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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Celtic_and_Roman_periods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Celtic_and_Roman_periods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Celtic and Roman periods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Celtic_and_Roman_periods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Early Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Late Middle Ages and Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_Revolt_and_80_Years'_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_Revolt_and_80_Years'_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Dutch Revolt and 80 Years' War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_Revolt_and_80_Years'_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-17th_and_18th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#17th_and_18th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>17th and 18th centuries</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-17th_and_18th_centuries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 17th and 18th centuries subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-17th_and_18th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wars_between_France_and_the_Dutch_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wars_between_France_and_the_Dutch_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Wars between France and the Dutch Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wars_between_France_and_the_Dutch_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brabant_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brabant_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Brabant Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brabant_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>French control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>United Kingdom of the Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle United Kingdom of the Netherlands subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unrest_in_the_southern_provinces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unrest_in_the_southern_provinces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Unrest in the southern provinces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unrest_in_the_southern_provinces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgian_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgian_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Belgian revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgian_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independence_to_World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence_to_World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Independence to World War I</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Independence_to_World_War_I-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Independence to World War I subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Independence_to_World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Industrial_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Industrial Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Railways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Railways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.1</span> <span>Railways</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Railways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberalism_and_Catholicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberalism_and_Catholicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Liberalism and Catholicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberalism_and_Catholicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Linguistic conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations_and_military_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations_and_military_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Foreign relations and military policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations_and_military_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_Socialist_Party_and_the_trade_unions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_Socialist_Party_and_the_trade_unions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.5</span> <span>Rise of the Socialist Party and the trade unions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_Socialist_Party_and_the_trade_unions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholic_governments_and_social_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_governments_and_social_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.6</span> <span>Catholic governments and social policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_governments_and_social_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voting_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voting_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.7</span> <span>Voting rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voting_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.8</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Architecture_and_Art_Nouveau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture_and_Art_Nouveau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.8.1</span> <span>Architecture and Art Nouveau</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture_and_Art_Nouveau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Empire</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Empire subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Congo_Free_State_and_Belgian_Congo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congo_Free_State_and_Belgian_Congo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Congo Free State and Belgian Congo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congo_Free_State_and_Belgian_Congo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China_1902–1931" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China_1902–1931"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>China 1902–1931</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China_1902–1931-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ruanda-Urundi_1917–1961" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ruanda-Urundi_1917–1961"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>Ruanda-Urundi 1917–1961</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ruanda-Urundi_1917–1961-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>World War I</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle World War I subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Military_role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Military role</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupation_1914–1918" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupation_1914–1918"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Occupation 1914–1918</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupation_1914–1918-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_relief" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_relief"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>International relief</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_relief-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interwar_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interwar_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Interwar period</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interwar_period-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Interwar period subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Interwar_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reparations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reparations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Reparations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reparations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Art and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle World War II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Belgian_Army_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgian_Army_in_the_United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Belgian Army in the United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgian_Army_in_the_United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupation_1940–1944" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupation_1940–1944"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Occupation 1940–1944</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupation_1940–1944-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Resistance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collaboration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collaboration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.4</span> <span>Collaboration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collaboration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allied_liberation_1944–1945" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allied_liberation_1944–1945"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.5</span> <span>Allied liberation 1944–1945</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allied_liberation_1944–1945-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-WWII_to_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#WWII_to_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>WWII to present</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-WWII_to_present-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle WWII to present subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-WWII_to_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Royal_Question"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Royal_Question""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>"Royal Question"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Royal_Question"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupation_of_Germany,_Korean_War_and_EDC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupation_of_Germany,_Korean_War_and_EDC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Occupation of Germany, Korean War and EDC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupation_of_Germany,_Korean_War_and_EDC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benelux_and_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benelux_and_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.3</span> <span>Benelux and Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benelux_and_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgian_"Economic_Miracle"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgian_"Economic_Miracle""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.4</span> <span>Belgian "Economic Miracle"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgian_"Economic_Miracle"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marshall_Plan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marshall_Plan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.4.1</span> <span>Marshall Plan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marshall_Plan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_and_poverty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_and_poverty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.4.2</span> <span>Growth and poverty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_and_poverty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_"School_War"_1950–1959" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_"School_War"_1950–1959"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.5</span> <span>Second <i>"School War"</i> 1950–1959</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_"School_War"_1950–1959-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congolese_independence_and_the_Congo_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congolese_independence_and_the_Congo_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.6</span> <span>Congolese independence and the Congo Crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congolese_independence_and_the_Congo_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_Strike_of_1960–61" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_Strike_of_1960–61"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.7</span> <span>General Strike of 1960–61</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_Strike_of_1960–61-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Linguistic_Wars"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Linguistic_Wars""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.8</span> <span>"Linguistic Wars"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Linguistic_Wars"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_the_federal_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_the_federal_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.9</span> <span>Rise of the federal state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_the_federal_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_parties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_parties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.10</span> <span>Political parties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_parties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1990_to_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1990_to_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.11</span> <span>1990 to present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1990_to_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marc_Dutroux_scandal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marc_Dutroux_scandal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.12</span> <span>Marc Dutroux scandal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marc_Dutroux_scandal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgian_military_intervention_since_1990" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgian_military_intervention_since_1990"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.13</span> <span>Belgian military intervention since 1990</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgian_military_intervention_since_1990-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debt_and_economic_slowdown" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debt_and_economic_slowdown"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.14</span> <span>Debt and economic slowdown</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debt_and_economic_slowdown-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.15</span> <span>Internal politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_crisis_2010–11" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_crisis_2010–11"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.16</span> <span>Political crisis 2010–11</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_crisis_2010–11-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2014–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2014–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.17</span> <span>2014–present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2014–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reference_and_surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_and_surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.1</span> <span>Reference and surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_and_surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.2</span> <span>Political history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic,_cultural_and_social_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic,_cultural_and_social_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.3</span> <span>Economic, cultural and social history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic,_cultural_and_social_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_and_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_and_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19.4</span> <span>Historiography and memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_and_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Belgium</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 51 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-51" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">51 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%A7" title="تاريخ بلجيكا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ بلجيكا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_B%C3%A9lxica" title="Historia de Bélxica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de Bélxica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="বেলজিয়ামের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বেলজিয়ামের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%96" title="Гісторыя Бельгіі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Бельгіі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="История на Белгия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Белгия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_Belgije" title="Historija Belgije – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Historija Belgije" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_B%C3%A8lgica" title="Història de Bèlgica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de Bèlgica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Belgie" title="Dějiny Belgie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Belgie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiens_historie" title="Belgiens historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Belgiens historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Belgiens" title="Geschichte Belgiens – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Belgiens" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_B%C3%A9lgica" title="Historia de Bélgica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Bélgica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_Belgio" title="Historio de Belgio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de Belgio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgikako_historia" title="Belgikako historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Belgikako historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A8%D9%84%DA%98%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="تاریخ بلژیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ بلژیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_Belgique" title="Histoire de la Belgique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la Belgique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_B%C3%A9lxica" title="Historia de Bélxica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia de Bélxica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A8%EA%B8%B0%EC%97%90%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="벨기에의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="벨기에의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բելգիայի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բելգիայի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Belgije" title="Povijest Belgije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Belgije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Belgia" title="Historio di Belgia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Belgia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Belgia" title="Sejarah Belgia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Belgia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_Belgio" title="Storia del Belgio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del Belgio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של בלגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של בלגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ბელგიის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბელგიის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Ubelgiji" title="Historia ya Ubelgiji – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Ubelgiji" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Be%C4%BC%C4%A3ijas_v%C4%93sture" title="Beļģijas vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Beļģijas vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgijos_istorija" title="Belgijos istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Belgijos istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Belgium történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Belgium történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Историја на Белгија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на Белгија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Belgium" title="Sejarah Belgium – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Belgium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Belgi%C3%AB" title="Geschiedenis van België – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van België" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AE%E3%83%BC%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="ベルギーの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベルギーの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgias_historie" title="Belgias historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Belgias historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_de_Belgica" title="Istòria de Belgica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria de Belgica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiya_tarixi" title="Belgiya tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Belgiya tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A8%D9%84%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د بلجیم تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د بلجیم تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Belgii" title="Historia Belgii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Belgii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_B%C3%A9lgica" title="História da Bélgica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da Bélgica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_Belgiei" title="Istoria Belgiei – 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Belgium" title="Category:History of Belgium">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of <span class="fn org label">Belgium</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leo Belgicus"><img alt="Leo Belgicus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/150px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/225px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/300px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="3249" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Prehistory">Prehistory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_flint_mines_of_Spiennes" title="Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes">Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 4300–2200 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Celtic_and_Roman_periods">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a> & <a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> ~51 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 58–50 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Ambiorix%27s_revolt" title="Ambiorix's revolt">Ambiorix's revolt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 54–53 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Roman rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 51 BC–c.500 AD</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">  </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_dynasty" title="Merovingian dynasty">Merovingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 481–751</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingians</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 751–987</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">Prince-Bishopric of Liège</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 980–1789</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#13th–16th_centuries">Middle Ages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Franco-Flemish_War" title="Franco-Flemish War">Franco-Flemish War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1297–1305</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1384–1482</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Wars of Liège">Wars of Liège</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1465–68</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1482–1556</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Early Modern</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 15th–16th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1556–1714</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1549–81</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Dutch Revolt</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1568–1648</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1714–93</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Brabant_Revolution" title="Brabant Revolution">Brabant Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1789–90</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge_Revolution" title="Liège Revolution">Liège Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1789–91</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_period" title="French period">French rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1793–1815</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="Belgium in the long nineteenth century">19th century</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">Dutch rule</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1815–30</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1830–31</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Leopold_I_of_Belgium" title="Leopold I of Belgium">Reign of Leopold I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1831–65</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1839)" title="Treaty of London (1839)">Treaty of London</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1839</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Reign of Leopold II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1865–1909</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/First_School_War" title="First School War">School War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1879–84</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1885–1908</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">20th and 21st centuries</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1908–60</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Albert_I_of_Belgium" title="Albert I of Belgium">Reign of Albert I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1909–34</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">World War I</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1914–18</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1914)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1914)">Invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Atrocities</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War I">German occupation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1914–18</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ruanda-Urundi" title="Ruanda-Urundi">Ruanda-Urundi</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1922–62</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Leopold_III_of_Belgium" title="Leopold III of Belgium">Reign of Leopold III</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1934–51</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1940–45</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">Invasion</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1940</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War II">German occupation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1940–44</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> • <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belgium" title="The Holocaust in Belgium">Holocaust</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1941–44</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Royal_question" title="Royal question">Royal Question</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1944–50</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Baudouin_of_Belgium" title="Baudouin of Belgium">Reign of Baudouin</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1951–93</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Albert_II_of_Belgium" title="Albert II of Belgium">Reign of Albert II</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">1993–2013</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Philippe_of_Belgium" title="Philippe of Belgium">Reign of Philippe</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2013~</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Belgian_history" title="Timeline of Belgian history">Timeline</a> • <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Belgium">Military</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium" title="History of the Jews in Belgium">Jewish history</a> • <a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Belgium" title="LGBT history in Belgium">LGBT</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/16px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/24px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/32px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="780" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Belgium" title="Portal:Belgium">Belgium portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Belgium" title="Category:Belgium">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa"><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Belgium" title="Culture of Belgium">Culture of Belgium</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image photo"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Belgium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/70px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/105px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/140px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="780" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in Belgium">People</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Belgium" title="Languages of Belgium">Languages</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology of Belgium">Mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Belgium" title="Folklore of Belgium">folklore</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_cuisine" title="Belgian cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Religion</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Belgium" title="Art of Belgium">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Belgium">Literature</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/Bande_dessin%C3%A9e" title="Bande dessinée">Bandes dessinées</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Belgian_comics" title="Belgian comics">Belgian comics</a>)</small></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Belgium" title="Music of Belgium">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Media_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Media in Belgium">Media</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio in Belgium">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Belgium" title="Television in Belgium">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Belgium" title="Cinema of Belgium">Cinema</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Belgium" title="Sport in Belgium">Sport</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Monuments</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Belgium" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Belgium">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of Belgium">Symbols</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Belgium" title="Flag of Belgium">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Belgium" title="Coat of arms of Belgium">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="National anthem of Belgium">National anthem</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/16px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/24px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/32px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="780" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Belgium" title="Portal:Belgium">Belgium portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture_of_Belgium" title="Template:Culture of Belgium"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_Belgium" title="Template talk:Culture of Belgium"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture_of_Belgium" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture of Belgium"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For most of its history, what is now <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> was either a part of a larger territory, such as the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, or divided into a number of smaller states, prominent among them being the Duchy of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Lotharingia" title="Lower Lotharingia">Lower Lorraine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Duchy of Brabant</a>, the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of Flanders</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">Prince-Bishopric of Liège</a>, the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Namur" title="County of Namur">County of Namur</a>, the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Hainaut" title="County of Hainaut">County of Hainaut</a> and the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Luxembourg" title="County of Luxembourg">County of Luxembourg</a>. Due to its strategic location as a country of contact between different cultures, Belgium has been called the "crossroads of Europe"; for the many armies fighting on its soil, it has also been called the "battlefield of Europe"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the "<a href="/wiki/Cockfight" class="mw-redirect" title="Cockfight">cockpit</a> of Europe".<sup id="cite_ref-OUP:_phrase-fable_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OUP:_phrase-fable-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Belgium's modern shape can be traced back at least as far as the southern core of the medieval <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> (1568–1648) later led to the split between a northern <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a> from which Belgium and Luxembourg developed. The area, long a <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> stronghold, briefly came under Bourbon control during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>. The resulting <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Utrecht" title="Peace of Utrecht">Peace of Utrecht</a> transferred the area back to Habsburg control, creating what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a>. The <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="French Revolutionary wars">French Revolutionary wars</a> led to Belgium becoming part of France in 1795. After the defeat of the French in 1814, the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> created two new states, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Luxembourg">Grand Duchy of Luxembourg</a>, which were placed in <a href="/wiki/Dynastic_union" title="Dynastic union">dynastic union</a> under the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Orange-Nassau" title="House of Orange-Nassau">House of Orange-Nassau</a>. The Southern Netherlands rebelled during the 1830 <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a>, establishing the modern Belgian state, officially recognized at the <a href="/wiki/London_Conference_of_1830" title="London Conference of 1830">London Conference of 1830</a>. The first <a href="/wiki/King_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="King of Belgium">King of Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_I_of_Belgium" title="Leopold I of Belgium">Leopold I</a>, assumed the throne in 1831. </p><p>The first half of the twentieth century was tumultuous. Its historic neutrality was violated in each of the World Wars. During World War I, frustrated German invaders launched the <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a>. During the 1940 invasion, the quick surrender by <a href="/wiki/Leopold_III_of_Belgium" title="Leopold III of Belgium">Leopold III of Belgium</a> to German forces drove a wedge between the King and his people. The King's attempt to return led to a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Question">constitutional crisis in 1950</a>, which led to his abdication in favor of his son <a href="/wiki/Baudouin_of_Belgium" title="Baudouin of Belgium">Baudouin</a>. Belgium entered the second half of the twentieth century showing an unprecedented era of economic growth, as Belgium took an active role in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a> customs union with its neighbors. Ultimately, the Benelux union would serve as a model for the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a>, a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>; to this day <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> serves as the seat of many of the European Union institutions. </p><p>Domestically, the country has faced divisions over <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Belgium" title="Culture of Belgium">differences of language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Belgium" title="Economy of Belgium">unequal economic development</a>. This ongoing antagonism has caused <a href="/wiki/State_reform_in_Belgium" title="State reform in Belgium">far-reaching reforms since the 1970s</a>. It is now divided into three regions: Dutch-speaking <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> in the north, French-speaking <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</a> in the south, and bilingual Brussels in the middle. Since the 1990s, Belgium has become involved in several international conflicts, under the aegis of various United Nations peacekeeping forces, including the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a>, the ongoing civil wars in <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kosovo_War" title="Kosovo War">Kosovo War</a>, and several others. Environmental concerns came to a head in the <a href="/wiki/Dioxin_affair" title="Dioxin affair">Dioxin affair</a>, bringing down the Belgian government of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Dehaene" title="Jean-Luc Dehaene">Jean-Luc Dehaene</a>'s premiership. Since then, the Belgian political landscape has become increasingly politically fragmented; after the <a href="/wiki/2010_Belgian_federal_election" title="2010 Belgian federal election">2010 Belgian federal election</a>, it took nearly a year to <a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Belgian_government_formation" title="2010–2011 Belgian government formation">form a government</a>, and in more recent elections a growing right-wing <a href="/wiki/Flemish_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish nationalist">Flemish nationalist</a> movement has had a strong influence over domestic politics. