffusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Diffusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diffusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerenchyma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerenchyma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Aerenchyma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerenchyma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ebullition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ebullition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ebullition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ebullition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controlling_factors" class="vector-toc-list-item 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substrate_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substrate_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Substrate composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substrate_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Net_ecosystem_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Net_ecosystem_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Net ecosystem production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Net_ecosystem_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes_for_additional_emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_for_additional_emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Causes for additional emissions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes_for_additional_emissions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes for additional emissions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes_for_additional_emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_development_of_wetlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_development_of_wetlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Human development of wetlands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_development_of_wetlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button 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The present address (URL) is a <a href="/wiki/Help:Permanent_link" title="Help:Permanent link">permanent link</a> to this version.</b></p><div id="revision-info-current-plain" style="display: none;">Revision as of 06:24, 21 November 2024 by <a href="/wiki/User:MagicatthemovieS" class="mw-userlink" title="User:MagicatthemovieS" data-mw-revid="1258719312"><bdi>MagicatthemovieS</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:MagicatthemovieS" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:MagicatthemovieS">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/MagicatthemovieS" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/MagicatthemovieS">contribs</a>)</span> <span class="comment">(<span class="autocomment"><a href="#References">→<bdi dir="ltr">References</bdi></a>: </span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Category:Articles containing video clips</a>)</span></div></div><div id="mw-revision-nav">(<a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&diff=prev&oldid=1258719312" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">diff</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&direction=prev&oldid=1258719312" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">← Previous revision</a> | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)</div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Marsh_gas" title="Marsh gas">Marsh gas</a></div><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Source of gas emissions</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm/220px--Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="115" data-mwtitle="Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/41/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, opus"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/41/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/41/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/41/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/41/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/41/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/41/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm/Methane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AMethane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AMethane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AMethane_emissions_from_wetlands.webm&lang=ko&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ko" label="한국어 ‪(ko)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video></span><figcaption>A heat map of the planet showing methane emissions from wetlands from 1980 to 2021</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands</b> of concern consist primarily of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a> emissions. <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetlands</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">largest natural source</a> of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">atmospheric methane</a> in the world, and are therefore a major area of concern with respect to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wetlands account for approximately 20–30% of atmospheric methane through emissions from soils and plants, and contribute an approximate average of 161 Tg of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> per year.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wetlands are characterized by <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">water-logged</a> <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> and distinctive communities of <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> that have <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapted</a> to the constant presence of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>. This high level of water saturation creates conditions conducive to methane production. Most <a href="/wiki/Methanogenesis" title="Methanogenesis">methanogenesis</a>, or methane production, occurs in <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">oxygen-poor</a> environments. Because the <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microbes</a> that live in warm, moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffuse</a> in from the atmosphere, wetlands are the ideal anaerobic environments for <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermentation</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Methanogen" title="Methanogen">methanogen</a> activity. However, levels of methanogenesis fluctuates due to the availability of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, soil temperature, and the composition of the soil. A warmer, more anaerobic environment with soil rich in organic matter would allow for more efficient methanogenesis.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some wetlands are a significant source of methane emissions<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some are also emitters of <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nitrous oxide is a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">global warming potential</a> 300 times that of carbon dioxide and is the dominant <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone</a>-depleting substance emitted in the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wetlands can also act as a sink for greenhouse gases.