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Belgium and Flanders were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands which was the predecessor of the Austrian Netherlands, the predecessor of Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of Flanders</a> was the original foothold of the Burgundian dukes in the region, to which other territories were later attached. </p><p>"Belgium" is originally a Latin term used by Julius Caesar,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referring to an area now mostly in Northern France, where the tribes ruling the military alliance of the <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a> lived.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Roman rule this region was the equivalent of the province of <i>Belgica Secunda</i>, which stretched into the coastal Flemish part of modern Belgium. </p><p>In late Roman and medieval times the term Belgium tended to be used to refer to Roman <i>Belgica Prima</i>, and its successor <a href="/wiki/Upper_Lotharingia" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Lotharingia">Upper Lotharingia</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Moselle" title="Moselle">Moselle</a> region of Germany, Luxembourg and France. Only slowly in modern times did the old term start to be used for the area to the north of the two Roman <i>Belgica</i> provinces, now the Netherlands and Belgium. A key turning point when it was used specifically to refer to the southern part of the Netherlands was during the so-called "Brabant revolution" or "First Belgian Revolution" in 1790. This terminology was revived after the better known revolution of 1830, when modern Belgium broke out of the post-Waterloo kingdom of the Netherlands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgian_flint_knives.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Belgian_flint_knives.jpg/220px-Belgian_flint_knives.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Belgian_flint_knives.jpg/330px-Belgian_flint_knives.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Belgian_flint_knives.jpg/440px-Belgian_flint_knives.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="596" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a> knives discovered in Belgian caves</figcaption></figure> <p>On Belgian territory <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> fossils were discovered at <a href="/wiki/Engis" title="Engis">Engis</a> in 1829–30 and elsewhere, some dating back to at least 100,000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> farming technology of northern Europe, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Linear_Pottery_culture" title="Linear Pottery culture">LBK culture</a>, reached the east of Belgium at its furthest northwesterly stretch from its origins in southeast Europe. Its expansion stopped in the <a href="/wiki/Hesbaye" title="Hesbaye">Hesbaye</a> region of eastern Belgium around 5000 BC. The Belgian LBK is notable for its use of defensive walls around villages.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vanmontfort_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanmontfort-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>So-called "Limburg pottery" and "La Hoguette pottery" are styles which stretch into northwestern France and the Netherlands, but it has sometimes been argued that these technologies are the result of pottery technology spreading beyond the original LBK farming population and being made by hunter gatherers.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A slightly later-starting Neolithic culture found in central Wallonia is the so-called "Groupe de Blicquy", which may represent an offshoot of the LBK settlers. One notable archaeological site in this region is the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_flint_mines_of_Spiennes" title="Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes">Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-vanmontfort_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanmontfort-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Farming in Belgium failed to take permanent hold at first. The LBK and Blicquy cultures disappeared and there is a long gap before a new farming culture, the <a href="/wiki/Michelsberg_culture" title="Michelsberg culture">Michelsberg culture</a>, appeared and became widespread. Hunter gatherers of the <a href="/wiki/Swifterbant" title="Swifterbant">Swifterbant</a> culture apparently remained in the sandy north of Belgium, but apparently became more and more influenced by farming and pottery technology.<sup id="cite_ref-vanmontfort_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanmontfort-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the third and late fourth millennia BC, the whole of Flanders shows relatively little evidence of human habitation.<sup id="cite_ref-vanmontfort2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanmontfort2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Seine-Oise-Marne_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Seine-Oise-Marne culture">Seine-Oise-Marne culture</a> spread into the Ardennes, and is associated with megalithic sites there (for example <a href="/wiki/W%C3%A9ris" title="Wéris">Wéris</a>), but did not disperse over all of Belgium. To the north and east, in the Netherlands, a semi-sedentary culture group has been proposed to have existed, the so-called Vlaardingen-Wartburg-Stein complex, which possibly developed from the above-mentioned Swifterbant and Michelsburg cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-rooijmans_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rooijmans-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same pattern continues into the late Neolithic and early <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>. In the last part of the Neolithic, evidence is found for the <a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Corded Ware">Corded Ware</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Beaker">Bell Beaker</a> cultures in the south of the Netherlands. </p><p>The population of Belgium started to increase permanently with the late Bronze Age from around 1750 BC. Three possibly related European cultures arrived in sequence. First the <a href="/wiki/Urnfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Urnfield">Urnfield</a> culture arrived, then, coming into the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a>. All three of these are associated with <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>. From 500 BC <a href="/wiki/Celt" class="mw-redirect" title="Celt">Celtic</a> tribes settled in the region and traded with the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> world. From c. 150 BC, the first coins came into use. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Celtic_and_Roman_periods">Celtic and Roman periods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Celtic and Roman periods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgica1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Belgica1.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="134" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a> in around 120 AD</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> arrived in the region, as recorded in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Gallico" class="mw-redirect" title="De Bello Gallico">De Bello Gallico</a></i>, the inhabitants of Belgium, northwestern France, and the German Rhineland were known as the <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a>, and they were considered to be the northern part of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>. The region of <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, including the part of the <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg_(province_of_Belgium)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luxembourg (province of Belgium)">Belgian province of Luxembourg</a> around <a href="/wiki/Arlon" title="Arlon">Arlon</a>, was inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a>. </p><p>The exact nature of the distinction between the Belgae to the North and the Celts to the south, and the Germani across the Rhine, is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-Lamarcq,_Danny_1996_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamarcq,_Danny_1996-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caesar said that the Belgae were separated from the rest of Gaul by language, law and custom, and he also says they had Germanic ancestry. On the other hand, linguists have proposed that there is evidence that the northern part of the Belgic population had previously spoken an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo European</a> language related to, but distinct from, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic language">Celtic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language">Germanic</a>. (See <a href="/wiki/Belgian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian language">Belgian language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nordwestblock" title="Nordwestblock">Nordwestblock</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-Lamarcq,_Danny_1996_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamarcq,_Danny_1996-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The leaders of the Belgic alliance which Caesar confronted were in modern France, the <a href="/wiki/Suessiones" title="Suessiones">Suessiones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viromandui" title="Viromandui">Viromandui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ambiani" title="Ambiani">Ambiani</a> and perhaps some of their neighbours, in an area that he appears to distinguish as the true "Belgium" of classical times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWightman198512–14_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWightman198512–14-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Concerning the territory of modern Belgium, he reported that the more northerly allies of the Belgae, from west to east the <a href="/wiki/Menapii" title="Menapii">Menapii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nervii" title="Nervii">Nervii</a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Germani_cisrhenani" title="Germani cisrhenani">Germani cisrhenani</a></i>, were less economically developed and more warlike, similar to the <i>Germani</i> east of the Rhine river. The Menapii and northern Germani lived among low thorny forests, islands and swamps, and the central Belgian Nervii lands were deliberately planted with thick hedges to be impenetrable to cavalry. There is also less archaeological evidence of large settlements and trade in the area. </p><p>Modern linguists use the word "germanic" to refer to languages but it is not known for sure whether even the Belgian <i>Germani</i> spoke a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language">Germanic language</a>, and their tribal and personal names are clearly Celtic. Archaeologists have also had difficulty finding evidence of the exact migrations from east of the Rhine which Caesar reports and more generally there has been skepticism about using him in this way due to the political motives of his commentaries. But the archaeological record gives the impression that the classical Belgian <i>Germani</i> were a relatively stable population going back to <a href="/wiki/Urnfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Urnfield">Urnfield</a> times, with a more recently immigrated elite class.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWightman198514_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWightman198514-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tongeren_Romeinse_wallen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Tongeren_Romeinse_wallen.jpg/220px-Tongeren_Romeinse_wallen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Tongeren_Romeinse_wallen.jpg/330px-Tongeren_Romeinse_wallen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Tongeren_Romeinse_wallen.jpg/440px-Tongeren_Romeinse_wallen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Surviving Roman city walls in <a href="/wiki/Tongeren" title="Tongeren">Tongeren</a>, the former city of <a href="/wiki/Atuatuca" title="Atuatuca">Atuatuca Tongrorum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Menapii and Nervii flourished within the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a>, along with the southern Belgae and the <a href="/wiki/Treveri" title="Treveri">Treveri</a>. These Roman provinces were broken into <i>civitates</i>, each with a capital city, and each representing one of the major tribal groups named by Caesar. At first, only one, <a href="/wiki/Tongeren" title="Tongeren">Tongeren</a> capital of the Tungri, was in modern Belgium. Later, the capital of the Menapii was moved from <a href="/wiki/Cassel,_Nord" title="Cassel, Nord">Cassel</a> in modern France to <a href="/wiki/Tournai" title="Tournai">Tournai</a> in Belgium. The Nervian capital was in the south of the territory in modern France, at <a href="/wiki/Bavay" title="Bavay">Bavay</a>, and later moved to <a href="/wiki/Cambrai" title="Cambrai">Cambrai</a>. <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a>, the capital of the Treveri, is today in Germany. </p><p>The northeastern corner of this province, including Tongeren and the area of the earlier <i>Germani</i>, was united with the militarized Rhine border to form a newer province known as <a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Povinzen_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povinzen-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with capital Colonia Agrippina (<a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a> in Germany).<sup id="cite_ref-Povinzen_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Povinzen-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> restructured the provinces around 300, and split the remaining Belgica into two provinces: <i>Belgica Prima</i> and <i>Belgica Secunda</i>. Belgica Prima was the eastern part and had Trier as its main city, and included part of the Belgian province of Luxembourg. It became one of the most important Roman cities in Western Europe in the 3rd century. </p><p>Christianity was introduced to Belgium during the late-Roman period, and the first known bishop in the region <a href="/wiki/Saint_Servatius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Servatius">Servatius</a> taught in the middle of the Fourth century in <a href="/wiki/Tongeren" title="Tongeren">Tongeren</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages">Early Middle Ages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:StServatius-Treasury2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/StServatius-Treasury2.jpg/220px-StServatius-Treasury2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/StServatius-Treasury2.jpg/330px-StServatius-Treasury2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/StServatius-Treasury2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Servatius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Servatius">Saint Servatius</a>, bishop of <a href="/wiki/Tongeren" title="Tongeren">Tongeren</a> and one of the first known Christian figures in the region. 16th century <a href="/wiki/Reliquary" title="Reliquary">reliquary</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the Middle Ages, the old Roman <i>civitates</i> became the basis of Christian dioceses, and the row of dioceses which form the core of modern Belgium (Tournai, Cambrai, and Liège) were the most northerly continental areas to retain a Romanized culture. The modern Belgian language boundary derives from this period, as the area was a contact point of Frankish and Romanized populations. </p><p>As the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> lost power, <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a> came to dominate the military, and then form kingdoms. Coastal Flanders, the old territory of the Menapii, became part of the "<a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">Saxon Shore</a>". In inland northern Belgium, <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a> from the Roman frontier in the Rhine delta were allowed to re-settle in <a href="/wiki/Toxandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxandria">Toxandria</a> in the 4th century. Wallonia remained more heavily Romanized, although it eventually became subject to Franks in the 5th century. Franks remained important in the Roman military, and the Romanized Frankish <a href="/wiki/Merovingian_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Merovingian Dynasty">Merovingian Dynasty</a> eventually took over northern France. <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a>, the best-known king of this dynasty, first conquered Romanized northern France, later called <a href="/wiki/Neustria" title="Neustria">Neustria</a>, then turned north to the Frankish lands later referred to as <a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a>, which included all or most of Belgium. Christian missionaries preached to the populace and started a wave of <a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">conversion</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lage_Landen_(Frankische_Tijd).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lage_Landen_%28Frankische_Tijd%29.svg/220px-Lage_Landen_%28Frankische_Tijd%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lage_Landen_%28Frankische_Tijd%29.svg/330px-Lage_Landen_%28Frankische_Tijd%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lage_Landen_%28Frankische_Tijd%29.svg/440px-Lage_Landen_%28Frankische_Tijd%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="812" /></a><figcaption>Southern part of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> with bishopry towns and abbeys c. 7th century. <a href="/wiki/Abbey" title="Abbey">Abbeys</a> were the onset to larger villages and even some towns to reshape the landscape.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Merovingian dynasty was succeeded by the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_dynasty" title="Carolingian dynasty">Carolingian dynasty</a>, whose family power base was in and around the eastern part of modern Belgium. After <a href="/wiki/Charles_Martel" title="Charles Martel">Charles Martel</a> countered the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moorish</a> invasion from Spain (732 — Poitiers), King <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> brought a huge part of Europe under his rule and was <a href="/wiki/Crown_(headgear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown (headgear)">crowned</a> the "<a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">Emperor</a> of the new <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>" by the <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a> in 800. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> raided widely throughout this period, but a major settlement that had caused problems in the area of Belgium was defeated in 891 by <a href="/wiki/Arnulf_of_Carinthia" title="Arnulf of Carinthia">Arnulf of Carinthia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuven_(891)" title="Battle of Leuven (891)">battle of Leuven</a>. </p><p>The Frankish lands were divided and reunified several times under the <a href="/wiki/Merovingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Merovingian">Merovingian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carolingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Carolingian">Carolingian</a> dynasties, but eventually were firmly divided into <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. The parts of the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of Flanders</a> west of the river <a href="/wiki/Scheldt" title="Scheldt">Scheldt</a> became part of France during the Middle Ages, but the remainders of the County of Flanders and the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> were part of the Holy Roman Empire, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Stem_duchy" title="Stem duchy">stem duchy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Lorraine">Lower Lotharingia</a>, which had a period as an independent kingdom. </p><p>Through the early Middle Ages, the northern part of present-day Belgium (<a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>) was a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic language</a>-speaking area, whereas in the southern part people had continued to be Romanized and spoke derivatives of <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>. </p><p>As the Holy Roman Emperors and French Kings lost effective control of their domains in the 11th and 12th centuries, the territory more or less corresponding to the present Belgium was divided into relatively independent feudal states, including: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of Flanders</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Marquis_of_Namur" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquis of Namur">Marquisate of Namur</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Duchy of Brabant</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Brabant" title="Duke of Brabant">Duke of Brabant</a>)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/County_of_Hainaut" title="County of Hainaut">County of Hainaut</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Limburg" title="Duchy of Limburg">Duchy of Limburg</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/County_of_Luxembourg" title="County of Luxembourg">County of Luxembourg</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">Prince-Bishopric of Liège</a> (the territory over which the bishop ruled as a lord, which was smaller than the diocese)</li></ul> <p>The coastal county of Flanders was one of the wealthiest parts of Europe in the late Middle Ages, from trading with England, France and Germany, and it became culturally important. During the 11th and 12th centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Rheno-Mosan_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Rheno-Mosan art">Rheno-Mosan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mosan_art" title="Mosan art">Mosan art</a> movement flourished in the region moving its centre from <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trier" title="Trier">Trier</a> to <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aachen" title="Aachen">Aachen</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance">Late Middle Ages and Renaissance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages and Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Courtrai2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Battle_of_Courtrai2.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Courtrai2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Battle_of_Courtrai2.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Courtrai2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Battle_of_Courtrai2.jpg/440px-Battle_of_Courtrai2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="629" /></a><figcaption>14th-century illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Golden_Spurs" title="Battle of the Golden Spurs">Battle of the Golden Spurs</a> in 1302 where forces from the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of Flanders</a> defeated their nominal overlords of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In this period, many cities, including <a href="/wiki/Ypres" title="Ypres">Ypres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>, obtained their <a href="/wiki/City_rights_in_the_Low_Countries" title="City rights in the Low Countries">city charter</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> stimulated trade in the region, and the period saw the erection of many <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> cathedrals and city halls.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the decline of the Holy Roman emperors' power starting in the 13th century, the Low Countries were largely left to their own devices. The lack of imperial protection also meant that the French and English began vying for influence. </p><p>In 1214, King <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_France" title="Philip II of France">Philip II of France</a> defeated the Count of Flanders in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bouvines" title="Battle of Bouvines">Battle of Bouvines</a> and forced his submission to the French crown. Through the remainder of the 13th century, French control over Flanders steadily increased until 1302 when an attempt at total annexation by Philip IV met a stunning defeat when Count Guy humiliated the French knights at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Golden_Spurs" title="Battle of the Golden Spurs">Battle of the Golden Spurs</a>. Philip launched a new campaign that ended with the inconclusive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mons-en-P%C3%A9v%C3%A8le" title="Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle">Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle</a> in 1304. The king imposed harsh peace terms on Flanders, which included ceding the important textile-making centers of <a href="/wiki/Lille" title="Lille">Lille</a> and <a href="/wiki/Douai" title="Douai">Douai</a>. </p><p>Thereafter, Flanders remained a French tributary until the start of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> in 1337. Paris's influence in the Low Countries was counterbalanced by England, which maintained important ties to the coastal ports and came to dominate the wool-shipping business. Flemish cloth remained a highly valued product, highly dependent on English wool. Any interruption in the supply of that invariably resulted in riots and violence from the weavers' guilds. Flanders received imports from other areas of Europe, but itself purchased little abroad except wine from Spain and France. <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> became a great commercial center after the Hanseatic League set up business there. From early on, the Low Countries began to develop as a commercial and manufacturing center. Merchants became the dominant class in the towns, with the nobility largely limited to countryside estates. </p> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="float:right; clear:right; text-align:center; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:70%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="9" style="font-size:130%;">History of the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; border-width: 1px 0 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF9966; border-width: 1px 0 1px 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#996600; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae"><span style="color: white;">Belgae</span></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cana–<br />nefates</a> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi"><span style="color: white;">Chamavi</span></a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Tubantes" title="Tubantes"><span style="color: white;">Tubantes</span></a> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a> <small>(55 BC–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span> AD)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a> <small>(83–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span>)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; border-top:none; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks"><span style="color: white;">Salian Franks</span></a> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; -align:top; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 1px 1px"><a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#CC99FF; -align:top; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; border-width: 0 1px 0 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><i>unpopulated</i><br /><small>(4th–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span>)</small> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Saxons#Netherlands" title="Saxons"><span style="color: white;">Saxons</span></a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a><br /><small>(4th–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th</span>)</small> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 1px 0"> </td> <td style="background:#CC99FF; border-width: 0 1px 0 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a><br /><small> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6th</span>–734)</small> </td> <td style="background:#CC6633; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Frankish_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish Kingdom">Frankish Kingdom</a> <small>(481–843)</small>—<a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> <small>(800–843)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"><a href="/wiki/Austrasia" title="Austrasia">Austrasia</a> <small>(511–687)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a> <small>(843–855)</small> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/West_Francia" title="West Francia">West<br />Francia</a><br /><small>(843–)</small> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Kingdom of Lotharingia</a> <small>(855– 959)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Lower_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Lorraine">Duchy of Lower Lorraine</a> <small>(959–)</small> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><a href="/wiki/Frisia" title="Frisia">Frisia</a> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px"> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Friesland_(kleine_wapen).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg/20px-Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg/30px-Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg/40px-Friesland_%28kleine_wapen%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="534" data-file-height="643" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Frisian_freedom" title="Frisian freedom">Frisian<br />Freedom</a><br /><small>(11–16th<br />century)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg/20px-Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg/30px-Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg/40px-Wapen_graafschap_Holland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="478" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">County of<br />Holland</a><br /><small>(880–1432)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png/20px-Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png/30px-Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png/40px-Utrecht_-_coat_of_arms.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="494" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Utrecht" title="Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht"><span class="nowrap">Bishopric of</span><br />Utrecht</a><br /><small>(695–1456)</small> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg/20px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg/30px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg/40px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Duchy_of_Brabant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="615" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Duchy of<br />Brabant</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><small>(1183–1430)</small></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg/20px-Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg/30px-Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg/40px-Guelders-J%C3%BClich_Arms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Guelders" class="mw-redirect" title="Guelders">Duchy of<br />Guelders</a><br /><small>(1046–1543)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 1px 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Flanders.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Arms_of_Flanders.svg/20px-Arms_of_Flanders.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Arms_of_Flanders.svg/30px-Arms_of_Flanders.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Arms_of_Flanders.svg/40px-Arms_of_Flanders.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="468" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">County of<br />Flanders</a><br /><small>(862–1384)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg/20px-Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg/30px-Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg/40px-Hainaut_Modern_Arms.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span><br /> <a href="/wiki/County_of_Hainaut" title="County of Hainaut">County of<br />Hainaut</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><small>(1071–1432)</small></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Namur.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arms_of_Namur.svg/20px-Arms_of_Namur.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arms_of_Namur.svg/30px-Arms_of_Namur.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Arms_of_Namur.svg/40px-Arms_of_Namur.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="468" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/County_of_Namur" title="County of Namur">County of<br />Namur</a><br /><small><span class="nowrap">(981–1421)</span></small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg/20px-Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg/30px-Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg/40px-Armoiries_Principaut%C3%A9_de_Li%C3%A8ge.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">P.-Bish.<br />of Liège</a><br /><br /><small><span class="nowrap">(980–1794)</span></small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg/20px-Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="23" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Arms_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="419" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Luxembourg" title="Duchy of Luxembourg">Duchy of<br />Luxem-<br />bourg</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><small>(1059–1443)</small></span><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#FF9966; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 1px 1px">  </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a> <small>(1384–1482)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em 0.25em; padding:0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 1px 1px"> </td> <td colspan="6" style="background:#efcccb; border:solid 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a> <small>(1482–1795)</small><br />(<a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a> <small>after 1543</small>) </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px">  </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Statenvlag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/20px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/30px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/40px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a><br /><small>(1581–1795)</small> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Low_Countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a><br /><small>(1556–1714)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px">  </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 0"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg/20px-Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg/30px-Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg/40px-Austrian_Low_Countries_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a><br /><small>(1714–1795)</small> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em; border-width:0 1px 0 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 1px 0"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Brabantine_Revolution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of Belgium">United States of Belgium</a><br /><small>(1790)</small> </td> <td style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 0 0 0"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LuikVlag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/LuikVlag.svg/20px-LuikVlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/LuikVlag.svg/30px-LuikVlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/LuikVlag.svg/40px-LuikVlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Republic of Liège">R. Liège</a><br /><small>(1789–'91)</small> </td> <td style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 0"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#efcccb; border:none; padding:0.25em 0.25em"> </td> <td style="background:#FFFFCC; padding:0.25em">  </td> <td style="background:#efcccb; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 0 0">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_navy_of_the_Batavian_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a> <small>(1795–1806)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a> <small>(1806–1810)</small> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width:1px 1px 0 0"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/20px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/30px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/40px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br />associated with <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French First Republic</a> <small>(1795–1804)</small><br />part of <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a> <small>(1804–1815)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#c1cbf2; border-width: 0 0 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; border-width: 0 1px 0 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">Princip. of the Netherlands</a> <small>(1813–1815)</small> </td> <td colspan="5" style="background:#c1cbf2; border-width: 0 1px 1px 0; padding:0.25em 0.25em">  </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="8" style="background:#f7d2a8; border-width: 0px 1px 0 1px; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> <small>(1815–1830)</small> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background: #f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/20px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Luxembourg#Developing_independence_(1815–1890)" title="History of Luxembourg">Gr D. L.</a><br /><small>(1815–)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 0 1px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> <small>(1839–)</small> </td> <td colspan="4" style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 1px 1px 0 1px"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Belgium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/20px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/30px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Flag_of_Belgium.svg/40px-Flag_of_Belgium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="780" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Kingdom of Belgium</a> <small>(1830–)</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4" style="background:#f7d2a8; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 0 1px 1px"> </td> <td colspan="4" style="background:#dac1dd; padding:0.25em 0.25em; border-width: 0 1px 1px 1px"> </td> <td style="background:#caf5f7; padding:0.25em 0.25em"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/20px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/30px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/40px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Gr D. of<br />Luxem-<br />bourg</a><br /><small>(1890–)</small> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>By 1433 most of the Belgian and <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourgish</a> territory became part of <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a> under <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Good" title="Philip the Good">Philip the Good</a>. When <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy" title="Mary of Burgundy">Mary of Burgundy</a>, granddaughter of Philip the Good married <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I</a>, the Low Countries became <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> territory. The Holy Roman Empire was unified with <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> under the Habsburg Dynasty after <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> inherited several domains. </p><p>Especially during the Burgundy period (the 15th and 16th centuries), <a href="/wiki/Tournai" title="Tournai">Tournai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ypres" title="Ypres">Ypres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> took turns at being major European centers for commerce, industry (especially textiles) and art. Bruges had a strategic location at the crossroads of the northern <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> trade and the southern trade routes. Bruges was already included in the circuit of the Flemish and French cloth fairs at the beginning of the 13th century, but when the old system of fairs broke down the entrepreneurs of Bruges innovated. They developed, or borrowed from Italy, new forms of merchant capitalism. They employed new forms of economic exchange, including bills of exchange (i.e. promissory notes) and letters of credit.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Antwerp eagerly welcomed foreign traders, most notably the Portuguese pepper and spice traders.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In art the <a href="/wiki/Early_Renaissance_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Renaissance painting">Renaissance was represented</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Primitives" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish Primitives">Flemish Primitives</a>, a group of painters active primarily in the Southern Netherlands in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Flemish_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Flemish school">Franco-Flemish composers</a>. Flemish tapestries and, in the 16th and 17th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Brussels_tapestry" title="Brussels tapestry">Brussels tapestry</a> hung on the walls of castles throughout Europe. The Burgundian princes enhanced their political prestige with economic growth and artistic splendour. These "Great Dukes of the West" were effectively sovereigns, with domains extending from the Zuiderzee to the Somme. The urban and other textile industries, which had developed in the Belgian territories since the 12th century, became the economic center of northwestern Europe. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Burgundian_Netherlands_1477-en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Map_Burgundian_Netherlands_1477-en.png/170px-Map_Burgundian_Netherlands_1477-en.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Map_Burgundian_Netherlands_1477-en.png/255px-Map_Burgundian_Netherlands_1477-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Map_Burgundian_Netherlands_1477-en.png/340px-Map_Burgundian_Netherlands_1477-en.png 2x" data-file-width="1123" data-file-height="1249" /></a><figcaption>The Seventeen Provinces, and the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">Prince-Bishopric of Liège</a> in green</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_Sanction_of_1549" title="Pragmatic Sanction of 1549">Pragmatic Sanction of 1549</a>, issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, established the so-called <a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a>, as an entity on its own, apart from the Empire and from France. This comprised all of Belgium, present-day northeastern France, present-day Luxembourg, and present-day Netherlands, except for the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishop_of_Li%C3%A8ge" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince-Bishop of Liège">Prince-Bishop of Liège</a>. In Brussels on 25 October 1555, Charles V abdicated Belgica Regia to his son, who in January 1556 assumed the throne of Spain as Philip II. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dutch_Revolt_and_80_Years'_War"><span id="Dutch_Revolt_and_80_Years.27_War"></span>Dutch Revolt and 80 Years' War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Dutch Revolt and 80 Years' War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dunkirkers" title="Dunkirkers">Dunkirkers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spaanse_Furie,_plundering.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Spaanse_Furie%2C_plundering.jpg/220px-Spaanse_Furie%2C_plundering.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Spaanse_Furie%2C_plundering.jpg/330px-Spaanse_Furie%2C_plundering.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Spaanse_Furie%2C_plundering.jpg/440px-Spaanse_Furie%2C_plundering.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1520" data-file-height="1158" /></a><figcaption>The Sack of Antwerp in 1576, in which 17,000 people died.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Famien_Strada_Histoire-Capture_of_Tournai_1581-ppn087811480_MG_8936T3p287.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Famien_Strada_Histoire-Capture_of_Tournai_1581-ppn087811480_MG_8936T3p287.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Famien_Strada_Histoire-Capture_of_Tournai_1581-ppn087811480_MG_8936T3p287.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Famien_Strada_Histoire-Capture_of_Tournai_1581-ppn087811480_MG_8936T3p287.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Famien_Strada_Histoire-Capture_of_Tournai_1581-ppn087811480_MG_8936T3p287.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Famien_Strada_Histoire-Capture_of_Tournai_1581-ppn087811480_MG_8936T3p287.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Famien_Strada_Histoire-Capture_of_Tournai_1581-ppn087811480_MG_8936T3p287.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4572" data-file-height="3582" /></a><figcaption>Siege and capture of Tournai, 1581</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1579_Siege_of_Maastricht_-_Aranjuez_Palace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/1579_Siege_of_Maastricht_-_Aranjuez_Palace.jpg/220px-1579_Siege_of_Maastricht_-_Aranjuez_Palace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/1579_Siege_of_Maastricht_-_Aranjuez_Palace.jpg/330px-1579_Siege_of_Maastricht_-_Aranjuez_Palace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/1579_Siege_of_Maastricht_-_Aranjuez_Palace.jpg/440px-1579_Siege_of_Maastricht_-_Aranjuez_Palace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1164" /></a><figcaption>The Siege of Maastricht (1579) by an anonymous painter</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort_-_Nicaise_De_Keyser.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort_-_Nicaise_De_Keyser.jpg/220px-Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort_-_Nicaise_De_Keyser.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort_-_Nicaise_De_Keyser.jpg/330px-Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort_-_Nicaise_De_Keyser.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort_-_Nicaise_De_Keyser.jpg/440px-Slag_bij_Nieuwpoort_-_Nicaise_De_Keyser.jpg 2x" data-file-width="939" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nieuwpoort" title="Battle of Nieuwpoort">Battle of Nieuwpoort</a> (1600)</figcaption></figure> <p>The northern part of Belgica Regia, comprising seven provinces and eventually forming the Dutch Republic, became increasingly <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> (specifically, <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a>), while the larger part comprising the ten southern provinces remained primarily Catholic. This schism, and other cultural differences which had been present since ancient times, launched the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Atrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of Atrecht">Union of Atrecht</a> in the Belgian regions, later followed by the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Utrecht" title="Union of Utrecht">Union of Utrecht</a> in the northern regions. When <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain" title="Philip II of Spain">Philip II</a> ascended the Spanish throne he tried to abolish all Protestantism. Portions of Belgica Regia revolted, eventually resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a> (1568–1648) between <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Geoffrey_Parker_1990_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_Parker_1990-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The horrors of this war—massacres, religious violence, mutinies—were precursors to the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648) with which it would merge. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Beeldenstorm" title="Beeldenstorm">Iconoclastic Fury</a> of 1566, Spanish authorities were able to largely gain control of the Low Countries. The most notable event of this period was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Oosterweel" title="Battle of Oosterweel">Battle of Oosterweel</a>, in which Spanish forces destroyed an army of Dutch Calvinists. King Philip II sent in <a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba</a>, as Governor-General of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> from 1567 to 1573. Alba established a special court called the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Troubles" title="Council of Troubles">Council of Troubles</a> (nicknamed the "Council of Blood"). The Blood Council's reign of terror saw it condemn thousands of people to death without due process and drive the nobles into exile while seizing their property. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands, in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and Alba's Flemish victims totalled at least 50,000.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Revolt">Dutch Revolt</a> spread to the south in the mid-1570s after the <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a> mutinied for lack of pay and went on the rampage in several cities. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Battle of Gembloux</a>, on January 31, 1578, the Dutch were followed by <a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">Don Juan of Austria</a>, who sent forward a picked force that attacked the rearguard and dispersed it, and then, falling suddenly upon the main body, utterly routed it, killing at least 10,000 rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Don Juan of Austria died on October 1, 1578, and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Farnese,_Duke_of_Parma" title="Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma">Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma</a>. </p><p>With the arrival of large numbers of troops from Spain, Farnese began a campaign of reconquest in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He took advantage of the divisions in the ranks of his opponents between the Dutch-speaking Flemish and the Walloon-speaking south to foment growing discord.<sup id="cite_ref-Violet_Soen_1592_pp._1-22_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Violet_Soen_1592_pp._1-22-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By doing so he was able to bring back the Walloon provinces to an allegiance to the king. By the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Atrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Union of Atrecht">treaty of Arras</a> in 1579, he secured the support of the "Malcontents", as the Catholic nobles of the south were styled. The seven northern provinces, controlled by Calvinists, responded with the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Utrecht" title="Union of Utrecht">Union of Utrecht</a>, where they resolved to stick together to fight Spain. Farnese secured his base in <a href="/wiki/County_of_Hainaut" title="County of Hainaut">Hainaut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artois" title="Artois">Artois</a>, then moved against <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>. He captured many rebel towns in the south:<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maastricht_(1579)" title="Siege of Maastricht (1579)">Maastricht</a> (1579), <a href="/wiki/Tournai" title="Tournai">Tournai</a> (1581), <a href="/wiki/Oudenaarde" title="Oudenaarde">Oudenaarde</a> (1582), <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a> (1583), <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a> (1584), and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ghent_(1583%E2%80%931584)" title="Siege of Ghent (1583–1584)">Ghent</a> (1584).<sup id="cite_ref-Violet_Soen_1592_pp._1-22_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Violet_Soen_1592_pp._1-22-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On August 17, 1585, Farnese laid siege to <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>. Antwerp was one of the richest cities in northern Europe and a rebel stronghold ever since Spanish and Walloon troops <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Antwerp" title="Sack of Antwerp">sacked it</a> in 1576. The city was open to the sea, strongly fortified, and well defended under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Marnix_van_St._Aldegonde" class="mw-redirect" title="Marnix van St. Aldegonde">Marnix van St. Aldegonde</a>. Engineer Sebastian Baroccio cut off all access to the sea by constructing a <a href="/wiki/Bridge_of_boats" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge of boats">bridge of boats</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Scheldt" title="Scheldt">Scheldt</a>. The Dutch sailed fireships, called <a href="/wiki/Hellburners" title="Hellburners">Hellburners</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> against the bridge and blew up a 200-foot-long span and <a href="/wiki/Largest_artificial_non-nuclear_explosions" title="Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions">killed 800 Spaniards</a>. The besiegers repaired the damage, however, and pressed the investment. <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">The city surrendered in 1585</a> as 60,000 Antwerp citizens (60% of the pre-siege population) fled north.<sup id="cite_ref-Violet_Soen_1592_pp._1-22_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Violet_Soen_1592_pp._1-22-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechelen" title="Mechelen">Mechelen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geertruidenberg" title="Geertruidenberg">Geertruidenberg</a> fell the same year. Farnese's strategy was to offer generous terms for surrender: there would be no massacres or looting; historic urban privileges were retained; there was a full pardon and amnesty; return to the Catholic Church would be gradual.<sup id="cite_ref-Violet_Soen_1592_pp._1-22_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Violet_Soen_1592_pp._1-22-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catholic refugees from the North regrouped in Cologne and Douai and developed a more militant, <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">tridentine</a> identity. They became the mobilising forces of a popular <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> in the South, thereby facilitating the eventual emergence of the state of Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1601, the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">besieged Ostend</a>, producing more than 100,000 casualties before Ostend finally fell in 1604. While the former northern part of Belgica Regia, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Seven United Provinces</a>, gained independence, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Belgica Regia</a> remained under the rule of Spain (1556–1713). The southern part spoke various romance languages and the northern part used Dutch, yet court accounts were kept in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="17th_and_18th_centuries">17th and 18th centuries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 17th and 18th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a></div> <p>During the 17th century, Antwerp continued to be blockaded by the Dutch but became a major European center for industry and art. The <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder#Family_tree" title="Pieter Bruegel the Elder">Brueghels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Van_Dyck" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Dyck">Van Dyck</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">baroque</a> paintings were created during this period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wars_between_France_and_the_Dutch_Republic">Wars between France and the Dutch Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Wars between France and the Dutch Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a>, Spain shifted most of its troops out of Belgium to Iberia. From 1659, Madrid increasingly relied on the aid of allied armies to restrain French ambitions to annex the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a> (1643–1715), France pursued an expansionist policy. France frequently held control of territories in the Southern Netherlands, confronted by various opponents including the Netherlands and Austria. There was the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Devolution" title="War of Devolution">War of Devolution</a> (1667–1668), the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Dutch_War" title="Franco-Dutch War">Franco-Dutch War</a> (1672–1678), the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Reunions" title="War of the Reunions">War of the Reunions</a> (1683–1684), and the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">Nine Years' War</a> (1688–1697). These were then followed by the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> (1701–1714), much of which was fought on Belgian soil. After the victory of Austria and its allies, under the 1714 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rastatt" title="Treaty of Rastatt">Treaty of Rastatt</a>, the Belgian and present-day Luxembourg territories (except the lands under the lordship of the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishop_of_Li%C3%A8ge" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince-Bishop of Liège">Prince-Bishop of Liège</a>) were transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austrian Habsburgs</a>, thus forming the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a> (1714–1797).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brabant_Revolution">Brabant Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Brabant Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The First <a href="/wiki/Brabant_Revolution" title="Brabant Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a> of 1789–1790 (also known as the Brabant revolution) overlapped with the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, and called for independence from <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian rule</a>. Brabant rebels, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Andr%C3%A9_van_der_Mersch" title="Jean-André van der Mersch">Jean-André van der Mersch</a>, defeated the Austrians at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Turnhout_(1789)" title="Battle of Turnhout (1789)">Battle of Turnhout</a> and launched the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of Belgium">United States of Belgium</a> together with the Prince Bishopric of Liège. The new state was beset by factionalism between the radical "<a href="/wiki/Vonckists" title="Vonckists">Vonckists</a>", led by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Frans_Vonck" title="Jan Frans Vonck">Jan Frans Vonck</a> and the more conservative "<a href="/wiki/Statists_(Belgium)" title="Statists (Belgium)">Statists</a>" of the <a href="/wiki/Henri_Van_der_Noot" title="Henri Van der Noot">Henri Van der Noot</a>. Businessmen with widescale operations generally supported the Statists, while the Vonckists attracted small business and members of the trade guilds. They called for independence from Austria but were conservative in social and religious questions.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By November 1790, the revolt had been crushed and the Habsburg monarchy had returned to power.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_control">French control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: French control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bataille_de_Fleurus_1794.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bataille_de_Fleurus_1794.JPG/220px-Bataille_de_Fleurus_1794.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bataille_de_Fleurus_1794.JPG/330px-Bataille_de_Fleurus_1794.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Bataille_de_Fleurus_1794.JPG/440px-Bataille_de_Fleurus_1794.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>French soldiers fight at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1794)" title="Battle of Fleurus (1794)">Fleurus</a> in Belgium during the <a href="/wiki/French_revolutionary_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="French revolutionary wars">Revolutionary Wars</a>, 1794</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars:_Campaigns_of_1794" class="mw-redirect" title="French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1794">Campaigns of 1794</a> of the French Revolutionary Wars, <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Belgium Austriacum</a> was invaded and annexed by France in 1795, ending Habsburg rule. <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a> and the territory of Liège was divided into nine united <i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9partement" class="mw-redirect" title="Département">départements</a></i> and became an integral part of France. The <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">Prince-Bishopric of Liège</a> was dissolved and divided over the <i>départements</i> <a href="/wiki/Meuse-Inf%C3%A9rieure" title="Meuse-Inférieure">Meuse-Inférieure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ourte" class="mw-redirect" title="Ourte">Ourte</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> confirmed the loss of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a>, by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Treaty of Campo Formio</a>, in 1797. </p><p>New rulers were sent in by Paris. Belgian men were drafted into the French wars and heavily taxed. Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions. Belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit, but it was not at all popular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann197865–81_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann197865–81-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a> in 1799, Catholics were heavily repressed by the French. The first <a href="/wiki/Old_University_of_Leuven" title="Old University of Leuven">University of Leuven</a> was closed in 1797 and churches were plundered. </p><p>During this early period of the French rule, the Belgian economy was completely paralyzed as taxes had to be paid in gold and silver coin while goods bought by the French were paid for with worthless <a href="/wiki/Assignat" title="Assignat">assignats</a>. During this period of systematic exploitation, about 800,000 Belgians fled the Southern Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French occupation in Belgium led to further suppression of the Dutch language across the country: French became the only accepted language in public life as well as in economic, political, and social affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann197880–81_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann197880–81-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The measures of the successive French governments and in particular the 1798 massive <a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">conscription</a> into the French army were unpopular everywhere, especially in Flemish regions, where it sparked the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_War_(1798)" title="Peasants' War (1798)">Peasants' War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann197874–76_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann197874–76-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brutal suppression of the Peasants' War marks the starting point of the modern <a href="/wiki/Flemish_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish movement">Flemish movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KLMA_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KLMA-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France promoted commerce and capitalism, paving the way for the ascent of the bourgeoisie and the rapid growth of manufacturing and mining. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while the middle class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium's leadership role after 1815 in the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook200449–54_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook200449–54-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Godechot finds that after the annexation, Belgium's business community supported the new regime, unlike the peasants, who remained hostile. Annexation opened new markets in France for wool and other goods from Belgium. Bankers and merchants helped finance and supply the French army. France ended the <a href="/wiki/Barrier_Treaty" title="Barrier Treaty">prohibition against seaborne trade on the Scheldt</a> that had been enforced by the Netherlands. Antwerp quickly became a major French port with a world trade, and Brussels grew as well.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1814, the Allies drove out Napoleon and ended French rule. The plan was to join Belgium and the Netherlands, under Dutch control. Napoleon returned to power briefly during the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a> in 1815, but on his way to recapturing Brussels as his intended power base, was finally defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a>, 12 miles (19 km) south of that city. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: United Kingdom of the Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Waterloo</a> in 1815, the major victorious powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) agreed at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a> on uniting the former <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a> (<i>Belgium Austriacum</i>) and the former <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Seven United Provinces</a>, creating the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> as a buffer state against any future French invasions. This was under the rule of a Protestant king, <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">William I</a>. Most of the small and <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical" title="Ecclesiastical">ecclesiastical</a> states in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> were given to larger states at this time, and this included the <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">Prince-Bishopric of Liège</a> which now became formally part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Enlightened_despot" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightened despot">enlightened despot</a> William I, who reigned from 1815 to 1840, had almost unlimited constitutional power, the constitution having been written by a number of notable people chosen by him. As despot, he had no difficulty in accepting some of the changes resulting from the social transformation of the previous 25 years, including equality of all before the law. However, he resurrected the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">estates</a> as a political class and elevated a large number of people to the nobility. Voting rights were still limited, and only the nobility were eligible for seats in the upper house. </p><p>William I was a <a href="/wiki/Calvinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinist">Calvinist</a> and intolerant of the Roman Catholic majority in the southern parts of his newly created kingdom. He promulgated the "Fundamental Law of Holland", with some modifications. This suppressed the clergy, abolished the privileges of the Roman Catholic Church, and guaranteed equal protection to every religious creed and the same civil and political rights to every subject. It reflected the spirit of the French Revolution and in so doing displeased the bishops in the south.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>William I actively promoted economic modernization. His authority was shared with a legislature partly chosen by himself and partly elected by the more prosperous citizens under the constitution. Government was in the hands of national ministries of state, and the old provinces were reestablished in name only. The government was now fundamentally unitary, and all authority flowed from the center. The first fifteen years of the Kingdom showed progress and prosperity, as industrialization proceeded rapidly in the south, where the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> allowed entrepreneurs and labor to combine in a new textile industry, powered by local coal mines. There was little industry in the northern provinces, but most of the former Dutch overseas colonies were restored, and highly profitable trade resumed after a 25-year hiatus. Economic liberalism combined with moderate monarchical authoritarianism to accelerate the adaptation of the Netherlands to the new conditions of the 19th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unrest_in_the_southern_provinces">Unrest in the southern provinces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Unrest in the southern provinces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Protestants controlled the new country, although they formed only a quarter of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In theory, Roman Catholics had full legal equality; in practice few held high state or military offices. The king insisted that schools in the South end their traditional teaching of Roman Catholic doctrine, even though almost everyone there was of that faith.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama197286_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama197286-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socially, the French-speaking Walloons strongly resented the king's policy to make Dutch the language of government. There was also growing outrage at the king's insensitivity to social differences. According to <a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama" title="Simon Schama">Schama</a>, there was growing hostility to the Dutch government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama197287_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama197287-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political liberals in the south had their own grievances, especially regarding the king's authoritarian style; he seemed uncaring about the issue of regionalism, flatly vetoing a proposal for a French-language teacher-training college in francophone <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a>. Finally, all factions in the South complained of unfair representation in the national legislature. The south was industrializing faster and was more prosperous than the north, leading to resentment of northern arrogance and political domination. </p><p>The outbreak of <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">revolution in France</a> in 1830 was used as a signal for revolt. The demand at first was Home Rule for "Belgium", as the southern provinces were now being called, rather than separation. Eventually, revolutionaries began demanding total independence.