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emissions_by_type_of_wetland">Emissions by type of wetland</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Emissions by type of wetland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:160%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: white; text-decoration: inherit;">Carbon cycle</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/160px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/240px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg/320px-Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="460" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_biological_carbon_cycle" title="Terrestrial biological carbon cycle">Terrestrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">Atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_carbon_cycle" title="Deep carbon cycle">Deep carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">Permafrost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_and_carbon_cycling_in_boreal_forests" title="Fire and carbon cycling in boreal forests">Boreal forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry_of_carbon" title="Geochemistry of carbon">Geochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">In the atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide" title="Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide">Satellite measurements</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Forms_of_carbon" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of carbon">Forms of carbon</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Total_carbon" title="Total carbon">Total carbon</a> (TC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_organic_carbon" title="Total organic carbon">Total organic carbon</a> (TOC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_inorganic_carbon" title="Total inorganic carbon">Total inorganic carbon</a> (TIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_organic_carbon" title="Dissolved organic carbon">Dissolved organic carbon</a> (DOC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_inorganic_carbon" title="Dissolved inorganic carbon">Dissolved inorganic carbon</a> (DIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulate_organic_matter" title="Particulate organic matter">Particulate organic carbon</a> (POC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulate_inorganic_carbon" title="Particulate inorganic carbon">Particulate inorganic carbon</a> (PIC)</li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">marine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerogen" title="Kerogen">Kerogen</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">Metabolic pathways</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_Krebs_cycle" title="Reverse Krebs cycle">Reverse Krebs cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">Carbon fixation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation" title="C3 carbon fixation">C3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C4</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_respiration" title="Carbon respiration">Carbon respiration</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_respiration" title="Ecosystem respiration">Ecosystem respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_ecosystem_production" title="Net ecosystem production">Net ecosystem production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration">Photorespiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_respiration" title="Soil respiration">Soil respiration</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon pump">Carbon pumps</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">Biological pump</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_curve" title="Martin curve">Martin curve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solubility_pump" title="Solubility pump">Solubility pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid_pump" title="Lipid pump">Lipid pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelly-falls" title="Jelly-falls">Jelly pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_feces" title="Whale feces">Whale pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf_pump" title="Continental shelf pump">Continental shelf pump</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal_fungi_and_soil_carbon_storage" title="Mycorrhizal fungi and soil carbon storage">Soil carbon storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">pelagic sediment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">Methane</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">Atmospheric methane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanogenesis" title="Methanogenesis">Methanogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">Methane emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wetland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerobic_methane_production" title="Aerobic methane production">Aerobic production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clathrate_gun_hypothesis" title="Clathrate gun hypothesis">Clathrate gun hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_clathrate" title="Carbon dioxide clathrate">Carbon dioxide clathrate</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biogeochemical_cycles" title="Marine biogeochemical cycles">Marine cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate%E2%80%93silicate_cycle" title="Carbonate–silicate cycle">Carbonate–silicate cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_compensation_depth" title="Carbonate compensation depth">Carbonate compensation depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Calcite_Belt" title="Great Calcite Belt">Great Calcite Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redfield_ratio" title="Redfield ratio">Redfield ratio</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Other</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Climate reconstruction proxies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-to-nitrogen_ratio" title="Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio">Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_biosphere" title="Deep biosphere">Deep biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Carbon_Observatory" title="Deep Carbon Observatory">Deep Carbon Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Carbon_Project" title="Global Carbon Project">Global Carbon Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle_re-balancing" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon cycle re-balancing">Carbon cycle re-balancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorialisation_of_carbon_governance" title="Territorialisation of carbon governance">Territorialisation of carbon governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network" title="Total Carbon Column Observing Network">Total Carbon Column Observing Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C4MIP" title="C4MIP">C4MIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CO2SYS" title="CO2SYS">CO2SYS</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Carbon_cycle" title="Category:Carbon cycle">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Carbon_cycle" title="Template:Carbon cycle"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Carbon_cycle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Carbon cycle (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Carbon_cycle" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Carbon cycle"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wetland#Types" title="Wetland">Wetland § Types</a></div> <p>Characteristics of wetland classes can assist to inform on magnitude of methane emissions. However, wetland classes have displayed high variability in methane emissions spatially and temporally.<sup id="cite_ref-Bubier_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bubier-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetlands">Wetlands</a> are often classified by landscape position, vegetation, and hydrologic regime.