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Belgian_revolution">Belgian revolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Belgian revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustave_Wappers_-_Episode_of_the_September_Days_1830,_on_the_Grand_Place_of_Brussels_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Gustave_Wappers_-_Episode_of_the_September_Days_1830%2C_on_the_Grand_Place_of_Brussels_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Gustave_Wappers_-_Episode_of_the_September_Days_1830%2C_on_the_Grand_Place_of_Brussels_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Gustave_Wappers_-_Episode_of_the_September_Days_1830%2C_on_the_Grand_Place_of_Brussels_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Gustave_Wappers_-_Episode_of_the_September_Days_1830%2C_on_the_Grand_Place_of_Brussels_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Gustave_Wappers_-_Episode_of_the_September_Days_1830%2C_on_the_Grand_Place_of_Brussels_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Gustave_Wappers_-_Episode_of_the_September_Days_1830%2C_on_the_Grand_Place_of_Brussels_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8929" data-file-height="5820" /></a><figcaption><i>Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830</i>, <a href="/wiki/Egide_Charles_Gustave_Wappers" class="mw-redirect" title="Egide Charles Gustave Wappers">Egide Charles Gustave Wappers</a> (1834), in the Musée d'Art Ancien, <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a> broke out in August 1830 when crowds, stirred by a performance of <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Auber" title="Daniel Auber">Auber's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/La_Muette_de_Portici" class="mw-redirect" title="La Muette de Portici">La Muette de Portici</a></i> at the Brussels opera house of <i><a href="/wiki/La_Monnaie" title="La Monnaie">La Monnaie</a></i>, spilled out onto the streets singing patriotic songs. Violent street fighting soon broke out. The liberal bourgeoisie, who had initially been at the forefront of the burgeoning revolution, were appalled by the violence and became willing to accept a compromise with the Dutch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook200459–60_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook200459–60-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On a political level, the Belgians felt significantly under-represented in the Netherlands' elected Lower Assembly and disliked the unpopular Prince of Orange, the future <a href="/wiki/William_II_of_the_Netherlands" title="William II of the Netherlands">William II</a> who was the representative of King <a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">William I</a> in Brussels. The French-speaking <a href="/wiki/Walloons" title="Walloons">Walloons</a> also felt ostracised in a majority Dutch-speaking country. There were also significant religious grievances felt by the majority Catholic Belgians. </p><p>The king assumed the protest would blow over. He announced an amnesty for all revolutionaries, except foreigners and the leaders. When this did not succeed he sent in the army. Dutch forces were able to penetrate the <a href="/wiki/Schaerbeek" title="Schaerbeek">Schaerbeek Gate</a> into Brussels, but the advance was stalled in the <a href="/wiki/Parc_de_Bruxelles" class="mw-redirect" title="Parc de Bruxelles">Parc de Bruxelles</a> under sniper fire. Royal troops elsewhere met determined resistance from revolutionaries at makeshift barricades. It is estimated that there were no more than 1,700 revolutionaries (described by the French Ambassador as an "undisciplined rabble"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook200449–54_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook200449–54-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) in Brussels at the time, faced with over 6,000 Dutch troops. However, faced with strong opposition, Dutch troops were ordered out of the capital on the night of 26 September. There were also battles around the country as revolutionaries clashed with Dutch forces. Eight Dutch warships bombarded Antwerp following its capture by revolutionary forces. </p><p>Belgian independence was not allowed by the 1815 <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>; nevertheless the revolutionaries were regarded sympathetically by the major powers of Europe. In November 1830, the <a href="/wiki/London_Conference_of_1830" title="London Conference of 1830">London Conference of 1830</a> or "Belgian Congress" (comprising delegates from Great Britain, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria) ordered an armistice on November 4. At the end of November Britain and France proposed no military intervention and the establishment of an independent kingdom of Belgium, which was accepted by the other three more conservative participants, who had favored a military intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A protocol signed on 20 January 1831 stated that Belgium would be formed of the regions that did not belong to the North in 1790. The new kingdom would be obliged to remain neutral in foreign affairs. The British foreign secretary <a href="/wiki/Lord_Palmerston" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Palmerston">Lord Palmerston</a> strongly backed the Prince of Orange as the new king. The Prince proved to be unacceptable to William I, his father, as well as to the French. Finally, Palmerston came up with his second choice, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_of_Saxe-Coburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Leopold of Saxe-Coburg">Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg</a>, who was accepted by all.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 21, 1831, the first "King of the Belgians" was inaugurated. The date of his acceptance of the constitution – 21 July 1831 – is marked a national holiday.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> bourgeoisie hastily formed a provisional government under <a href="/wiki/Charles_Rogier" title="Charles Rogier">Charles Rogier</a> to negotiate with the Dutch, officially declaring Belgian independence on 4 October 1830. The <a href="/wiki/Belgian_National_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian National Congress">Belgian National Congress</a> was formed to draw up a constitution. Under the new constitution, Belgium became a sovereign, independent state with a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. However, the constitution severely limited <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">voting rights</a> to the French-speaking <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">haute-bourgeoisie</a> and the clergy, in a country where French was not the majority language. The Catholic church was afforded a good deal of freedom from state intervention. </p><p>The state of conflict (but not open warfare) with the Netherlands lasted another eight years, but in 1839, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1839)" title="Treaty of London (1839)">Treaty of London</a> was signed between the two countries and the five <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a> of Europe (<a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a>). By the treaty of 1839, the eastern part of <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> did not join Belgium, but remained a possession of the Netherlands until different inheritance laws caused it to separate as an independent <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy">Grand Duchy</a> (the western, French-speaking part of Luxembourg became the Belgian province of that name). Belgium lost Eastern <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Limburg_(1815%E2%80%931839)" title="Province of Limburg (1815–1839)">Limburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zeelandic_Flanders" title="Zeelandic Flanders">Zeelandic Flanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Flanders" title="French Flanders">French Flanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eupen" title="Eupen">Eupen</a>. The Netherlands retained the former two while French Flanders remained in French possession. Eupen remained within the <a href="/wiki/German_Confederation" title="German Confederation">German Confederation</a>. The five great powers pledged to protect Belgium's neutrality in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1914, the violation of Belgium's neutrality would be the stated <i><a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">Casus belli</a></i> of Britain's entry into World War I.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated70_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated70-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Independence_to_World_War_I">Independence to World War I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Independence to World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="Belgium in the long nineteenth century">Belgium in the long nineteenth century</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_Revolution">Industrial Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Industrial Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#Belgium" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution § Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Wallonia#Industry" title="History of Wallonia">History of Wallonia § Industry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sillon_industriel" title="Sillon industriel">Sillon industriel</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg/220px-La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg/330px-La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg/440px-La_coul%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_Ougr%C3%A9e.jpg 2x" data-file-width="945" data-file-height="696" /></a><figcaption>Painting of steel production in <a href="/wiki/Ougr%C3%A9e" title="Ougrée">Ougrée</a> by <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Meunier" title="Constantin Meunier">Constantin Meunier</a> (1885)</figcaption></figure> <p>Most of society was highly traditional, especially in rural areas, and the quality of education was low.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, Belgium was the second country, after Britain, in which the industrial revolution took place. It developed into an open economy focused on industrial exports with strong ties between the banking sector and industry.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Industrialization took place in <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</a> starting in the mid-1820s, and especially after 1830. The availability of cheap coal was a main factor that attracted entrepreneurs. Coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charleroi" title="Charleroi">Charleroi</a>. The leader was a transplanted Englishman, <a href="/wiki/John_Cockerill_(industrialist)" title="John Cockerill (industrialist)">John Cockerill</a>. His factories at <a href="/wiki/Seraing" title="Seraing">Seraing</a> integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Industry spread through the <a href="/wiki/Sillon_industriel" title="Sillon industriel">Sillon industriel</a> ("industrial district"), <a href="/wiki/Haine" title="Haine">Haine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sambre" title="Sambre">Sambre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meuse" title="Meuse">Meuse</a> valleys.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1830 when iron became important the Belgian coal industry had been long-established, and used steam engines for pumping. Coal was sold to local mills and railways as well as to France and Prussia. The textile industry, based on cotton and flax, employed about half of the industrial workforce for much of the industrial period. <a href="/wiki/Ghent" title="Ghent">Ghent</a> was the premier industrial city in Belgium until the 1880s, when the center of growth moved to <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a>, with its steel industry.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wallonia had rich coalfields over much of its area. Deep mines were not required at first so there were a large number of small operations. There was a complex legal system for concessions; often multiple layers had different owners. Entrepreneurs started going deeper and deeper (thanks to the innovation of steam pumping). In 1790, the maximum depth of mines was 220 meters. By 1856, the average depth in the area west of <a href="/wiki/Mons,_Belgium" title="Mons, Belgium">Mons</a> was 361, and in 1866, some pits had reached down 700 and 900 meters; one was 1,065 meters deep, probably the deepest coal mine in Europe at this time. Gas explosions were a serious problem, and Belgium had high fatality rates. By the late 19th century the seams were becoming exhausted and the steel industry was importing some coal from the Ruhr.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cheap and readily available coal attracted firms producing metals and glass, both of which required considerable amounts of coal, and so regions around coal fields became highly industrialised. The <a href="/wiki/Sillon_industriel" title="Sillon industriel">Sillon industriel</a>, and in particular the <i><a href="/wiki/Pays_Noir" title="Pays Noir">Pays Noir</a></i> around <a href="/wiki/Charleroi" title="Charleroi">Charleroi</a>, were the centre of the steel industry until the Second World War. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Railways">Railways</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Railways"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stoomloc_Le_Belge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Stoomloc_Le_Belge.jpg/220px-Stoomloc_Le_Belge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Stoomloc_Le_Belge.jpg/330px-Stoomloc_Le_Belge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Stoomloc_Le_Belge.jpg/440px-Stoomloc_Le_Belge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4251" data-file-height="2952" /></a><figcaption>The first Belgian-produced steam locomotive, <i>"The Belgian"</i> (<a href="/wiki/Le_Belge_(locomotive)" title="Le Belge (locomotive)">"<i>Le Belge</i>"</a>) built in 1835</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Belgium" title="History of rail transport in Belgium">History of rail transport in Belgium</a></div> <p>The nation provided an ideal model for showing the value of the railways for speeding the Industrial Revolution. After 1830, the new nation decided to stimulate industry. It funded a simple cross-shaped system that connected the major cities, ports and mining areas, and linked to neighboring countries. Belgium thus became the railway center of the region. The system was very soundly built along British lines, so that profits and wages were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put in place. Léopold I went on to build the <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Belgium" title="Rail transport in Belgium">first railway in continental Europe</a> in 1835, between Brussels and <a href="/wiki/Mechelen" title="Mechelen">Mechelen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The development of smaller railways in Belgium, notably the <a href="/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge" title="Liège">Liège</a>–<a href="/wiki/Jemappes" title="Jemappes">Jemappes</a> line, was launched by tendering contracts to private companies which "became the model for the extension of small local railways all over the low countries."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscherson1999231_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscherson1999231-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1900s, Belgium was a major exporter of trams and other rail components, exporting vast quantities of railway materials. In South America, 3,800 kilometers of track were owned by Belgian firms, with a further 1,500 kilometers in <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscherson1999231_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscherson1999231-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One Belgian entrepreneur, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Empain" title="Édouard Empain">Édouard Empain</a>, known as the "Tramway King", built many public transport systems across the world, including the <a href="/wiki/Paris_M%C3%A9tro" title="Paris Métro">Paris Métro</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscherson1999231–232_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscherson1999231–232-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other important businesses included <a href="/wiki/Cockerill-Sambre" title="Cockerill-Sambre">Cockerill-Sambre</a> (steel), the chemical factories of <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Solvay" title="Ernest Solvay">Ernest Solvay</a>, and the firearms maker <a href="/wiki/Fabrique_Nationale_de_Herstal" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrique Nationale de Herstal">Fabrique Nationale de Herstal</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberalism_and_Catholicism">Liberalism and Catholicism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Liberalism and Catholicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Liberalism in Belgium</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_School_War" title="First School War">First School War</a></div> <p>Before the arrival of the socialists in the 1890s, the nation was polarised between the conservative <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Party_(Belgium)" title="Catholic Party (Belgium)">Catholic Party</a> and the secular <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Belgium)" title="Liberal Party (Belgium)">Liberal Party</a>. The Liberals were anticlerical and wanted to reduce the power of the Church. The conflict came to a head during the "<a href="/wiki/First_School_War" title="First School War">First School War</a>" of 1879–1884 as Liberal attempts to introduce a greater level of secularism in primary education were beaten back by outraged Catholics. The School War ushered in a period of Catholic Party dominance in Belgian politics that lasted (almost unbroken) until 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978ch._4–8_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978ch._4–8-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Religious conflict also extended to university education, where secular universities like the <a href="/wiki/Free_University_of_Brussels_(1834%E2%80%931969)" title="Free University of Brussels (1834–1969)">Free University of Brussels</a> competed with Catholic universities like the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Leuven_(1834%E2%80%931968)" title="Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968)">Catholic University of Leuven</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_conflict">Linguistic conflict</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Linguistic conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of those in the north of the country spoke Dutch and other <a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Low Franconian languages">Low Franconian languages</a> while those in the south spoke <a href="/wiki/Langues_d%27o%C3%AFl" title="Langues d'oïl">Langues d'oïl</a> such as <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walloon_language" title="Walloon language">Walloon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Picard_language" title="Picard language">Picard</a>. French became the official language of government after the separation from the Netherlands in 1830 and Belgian cultural life was especially dominated by the French influence,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reinforced by economic domination of the industrial south. Flemish was "reduced to the tongue of a second-class culture."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook200481_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook200481-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parts of the Flemish population reacted against this. This was partly due to a sense of growing Flemish identity. Flemish victories, like the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Golden_Spurs" title="Battle of the Golden Spurs">Battle of the Golden Spurs</a> in 1302 were celebrated and a Flemish cultural movement, led by figures like <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Conscience" title="Hendrik Conscience">Hendrik Conscience</a> was born. About the same time a Walloon Movement emerged, led by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Destr%C3%A9e" title="Jules Destrée">Jules Destrée</a> and based on loyalty to the French language. Universal suffrage meant the Francophones were a political minority, so the Walloon Movement concentrated on protecting French where it had a majority, and did not contest the expanded use of Dutch in Flemish areas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeprezVos199810–11,_139–152_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeprezVos199810–11,_139–152-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Flemish goal of linguistic equality (especially in schools and courts) was finally achieved by a series of laws in the 1920s and 1930s. Dutch became the language of government, education, and the courts in the northern provinces of East and West Flanders, Antwerp, Limburg, and eastern Brabant. French remained the official language in Wallonia; Brussels, which had seen a major <a href="/wiki/Francization_of_Brussels" title="Francization of Brussels">language shift to French</a>, became an officially bilingual region. Meanwhile, a small separatist Flemish movement had emerged; the Germans had supported it during the war, and in the 1930s it turned fascist. In the Second World War it collaborated with the Nazis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeprezVos199810–12,_83–95_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeprezVos199810–12,_83–95-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_relations_and_military_policy">Foreign relations and military policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Foreign relations and military policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medaille_Commemorative_1870_71_Belgique_AVERS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Medaille_Commemorative_1870_71_Belgique_AVERS.jpg/170px-Medaille_Commemorative_1870_71_Belgique_AVERS.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Medaille_Commemorative_1870_71_Belgique_AVERS.jpg/255px-Medaille_Commemorative_1870_71_Belgique_AVERS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Medaille_Commemorative_1870_71_Belgique_AVERS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="318" data-file-height="633" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/1870%E2%80%9371_Commemorative_Medal" title="1870–71 Commemorative Medal">Commemorative Medal</a> awarded to Belgian soldiers who had served during the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belgium_and_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Belgium and the Franco-Prussian War">Belgium and the Franco-Prussian War</a></div> <p>In the mid-1860s during the <a href="/wiki/Second_French_intervention_in_Mexico" title="Second French intervention in Mexico">"Mexican Adventure"</a>, around 1,500 Belgian soldiers joined the "Belgian Expeditionary Corps", better known as the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Legion#Mexico_Expedition" title="Belgian Legion">"Belgian Legion"</a> to fight for <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I_of_Mexico" title="Maximilian I of Mexico">Emperor Maximilian I</a>, whose wife <a href="/wiki/Carlota_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlota of Mexico">Charlotte</a> was the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Leopold_I_of_Belgium" title="Leopold I of Belgium">Leopold I of Belgium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Belgium was not a belligerent in the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> 1870–71, but the proximity of the war led to the mobilisation of the army.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscherson199978–79_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscherson199978–79-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the conflict, there was talk of modernising the military. The system of <i><a href="/wiki/Remplacement" title="Remplacement">Remplacement</a></i> (whereby wealthy Belgians conscripted into the military could pay for a "replacement") was abolished and an improved system of conscription implemented. These reforms, led by <a href="/wiki/Jules_d%27Anethan" title="Jules d'Anethan">d'Anethan</a> under pressure from <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II</a>, divided Belgian politics. The Catholics united with the Liberals under <a href="/wiki/Walth%C3%A8re_Fr%C3%A8re-Orban" title="Walthère Frère-Orban">Frère-Orban</a> to oppose them, and the reforms were finally defeated when <a href="/wiki/Jules_d%27Anethan" title="Jules d'Anethan">d'Anethan's</a> government fell during an unrelated scandal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAscherson199981_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAscherson199981-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, the military was reformed. The 1909 System instituted compulsory military service of eight years on active duty and five years in the reserves. This swelled the size of the Belgian army to over 100,000 well-trained men.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated70_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated70-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Construction of a chain of forts along the border was intensified, and let to a series of very modern fortifications, including the so-called "<a href="/wiki/National_redoubt_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="National redoubt of Belgium">National redoubt</a>" at <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, at the fortified positions of <a href="/wiki/Fortified_Position_of_Li%C3%A8ge" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified Position of Liège">Liège</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fortified_Position_of_Namur" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified Position of Namur">Namur</a>, many of them designed by the Belgian fortress architect, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Alexis_Brialmont" title="Henri Alexis Brialmont">Henri Alexis Brialmont</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_the_Socialist_Party_and_the_trade_unions">Rise of the Socialist Party and the trade unions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rise of the Socialist Party and the trade unions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Labour_Party" title="Belgian Labour Party">Belgian Labour Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strikes" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian general strikes">Belgian general strikes</a></div> <p>The economy was stagnant during the long depression of 1873–1895, as prices and wages fell and labour unrest grew.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978316–318_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978316–318-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Labour_Party" title="Belgian Labour Party">Belgian Workers' Party</a> was founded in 1885 in Brussels. It issued the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Quaregnon" title="Charter of Quaregnon">Charter of Quaregnon</a> in 1894 calling for an end to capitalism and a thorough reorganization of society. During the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strikes" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian general strikes">general strikes</a> became an established aspect of the political process. Between 1892 and 1961, there were 20 major strikes, including 7 general strikes. Many of these had overtly political motives, like the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strike_of_1893" title="Belgian general strike of 1893">1893 General Strike</a> that helped achieve universal suffrage. </p><p>On several occasions, Belgian general strikes escalated into violence. In 1893, soldiers fired on the striking crowd, killing several. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> wrote, "There exists but one country in the civilised world where every strike is eagerly and joyously turned into a pretext for the official massacre of the Working Class. That country of single blessedness is Belgium!"<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, Belgium created a welfare net particularly early, thanks in part to the trade unions. Sickness compensation was established in 1894, voluntary old-age insurance in 1900 and unemployment insurance in 1907, achieving good coverage nationwide much more quickly than its neighbours.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catholic_governments_and_social_policy">Catholic governments and social policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Catholic governments and social policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various reforms were introduced under the Catholic governments that led Belgium from the late nineteenth century onwards. In 1887, the system of paying workers in kind and in pubs was outlawed, and joint industrial and labour councils were established. In 1889, labour law councils were reformed, "with employers facing increasing working class representation." That same year, legislation on social housing and women's and child labour was reformed. In 1900, the first law on old-age pensions was approved, while a 1903 law on industrial accidents "stipulated it was no longer up to the worker to prove his innocence." From 1900 onwards, Catholic governments began subsidising unemployment funds, health services and savings banks. Mandatory Sunday rest was approved in 1905, while other reforms were carried out such as reduced working hours for miners, the outlawing of night work for women, and pensions for the military and civil service.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitteCraeybeckxMeynen2009119-121_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitteCraeybeckxMeynen2009119-121-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under a law that came into effect in 1892, the employment of women and children under the age of 21 was prohibited.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1890, a fund of providence and relief for victims of industrial accidents was introduced by law.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1894, state subsidies were established for sickness funds.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the elections of 1894 and 1896, according to one study, "The Catholics continued steadily carrying out their programme of social reforms, and various Acts were passed for the welfare of the working-classes-old-age pensions, workmen's dwellings, employers liability, subsidies to savings banks and mutual societies for the encouragement of thrift."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An 1896 law made workshop regulations compulsory for all companies employing at least 10 workers (which changed to 5 workers in 1900),<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while other social policy measures included employers' industrial accident funds in 1903 and small state subsidies to voluntary unemployment funds in 1907.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1914, compulsory education was introduced for children between 6 and 14.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A National Crisis Fund as set up at the end of 1920 which, according to one study, "marked an important step towards general compensation for <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_unemployment" title="Involuntary unemployment">involuntary unemployment</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Healthcare subsidising by the national government was expanded, as characterised by disability funds in 1912, general medical care (expenses for general practitioner and pharmacist) in 1920, an anti-tuberculosis fund in 1921, basic treatment in 1927, expansion from general to particular medical care (surgery, hospitalisation, preventive medicine); cancer in 1931, and insurance for women and families (marriage premium and premium for death of spouse); death benefits in 1936.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1919 a scheme for the war-injured was introduced and for the victims of occupational diseases in 1927. From 1928 onwards, means-tested allowances were provided to physically disabled persons.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In August 1930, a law was passed making family allowances compulsory in private industry.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1921, an Act was passed providing for an 8-hour day and 48-hour working week, and in 1936 annual paid holidays were introduced in most industries.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voting_rights">Voting rights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Voting rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bardouxha_Mont_1893-mw-c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bardouxha_Mont_1893-mw-c.jpg/170px-Bardouxha_Mont_1893-mw-c.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bardouxha_Mont_1893-mw-c.jpg/255px-Bardouxha_Mont_1893-mw-c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bardouxha_Mont_1893-mw-c.jpg/340px-Bardouxha_Mont_1893-mw-c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="824" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strike_of_1893" title="Belgian general strike of 1893">"Fusilade of Mons"</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strike_of_1893" title="Belgian general strike of 1893">1893 strike</a> as the <i><a href="/wiki/Borinage" title="Borinage">Borains</a></i> are fired on by the Garde Civique during the protests for universal suffrage.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strike_of_1893" title="Belgian general strike of 1893">Belgian general strike of 1893</a></div> <p>In 1893, the government rejected a proposal for universal male suffrage. Outraged, the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Labour_Party" title="Belgian Labour Party">Belgian Labour Party</a> called a General Strike; by April 17, there were more than 50,000 strikers. Violent confrontations broke out with the <i><a href="/wiki/Garde_Civique" title="Garde Civique">Garde Civique</a></i> (the <i>Civil Guard</i> or militia) around the country. The government soon backed down, and passed male universal suffrage but reduced its impact by creating <a href="/wiki/Plural_voting#Belgium" title="Plural voting">plural votes</a> based on wealth, education and age. The Catholic conservatives, with 68% of the seats, remained in power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitteCraeybeckxMeynen200986_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitteCraeybeckxMeynen200986-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Again, in <a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strike_of_1902" title="Belgian general strike of 1902">1902</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgian_general_strike_of_1913" title="Belgian general strike of 1913">1913</a>, there were general strikes aimed at forcing electoral reform and ending the system of plural voting. After the 1913 strike, a commission was created and was expected to remove plural voting, but implementation was delayed by the 1914 German invasion. In 1918, King Albert forged a post-war "Government of National Union" and brought about one man, one vote universal male suffrage. The last restrictions on women's voting were lifted in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Artistic and literary culture in Belgium began a revival towards the late 19th century. A core element of Belgian nationalism was the scientific study of its national history. The movement was led by Godefroid Kurth, a student of the German historian <a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Ranke</a>. Kurth taught modern historical methods to his students at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="University of Liège">University of Liège</a>. The most prominent Belgian historian was <a href="/wiki/Henri_Pirenne" title="Henri Pirenne">Henri Pirenne</a>, who was influenced by this method during his period as a student of Kurth.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Architecture_and_Art_Nouveau">Architecture and Art Nouveau</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Architecture and Art Nouveau"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brussels_Cinquantenaire_R03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Brussels_Cinquantenaire_R03.jpg/220px-Brussels_Cinquantenaire_R03.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Brussels_Cinquantenaire_R03.jpg/330px-Brussels_Cinquantenaire_R03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Brussels_Cinquantenaire_R03.jpg/440px-Brussels_Cinquantenaire_R03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3720" data-file-height="2562" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Cinquantenaire" title="Cinquantenaire">Cinquantenaire/Jubelpark</a> <a href="/wiki/Cinquantenaire_Arcade" title="Cinquantenaire Arcade">memorial arcade</a>, built in 1905</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a></div> <p>At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, monumental <a href="/wiki/Historicism_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historicism (architecture)">Historicism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture_in_Belgium" title="Neoclassical architecture in Belgium">Neoclassicism</a> dominated the urban Belgian landscape, particularly in government buildings. Championed in part by King <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II</a>, the style can be seen in the <a href="/wiki/Law_Courts_of_Brussels" class="mw-redirect" title="Law Courts of Brussels">Palais de Justice</a> (designed by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Poelaert" title="Joseph Poelaert">Joseph Poelaert</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Cinquantenaire" title="Cinquantenaire">Cinquantenaire</a>. </p><p>Nevertheless, Brussels became one of the major European cities for the development of the <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> style in the late 1890s. The architects <a href="/wiki/Victor_Horta" title="Victor Horta">Victor Horta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hankar" title="Paul Hankar">Paul Hankar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Henry_van_de_Velde" title="Henry van de Velde">Henry van de Velde</a> became particularly famous for their designs, many of which survive today in Brussels. Four buildings designed by Horta are listed by <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Sites</a>. Horta's largest work, the <i><a href="/wiki/Maison_du_Peuple_(Brussels)" class="mw-redirect" title="Maison du Peuple (Brussels)">Maison du Peuple</a></i> was demolished in 1960. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Empire">Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian colonial empire</a></div> <p>Stanard rejects the widely held notion that Belgians were "reluctant imperialists". He argues that "ordinary people came to understand and support the colony. Belgians not only sustained the empire in significant ways, but many became convinced imperialists, evidenced by the widespread, enduring and eagerly embraced propaganda in favor of the Congo."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStanard2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXw4BNDdD0TkCpgPA8_8]_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStanard2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXw4BNDdD0TkCpgPA8_8]-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congo_Free_State_and_Belgian_Congo">Congo Free State and Belgian Congo</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Congo Free State and Belgian Congo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg/170px-Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg/255px-Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg/340px-Punch_congo_rubber_cartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption>A 1906 British <i><a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a></i> cartoon depicting <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II</a> as a rubber vine entangling a Congolese man</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a></div> <p>King <a href="/wiki/Leopold_II_of_Belgium" title="Leopold II of Belgium">Leopold II of Belgium</a> had been the principal shareholder in the Belgian trading company which established trading stations on the lower Congo between 1879 and 1884.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer,_Alan_1979_p._42_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer,_Alan_1979_p._42-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> of 1884–1885 the future <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Congo</a> was personally assigned to Leopold, who named the territory the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a>. It was originally intended to be an international <a href="/wiki/Free_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Trade">Free Trade</a> zone, open to all European traders.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The area included in this territory was just under 1 million square miles,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHobsbawm19955_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobsbawm19955-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> almost 80 times the size of Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-countryeconomy.com_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-countryeconomy.com-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MLE_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MLE-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nation_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nation-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first infrastructure projects took place during the Free State period, such as a railway that ran from the <a href="/wiki/Kinshasa" title="Kinshasa">Léopoldville</a> to the coast which took several years to complete. </p><p>The era of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> is most infamous for the large number of atrocities committed under it. Since it was, in effect, a business venture, run by a private company headed by Leopold himself, it aimed to gain as much money as possible from primary exports. Leopold's personal fortune was greatly increased through the proceeds of selling Congolese rubber, which had never previously been mass-produced in such quantities, to the growing market for tyres. Between 1885 and 1908, as many as eight million Congolese died of exploitation and disease while the birth rate dropped.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are only rough estimates, as no figures are available for the period.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To enforce the rubber quotas, the <a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a> (FP) was created. While the Force Publique was nominally a military force – it would later fight during both the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Campaign (World War I)">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">Second World Wars</a>) – during the Congo Free State period its primary duties involved enforcing rubber quotas via imprisonment, rape, abduction, forced labor, or <a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">summary executions</a>. Severing of limbs was sometimes used.<sup id="cite_ref-cas1_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cas1-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A Belgian captain, Leon Rom, ornamented his flowerbeds with the heads of 21 natives.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following reports from missionaries, there was growing moral outrage, particularly in Britain and the United States. The <a href="/wiki/Congo_Reform_Association" title="Congo Reform Association">Congo Reform Association</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Dene_Morel" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund Dene Morel">Edmund Dene Morel</a>, was particularly important in this campaign, and published numerous best-selling tracts and pamphlets (including <i>Red Rubber</i>) which reached a vast public. King Leopold appointed and financed his own commission to put these accusations to rest, but it too confirmed the atrocities.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgique_-_Bruxelles_-_Statue_%C3%A9questre_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_-_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Belgique_-_Bruxelles_-_Statue_%C3%A9questre_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_-_01.jpg/170px-Belgique_-_Bruxelles_-_Statue_%C3%A9questre_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_-_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Belgique_-_Bruxelles_-_Statue_%C3%A9questre_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_-_01.jpg/255px-Belgique_-_Bruxelles_-_Statue_%C3%A9questre_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_-_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Belgique_-_Bruxelles_-_Statue_%C3%A9questre_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_-_01.jpg/340px-Belgique_-_Bruxelles_-_Statue_%C3%A9questre_de_L%C3%A9opold_II_-_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2402" data-file-height="3603" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Equestrian_Statue_of_Leopold_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian Statue of Leopold II">Equestrian Statue of Leopold II</a>, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Place du Trône</span></span>/<span title="Dutch-language text"><span lang="nl" style="font-style: normal;">Troonplein</span></span>, Brussels</figcaption></figure> <p>The Belgian parliament long refused to take over the colony, which was considered a financial burden. In 1908, the Belgian parliament responded to the international pressure, annexing the Free State. After World War II, Belgium was criticized by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> for making no progress on the political front. Despite propaganda campaigns within Belgium, few Belgians showed much interest in the colony. Also, the government limited the possibility of Congolese settling in Belgium.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political rights were not granted to the Africans until 1956 when the growing middle class (the so-called <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89volu%C3%A9" title="Évolué">Évolué</a></i>) received the franchise, and the economy remained relatively undeveloped despite the mineral wealth of <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/Congolese_Round_Table_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Congolese Round Table Conference">Round Table Talks on independence</a>, Belgium requested a process of gradual independence over four years,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but following a <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis#1959_Leopoldville_and_Stanleyville_Riots" title="Congo Crisis">series of riots</a> in 1959, the decision was made to bring forward independence in matter of months. The chaos in which Belgium departed the Congo caused<sup id="cite_ref-:0_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the secession of rich <a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">Western-backed province Katanga</a> and the prolonged civil war known as the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China_1902–1931"><span id="China_1902.E2.80.931931"></span>China 1902–1931</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: China 1902–1931"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Concessions_in_Tianjin#Belgian_concession_(1902–1931)" class="mw-redirect" title="Concessions in Tianjin">Belgian Tianjin Concession</a> in China was established in 1902. There was little investment and no settlement. However it led to a contract to supply an electric light and trolley system. In 1906, Tianjin became the first city in China with a modern public transportation system. The supply of electricity and lighting and the trolley business were profitable ventures. All the rolling stock was supplied by Belgian industries and by 1914, the network also reached nearby Austrian, French, Italian, Japanese and Russian concessions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ruanda-Urundi_1917–1961"><span id="Ruanda-Urundi_1917.E2.80.931961"></span>Ruanda-Urundi 1917–1961</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Ruanda-Urundi 1917–1961"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the defeat of Germany in World War I, Belgium inherited <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> mandates over <a href="/wiki/Ruanda-Urundi" title="Ruanda-Urundi">Ruanda-Urundi</a>. </p><p>The colony was administered in a similar way as by the former German administrators, continuing policies such as ethnic identity cards. In 1959, moves towards independence could be seen in the territory and agitation by <a href="/wiki/PARMEHUTU" class="mw-redirect" title="PARMEHUTU">PARMEHUTU</a>, a Hutu political party, was evident. In 1960, the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Revolution" title="Rwandan Revolution">Rwandan Revolution</a> occurred and Belgium changed the appointments of chiefs and vice-chiefs to promote Hutus. </p><p>Ruanda-Urundi gained independence in 1962 and its two regions, <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a>, separated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_I">World War I</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: World War I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgian_machinegunner_in_1918_guarding_trench.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Belgian_machinegunner_in_1918_guarding_trench.jpg/250px-Belgian_machinegunner_in_1918_guarding_trench.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Belgian_machinegunner_in_1918_guarding_trench.jpg/375px-Belgian_machinegunner_in_1918_guarding_trench.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Belgian_machinegunner_in_1918_guarding_trench.jpg/500px-Belgian_machinegunner_in_1918_guarding_trench.jpg 2x" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="601" /></a><figcaption>A Belgian machine gunner at the front lines in 1918, firing a <a href="/wiki/Chauchat" title="Chauchat">Chauchat</a> machine gun.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">Belgium in World War I</a></div> <p>When World War I began, Germany invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg as part of the <a href="/wiki/Schlieffen_Plan" title="Schlieffen Plan">Schlieffen Plan</a>, trying to take Paris quickly. The threat to France caused Britain to enter the war, using the 1839 agreement as justification. The <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Army_order_of_battle_(1914)" title="Belgian Army order of battle (1914)">Belgian army</a> is remembered for their stubborn resistance during the early days of the war, with the army – around a tenth the size of the Germany Army – holding up the German offensive for nearly a month, giving the French and British forces time to prepare for the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne" title="First Battle of the Marne">Marne counteroffensive</a>. The German invaders treated any resistance—such as sabotaging rail lines—as illegal and subversive, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. </p><p>Belgium had a prosperous economy at the start of the war but after four years of occupation, it emerged in a poor state, although Belgium itself had suffered few deaths. The Germans had "brutally and efficiently stripped the country bare. Machinery, spare parts, whole factories including the roofs, had disappeared eastward. In 1919, 80 percent of its workforce was unemployed."<sup id="cite_ref-Margaret_MacMillan_2003_277_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Margaret_MacMillan_2003_277-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_role">Military role</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Military role"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Yser" title="Battle of the Yser">Battle of the Yser</a></div> <p>Belgian soldiers fought delaying actions in 1914 during the initial invasion. They succeeded in throwing the elaborate German invasion plan off schedule and helped sabotage the Schlieffen Plan that Berlin had counted on for a quick victory over France. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Battle of Liège">Battle of Liège</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fortified_Position_of_Li%C3%A8ge" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortified Position of Liège">town's fortifications</a> were able to hold off the invaders for over a week. The German "<a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_Sea" title="Race to the Sea">Race to the Sea</a>" was held off by Belgian forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Yser" title="Battle of the Yser">Battle of the Yser</a>. King <a href="/wiki/Albert_I_of_Belgium" title="Albert I of Belgium">Albert I</a> stayed in the <a href="/wiki/Yser" title="Yser">Yser</a> as commander of the military to lead the army while <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Broqueville" title="Charles de Broqueville">Broqueville's government</a> withdrew to nearby <a href="/wiki/Le_Havre" title="Le Havre">Le Havre</a> in France. Belgian units continued to serve on the front until 1918. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Forces</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> played a major role in the African Campaign and <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Expeditionary_Corps_in_Russia" title="Belgian Expeditionary Corps in Russia">a small unit</a> of Belgian soldiers served on the Eastern Front. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupation_1914–1918"><span id="Occupation_1914.E2.80.931918"></span>Occupation 1914–1918</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Occupation 1914–1918"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atrocity_Propaganda_--_The_Rape_of_Belgium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Atrocity_Propaganda_--_The_Rape_of_Belgium.jpg/170px-Atrocity_Propaganda_--_The_Rape_of_Belgium.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Atrocity_Propaganda_--_The_Rape_of_Belgium.jpg/255px-Atrocity_Propaganda_--_The_Rape_of_Belgium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Atrocity_Propaganda_--_The_Rape_of_Belgium.jpg/340px-Atrocity_Propaganda_--_The_Rape_of_Belgium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="692" /></a><figcaption>Cartoon of "The <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a>" showing giant hairy fist with Prussian eagle grasping maiden in flowing robes.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rape_of_Belgium" title="Rape of Belgium">Rape of Belgium</a></div> <p>The Germans governed the occupied areas of Belgium through a <a href="/wiki/General_Governorate_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="General Governorate of Belgium">General Governorate of Belgium</a>, while a small area of the country remained unoccupied. </p><p>The whole country was ruled under <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook2004102_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook2004102-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the advice of the government, civil servants remained in their posts for the duration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook2004102_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook2004102-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The German army executed between 5,500<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook2004102_107-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook2004102-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 6,500<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings ordered by junior German officers. Individuals suspected of partisan activities were summarily shot.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook2004101_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook2004101-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several important Belgian figures, including politician <a href="/wiki/Adolphe_Max" title="Adolphe Max">Adolphe Max</a> and historian <a href="/wiki/Henri_Pirenne" title="Henri Pirenne">Henri Pirenne</a>, were deported to Germany. </p><p>The German occupying authorities viewed the Flemish as an oppressed people and had taken several Flemish-friendly measures, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Flamenpolitik" title="Flamenpolitik">Flamenpolitik</a></i>. This included introducing Dutch as the language of instruction of all state-supported schools in Flanders in 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook2004104_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook2004104-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This prompted a renewed Flemish movement in the years following the war. The Flemish <i><a href="/wiki/Frontpartij" title="Frontpartij">Frontbeweging</a></i> (<i>Soldiers' Movement</i>) was formed from Flemish soldiers in the Belgian army to campaign for greater use of Dutch language in education and government, though not separatist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook2004105_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook2004105-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Germans left Belgium stripped and barren. Over a 1.4 million refugees fled to France or to neutral Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978523–535_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978523–535-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the systematic atrocities by the German army in the first few weeks of the war, German civil servants took control and were generally correct, albeit strict and severe. There was never a violent resistance movement, but there was a large-scale spontaneous passive resistance of refusal to work for the benefit of German victory. Belgium was heavily industrialized; while farms operated and small shops stayed open most large establishments shut down or drastically reduced their output. The faculty closed the universities; many publishers shut down their newspapers. In 1916 Germany shipped 120,000 men and boys to work in Germany; this set off a storm of protest from neutral countries and they were returned. Germany then stripped the factories of all useful machinery, and used the rest as scrap iron for its steel mills.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978533_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKossmann1978533-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_relief">International relief</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: International relief"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Belgium faced a food crisis and an international response was organized by the American engineer <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was unprecedented in world history. Hoover's <a href="/wiki/Commission_for_Relief_in_Belgium" title="Commission for Relief in Belgium">Commission for Relief in Belgium</a> (CRB) had the permission of Germany and the Allies.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As chairman of the CRB, Hoover worked with the leader of the Belgian <i><a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_National_de_Secours_et_d%27Alimentation" title="Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation">Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation</a></i> (CNSA), <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Francqui" title="Émile Francqui">Émile Francqui</a>, to feed the entire nation for the duration of the war. The CRB imported millions of tons of foodstuffs for the CN to distribute, and watched over the CN to make sure the German army did not appropriate the food. The CRB became a veritable independent republic of relief, with its own flag, navy, factories, mills, and railroads. Private donations and government grants (78%) supplied an $11-million-a-month budget.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurner199679_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurner199679-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At its peak, the American arm, the <a href="/wiki/American_Relief_Administration" title="American Relief Administration">ARA</a> fed 10.5 million people daily. Britain grew reluctant to support the CRB, preferring instead to emphasize Germany's obligation to supply the relief; <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> led a military faction that considered the Belgian relief effort "a positive military disaster".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurner199682_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurner199682-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interwar_period">Interwar period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Interwar period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1920_olympics_poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/1920_olympics_poster.jpg/170px-1920_olympics_poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/1920_olympics_poster.jpg/255px-1920_olympics_poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/1920_olympics_poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="278" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Poster for the <a href="/wiki/1920_Summer_Olympics" title="1920 Summer Olympics">1920 Summer Olympics</a>, held at <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a></figcaption></figure> <p>King <a href="/wiki/Albert_I_of_Belgium" title="Albert I of Belgium">Albert</a> returned as a war hero. In contrast, the government and the exiles came back discreetly. Belgium had been devastated—not so much by combat, but rather by German seizure of valuable machinery. Only 81 operable locomotives remained, out of the 3,470 available in 1914. 46 of 51 steel mills were damaged, with 26 destroyed totally. More than 100,000 houses had been destroyed, as well as more than 120,000 hectares (300,000 acres) of farmland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook2004113_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook2004113-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Waves of popular violence accompanied liberation in November and December 1918 and the government responded through the judicial punishment of collaboration with the enemy conducted between 1919 and 1921. Shop windows were broken and houses sacked, men were harassed, and women's heads were shaved. Journalists who had boycotted and stopped writing called for harsh treatment of the newspapers that submitted to German censorship. Many people stigmatized profiteers and demanded justice. Thus in 1918, Belgium was already confronted with the problems associated with occupation that most European countries only discovered at the end of World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, despite the status quo, Belgium recovered surprisingly quickly. The <a href="/wiki/1920_Summer_Olympics" title="1920 Summer Olympics">first postwar Olympic Games</a> were held in Antwerp in 1920. In 1921, <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> formed a customs union with Belgium. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reparations">Reparations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Reparations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>German reparations to Belgium for damage incurred during the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> was set at £12.5 billion <a href="/wiki/Pounds_sterling" class="mw-redirect" title="Pounds sterling">pounds sterling</a>. In 1919 under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> the area of <a href="/wiki/Eupen-Malmedy" title="Eupen-Malmedy">Eupen-Malmedy</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Moresnet" class="mw-redirect" title="Moresnet">Moresnet</a> was transferred to Belgium. "<a href="/wiki/Neutral_Moresnet" title="Neutral Moresnet">Neutral Moresnet</a>" was transferred to Belgium, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Vennbahn" title="Vennbahn">Vennbahn</a> railway. An opportunity was given to the population to "oppose" against the transfer by signing a petition, which gathered few signatures, in large part thanks to intimidation by local authorities, and all regions remain part of Belgium today. </p><p>Belgian requests to annex territory considered as historically theirs from the Dutch, who were perceived as collaborators, was denied.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECook2004102_107-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECook2004102-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between January 1923 and August 1925, Belgian and French soldiers were sent to the <a href="/wiki/Ruhr" title="Ruhr">Ruhr</a> in <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Germany</a> to force the German government to agree to continue reparation payments. The <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Ruhr" title="Occupation of the Ruhr">Occupation of the Ruhr</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a> which allowed the German government more leniency in paying reparations. </p><p>The League of Nations in 1925 made Belgium the trustee for the former <a href="/wiki/German_East_Africa" title="German East Africa">German East Africa</a> which bordered the Belgian Congo to the east. It became <a href="/wiki/Rwanda-Urundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rwanda-Urundi">Rwanda-Urundi</a> (or "Ruanda-Urundi") (modern day <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burundi" title="Burundi">Burundi</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although promising the League it would promote education, Belgium left the task to subsidised Catholic missions and unsubsidised Protestant missions. As late as 1962, fewer than 100 natives had gone beyond secondary school. The policy was one of low-cost paternalism, as explained by Belgium's special representative to the Trusteeship Council: "The real work is to change the African in his essence, to transform his soul, [and] to do that one must love him and enjoy having daily contact with him. He must be cured of his thoughtlessness, he must accustom himself to living in society, he must overcome his inertia."<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_culture">Art and culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Art and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Godshuis_Boeveriestraat.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Godshuis_Boeveriestraat.JPG/220px-Godshuis_Boeveriestraat.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Godshuis_Boeveriestraat.JPG/330px-Godshuis_Boeveriestraat.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Godshuis_Boeveriestraat.JPG/440px-Godshuis_Boeveriestraat.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A historic street in Belgium</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a> painting movement found a distinctive form in Flanders under artists like <a href="/wiki/James_Ensor" title="James Ensor">James Ensor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constant_Permeke" title="Constant Permeke">Constant Permeke</a> and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Spilliaert" title="Léon Spilliaert">Léon Spilliaert</a>. Belgian <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealist</a> art grew during the inter-war period, including works by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Magritte" title="René Magritte">René Magritte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Delvaux" title="Paul Delvaux">Paul Delvaux</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Franco-Belgian_comics" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Belgian comics">Comic strips</a> became extremely popular in Belgium during the 1930s. One of the most popular comics of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Herg%C3%A9" title="Hergé">Hergé</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Tintin" title="The Adventures of Tintin">The Adventures of Tintin</a></i> first appeared in 1929. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Belgian_comics" title="Belgian comics">Belgian comics</a> are a distinct subgroup in the comics history, and played a major role in the development of <a href="/wiki/European_comics" title="European comics">European comics</a>, alongside France with whom they share a long common history. While the comics in the two major language groups and regions of Belgium (Flanders with the Dutch language and Wallonia with French) each have clearly distinct characteristics, they are constantly influencing one another, and meeting each other in Brussels and in the bilingual publication tradition of the major editors. As one of the few arts where Belgium has had an international and enduring impact in the 20th century, comics are known to be "an integral part of Belgian culture". Major contributors include <a href="/wiki/Herg%C3%A9" title="Hergé">Hergé</a> with <a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Tintin" title="The Adventures of Tintin">The Adventures of Tintin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dupuis" title="Dupuis">Dupuis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Spirou_(magazine)" title="Spirou (magazine)">Spirou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willy_Vandersteen" title="Willy Vandersteen">Willy Vandersteen</a> with <a href="/wiki/Spike_and_Suzy" title="Spike and Suzy">Suske en Wiske</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bessy_(comics)" title="Bessy (comics)">Bessy</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Rode_Ridder" title="De Rode Ridder">De Rode Ridder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_en_Bertrand" title="Robert en Bertrand">Robert en Bertrand</a> and many others, <a href="/wiki/Marc_Sleen" title="Marc Sleen">Marc Sleen</a> with <a href="/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Nero" title="The Adventures of Nero">The Adventures of Nero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peyo" title="Peyo">Peyo</a> with <a href="/wiki/The_Smurfs" title="The Smurfs">The Smurfs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jef_Nys" title="Jef Nys">Jef Nys</a> with <a href="/wiki/Jommeke" title="Jommeke">Jommeke</a>, and so many more. </p><p>Sales of comic books make up 14% of all book sales in Belgium's northern region of Flanders. </p><p>Belgium has played a major role in the development of the 9th art. In fact, even the designation of comics as the 9th Art is due to a Belgian. Morris introduced the term in 1964 when he started a series about the history of comics in Spirou. Belgium's comic-strip culture has been called by Time magazine "Europe's richest", while the Calgary Sun calls Belgium "the home of the comic strip". Belgium has several museums dedicated to comic books, comic book heroes and their authors. </p><p>The growth of comic strips was also accompanied by a popular art movement, exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Edgar_P._Jacobs" title="Edgar P. Jacobs">Edgar P. Jacobs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jij%C3%A9" title="Jijé">Jijé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willy_Vandersteen" title="Willy Vandersteen">Willy Vandersteen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Franquin" title="André Franquin">André Franquin</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-127-0362-14,_Belgien,_belgischer_Panzer_T13.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-127-0362-14%2C_Belgien%2C_belgischer_Panzer_T13.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-127-0362-14%2C_Belgien%2C_belgischer_Panzer_T13.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-127-0362-14%2C_Belgien%2C_belgischer_Panzer_T13.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-127-0362-14%2C_Belgien%2C_belgischer_Panzer_T13.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-127-0362-14%2C_Belgien%2C_belgischer_Panzer_T13.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-127-0362-14%2C_Belgien%2C_belgischer_Panzer_T13.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>German soldiers examine an abandoned Belgian <a href="/wiki/Belgian_combat_vehicles_of_World_War_II#The_T-13_Models_B1,_B2,_and_B3" title="Belgian combat vehicles of World War II">T13 Tank</a>, 1940</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium in World War II</a></div> <p>Belgium tried to pursue a policy of unaligned neutrality before the war, but on May 10, 1940, the country was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Belgium">invaded by German forces</a>. In the initial attacks, the fortifications which had been constructed to protect the borders like <a href="/wiki/Fort_Eben-Emael" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Eben-Emael">Fort Eben-Emael</a> and the <a href="/wiki/K-W_Line" title="K-W Line">K-W Line</a> were captured or bypassed by German forces. On May 28, after 18 days of fighting, Belgian forces (including the commander in chief, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_III_of_Belgium" title="Leopold III of Belgium">King Leopold III</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> surrendered. The elected government, under <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Pierlot" title="Hubert Pierlot">Hubert Pierlot</a>, escaped to form a <a href="/wiki/Government_in_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Government in exile">government in exile</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgian_Army_in_the_United_Kingdom">Belgian Army in the United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Belgian Army in the United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soldiers_in_the_Belgium_Congo_-_NARA_-_197079.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Soldiers_in_the_Belgium_Congo_-_NARA_-_197079.jpg/220px-Soldiers_in_the_Belgium_Congo_-_NARA_-_197079.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Soldiers_in_the_Belgium_Congo_-_NARA_-_197079.jpg/330px-Soldiers_in_the_Belgium_Congo_-_NARA_-_197079.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Soldiers_in_the_Belgium_Congo_-_NARA_-_197079.jpg/440px-Soldiers_in_the_Belgium_Congo_-_NARA_-_197079.