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wetland classes include <a href="/wiki/Marshes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marshes">marshes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swamps" class="mw-redirect" title="Swamps">swamps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Bogs">bogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">fens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peatlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Peatlands">peatlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muskegs" class="mw-redirect" title="Muskegs">muskegs</a>, prairie <a href="/wiki/Pothole_(landform)" title="Pothole (landform)">pothole (landform)</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pocosin" title="Pocosin">pocosins</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Amounts">Amounts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Amounts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Depending on their characteristics, some wetlands are a significant source of methane emissions<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some are also emitters of <a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methane">Methane</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Methane"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wetlands account for approximately 20–30% of atmospheric methane through emissions from soils and plants.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nitrous_oxide_fluxes">Nitrous oxide fluxes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nitrous oxide fluxes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nitrous oxide is a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">global warming potential</a> 300 times that of carbon dioxide and is the dominant <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone</a>-depleting substance emitted in the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excess nutrients mainly from anthropogenic sources have been shown to significantly increase the N<sub>2</sub>O fluxes from wetland soils through <a href="/wiki/Denitrification" title="Denitrification">denitrification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitrification" title="Nitrification">nitrification</a> processes (see table below).<sup id="cite_ref-Valtierra_S_2011_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valtierra_S_2011-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study in the intertidal region of a <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> salt marsh showed that excess levels of nutrients might increase N<sub>2</sub>O emissions rather than sequester them.<sup id="cite_ref-Valtierra_S_2011_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Valtierra_S_2011-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Data on nitrous oxide fluxes from wetlands in the southern hemisphere are lacking, as are ecosystem-based studies including the role of dominant organisms that alter sediment biogeochemistry. Aquatic invertebrates produce ecologically-relevant nitrous oxide emissions due to ingestion of <a href="/wiki/Denitrifying_bacteria" title="Denitrifying bacteria">denitrifying bacteria</a> that live within the subtidal sediment and water column<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and thus may also be influencing nitrous oxide production within some wetlands. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Nitrous oxide fluxes from different wetland soils (table adapted from Moseman-Valtierra (2012)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Chen et al. (2010)<sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_G._2010_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_G._2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Wetland type </th> <th>Location </th> <th>N<sub>2</sub>O flux<sup><i>a</i></sup> <p>(μmol N<sub>2</sub>O m<sup>−2</sup> h<sup>−1</sup>) </p> </th> <th>Reference </th></tr> <tr> <td>Mangrove </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shenzhen" title="Shenzhen">Shenzhen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> </td> <td>0.14 to 23.83 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-Chen,_G._2010_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen,_G._2010-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mangrove </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Muthupet" title="Muthupet">Muthupet</a>, South India </td> <td>0.41 to 0.77 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mangrove </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bhitarkanika" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhitarkanika">Bhitarkanika</a>, East India </td> <td>0.20 to 4.73 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mangrove </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pichavaram" title="Pichavaram">Pichavaram</a>, South India </td> <td>0.89 to 1.89 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mangrove </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland</a>, Australia </td> <td>−0.045 to 0.32 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mangrove </td> <td>South East Queensland, Australia </td> <td>0.091 to 1.48 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mangrove </td> <td>Southwest coast, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> </td> <td>0.12 to 7.8 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mangrove </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Isla_Magueyes" title="Isla Magueyes">Isla Magueyes</a>, Puerto Rico </td> <td>0.05 to 1.4 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Salt marsh </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a>, US </td> <td>0.005 to 0.12 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Salt marsh </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, US </td> <td>0.1 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Salt marsh </td> <td>North East China </td> <td>0.1 to 0.16 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Salt marsh </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Biebrza" title="Biebrza">Biebrza</a>, Poland </td> <td>−0.07 to 0.06 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Salt marsh </td> <td>Netherlands </td> <td>0.82 to 1.64 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Salt marsh </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> </td> <td>−0.13 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Salt marsh </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, US </td> <td>−2.14 to 1.27 </td> <td><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup>The flux rates are shown as hourly rates per unit area. A positive flux implies flux from soil into air; a negative flux implies flux from air into the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Negative N<sub>2</sub>O fluxes are common and are caused by consumption by the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathways_of_methane_emission">Pathways of methane emission</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pathways of methane emission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wetlands counteract the sinking action that normally occurs with soil because of the high water table. The level of the water table represents the boundary between anaerobic methane production and aerobic methane consumption. When the water table is low, the methane generated within the wetland soil has to come up through the soil and get past a deeper layer of <a href="/wiki/Methanotroph" title="Methanotroph">methanotrophic bacteria</a>, thereby reducing emission. Methane transport by <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular plants">vascular plants</a> can bypass this aerobic layer, thus increasing emission.<sup id="cite_ref-Macdonald1998_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macdonald1998-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gedney2004_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gedney2004-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once produced, methane can reach the atmosphere via three main pathways: molecular <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>, transport through plant <a href="/wiki/Aerenchyma" title="Aerenchyma">aerenchyma</a>, and ebullition. <a href="/wiki/Primary_productivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary productivity">Primary productivity</a> fuels methane emissions both directly and indirectly because plants not only provide much of the carbon needed for methane producing processes in wetlands but can affect its transport as well.