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2407" /></a><figcaption>Belgian-Congolese <i><a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a></i> soldiers, 1943</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Free_Belgian_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Belgian Forces">Free Belgian Forces</a></div> <p>After the defeat in 1940, significant numbers of Belgian soldiers and civilians managed to escape to Britain to join the Belgian army in Exile. </p><p>Belgian soldiers formed the <a href="/wiki/1st_Belgian_Infantry_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="1st Belgian Infantry Brigade">1st Belgian Infantry Brigade</a>, which also included a battery of soldiers from Luxembourg, more often known as the <i>Brigade Piron</i> after its commanding officer, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Piron" title="Jean-Baptiste Piron">Jean-Baptiste Piron</a>. The Brigade Piron was involved in the <a href="/wiki/D-Day" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Day">Normandy Invasion</a> and the battles in France and the Netherlands until liberation. Belgians also served in British special forces units during the war, forming a troop of <a href="/wiki/No._10_(Inter-Allied)_Commando#No._4_Belgian_Troop" title="No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando">No.10 Commando</a> which was heavily involved in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign (World War II)">Italian Campaign</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Infatuate" title="Operation Infatuate">Landings on Walcheren</a>. The <a href="/wiki/5th_Special_Air_Service" title="5th Special Air Service">5th Special Air Service</a> (SAS) was entirely made up of Belgians. </p><p>Two Belgian squadrons, amounting to over 400 pilots, served in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> during the war, both <a href="/wiki/349th_Squadron_(Belgium)" title="349th Squadron (Belgium)">349</a> and <a href="/wiki/350th_Squadron_(Belgium)" title="350th Squadron (Belgium)">350 Squadrons</a>, which claimed over 50 'kills'.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two <a href="/wiki/Corvettes" class="mw-redirect" title="Corvettes">Corvettes</a> and a group of <a href="/wiki/Minesweeper_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minesweeper (ship)">Minesweepers</a> were also operated by the Belgians during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic" title="Battle of the Atlantic">Battle of the Atlantic</a>, comprising some 350 men in 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Congolese soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a> were involved in the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East African Campaign</a>, as well as in the Middle East and Burma. The Congo was also a vitally important economic asset to the allied powers, particularly through its exports of rubber and uranium; in fact the uranium used during the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> – including that used for the atomic bombs dropped on <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a> was supplied by the Belgian firm <a href="/wiki/Union_Mini%C3%A8re_du_Haut_Katanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Minière du Haut Katanga">Union Minière du Haut Katanga</a> from <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga Province</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupation_1940–1944"><span id="Occupation_1940.E2.80.931944"></span>Occupation 1940–1944</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Occupation 1940–1944"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breendonk046.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Breendonk046.jpg/220px-Breendonk046.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Breendonk046.jpg/330px-Breendonk046.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Breendonk046.jpg/440px-Breendonk046.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1952" /></a><figcaption>The gallows at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Breendonk" title="Fort Breendonk">Breendonk Concentration Camp</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Mechelen" title="Mechelen">Mechelen</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">Belgium in World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_Administration_in_Belgium_and_Northern_France" title="Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France">Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belgium" title="The Holocaust in Belgium">The Holocaust in Belgium</a></div> <p>Belgium was run by a Germany military government between its surrender and liberation in September 1944. </p><p>The former fort at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Breendonk" title="Fort Breendonk">Breendonk</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Mechelen" title="Mechelen">Mechelen</a> was requisitioned by the Nazis and used for detainment and interrogation of Jews, political prisoners and captured members of the resistance. Of the 3,500 incarcerated in Breendonk between 1940 and 1944, 1,733 died.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 300 people were killed in the camp itself, with at least 98 dying from deprivation or torture.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1940, nearly 70,000 Jews were living in Belgium. Of these, 46 percent were deported from the <a href="/wiki/Mechelen_transit_camp" title="Mechelen transit camp">Mechelen transit camp</a>, while a further 5,034 people were deported via the <a href="/wiki/Drancy_internment_camp" title="Drancy internment camp">Drancy internment camp</a>. From the summer of 1942 until 1944, twenty-eight transports left Belgium carrying 25,257 Jews and 351 Roma to eastern Europe, often to <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a>. A total of 25,257 Jews were transported (including 5,093 children) and 352 Roma over the Mechelen-Leuven railway to concentration camps. Only 1,205 returned home alive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resistance">Resistance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Resistance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Resistance" title="Belgian Resistance">Belgian Resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_de_D%C3%A9fense_des_Juifs" class="mw-redirect" title="Comité de Défense des Juifs">Comité de Défense des Juifs</a></div> <p>Resistance against the German occupiers can be seen at all levels, but was highly fragmented. Some organisations were very left-wing, like the Communist <i><a href="/wiki/Front_de_l%27Ind%C3%A9pendance" title="Front de l'Indépendance">Front de l'Indépendance</a></i>, but there was also a far-right resistance movement, the <i>Légion Belge</i> which comprised dissident <a href="/wiki/Rexism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rexism">Rexists</a>, and other groups like <i>Groupe G</i> had no obvious political affiliation. </p><p>Resistance to the occupiers chiefly came in the form of helping allied airmen escape, and numerous lines were set up to organise this, for instance the <a href="/wiki/Comet_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Comet line">Comet line</a> which evacuated an estimated 14,000 allied airmen to <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sabotage was also used, and <i>Group G's</i> activities alone are estimated to have cost the Nazis 20 million man-hours of labor to repair damages.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resistance were also instrumental in saving Jews and Roma from deportation, for instance the attack on the <a href="/wiki/Twentieth_convoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Twentieth convoy">Twentieth convoy</a>. There was also significant low-level resistance, for instance in June 1941, the <a href="/wiki/City_of_Brussels" title="City of Brussels">City Council of Brussels</a> refused to distribute <a href="/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">Stars of David badges</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Museum_van_Deportatie_en_Verzet_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Museum_van_Deportatie_en_Verzet-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many Belgians also hid Jews and political dissidents during the occupation, with one estimate putting the number at 20,000.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collaboration">Collaboration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Collaboration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drapeau_de_Rex.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Drapeau_de_Rex.svg/220px-Drapeau_de_Rex.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Drapeau_de_Rex.svg/330px-Drapeau_de_Rex.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Drapeau_de_Rex.svg/440px-Drapeau_de_Rex.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>The flag of the francophone pro-Nazi <a href="/wiki/Rexism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rexism">Rexist</a> party</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rexism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rexism">Rexism</a>, <a href="/wiki/DeVlag" title="DeVlag">DeVlag</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flemish_National_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish National Union">Flemish National Union</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Verdinaso" title="Verdinaso">Verdinaso</a></div> <p>During Nazi occupation, some Belgians collaborated with their occupiers. There were pro-Nazi political organizations in both Flemish and Walloon communities before and during the war. The most significant were the Flemish <a href="/wiki/DeVlag" title="DeVlag">DeVlag</a> and <i>Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond</i> (<a href="/wiki/Flemish_National_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish National Union">VNV</a>) as well as the Catholic Walloon <i><a href="/wiki/Rexism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rexism">Rexist</a></i> movement. These organisations were also fundamental to encouraging Belgians to enlist in the German army. Two divisions of the <a href="/wiki/Waffen_SS" class="mw-redirect" title="Waffen SS">Waffen SS</a>, the Flemish <a href="/wiki/27th_SS_Volunteer_Division_Langemarck" class="mw-redirect" title="27th SS Volunteer Division Langemarck">27th SS "Langemarck" Division</a> and the Walloon <a href="/wiki/28th_SS_Volunteer_Grenadier_Division_Wallonien" class="mw-redirect" title="28th SS Volunteer Grenadier Division Wallonien">28th SS "Wallonien" Division</a>. Some organisations, like <a href="/wiki/Verdinaso" title="Verdinaso">Verdinaso</a> appealed directly to Flemish separatist ideologies, though they did not become very popular. </p><p>After the war, many of those who had collaborated – including many of the guards at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Breendonk" title="Fort Breendonk">Fort Breendonk</a> – were tried, imprisoned or shot. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allied_liberation_1944–1945"><span id="Allied_liberation_1944.E2.80.931945"></span>Allied liberation 1944–1945</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Allied liberation 1944–1945"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Belgium was liberated late in 1944 by Allied forces. On 3 September 1944 the Welsh Guards liberated Brussels. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Army_(United_Kingdom)" title="Second Army (United Kingdom)">British Second Army</a> seized <a href="/wiki/Antwerp" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> on 4 of September 1944, and the <a href="/wiki/First_Canadian_Army" title="First Canadian Army">First Canadian Army</a> began conducting combat operations around the port that same month. Antwerp became a highly prized and heavily fought-over objective because its deep-water port was necessary to keep the Allied armies supplied. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Scheldt" title="Battle of the Scheldt">Battle of the Scheldt</a> in October 1944 was fought primarily on Dutch soil, but with the objective of opening the way for boats to Antwerp. The port city was also the ultimate objective of German armies during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge" title="Battle of the Bulge">Ardennes Offensive</a> which resulted in heavy fighting on Belgian soil during the winter of 1944–1945. </p><p>Following liberation, 10,000 Belgians who had remained in the country during the occupation were mobilised into the Belgian army in 57 "Fusilier Battalions". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="WWII_to_present">WWII to present</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: WWII to present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Royal_Question""><span id=".22Royal_Question.22"></span>"Royal Question"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: "Royal Question""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Question">Royal Question</a></div> <p>Immediately after the war, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_III_of_Belgium" title="Leopold III of Belgium">Léopold III</a>, who had surrendered to the German army in 1940, was released; however, the issue of whether he had <a href="/wiki/Treason" title="Treason">betrayed</a> his country by surrendering, while most government ministers had escaped to the United Kingdom, presented a constitutional dilemma. The Belgian public was concerned that he might be a collaborator with the Nazis. He had met <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berchtesgaden" title="Berchtesgaden">Berchtesgaden</a> on November 19, 1940, and had even remarried (to <a href="/wiki/Lilian_Baels" title="Lilian Baels">Lilian Baels</a>) during the war. Many Belgians, especially the Socialists, strongly opposed his return to power. He was kept in exile in Switzerland until 1950, while his brother <a href="/wiki/Prince_Charles_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Charles of Belgium">Prince Charles</a> presided as regent. </p><p>A 1950 referendum produced a very close result. In <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, the electorate voted 70% in favour of his return but <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Wallonia</a> voted 58% against. Brussels also returned a 51% "No" vote. Although the referendum narrowly produced a favourable result for Léopold (about 57.68% in the country as a whole), the militant socialist movement in Liège, Hainaut and other urban centres incited major protests and even called a <a href="/wiki/General_strike_against_Leopold_III_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="General strike against Leopold III of Belgium">General Strike</a> against his return. Léopold III abdicated on July 16, 1951, in favour of his son <a href="/wiki/Baudouin_I_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Baudouin I of Belgium">Baudouin</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupation_of_Germany,_Korean_War_and_EDC"><span id="Occupation_of_Germany.2C_Korean_War_and_EDC"></span>Occupation of Germany, Korean War and EDC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Occupation of Germany, Korean War and EDC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgische_Strijdkrachten_Duitsland.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Belgische_Strijdkrachten_Duitsland.png/220px-Belgische_Strijdkrachten_Duitsland.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Belgische_Strijdkrachten_Duitsland.png 1.5x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="153" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the area of <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> occupied by Belgian forces after the Second World War, known as FBA-BSD</figcaption></figure> <p>Belgian soldiers were assigned to occupy a section of <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Forces_in_Germany" title="Belgian Forces in Germany">Belgian Forces in Germany</a></i> or FBA-BSD. The last Belgian soldiers left Germany in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1950, a unit of volunteers from the Belgian army was sent to fight for the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Belgian_United_Nations_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian United Nations Command">Belgian United Nations Command</a> (or BUNC) arrived in Korea in early 1951, and fought at several key engagements of the conflict, including at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Imjin_River" title="Battle of the Imjin River">Battle of the Imjin River</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Haktang-ni" title="Battle of Haktang-ni">Haktang-ni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chatkol" title="Battle of Chatkol">Chatkol</a>. Over 300 Belgians were killed in action. The last Belgian soldiers returned from Korea in 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Benelux_and_Europe">Benelux and Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Benelux and Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-39998-0427,_Paul-Henri_Spaak.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-39998-0427%2C_Paul-Henri_Spaak.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-39998-0427%2C_Paul-Henri_Spaak.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-39998-0427%2C_Paul-Henri_Spaak.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-39998-0427%2C_Paul-Henri_Spaak.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-39998-0427%2C_Paul-Henri_Spaak.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-39998-0427%2C_Paul-Henri_Spaak.jpg 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul-Henri_Spaak" title="Paul-Henri Spaak">Paul-Henri Spaak</a>, three-times <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Belgium" title="Prime Minister of Belgium">Prime Minister</a> and author of the <a href="/wiki/Spaak_Report" title="Spaak Report">Spaak Report</a>, was a staunch believer in international bodies, including the <a href="/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community" title="European Coal and Steel Community">ECSC</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">EEC</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a>, <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community" title="European Coal and Steel Community">European Coal and Steel Community</a>, and <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a></div> <p>On September 5, 1944, the <a href="/wiki/Benelux_Customs_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Benelux Customs Union">Benelux Customs Union</a> was created. It entered into force in 1948, and ceased to exist on 1 November 1960, when it was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Benelux_Economic_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Benelux Economic Union">Benelux Economic Union</a> after a treaty signed in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> on February 3, 1958. The <a href="/wiki/Benelux_Parliament" title="Benelux Parliament">Benelux Parliament</a> was created in 1955. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Brussels" title="Treaty of Brussels">Treaty of Brussels</a>, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the United Kingdom, is considered the precursor to the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> agreement, which Belgium became an official member of on April 4, 1949. The headquarters of NATO are located in <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, and the headquarters of <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Powers_Europe" title="Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe">SHAPE</a> near <a href="/wiki/Mons,_Belgium" title="Mons, Belgium">Mons</a>. </p><p>Belgium was also one of the original founding members of the <a href="/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community" title="European Coal and Steel Community">European Coal and Steel Community</a> (ECSC) in July 1952 and of the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> formed by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome" title="Treaty of Rome">Treaty of Rome</a> on March 25, 1957.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belgium has been a member of the <a href="/wiki/Schengen_area" class="mw-redirect" title="Schengen area">Schengen area</a> since 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgian_"Economic_Miracle""><span id="Belgian_.22Economic_Miracle.22"></span>Belgian "Economic Miracle"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Belgian "Economic Miracle""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marshall_Plan">Marshall Plan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Marshall Plan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The American <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> gave Belgium $559 million in grants from 1948 to 1951. A central goal of the ERP was to promote the growth of productivity along the lines of American management and labor practices. The interest among some Belgian employers in increasing rates of productivity per worker was motivated by the rise in wage levels. But the Americans also intended to inject a new "spirit of productivity" in Belgian industries, which implied, among other measures, a reinforcement of structures of corporatist negotiation. After the belated establishment of the Belgian Office for the Increase of Productivity in 1952, the political character of the program became apparent. The "policy of productivity" was successful for a time because it matched the evolution of social reforms. This policy success, however, was rendered impotent by the failure of the economic dimension of the productivity campaigns. The Americans had in effect failed to recognize the structural importance of the major financial groups which dominated heavy industry in Belgium. By not carrying out any large-scale programs of innovation and investment in the key sectors that they controlled in the aftermath of the war, these holding companies greatly restricted the scope for American influence. Consequently, it was by other means, such as the training of managers, that American paradigms entered Belgian economic culture.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Growth_and_poverty">Growth and poverty</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Growth and poverty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the war, the government cancelled Belgium's debts. It was during this period that the well-known Belgian highways were built. In addition, both the economy and the average standard of living rose significantly. As noted by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gildea" title="Robert Gildea">Robert Gildea</a>, "Social and economic policy was designed to restore liberal capitalism tempered by social reform, as prepared for during the war. Trade unions were also involved in a price and wage policy to cut inflation and this, together with the Allied use of Antwerp as the main entry point for war supplies, produced the so-called Belgian miracle of high economic growth combined with high wages."<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one study, Belgian workers by 1961 earned wages "second only to those of the French in the Common Market area", and earned 40% more than their Dutch counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite postwar affluence, however, many Belgians continued to live in poverty. An organisation of several poverty action groups, known as the National Action for Security of Subsistence, claimed that more than 900,000 Belgians (about 10% of the population) lived in poverty in 1967, while in the early 1970s, a group of social scientists called the Working Group on Alternative Economics estimated that about 14.5% of the Belgian population lived in poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because Flanders had been widely devastated during the war and had been largely agricultural since the Belgian uprising, it benefited most from the Marshall Plan. Its standing as an economically backward agricultural region meant that it obtained support from Belgium's membership of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union#The_three_communities" title="History of the European Union">European Union</a> and its predecessors. At the same time, Wallonia experienced a slow relative decline as the products of its mines and mills came to be less in demand. The economic balance between the two parts of the country has remained less in favour of Wallonia than it was before 1939. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_"School_War"_1950–1959"><span id="Second_.22School_War.22_1950.E2.80.931959"></span>Second <i>"School War"</i> 1950–1959</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Second "School War" 1950–1959"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_School_War" title="Second School War">Second School War</a></div> <p>After victory in the 1950 elections, a <a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_Party_(Belgium,_defunct)" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Social Party (Belgium, defunct)">Christian Social Party</a> (PSC-CVP) government came to power. The new education minister, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Harmel" title="Pierre Harmel">Pierre Harmel</a>, increased the wages of teachers in private (Catholic) schools and introduced laws linking the subsidies for private schools to the number of pupils. These measures were perceived by the anti-clerical <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Belgium)" title="Liberal Party (Belgium)">Liberals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Socialist_Party" title="Belgian Socialist Party">Socialists</a> as a "declaration of war". </p><p>When the 1954 elections brought to power a coalition of <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Socialist_Party" title="Belgian Socialist Party">Socialists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Belgium)" title="Liberal Party (Belgium)">Liberals</a>, the new Education Minister, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Collard" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo Collard">Leo Collard</a>, immediately set out to reverse the measures taken by his predecessor, founding a large number of secular schools and only permitting teachers with a diploma, forcing many priests out of the profession. These measures sparked mass protests from the Catholic bloc. A compromise was eventually found by the next government (a Catholic minority led by <a href="/wiki/Gaston_Eyskens" title="Gaston Eyskens">Gaston Eyskens</a>), and the <i>"Schools War"</i> was concluded by the November 6, 1958 "School Pact".<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congolese_independence_and_the_Congo_Crisis">Congolese independence and the Congo Crisis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Congolese independence and the Congo Crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg/220px-Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg/330px-Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg/440px-Congo_Crisis_dead_hostages.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="233" /></a><figcaption>Belgian soldier taking cover by the corpses of dead hostages, November 1964 in <a href="/wiki/Kisangani" title="Kisangani">Stanleyville</a> during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragon_Rouge" title="Operation Dragon Rouge">Operation Dragon Rouge</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></div> <p>After riots in the Congo in 1959, the scheduled gradual transition to independence was sped up dramatically. In June 1960, the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a> was replaced by the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">First Republic of Congo</a>, led by the democratically elected Congolese statesman <a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a>. Belgian forces withdrew, leaving the military <a href="/wiki/Force_Publique" title="Force Publique">Force Publique</a> under Congo's control. Order broke down as mutinying soldiers attacked whites who remained in the country. Belgians forces were briefly sent to evacuate Belgian nationals and army officers. </p><p>In July 1960, the southern state of <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katanga Province</a> declared its independence, forming the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Katanga" title="State of Katanga">State of Katanga</a>. Katanga's bid for sovereignty was supported by Belgian mining companies and soldiers, who had considerable assets in the area. Later that month, <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> peacekeepers were deployed to the country. During this period of anarchy, the region of <a href="/wiki/South_Kasai" title="South Kasai">South Kasai</a> also declared independence. Western powers including Belgium supported <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mobutu" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Mobutu">Joseph Mobutu</a>, who installed a right-wing regime in the Congo. Lumumba was murdered and civil war ensued. Belgian paratroopers were again deployed, this time to rescue civilian hostages captured in <a href="/wiki/Kisangani" title="Kisangani">Stanleyville</a> during an operation known as <i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragon_Rouge" title="Operation Dragon Rouge">Dragon Rouge</a></i>. At the end Mobutu emerged as the ruler of the re-unified country, which he named <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_Strike_of_1960–61"><span id="General_Strike_of_1960.E2.80.9361"></span>General Strike of 1960–61</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: General Strike of 1960–61"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metingue_Brussele1960a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Metingue_Brussele1960a.jpg/220px-Metingue_Brussele1960a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Metingue_Brussele1960a.jpg/330px-Metingue_Brussele1960a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Metingue_Brussele1960a.jpg/440px-Metingue_Brussele1960a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Walloon workers demonstration in Brussels in the winter of 1960</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/1960%E2%80%931961_Winter_General_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="1960–1961 Winter General Strike">1960–1961 Winter General Strike</a></div> <p>In December 1960, Wallonia was gripped by a general strike in response to the general decline of Wallonian manufacturing in a period of turbulence in the aftermath of the <i>Second Schools War</i>. The Wallonian workers demanded federalism, in addition to structural reforms. Even though the strike had been intended to be nationwide, Flemish workers appeared reluctant to support it. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1960-1961_Winter_General_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="1960-1961 Winter General Strike">Strike</a> was led by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Renard" title="André Renard">André Renard</a>, the founder of "<a href="/wiki/Renardism" title="Renardism">Renardism</a>" which combined militant socialism with Walloon nationalism. The historian Renée Fox described Wallonia's alienation: </p> <blockquote><p>At the beginning of the 1960s (...), a major reversal in the relationship between Flanders and Wallonia was taking place. Flanders had entered a vigorous, post–World War II period of industrialization, and a significant percentage of the foreign capital (particularly from the United States, coming into Belgium to support new industries, was being invested in Flanders. In contrast, Wallonia's coal mines and time-worn steel plants and factories were in crisis. The region had lost thousands of jobs and much investment capital. A new Dutch-speaking, upwardly mobile "populist bourgeoisie" was not only becoming visible and vocal in Flemish movements but also in both the local and national policy... [The strike of December 1960 against the austerity law of <a href="/wiki/Gaston_Eyskens" title="Gaston Eyskens">Gaston Eyskens</a> ] was replaced by a collective expression of the frustrations, anxieties, and grievances that Wallonia was experiencing in response to its altered situation, and by the demands of the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Walloon_Movement#Independentism" title="Walloon Movement">Walloon Popular Movement</a> for...regional autonomy for Wallonia...<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Nationwide the economy was generally healthy with an annual growth rate of 5% in the 1960s. However old inefficient factories were being shut down in textiles and leather goods. Coal miners were angered by the closure of used-up mines. Limburg miners at the Zwartberg mine rioted in 1966 to protest its closure. Two miners were killed by police and ten were injured, while nineteen policemen were hurt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitteCraeybeckxMeynen2009280_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitteCraeybeckxMeynen2009280-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1973 a series of worldwide crises adversely affected the Belgian economy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Linguistic_Wars""><span id=".22Linguistic_Wars.22"></span>"Linguistic Wars"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: "Linguistic Wars""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Movement" title="Flemish Movement">Flemish Movement</a></div> <p>This Flemish resurgence has been accompanied by a corresponding shift of political power to the Flemish, who constituted the majority of the population of around 60%. An official Dutch translation of the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian constitution">constitution</a> was only accepted in 1967.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The linguistic wars reached a climax in 1968 with the splitting of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_University_of_Leuven_(1834%E2%80%931968)" title="Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968)">Catholic University of Leuven</a> along linguistic lines into the <a href="/wiki/Katholieke_Universiteit_Leuven" class="mw-redirect" title="Katholieke Universiteit Leuven">Katholieke Universiteit Leuven</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A9_Catholique_de_Louvain" class="mw-redirect" title="Université Catholique de Louvain">Université Catholique de Louvain</a>. The government of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Vanden_Boeynants" title="Paul Vanden Boeynants">Paul Vanden Boeynants</a> fell over the issue in 1968. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_the_federal_state">Rise of the federal state</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Rise of the federal state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Flanders.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flag_of_Flanders.svg/220px-Flag_of_Flanders.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flag_of_Flanders.svg/330px-Flag_of_Flanders.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flag_of_Flanders.svg/440px-Flag_of_Flanders.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="627" /></a><figcaption>The flag of <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> incorporating the Flemish lion, also used by the <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Movement" title="Flemish Movement">Flemish Movement</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_reform_in_Belgium" title="State reform in Belgium">State reform in Belgium</a></div> <p>The successive linguistic disputes made the successive Belgian governments very unstable. The three major parties all split in two according to their French- or Dutch-speaking electorate. A language border was determined by the first Gilson Act of November 8, 1962. The boundaries of certain <a href="/wiki/Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Provinces">provinces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arrondissements" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrondissements">arrondissements</a> and <a href="/wiki/Municipalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipalities">municipalities</a> were modified and <a href="/wiki/Municipalities_with_language_facilities" title="Municipalities with language facilities">facilities</a> for linguistic minorities were introduced in 25 municipalities. On August 2, 1963, the second Gilson Act entered into force, fixing the division of Belgium into four language areas: a Dutch, a French and a German language area, with <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> as a bilingual area. </p><p>In 1970, there was a first state reform, which resulted in the establishment of three cultural communities: Dutch, French and German. This reform was a response to the <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flemish</a> demand for cultural autonomy. The constitutional revision of 1970 also laid the foundations for the establishment of three <a href="/wiki/Communities_and_regions_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Communities and regions of Belgium">Regions</a>, which was a response to the demand of the <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Walloons</a> and the French-speaking inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Brussels_Capital_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Brussels Capital Region">Brussels</a> for economic autonomy. On February 18, 1970, <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Belgium" title="Prime Minister of Belgium">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaston_Eyskens" title="Gaston Eyskens">Gaston Eyskens</a> announced the end of "La Belgique de papa". </p><p>The second state reform took place in 1980, when the cultural communities became <a href="/wiki/Communities_and_regions_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Communities and regions of Belgium">Communities</a>. The Communities assumed the competencies of the cultural communities with regard to cultural matters, and became responsible for the 'matters relating to the person', such as health and youth policy. From then on, these three Communities were known as the <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Community" title="Flemish Community">Flemish Community</a>, the <a href="/wiki/French_Community_of_Belgium" title="French Community of Belgium">French Community</a> and the <a href="/wiki/German-speaking_Community_of_Belgium" title="German-speaking Community of Belgium">German-speaking Community</a>. Two Regions were established as well in 1980: the <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Region" title="Flemish Region">Flemish Region</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wallonia" title="Wallonia">Walloon Region</a>. However, in Flanders it was decided in 1980 to immediately merge the institutions of the Community and the Region. Although the creation of a Brussels Region was provided for in 1970, the <a href="/wiki/Brussels-Capital_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Brussels-Capital Region">Brussels-Capital Region</a> was not established until the third state reform. </p><p>During the third state reform in 1988 and 1989, under <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Belgium" title="Prime Minister of Belgium">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Wilfried_Martens" title="Wilfried Martens">Wilfried Martens</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Brussels-Capital_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Brussels-Capital Region">Brussels-Capital Region</a> was established with its own regional institutions, as well as <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> institutions for community matters. The Brussels-Capital Region remained limited to 19 municipalities. Other changes included that the competencies of the Communities and Regions were expanded. One notable responsibility that was transferred to the Communities during the third state reform was education. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgium_province_Brabant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Belgium_province_Brabant.svg/220px-Belgium_province_Brabant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Belgium_province_Brabant.svg/330px-Belgium_province_Brabant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Belgium_province_Brabant.svg/440px-Belgium_province_Brabant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="797" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the division of <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Brabant" title="Province of Brabant">Brabant</a> into <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Brabant" title="Flemish Brabant">Flemish Brabant</a> (yellow), <a href="/wiki/Walloon_Brabant" title="Walloon Brabant">Walloon Brabant</a> (red) and the <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels-Capital Region</a> (orange) in 1995</figcaption></figure> <p>The fourth state reform, which took place in 1993 under Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Dehaene" title="Jean-Luc Dehaene">Jean-Luc Dehaene</a>, consolidated the previous state reforms and turned Belgium into a fully-fledged federal state. The first article of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Belgium" title="Constitution of Belgium">Belgian Constitution</a> was amended to read, "Belgium is a Federal State which consists of Communities and Regions". During the fourth state reform, the responsibilities of the Communities and the Regions were expanded, their resources were increased and they were given more fiscal responsibilities. Other major changes included the direct election of the parliaments of the Communities and the Regions, the splitting up of the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Brabant" title="Province of Brabant">Province of Brabant</a> into <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Brabant" title="Flemish Brabant">Flemish Brabant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walloon_Brabant" title="Walloon Brabant">Walloon Brabant</a>, and the reformation of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Parliament_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Parliament of Belgium">Federal Parliament's</a> <a href="/wiki/Bicameralism" title="Bicameralism">bicameral</a> system and the relations between the Federal Parliament and the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Federal_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian Federal Government">Federal Government</a>. The first direct elections for the parliaments of the Communities and the Regions took place on May 21, 1995. </p><p>In 2001, a fifth state reform took place,<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> under Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Guy Verhofstadt</a>, with the Lambermont and the Lombard Accords. More powers were transferred to the Communities and the Regions, with regard to agriculture, fisheries, foreign trade, development cooperation, auditing of electoral expenses and the supplementary financing of the political parties. The Regions became responsible for twelve regional taxes, and local and provincial government became a matter for the Regions. The first municipal and provincial elections under the supervision of the Regions were <a href="/wiki/Belgian_municipal_elections,_2006" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian municipal elections, 2006">in 2006</a>. The functioning of the Brussels institutions was also amended during the fifth state reform, which resulted among other things in a guaranteed representation of the Flemish inhabitants in the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_Brussels-Capital_Region" title="Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region">Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region</a>. </p><p>At the end of 2011, following the longest political crisis in Belgium's contemporary history, a constitutional accord between the four main political families (socialists, liberals, social-Christians, ecologists), but excluding the Flemish nationalists, ushered in the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Belgian_state_reform" title="Sixth Belgian state reform">sixth state reform</a> which provided for major institutional changes and additional transfers of competences from the federal level to the Communities and the Regions. Among other changes, the Senate ceased to be directly elected to become an assembly of regional parliaments, the Brussels-Capital Region was granted constitutive autonomy, and the Regions received economic, employment and family welfare competences as well as greater fiscal autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Belgium was one of the founders of the European <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">Common Market</a>. Between 1999 and 2002, the <a href="/wiki/Euro" title="Euro">Euro</a> gradually replaced the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_franc" title="Belgian franc">Belgian franc</a> (the currency of Belgium since 1830) at the rate of 1 EUR=40.3399 BEF<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Belgian Euro coins usually depict <a href="/wiki/Albert_II_of_Belgium" title="Albert II of Belgium">King Albert II</a> on the obverse. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_parties">Political parties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Political parties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties in Belgium">Political parties in Belgium</a></div> <p>From the 1960s, most political parties, which had previously stood in elections in both Flemish and Walloon areas, split down linguistic divides. The <a href="/wiki/Christian_Social_Party_(Belgium,_defunct)" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Social Party (Belgium, defunct)">Catholic party</a> split in 1968 while the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Socialist_Party" title="Belgian Socialist Party">Belgian Socialist Party</a> split in 1978 into the French-speaking <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Parti_Socialiste_(Belgium)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parti Socialiste (Belgium)">Parti Socialiste</a></i></span> and Flemish <a href="/wiki/Socialistische_Partij_Anders" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialistische Partij Anders">Socialistische Partij</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SocialDem1_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SocialDem1-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Party_for_Freedom_and_Progress" title="Party for Freedom and Progress">Liberals</a> also split on regional lines in 1992. </p><p>"Green" politics in Belgium became quite successful in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Marc_Dutroux" title="Marc Dutroux">Marc Dutroux</a> Scandal and the "<a href="/wiki/Dioxin_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioxin Affair">Dioxin Affair</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1990_to_present">1990 to present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: 1990 to present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marc_Dutroux_scandal">Marc Dutroux scandal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Marc Dutroux scandal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marc_Dutroux" title="Marc Dutroux">Marc Dutroux</a></div> <p>In 1996, confidence in the political and criminal justice systems was shaken by the news that <a href="/wiki/Marc_Dutroux" title="Marc Dutroux">Marc Dutroux</a> and his accomplices had kidnapped, tortured, and murdered young girls. Parliamentary inquiries found the police forces were incompetent and bureaucratic, and the judicial system suffered from bureaucracy, very poor communication with, and support for, the victims, slow procedures and many loopholes for criminals. On October 26, 1996, about 300,000 Belgians joined the "<a href="/wiki/White_March" title="White March">White March</a>" in Brussels in protest.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Belgian_military_intervention_since_1990">Belgian military intervention since 1990</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Belgian military intervention since 1990"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UNAMIR_Blue_Berets_memorial_Kigali_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/UNAMIR_Blue_Berets_memorial_Kigali_%282%29.jpg/220px-UNAMIR_Blue_Berets_memorial_Kigali_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/UNAMIR_Blue_Berets_memorial_Kigali_%282%29.jpg/330px-UNAMIR_Blue_Berets_memorial_Kigali_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/UNAMIR_Blue_Berets_memorial_Kigali_%282%29.jpg/440px-UNAMIR_Blue_Berets_memorial_Kigali_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="2292" /></a><figcaption>Site of the massacre of Belgian UN personnel in <a href="/wiki/Kigali" title="Kigali">Kigali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> mission in Rwanda during the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_Civil_War" title="Rwandan Civil War">Rwandan Civil War</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/UNAMIR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNAMIR">UNAMIR</a>, involved a significant Belgian contingent under the command of <a href="/wiki/Rom%C3%A9o_Dallaire" title="Roméo Dallaire">Roméo Dallaire</a>. Belgium, as the former colonial power in the country, sent the largest force of around 400 soldiers from the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Commando_Battalion_(Belgium)" title="2nd Commando Battalion (Belgium)">2nd Commando Battalion</a>. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Juv%C3%A9nal_Habyarimana_and_Cyprien_Ntaryamira" title="Assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira">downing of the Rwandan and Burundian presidential plane</a> 10 Belgian peacekeepers were murdered by the Hutu-dominated government army. In response, Belgium withdrew all of its peacekeepers, blaming UNAMIR for failing to rescue their men.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Belgians had represented the largest and most capable element in the UNAMIR mission, leaving it incapacitated and unable to cope with the events of the <a href="/wiki/Rwandan_genocide" title="Rwandan genocide">Rwandan genocide</a>. </p><p>Belgian paratroopers were deployed to <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Restore_Hope" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Restore Hope">Operation Restore Hope</a> as part of <a href="/wiki/UNOSOM_II" class="mw-redirect" title="UNOSOM II">UNOSOM</a> tasked with securing aid deliveries and peacekeeping. Several Belgian soldiers were killed during the deployment. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Kosovo_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Kosovo crisis">Kosovo crisis</a> of 1999, 600 Belgian <a href="/wiki/Paratroopers" class="mw-redirect" title="Paratroopers">paratroopers</a> participated in Operation Allied Harbour, a <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> operation to protect and provide assistance to the huge number of ethnic Albanian <a href="/wiki/Refugees" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees">refugees</a> in <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albania</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a>. That same year, 1,100 Belgian soldiers participated in the <a href="/wiki/Kosovo_Force" title="Kosovo Force">Kosovo Force</a> (KFOR), a NATO-led <a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">peacekeeping</a> force. </p><p>Belgian soldiers have served in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, under the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Interim_Force_in_Lebanon" title="United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon">United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon</a> (UNIFIL). Approximately 394 Belgians have served in Lebanon, in demining and medical operations, and a <a href="/wiki/Belgian_frigate_Leopold_I_(F930)" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian frigate Leopold I (F930)">frigate</a> is also present.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belgian_military_F-16_Fighting_Falcon_conducts_a_combat_patrol_over_Afghanistan.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Belgian_military_F-16_Fighting_Falcon_conducts_a_combat_patrol_over_Afghanistan.JPG/220px-Belgian_military_F-16_Fighting_Falcon_conducts_a_combat_patrol_over_Afghanistan.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Belgian_military_F-16_Fighting_Falcon_conducts_a_combat_patrol_over_Afghanistan.JPG/330px-Belgian_military_F-16_Fighting_Falcon_conducts_a_combat_patrol_over_Afghanistan.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Belgian_military_F-16_Fighting_Falcon_conducts_a_combat_patrol_over_Afghanistan.JPG/440px-Belgian_military_F-16_Fighting_Falcon_conducts_a_combat_patrol_over_Afghanistan.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Air_Component" title="Belgian Air Component">Belgian</a> <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16</a> conducts a combat patrol over Afghanistan, 2008</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 2011, the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian Air Force">Belgian Air Force</a> deployed six fighter jets in support of the <a href="/wiki/2011_military_intervention_in_Libya" title="2011 military intervention in Libya">NATO intervention</a> in the <a href="/wiki/2011_Libyan_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Libyan Civil War">Libyan Civil War</a> in accordance with <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1973" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973">United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973</a>. Belgian aircraft were involved in airstrikes on <a href="/wiki/Great_Socialist_People%27s_Libyan_Arab_Jamahiriya" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya">pro-Ghadaffi forces</a>. </p><p>Belgium was part of the <a href="/wiki/ISAF" class="mw-redirect" title="ISAF">ISAF</a> mission in Afghanistan, joint with soldiers from Luxembourg. The main objective was providing security at <a href="/wiki/Kabul_International_Airport" title="Kabul International Airport">Kabul International Airport</a>, while detachments assisted in the northern PRTs of <a href="/wiki/Kunduz" title="Kunduz">Kunduz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mazar-i-Sharif" title="Mazar-i-Sharif">Mazar-i-Sharif</a>. In September 2008, four <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">F‑16 jets</a> with about 140 support personnel were deployed.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Debt_and_economic_slowdown">Debt and economic slowdown</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Debt and economic slowdown"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Belgium created huge debts during times when rates were low and generated new debts to service the initial debt. Its debts amounted to about 130% of the <a href="/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Domestic Product">GDP</a> in 1992 and were increased to about 108,2% in 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This drastic economic policy resulted in deep budget spending cuts, such as cuts to scientific research.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_politics">Internal politics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Internal politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_federal_election,_1999" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian federal election, 1999">1999 Belgian federal election</a>, the traditional government parties suffered a significant defeat due to the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Dioxin_Affair" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioxin Affair">Dioxin Affair</a>", leading to the fall of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Dehaene" title="Jean-Luc Dehaene">Jean-Luc Dehaene</a>'s government after eight years in office. <a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Guy Verhofstadt</a> formed a government of <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Liberals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Socialist_Party" title="Belgian Socialist Party">Socialists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Green movement">Greens</a>. </p><p>In July 1999, a government of <a href="/wiki/Groen!" class="mw-redirect" title="Groen!">Greens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Liberals_and_Democrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Flemish Liberals and Democrats">Flemish Liberals and Democrats</a> announced a gradual phase-out of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactors_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear reactors in Belgium">Belgium's seven nuclear reactors</a> after 40 years of operation. Though it was speculated that the next government without Greens would immediately revoke this legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after the 2003 elections there was still no sign of a policy reversal,<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly in the aftermath of the incident at <a href="/wiki/Tihange_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Tihange Nuclear Power Station">Tihange reactor</a> in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Belgian government was strongly opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_crisis_of_2003" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraq crisis of 2003">Iraq crisis of 2003</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt government</a> proposed a diplomatic solution regarding <a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">WMD</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On January 30, 2003, Belgium became the second country in the world to legally recognize <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">same-sex marriage</a>. A 2005 proposal allowed <a href="/wiki/Gay_adoption" class="mw-redirect" title="Gay adoption">adoption by same-sex partners</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_crisis_2010–11"><span id="Political_crisis_2010.E2.80.9311"></span>Political crisis 2010–11</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Political crisis 2010–11"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Di_Rupo_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Di_Rupo_cropped.jpg/170px-Di_Rupo_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Di_Rupo_cropped.jpg/255px-Di_Rupo_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Di_Rupo_cropped.jpg/340px-Di_Rupo_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="939" data-file-height="1286" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elio_Di_Rupo" title="Elio Di Rupo">Elio Di Rupo</a>, the Prime Minister of Belgium from 2011 until 2014</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Belgian_federal_election,_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian federal election, 2010">Belgian federal election, 2010</a> and <a href="/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Belgian_government_formation" title="2010–2011 Belgian government formation">2010–2011 Belgian government formation</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Belgian_federal_election,_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian federal election, 2010">2010 Belgian federal election</a> produced a highly fragmented political landscape, with 11 parties elected to the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Chamber_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian Chamber of Representatives">Chamber of Representatives</a>, none of which had more than 20% of the seats. The separatist <a href="/wiki/New_Flemish_Alliance" title="New Flemish Alliance">New Flemish Alliance</a> (N-VA), the largest party in <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> and the country as a whole, controlled 27 of 150 seats in the lower chamber. Belgium beat the world record for time taken to form a new democratic government after an election, at 353 days.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally a government coalition was sworn in on 6 December 2011, with Socialist <a href="/wiki/Elio_Di_Rupo" title="Elio Di Rupo">Elio Di Rupo</a> becoming prime minister.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2014–present"><span id="2014.E2.80.93present"></span>2014–present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: 2014–present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Michel_(2018-01-31)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Charles_Michel_%282018-01-31%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Charles_Michel_%282018-01-31%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Charles_Michel_%282018-01-31%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Charles_Michel_%282018-01-31%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Charles_Michel_%282018-01-31%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="283" data-file-height="381" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_Michel" title="Charles Michel">Charles Michel</a>, the Prime Minister of Belgium from 2014 until 2019</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/2014_Belgian_federal_election" title="2014 Belgian federal election">2014 election</a> resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA, although the incumbent coalition maintained a solid majority. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated <a href="/wiki/Charles_Michel" title="Charles Michel">Charles Michel</a> (MR) and <a href="/wiki/Kris_Peeters" title="Kris Peeters">Kris Peeters</a> (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new coalition federal cabinet.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In July 2019 prime minister <a href="/wiki/Charles_Michel" title="Charles Michel">Charles Michel</a> was selected as President of the <a href="/wiki/European_Council" title="European Council">European Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His successor <a href="/wiki/Sophie_Wilm%C3%A8s" title="Sophie Wilmès">Sophie Wilmès</a> was Belgium's first female prime minister.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_De_Croo" title="Alexander De Croo">Alexander De Croo</a> became prime minister in October 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> of Belgium began to appear in the later 18th century, as scholars moved beyond the chronicles of particular provinces, cities or leaders and relied on rapidly accumulating data. They wrote dissertations using the critical approach to particular historical problems. This development was sponsored by <a href="/wiki/The_Royal_Academies_for_Science_and_the_Arts_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="The Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium">The Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium</a> and reflected Enlightenment influences in exploring the history of the people. Their goal was building the blocks for a general history of the Austrian Netherlands, thus marking an important step toward the creation of a Belgian national history.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since Belgium became an independent nation only in 1830, defining nationhood was a special issue for the historians of the late 19th century. The usual European solutions which defined nationhood in terms of language would not work. The challenge of defining the nation's past and present in the face of Dutch, Spanish, Austrian, French, and German influences posed a central problem. Defending the boundaries of Belgium (especially why Flanders should not be in the Netherlands) was another issue that preoccupied historical writers such as Pirenne.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Belgian historiography achieved international stature in the early 20th century with the work of medievalist <a href="/wiki/Henri_Pirenne" title="Henri Pirenne">Henri Pirenne</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After 1945 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Verlinden" title="Charles Verlinden">Charles Verlinden</a> introduced the methods of the French <a href="/wiki/Annales_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Annales School">Annales School</a> of social history. Research topics at Ghent included colonial and maritime history, the history of prices and wages, agrarian history, business history, and the textile industry. In the 1970 and 1980s came a broadening to such topics as historical demography; living standards and lifestyles; beggary and crime; and the history of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BELvue_Museum" title="BELvue Museum">BELvue Museum</a> – a Brussels museum tracing the history of Belgium from 1830 until the present.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Flanders" title="History of Flanders">History of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium" title="History of the Jews in Belgium">History of the Jews in Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wallonia" title="History of Wallonia">History of Wallonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Belgian_monarchs" title="List of Belgian monarchs">List of Belgian monarchs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Belgian_monarchs" title="Family tree of Belgian monarchs">Family tree of Belgian monarchs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Belgium" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Belgium">List of World Heritage Sites in Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Belgium" title="Politics of Belgium">Politics of Belgium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Flanders" title="Politics of Flanders">Politics of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wallonia" title="Politics of Wallonia">Politics of Wallonia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Belgian_history" title="Timeline of Belgian history">Timeline of Belgian history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hellburners were a special type of <a href="/wiki/Fireship" class="mw-redirect" title="Fireship">fireship</a> designed by an Italian engineer, <a href="/wiki/Federigo_Giambelli" title="Federigo Giambelli">Federigo Giambelli</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a religion map see <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.quirksmode.org/politics/kuyper.html">http://www.quirksmode.org/politics/kuyper.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Kazerne_Dossin_Memorial,_Museum_and_Documentation_Centre" title="Kazerne Dossin Memorial, Museum and Documentation Centre">Kazerne Dossin Memorial, Museum and Documentation Centre</a> (Museum van Deportatie en Verzet) puts the number at 20,000 Jews, including 3,000 children. Fogelman supplies a figure of 20,000 adults <i>and</i> 8,000 children in hiding.<sup id="cite_ref-Museum_van_Deportatie_en_Verzet_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Museum_van_Deportatie_en_Verzet-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSmith1921" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/T._Alford-Smith" title="T. Alford-Smith">Smith, Thomas Alford</a> (1921). <i>A Geography of Europe</i>. Macmillan. p. 115.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Geography+of+Europe&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Alford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OUP:_phrase-fable-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OUP:_phrase-fable_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-35612?rskey=B7yyjV&result=7">"Primrose, Archibald Philip, fifth earl of Rosebery and first earl of Midlothian"</a></span>. <i>Oxford dictionary of phrase and fable</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1986-0981-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1986-0981-0"><bdi>978-0-1986-0981-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2021</span>. <q>cockpit of Europe a name for Belgium, as a part of Europe on which European conflicts have frequently been fought; the idea is first recorded in the writings of the Anglo-Welsh man of letters James Howell (c. 1594–1666)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Primrose%2C+Archibald+Philip%2C+fifth+earl+of+Rosebery+and+first+earl+of+Midlothian&rft.btitle=Oxford+dictionary+of+phrase+and+fable&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-1986-0981-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F9780198614128.001.0001%2Fodnb-9780198614128-e-35612%3Frskey%3DB7yyjV%26result%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Der_Essen1925" class="citation cs2">Van Der Essen, Leon (1925), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_1925_num_4_1_6335">"Notre nom national"</a>, <i>Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire</i>, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 121–131, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frbph.1925.6335">10.3406/rbph.1925.6335</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+belge+de+philologie+et+d%27histoire&rft.atitle=Notre+nom+national&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=121-131&rft.date=1925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Frbph.1925.6335&rft.aulast=Van+Der+Essen&rft.aufirst=Leon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Frbph_0035-0818_1925_num_4_1_6335&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caesar, <i>Gallic War</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0002:book=8:chapter=46&highlight=belgio%2Cbelgium">8.46</a> (In online English translations, this sentence is often included in the next paragraph, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War/Book_8#47">8.47</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález_VillaescusaJacquemin2011" class="citation cs2">González Villaescusa; Jacquemin (2011), "Gallia Belgica: An Entity with No National Claim", <i>Études rurales</i>, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 93–111, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fetudesrurales.9499">10.4000/etudesrurales.9499</a></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89tudes+rurales&rft.atitle=Gallia+Belgica%3A+An+Entity+with+No+National+Claim&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=93-111&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fetudesrurales.9499&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez+Villaescusa&rft.au=Jacquemin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWightman1985" class="citation cs2">Wightman, Edith (1985), <i>Gallia Belgica</i>, University of California Press, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aEyS54uSj88C&pg=PA12">12</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-5297-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5200-5297-0"><bdi>978-0-5200-5297-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gallia+Belgica&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-5200-5297-0&rft.aulast=Wightman&rft.aufirst=Edith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boneandstone.com/neandertal/neandertal_descriptions.html#engis">"Descriptions of Fossil Neandertals"</a>. Bone and Stone<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-11-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Descriptions+of+Fossil+Neandertals&rft.pub=Bone+and+Stone&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boneandstone.com%2Fneandertal%2Fneandertal_descriptions.html%23engis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160401010810/http://www.archeonet.be/?p=7562"><i>Boerderij uit de jonge steentijd ontdekt in Riemst</i></a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archeonet.be/?p=7562">the original</a> on 2016-04-01<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-09-30</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boerderij+uit+de+jonge+steentijd+ontdekt+in+Riemst&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.archeonet.be%2F%3Fp%3D7562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vanmontfort-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vanmontfort_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vanmontfort_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vanmontfort_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanmontfort2007" class="citation cs2">Vanmontfort (2007), "Bridging the gap. 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Stanard, <i>Selling the Congo: A History of European Pro-Empire Propaganda and the Making of Belgian Imperialism</i>"</a>. <i>H-Net Reviews</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=H-Net+Reviews&rft.atitle=Review+of+Matthew+G.+Stanard%2C+Selling+the+Congo%3A+A+History+of+European+Pro-Empire+Propaganda+and+the+Making+of+Belgian+Imperialism&rft.date=2013-01&rft.aulast=Stice&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.h-net.org%2Freviews%2Fshowrev.php%3Fid%3D38106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVanthemsche2012">Vanthemsche 2012</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Margaret_MacMillan_2003_277-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Margaret_MacMillan_2003_277_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacMillan2003" class="citation book cs1">MacMillan, Margaret (2003). <i>Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World</i>. 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ISSN 0771-6435</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Surviving Hitler and Mussolini: daily life in occupied Europe by Robert Gildea</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1961/xx/belgium.htm">"Tony Cliff: Belgium – strike to revolution? 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59#2 pp. 329–353 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3653979">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jo Tollebeek, "At the crossroads of nationalism: Huizinga, Pirenne and the Low Countries in Europe," <i>European Review of History</i> (2010) 17#2 pp. 187–215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugo Soly, "Honderd Jaar Geschiedenis van de Nieuwe Tijd Aan de Universiteit Gent: De Dynamiek van een Selectief En Kritisch Eclectisme," [One hundred years of modern history at the University of Ghent: the dynamics of a selective and critical eclecticism], <i>Handelingen der Maatschappij voor Geschiedenis en Oudheidkunde te Gent</i> (2006), Vol. 60, pp. 49–62.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/copyright-and-contributors/">public domain material</a> from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/"><i>The World Factbook</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CIA" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA">CIA</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.pub=CIA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">public domain material</a> from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.state.gov/countries-areas/"><i>U.S. Bilateral Relations Fact Sheets</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">United States Department of State</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=U.S.