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fermentation">Fermentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fermentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of <a href="/wiki/Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">microorganisms</a> to break down essential <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a>. In a process called acetoclastic <a href="/wiki/Methanogenesis" title="Methanogenesis">methanogenesis</a>, microorganisms from the classification <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domain</a> <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> produce methane by fermenting acetate and H<sub>2</sub>-CO<sub>2</sub> into methane and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. </p><p>H<sub>3</sub>C-COOH → CH<sub>4</sub> + CO<sub>2</sub> </p><p>Depending on the wetland and type of archaea, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenotroph" title="Hydrogenotroph">hydrogenotrophic</a> methanogenesis, another process that yields methane, can also occur. This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water. </p><p>4H<sub>2</sub> + CO<sub>2</sub> → CH<sub>4</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub>O </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diffusion">Diffusion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Diffusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">Diffusion</a> through the profile refers to the movement of methane up through soil and bodies of water to reach the atmosphere. The importance of diffusion as a pathway varies per wetland based on the type of soil and vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-Tang_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tang-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in peatlands, the mass amount of dead, but not decaying, organic matter results in relatively slow diffusion of methane through the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Couwenberg_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Couwenberg-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, because methane can travel more quickly through soil than water, diffusion plays a much bigger role in wetlands with drier, more loosely compacted soil. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aerenchyma">Aerenchyma</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Aerenchyma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerenchyma2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="plant aerenchyma" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Aerenchyma2.JPG/172px-Aerenchyma2.JPG" decoding="async" width="172" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Aerenchyma2.JPG/258px-Aerenchyma2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Aerenchyma2.JPG/343px-Aerenchyma2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>Plant-mediated methane flux through plant aerenchyma, shown here, can contribute 30–100% of the total methane flux from wetlands with emergent vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Plant <a href="/wiki/Aerenchyma" title="Aerenchyma">aerenchyma</a> refers to the vessel-like transport tubes within the tissues of certain kinds of plants. Plants with aerenchyma possess porous tissue that allows for direct travel of gases to and from the plant roots. Methane can travel directly up from the soil into the atmosphere using this transport system.<sup id="cite_ref-Couwenberg_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Couwenberg-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The direct "shunt" created by the aerenchyma allows for methane to bypass <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">oxidation</a> by oxygen that is also transported by the plants to their roots. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ebullition">Ebullition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ebullition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ebullition refers to the sudden release of bubbles of methane into the air. These bubbles occur as a result of methane building up over time in the soil, forming pockets of methane gas. As these pockets of trapped methane grow in size, the level of the soil will slowly rise up as well. This phenomenon continues until so much pressure builds up that the bubble "pops," transporting the methane up through the soil so quickly that it does not have time to be consumed by the methanotrophic organisms in the soil. With this release of gas, the level of soil then falls once more. </p><p>Ebullition in wetlands can be recorded by delicate sensors, called <a href="/wiki/Piezometers" class="mw-redirect" title="Piezometers">piezometers</a>, that can detect the presence of pressure pockets within the soil. <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_head" title="Hydraulic head">Hydraulic heads</a> are also used to detect the subtle rising and falling of the soil as a result of pressure build up and release. Using piezometers and hydraulic heads, a study was done in northern <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> peatlands to determine the significance of ebullition as a source of methane. Not only was it determined that ebullition is in fact a significant source of methane emissions in northern United States peatlands, but it was also observed that there was an increase in pressure after significant rainfall, suggesting that rainfall is directly related to methane emissions in wetlands.<sup id="cite_ref-Glaser_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Glaser-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controlling_factors">Controlling factors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Controlling factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The magnitude of <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> emission from a <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> are usually measured using <a href="/wiki/Eddy_covariance" title="Eddy covariance">eddy covariance</a>, gradient or chamber <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">flux</a> techniques, and depends upon several factors, including <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>, comparative ratios of <a href="/wiki/Methanogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Methanogenic">methanogenic</a> bacteria to <a href="/wiki/Methanotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Methanotrophic">methanotrophic</a> bacteria, transport mechanisms, temperature, <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biology)" title="Substrate (biology)">substrate</a> type, plant life, and climate. These factors work together to effect and control methane <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">flux</a> in wetlands. </p><p>Overall the main determinant of net flux of methane into the atmosphere is the ratio of methane produced by methanogenic bacteria that makes it to the surface relative to the amount of methane that is oxidized by methanotrophic bacteria before reaching the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Bubier_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bubier-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ratio is in turn affected by the other controlling factors of methane in the environment. Additionally, <a href="#Pathways_of_methane_emission_in_wetlands">pathways of methane emission</a> affect how the methane travels into the atmosphere and thus have an equal effect on methane flux in wetlands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_table">Water table</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Water table"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first controlling factor to consider is the level of the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a>. Not only does pool and water table location determine the areas where methane production or oxidation may take place, but it also determines how quickly methane can diffuse into the air. When traveling through water, the methane molecules run into the quickly moving water molecules and thus take a longer time to reach the surface. Travel through soil, however, is much easier and results in easier diffusion into the atmosphere. This theory of movement is supported by observations made in wetlands where significant fluxes of methane occurred after a drop in the water table due to <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bubier_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bubier-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the water table is at or above the surface, then methane transport begins to take place primarily through ebullition and vascular or pressurized plant mediated transport, with high levels of emission occurring during the day from plants that use pressurized ventilation.