+Bilateral+Relations+Fact+Sheets&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+State&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.state.gov%2Fcountries-areas%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_and_surveys">Reference and surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Reference and surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Arblaster, Paul. <i>A History of the Low Countries.</i> (2006). 298 pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyoflowcoun0000arbl">online</a></li> <li>Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, eds. <i>History of the Low Countries</i> (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1845452720">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Cammaerts, Émile. <i>A History of Belgium from the Roman Invasion to the Present Day</i> (1921) 357 pages; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistorybelgium00cammgoog">complete text online</a></li> <li>Goris, Jan-Albert, ed. <i>Belgium</i> (1945); a broad survey of history and culture <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.226537/page/n3/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li>Humes, Samuel. <i>Belgium: Long United, Long Divided</i> (2014) comprehensive scholarly history; 330 pp</li> <li>Israel, Jonathan. <i>The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806</i> (1995) contain a great deal on Belgium; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198207344">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKossmann1978" class="citation book cs1">Kossmann, E.H. (1978). <i>The Low Countries: 1780–1940</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-2108-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-2108-1"><bdi>978-0-1982-2108-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL12384667W">12384667W</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Low+Countries%3A+1780%E2%80%931940&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL12384667W%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-2108-1&rft.aulast=Kossmann&rft.aufirst=E.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. <i>The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914</i> (1977) pp. 142–214</li> <li>Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. <i>The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870</i> (2nd ed. 1979)</li> <li>Pirenne, H. <i>Histoire de Belgique</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3X1JAAAAMAAJ&q=intitle:Histoire+intitle:de+intitle:Belgique+inauthor:Pirenne">vol2 (1903) online</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K35JAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA497">full text of vol 3 (1907)online</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gn9JAAAAMAAJ&q=intitle:Histoire+intitle:de+intitle:Belgique+inauthor:Pirenne">vol 5 (1920) online</a></li> <li>Stallaerts, Robert. <i>The A to Z of Belgium</i> (2010), a historical encyclopedia</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">State, Paul F. (2004). <i>Historical Dictionary of Brussels</i>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6555-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6555-6"><bdi>978-0-8108-6555-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Brussels&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6555-6&rft.aulast=State&rft.aufirst=Paul+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitteCraeybeckxMeynen2009" class="citation book cs1">Witte, Els; Craeybeckx, Jan; Meynen, Alain (2009). <i>Political History of Belgium: From 1830 Onwards</i>. ASP (Academic & Scientific Publishers) / Vubpress / Upa. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0548-7517-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0548-7517-8"><bdi>978-9-0548-7517-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+History+of+Belgium%3A+From+1830+Onwards&rft.pub=ASP+%28Academic+%26+Scientific+Publishers%29+%2F+Vubpress+%2F+Upa&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9-0548-7517-8&rft.aulast=Witte&rft.aufirst=Els&rft.au=Craeybeckx%2C+Jan&rft.au=Meynen%2C+Alain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_history">Political history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Political history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAscherson1999" class="citation book cs1">Ascherson, Neal (1999). <i>The King incorporated: Leopold the Second and the Congo</i> (New ed.). London: Granta. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8620-7290-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8620-7290-9"><bdi>978-1-8620-7290-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+King+incorporated%3A+Leopold+the+Second+and+the+Congo.&rft.place=London&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Granta&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-8620-7290-9&rft.aulast=Ascherson&rft.aufirst=Neal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Carlier, Julie. "Forgotten Transnational Connections and National Contexts: an 'entangled history' of the political transfers that shaped Belgian feminism, 1890–1914", <i><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_History_Review" title="Women's History Review">Women's History Review</a></i> (2010) 19#4 pp. 503–522.</li> <li>Conway, Martin. <i>The Sorrows of Belgium: Liberation and Political Reconstruction, 1944–1947</i> (Oxford University Press, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=35864">online review</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2004" class="citation book cs1">Cook, Bernard A. (2004). <i>Belgium : a history</i>. New York: Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-5824-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-5824-3"><bdi>978-0-8204-5824-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belgium+%3A+a+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-5824-3&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Bernard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeprezVos1998" class="citation book cs1">Deprez, Kas; Vos, Louis, eds. (1998). <i>Nationalism in Belgium: Shifting Identities, 1780–1995</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism+in+Belgium%3A+Shifting+Identities%2C+1780%E2%80%931995&rft.date=1998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Fishman, J. S. <i>Diplomacy and Revolution. The London Conference of 1830 and the Belgian Revolt</i> (Amsterdam 1988).</li> <li>Lorwin, Val R. "Belgium: Religion, class and language in national politics", in Robert Dahl, ed. <i>Political Oppositions in Western Democracies</i> (1966) pp. 147–187.</li> <li>Mansel, Philip. "Nation Building: the Foundation of Belgium." <i>History Today</i> 2006 56(5): 21–27.</li> <li>Pirenne, Henri. <i>Early democracies in the Low Countries; urban society and political conflict in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance</i> (1963) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlydemocracies00pire">online</a></li> <li>Pirenne, Henri. <i>Belgian Democracy Its Early History</i> (1915) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.74767">online</a></li> <li>Pirenne, Henri. "The Formation and Constitution of the Burgundian State (Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries)." <i>The American Historical Review.</i> 14#32 p 477+, April 1909 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1836443">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Polansky, Janet L. <i>Revolution in Brussels 1787–1793</i> (1987)</li> <li>Strikwerda, C. J. <i>Mass Politics and the Origin of Pluralism: Catholicism, Socialism and Flemish Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Belgium</i> (Lanham, MD and Leuven, 1997)</li> <li>Strikwerda, C. J. <i>Urban Structure, Religion and Language: Belgian Workers (1880–1914)</i> (Ann Arbor, 1986)</li> <li>VanYpersele, Laurence and Rousseaux, Xavier. "Leaving the War: Popular Violence and Judicial Repression of 'Unpatriotic' Behaviour in Belgium (1918–1921)", <i>European Review of History</i> 2005 12(1): 3–22. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1350-7486">1350-7486</a> Fulltext: <a href="/wiki/Ebsco" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebsco">Ebsco</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic,_cultural_and_social_history"><span id="Economic.2C_cultural_and_social_history"></span>Economic, cultural and social history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Economic, cultural and social history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Blomme, J. <i>The Economic Development of Belgian Agriculture, 1880–1980</i> (Leuven, 1992)</li> <li>Clark, Samuel. "Nobility, Bourgeoisie and the Industrial Revolution in Belgium", <i>Past & Present</i> (1984) # 105 pp. 140–175; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/650548">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Clough, Shepard B. <i>A history of the Flemish Movement in Belgium: A study in nationalism</i> (1930)</li> <li>de Vries, Johan. "Benelux, 1920–1970", in C. M. Cipolla, ed. <i>The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Contemporary Economics Part One</i> (1976) pp. 1–71</li> <li>Deschouwer, Kris. "Ethnic structure, inequality and governance of the public sector in Belgium." <i>Ethnic Inequalities and Public Sector Governance</i> I UNRISD/Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAuxPages)/EC506A59176BE044C1256E9E003077C3/$file/Deschou.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Dhondt, Jan, and Marinette Bruwier in Carlo Cipolla, <i>The Emergence of Industrial Societies-1</i> (Fontana, 1970) pp. 329–355</li> <li>Houtte, J. A. Van. "Economic Development of Belgium and the Netherlands from the Beginning of the Modern Era", <i>Journal of European Economic History</i>(1972), 1:100–120</li> <li>Lijphart, Arend. <i>Conflict and coexistence in Belgium: the dynamics of a culturally divided society</i> (1981).</li> <li>Milward, A. S. and S. B. Saul.<i> The Economic Development of Continental Europe, 1780–1870</i> (1973), pp. 292–296, 432–453. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/economicdevelopm0001milw">online</a></li> <li>Mokyr, Joel. "The Industrial Revolution in the Low Countries in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative Case Study", <i>Journal of Economic History</i> (1974) 34#2 pp. 365–399 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2116987">2116987</a></li> <li>Mokyr, J. <i>Industrialization in the Low Countries, 1795–1850</i> (New Haven, 1976).</li> <li>Mommens, A. <i>The Belgian Economy in the Twentieth Century</i> (London, 1994)</li> <li>Silverman, Debora. "'Modernité Sans Frontières:' Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of the Avant-Garde in King Leopold's Belgium, 1885–1910." <i>American Imago</i> (2011) 68#4 pp. 707–797. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/american_imago/v068/68.4.silverman.html">online</a></li> <li>Zolberg, Aristide R. "The Making of Flemings and Walloons: Belgium: 1830–1914", <i>Journal of Interdisciplinary History</i> (1974) 5#2 pp. 179–235 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/202507">in JSTOR</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_and_memory">Historiography and memory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Historiography and memory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Beyen, Marnix, and Benoît Majerus. "Weak and strong nations in the Low Countries: National historiography and its 'Others' in Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries." in <i>The contested nation: ethnicity, class, religion and gender in national histories</i> (2008): 283–310.</li> <li>Christiaens, Kim. "From the East to the South, and back? International solidarity movements in Belgium and new histories of the Cold War, 1950s–1970s." <i>Dutch Crossing</i> 39.3 (2015): 187–203.</li> <li>Lagrou, Pieter. "Victims of genocide and national memory: Belgium, France and the Netherlands 1945-1965." <i>Past & present</i> 154 (1997): 181–222. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/651120">online</a></li> <li>Marnef, Guido. "Belgian and Dutch Post-war Historiography on the Protestant and Catholic Reformation in the Netherlands." <i>Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte</i> 100.1 (2009): 271–292.</li> <li>Pasture, Patrick. "Views from Abroad. Foreign Historians on a Small State by the North Sea. With Reflections on Historical Writing in Belgium and Elsewhere." <i>Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire</i> 35 (2005): 4+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/7651075/btng-rbhc,%2035,%202005,%204,%20pp%20413-433.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Silverman, Debora L. "Diasporas of art: history, the Tervuren Royal museum for Central Africa, and the politics of memory in Belgium, 1885–2014." <i>Journal of Modern History</i> 87.3 (2015): 615–667. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/content/qt4s25675m/qt4s25675m.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Stanard, Matthew G. "Selling the Empire Between the Wars: Colonial Expositions in Belgium, 1920–1940." <i>French Colonial History</i> (2005) 6: 159–178. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41935184">in JSTOR</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanard2012" class="citation book cs1">Stanard, Matthew G. (2012). <i>Selling the Congo: A history of European pro-empire propaganda and the making of Belgian imperialism</i>. University of Nebraska Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selling+the+Congo%3A+A+history+of+European+pro-empire+propaganda+and+the+making+of+Belgian+imperialism&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Stanard&rft.aufirst=Matthew+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Stanard, Matthew G. "Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field", <i>French Colonial History</i> (2014) 15 pp. 87–109.</li> <li>Tollebeek, Jo. "Historical representation and the Nation-State in romantic Belgium (1830–1850)." <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i> 59.2 (1998): 329–353. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3653979">online</a></li> <li>Tollebeek, Jo. "An Era of Grandeur. The Middle Ages in Belgian National Historiography, 1830–1914." in <i>The Uses of the Middle Ages in Modern European States</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2011) pp. 113–135.</li> <li>Van Den Bossche, G. M. H. "Historians as advisers to revolution? Imagining the Belgian nation." History of European ideas 24.3 (1998): 213–238.</li> <li>Van den Braembussche, Antoon. "The silence of Belgium: Taboo and trauma in Belgian memory." <i>Yale French Studies</i> 102 (2002): 35–52. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3090591">online</a></li> <li>Van den Eeckhout, Patricia. "The quest for social history in Belgium (1948–1998)." <i>Archiv für Sozialgeschichte</i> 40 (2000): 321–336. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.fes.de/afs/pdf/afs-2000-321.pdf">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanthemsche2012" class="citation book cs1">Vanthemsche, Guy (2012). <i>Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5211-9421-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5211-9421-1"><bdi>978-0-5211-9421-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belgium+and+the+Congo%2C+1885%E2%80%931980&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-5211-9421-1&rft.aulast=Vanthemsche&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Belgium" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Verschaffel, Tom. "The modernization of historiography in 18th-century Belgium." <i>History of European ideas</i> 31.2 (2005): 135–146. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/48597367/j.histeuroideas.2003.11.00320160905-20922-14lzzzt.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Vos, Louis. "Reconstructions of the past in Belgium and Flanders." in <i>Secession, history and the social sciences </i>(2002): 179–206. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/orderbooks/secession/secession-07.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210731231647/http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/orderbooks/secession/secession-07.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-07-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Warland, Geneviève, ed. <i>Experience and memory of the first World War in Belgium: Comparative and interdisciplinary insights</i> (Waxmann Verlag, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journalbelgianhistory.be/fr/system/files/edition_data/articlepdf/Matthew_Haultain_Gall_BTNG_2020_1.pdf">excerpt</a>.</li> <li>Wouters, Nico. "Historiography 1918-Today (Belgium)." <i>International Encyclopedia of the First World War</i> (2015): 1–11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8611097/file/8612308">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.belgianhistory.be/">Belgianhistory.be</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/~lowc/">H-Net list <b>H-Low-Countries</b></a> is published free by email and is edited by scholars. Its occasional messages deal with new journal issues, methodology, archives, and teaching methods,</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zum.de/whkmla/histatlas/lowcountries/haxbelgium.html">Historical maps of Belgium from 1340 to 1990 on WHKMLA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Belgium:_Primary_Documents">History of Belgium: Primary Documents</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rulers.org/rulb1.html#belgium">Rulers.org — Belgium</a> List of rulers for Belgium</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historical-novel.com/">Overview of historical novels about The Netherland and Belgium</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110208142100/http://historical-novel.com">Archived</a> 2011-02-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/5125">Belgium</a> (1841), a two-volume description of the country by <a href="/wiki/James_Emerson_Tennent" title="James Emerson Tennent">J. E. Tennent</a>, available at Project Gutenberg.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rattachism" title="Rattachism">Rattachism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangism_(Belgium)" title="Orangism (Belgium)">Orangism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_muette_de_Portici" title="La muette de Portici">La muette de Portici</a></i> (August 1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Braban%C3%A7onne" title="La Brabançonne">La Brabançonne</a></i> (August 1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Belgium" title="Provisional Government of Belgium">Provisional Government of Belgium</a> (September 1830 – February 1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_Belgium" title="National Congress of Belgium">National Congress of Belgium</a> (November 1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Belgium" title="Constitution of Belgium">Constitution of Belgium</a> (February 1831)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5F5DC;">First Belgian monarchs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasme_Louis_Surlet_de_Chokier" class="mw-redirect" title="Erasme Louis Surlet de Chokier">Érasme, Baron Surlet de Chokier</a> (<a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">Regent</a>; February 1831 – July 1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leopold_I_of_Belgium" title="Leopold I of Belgium">Leopold I</a> (<a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Belgians" class="mw-redirect" title="King of the Belgians">King of the Belgians</a>; July 1831 – December 1865)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5F5DC;">Important figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Niellon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Niellon (page does not exist)">Charles Niellon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Dechet" title="Alexandre Dechet">Alexandre Dechet (Jenneval)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_de_M%C3%A9rode&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frédéric de Mérode (page does not exist)">Frédéric de Mérode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Van_Halen" title="Juan Van Halen">Juan Van Halen</a><br /><small>(see also <a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_National_Congress_of_Belgium" title="List of members of the National Congress of Belgium">List of members of the National Congress</a>)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5F5DC;"><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_Belgium" title="Provisional Government of Belgium">Provisional Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Gendebien" title="Alexandre Gendebien">Alexandre Gendebien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Jolly" title="André Jolly">André Jolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Rogier" title="Charles Rogier">Charles Rogier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Potter" title="Louis de Potter">Louis de Potter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Van_de_Weyer" title="Sylvain Van de Weyer">Sylvain Van de Weyer</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feuillien_de_Coppin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Feuillien de Coppin (page does not exist)">Feuillien de Coppin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_de_M%C3%A9rode" title="Félix de Mérode">Félix de Mérode</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Vanderlinden&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Vanderlinden (page does not exist)">Joseph Vanderlinden</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emmanuel_Van_der_Linden_d%27Hooghvorst&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Emmanuel Van der Linden d'Hooghvorst (page does not exist)">Emmanuel Van der Linden d'Hooghvorst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5F5DC;">de Gerlache Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Constantin_de_Gerlache" title="Étienne Constantin de Gerlache">Étienne Constantin de Gerlache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Brouck%C3%A8re" title="Charles de Brouckère">Charles de Brouckère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Gendebien" title="Alexandre Gendebien">Alexandre Gendebien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Joseph_Goblet_d%27Alviella" title="Albert Joseph Goblet d'Alviella">Albert Goblet d'Alviella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Van_de_Weyer" title="Sylvain Van de Weyer">Sylvain Van de Weyer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5F5DC;">Lebeau I Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lebeau" title="Joseph Lebeau">Joseph Lebeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_Sauvage" class="mw-redirect" title="Étienne de Sauvage">Étienne de Sauvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Brouck%C3%A8re" title="Charles de Brouckère">Charles de Brouckère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Devaux" title="Paul Devaux">Paul Devaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5F5DC;"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_I_of_the_Netherlands" title="William I of the Netherlands">King William I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_II_of_the_Netherlands" title="William II of the Netherlands">Prince William</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Days%27_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Days' Campaign">Ten Days' Campaign (August 1831)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antwerp_(1832)" title="Siege of Antwerp (1832)">Siege of Antwerp (1832)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5F5DC;">Treaties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/London_Conference_of_1830" title="London Conference of 1830">London Conference of 1830</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Eighteen_Articles" title="Treaty of the Eighteen Articles">Treaty of the Eighteen Articles (1831)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1839)" title="Treaty of London (1839)">Treaty of London (1839)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Maastricht_(1843)" title="Treaty of Maastricht (1843)">Treaty of Maastricht (1843)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Rhine" title="Iron Rhine">Iron Rhine Treaty (1873)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F5F5DC;">Monuments and honours</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monument_to_the_Martyrs_of_the_1830_Revolution" title="Monument to the Martyrs of the 1830 Revolution">Monument to the Martyrs of the 1830 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Column" title="Congress Column">Congress Column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_Guard_Merit_Medal" title="Civic Guard Merit Medal">Civic Guard Merit Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=1830_Star_of_Honour&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1830 Star of Honour (page does not exist)">1830 Star of Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Cross_(Belgium)" title="Iron Cross (Belgium)">Iron Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1830_Volunteers%27_Commemorative_Cross" title="1830 Volunteers' Commemorative Cross">1830 Volunteers' Commemorative Cross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Belgium_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Belgium_topics" title="Template:Belgium topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Belgium_topics" title="Template talk:Belgium topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Belgium_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Belgium topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Belgium_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Belgium-related_articles" title="Index of Belgium-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Li%C3%A8ge" title="Prince-Bishopric of Liège">Prince-Bishopric of Liège</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Netherlands" title="Southern Netherlands">Southern Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Netherlands" title="Austrian Netherlands">Austrian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabant_Revolution" title="Brabant Revolution">Brabant Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_the_long_nineteenth_century" title="Belgium in the long nineteenth century">Long nineteenth century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Revolution" title="Belgian Revolution">Belgian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_and_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Belgium and the Franco-Prussian War">Crisis of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_overseas_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian overseas colonies">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_I" title="Belgium in World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1914)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1914)">invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War I">occupation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgium_in_World_War_II" title="Belgium in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Belgium_(1940)" title="German invasion of Belgium (1940)">invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Belgium_during_World_War_II" title="German occupation of Belgium during World War II">occupation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Royal_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian Royal Question">Royal Question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_reform_in_Belgium" title="State reform in Belgium">State reform</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Belgium" title="Geography of Belgium">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate of Belgium">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme points of Belgium">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Belgium" title="List of lakes of Belgium">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_and_hills_in_Belgium" title="List of mountains and hills in Belgium">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Belgium" title="List of rivers of Belgium">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communities,_regions_and_language_areas_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium">Subdivisions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Belgium" title="Politics of Belgium">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Belgium" title="Constitution of Belgium">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Belgium" title="Elections in Belgium">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Belgium)" title="Council of Ministers (Belgium)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Belgium" title="Foreign relations of Belgium">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Belgium" title="Human rights in Belgium">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Belgium">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Belgium" title="Law of Belgium">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Belgium" title="Law enforcement in Belgium">enforcement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Belgium" title="Judiciary of Belgium">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Armed_Forces" title="Belgian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Belgium" title="Monarchy of Belgium">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Federal_Parliament" title="Belgian Federal Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties in Belgium">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Belgium" title="Prime Minister of Belgium">Prime Minister</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Belgium" title="Economy of Belgium">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%932009_Belgian_financial_crisis" title="2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis">2008–2009 financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Belgium" title="Banking in Belgium">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Belgium" title="National Bank of Belgium">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belgium" title="Telecommunications in Belgium">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Belgium" title="Energy in Belgium">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Belgium" title="Tourism in Belgium">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Belgium" title="List of trade unions in Belgium">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Belgium" title="Transport in Belgium">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Belgium" title="Science and technology in Belgium">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Belgium" title="Category:Society of Belgium">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Belgium" title="Abortion in Belgium">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Belgium" title="Crime in Belgium">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Belgium" title="Demographics of Belgium">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belgium" title="Education in Belgium">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Belgium" title="Healthcare in Belgium">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Belgium" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Belgium">Honours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Belgium" title="Irreligion in Belgium">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Belgium" title="Languages of Belgium">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Belgian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Belgian provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Belgium">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgians" title="Belgians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Belgium" title="Prostitution in Belgium">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Belgium" title="Culture of Belgium">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Belgium#Architecture" title="Culture of Belgium">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Belgium" title="Art of Belgium">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Belgium" title="Cinema of Belgium">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_comics" title="Belgian comics">Comics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_cuisine" title="Belgian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_Belgium" title="Beer in Belgium">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_wine" title="Belgian wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_waffle" title="Belgian waffle">waffle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Belgium" title="Flag of Belgium">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_literature" title="Belgian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Belgium" title="Music of Belgium">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Belgium" title="Public holidays in Belgium">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Belgium" title="Sport in Belgium">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Belgium" title="Television in Belgium">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Belgium" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Belgium">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Belgium" title="Outline of Belgium">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Belgium-related_articles" title="Index of Belgium-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Belgium" title="Category:Belgium">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Belgium" title="Portal:Belgium">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_current_European_countries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Template:European history by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_history_by_country" title="Template talk:European history by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_history_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European history by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_current_European_countries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of current European countries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Albania" title="History of Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andorra" title="History of Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Austria" title="History of Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belarus" title="History of Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="History of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria" title="History of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Croatia" title="History of Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Estonia" title="History of Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Finland" title="History of Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greece" title="History of Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hungary" title="History of Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iceland" title="History of Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latvia" title="History of Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Liechtenstein" title="History of Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Luxembourg" title="History of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malta" title="History of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moldova" title="History of Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Monaco" title="History of Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Montenegro" title="History of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Macedonia" title="History of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway" title="History of Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Romania" title="History of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_San_Marino" title="History of San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Serbia" title="History of Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovakia" title="History of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Slovenia" title="History of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain" title="History of Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden" title="History of Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Switzerland" title="History of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vatican_City" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kosovo" title="History of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Transnistria" title="History of Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_%C3%85land" title="History of Åland">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Faroe_Islands" title="History of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gibraltar" title="History of Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Svalbard" title="History of Svalbard">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&oldid=1251703219">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Belgium&oldid=1251703219</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Belgium" 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