<sup id="cite_ref-Bubier_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bubier-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperature">Temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Temperature is also an important factor to consider as the environmental temperature—and temperature of the soil in particular—affects the metabolic rate of production or consumption by bacteria. Additionally, because methane fluxes occur annually with the seasons, evidence is provided that suggests that the temperature changing coupled with water table level work together to cause and control the seasonal cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Substrate_composition">Substrate composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Substrate composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The composition of soil and substrate availability change the nutrients available for methanogenic and methanotrophic bacteria, and thus directly affects the rate of methane production and consumption. For example, wetlands soils with high levels of <a href="/wiki/Acetate" title="Acetate">acetate</a> or hydrogen and carbon dioxide are conducive to methane production. Additionally, the type of plant life and amount of plant decomposition affects the nutrients available to the bacteria as well as the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">acidity</a>. Plant <a href="/wiki/Leachate" title="Leachate">leachates</a> such as phenolic compounds from <i><a href="/wiki/Sphagnum" title="Sphagnum">Sphagnum</a></i> can also interact with soil characteristics to influence methane production and consumption.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A constant availability of <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Soil_pH" title="Soil pH">soil pH</a> of about 6.0 have been determined to provide optimum conditions for methane production and consumption; however, substrate quality can be overridden by other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Bubier_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bubier-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soil pH and composition must still be compared to the effects of water table and temperature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Net_ecosystem_production">Net ecosystem production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Net ecosystem production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Net_ecosystem_production" title="Net ecosystem production">Net ecosystem production</a> (NEP) and climate changes are the all encompassing factors that have been shown to have a direct relationship with methane emissions from wetlands. In wetlands with high water tables, NEP has been shown to increase and decrease with methane emissions, most likely due to the fact that both NEP and methane emissions flux with substrate availability and soil composition. In wetlands with lower water tables, the movement of oxygen in and out of the soil can increase the oxidation of methane and the inhibition of methanogenesis, nulling the relationship between methane emission and NEP because methane production becomes dependent upon factors deep within the soil. </p><p>A changing climate affects many factors within the ecosystem, including water table, temperature, and plant composition within the wetland—all factors that affect methane emissions. However, climate change can also affect the amount of carbon dioxide in the surrounding atmosphere, which would in turn decrease the addition of methane into the atmosphere, as shown by an 80% decrease in methane flux in areas of doubled carbon dioxide levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Bubier_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bubier-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes_for_additional_emissions">Causes for additional emissions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Causes for additional emissions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_development_of_wetlands">Human development of wetlands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Human development of wetlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Humans often drain wetlands in the name of development, housing, and agriculture. By draining wetlands, the water table is thus lowered, increasing consumption of methane by the methanotrophic bacteria in the soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Bubier_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bubier-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as a result of draining, water saturated ditches develop, which due to the warm, moist environment, end up emitting a large amount of methane.<sup id="cite_ref-Bubier_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bubier-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the actual effect on methane emission strongly ends up depending on several factors. If the drains are not spaced far enough apart, then saturated ditches will form, creating mini wetland environments. Additionally, if the water table is lowered significantly enough, then the wetland can actually be transformed from a source of methane into a sink that consumes methane. Finally, the actual composition of the original wetland changes how the surrounding environment is affected by the draining and human development.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. 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aria-labelledby="Climate_change" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change" title="Template:Climate change"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Climate_change" title="Template talk:Climate change"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Climate_change" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li> <li>Years in climate change <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019_in_climate_change" title="2019 in climate change">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_in_climate_change" title="2020 in climate change">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_in_climate_change" title="2021 in climate change">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_in_climate_change" title="2022 in climate change">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_in_climate_change" title="2023 in climate change">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_in_climate_change" title="2024 in climate change">2024</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_regions" title="Template:Climate change regions">By country and region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Asia" title="Climate change in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_by_country" title="Category:Climate change by country">by individual country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing<br /> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li>Forest management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/REDD_and_REDD%2B" title="REDD and REDD+">REDD and REDD+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change,_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Personal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_risk" title="Climate risk">Risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="/wiki/Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_art" title="Climate change art">art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, 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