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class="mw-page-title-main">Hayashi Razan</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%8A_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86" title="هاياشي رازان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هاياشي رازان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86" title="هایاشی رازان – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="هایاشی رازان" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A7%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A4%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%9F%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8D" title="ཧ་ཡ་ཤི་ར་ཟན། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཧ་ཡ་ཤི་ར་ཟན།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hayashi Razan" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hayashi Razan" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hayashi Razan" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86" title="هایاشی رازان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هایاشی رازان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hayashi Razan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%98%EC%95%BC%EC%8B%9C_%EB%9D%BC%EC%9E%94" title="하야시 라잔 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="하야시 라잔" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Hayashi Razan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajasi_Razan" title="Hajasi Razan – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hajasi Razan" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%89_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86" title="هاياشى رازان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="هاياشى رازان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E7%BE%85%E5%B1%B1" title="林羅山 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="林羅山" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razan_Hayashi" title="Razan Hayashi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Razan Hayashi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hayashi Razan" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Хаяси Радзан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Хаяси Радзан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hayashi Razan" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayashi_Razan" title="Hayashi Razan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hayashi Razan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%96_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Хаясі Радзан – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хаясі Радзан" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E7%BE%85%E5%B1%B1" title="林羅山 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="林羅山" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q558279#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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</div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">In this <a href="/wiki/Japanese_name" title="Japanese name">Japanese name</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Surname" title="Surname">surname</a> is <i> <a href="/wiki/Hayashi" title="Hayashi">Hayashi</a></i>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Hayashi Razan</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Razan_Hayashi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Razan_Hayashi.jpg/220px-Razan_Hayashi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Razan_Hayashi.jpg/330px-Razan_Hayashi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Razan_Hayashi.jpg/440px-Razan_Hayashi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="708" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Hayashi Razan, 18th century portrait</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">1583</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">March 7, 1657<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">Edo</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation(s)</th><td class="infobox-data role">Historian, philosopher, political consultant, writer</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/Nihon_%C5%8Cdai_Ichiran" title="Nihon Ōdai Ichiran">Nihon Ōdai Ichiran</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hayashi_Gah%C5%8D" title="Hayashi Gahō">Hayashi Gahō</a> (son)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Family</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hayashi_clan_(Confucian_scholars)" title="Hayashi clan (Confucian scholars)">Hayashi</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Edo period</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese philosophy</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Confucianism">Japanese Confucianism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese history">Japanese history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_literature" title="Japanese literature">literature</a></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Three_Views_of_Japan" title="Three Views of Japan">Three Views of Japan</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Hayashi Razan</b><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">林羅山</span></span>, 1583 – March 7, 1657)</span>, also known as Hayashi Dōshun,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a Japanese historian, philosopher, political consultant, and writer, serving as a tutor and an advisor to the first four <i><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgun" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōgun">shōguns</a></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa <i>bakufu</i></a>. He is also attributed with first listing the <a href="/wiki/Three_Views_of_Japan" title="Three Views of Japan">Three Views of Japan</a>. Razan was the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Hayashi_clan_(Confucian_scholars)" title="Hayashi clan (Confucian scholars)">Hayashi clan</a> of Confucian scholars. </p><p>Razan was an influential scholar, teacher and administrator. Together with his sons and grandsons, he is credited with establishing the official neo-Confucian doctrine of the Tokugawa shogunate. Razan's emphasis on the values inherent in a static conservative perspective provided the intellectual underpinnings for the Edo bakufu. Razan also reinterpreted <a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a>, and thus created a foundation for the eventual development of Confucianised Shinto in the 20th century. </p><p>The intellectual foundation of Razan's life's work was based on early studies with <a href="/wiki/Fujiwara_Seika" title="Fujiwara Seika">Fujiwara Seika</a> (1561–1619), the first Japanese scholar who is known for a close study of Confucius and the Confucian commentators. This <i><a href="/wiki/Kuge" title="Kuge">kuge</a></i> noble had become a Buddhist priest; but Fujiwara's dissatisfaction with the philosophy and doctrines of Buddhism led him to a study of Confucianism. In due course, Fujiwara drew other similarly motivated scholars to join him in studies which were greatly influenced by the work of Chinese Neo-Confucianist <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a>, a philosopher of the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhu Xi and Fujiwara emphasized the role of the individual as a functionary of a society which naturally settles into a certain <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchical</a> form. He separated people into four distinct classes: <a href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">samurai</a> (ruling class), farmers, artisans and merchants. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academician">Academician</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayashi_Razan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Academician"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Razan developed a practical blending of <a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> beliefs and practices. In particular, he argued that Shinto was a provisional and local form of Confucian ideas, enabling a Confucian interpretation of Shinto shrine rituals.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This coherent construct of inter-related ideas lent themselves to a well-accepted program of samurai and bureaucrat educational, training and testing protocols. In 1607, Hayashi was accepted as a political advisor to the second <i><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgun" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōgun">shōgun</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_Hidetada" title="Tokugawa Hidetada">Tokugawa Hidetada</a>. </p><p>Razan became the <a href="/wiki/Rector_(academia)" title="Rector (academia)">rector</a> of Edo's Confucian Academy, the <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dhei-k%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōhei-kō">Shōhei-kō</a> (afterwards known at the <a href="/wiki/Yushima_Seid%C5%8D" title="Yushima Seidō">Yushima Seidō</a>) which was built on land provided by the <i><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgun" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōgun">shōgun</a></i>. This institution stood at the apex of the country-wide educational and training system which was created and maintained by the Tokugawa shogunate. Razan had the honorific title <i><a href="/wiki/Daigaku-no-kami" title="Daigaku-no-kami">Daigaku-no-kami</a>,</i> which became hereditary in his family. It also happened that the position as head of the Seidō became hereditary in the Hayashi family. <i>Daigaku-no-kami</i>, in the context of the Tokugawa shogunate hierarchy, effectively translates as "Head of the State University.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the elevated context his father engendered, <a href="/wiki/Hayashi_Gah%C5%8D" title="Hayashi Gahō">Hayashi Gahō</a> (formerly Harukatsu), worked on editing a chronicle of Japanese emperors compiled in conformance with his father's principles. <i><a href="/wiki/Nihon_%C5%8Cdai_Ichiran" title="Nihon Ōdai Ichiran">Nihon Ōdai Ichiran</a></i> grew into a seven-volume text which was completed in 1650. Gahō himself was accepted as a noteworthy scholar in that period; but the Hayashi and the Shōhei-kō links to the work's circulation are part of the explanation for this work's 18th and 19th century popularity. Contemporary readers must have found some degree of usefulness in this summary drawn from historical records. </p><p>The narrative of <i>Nihon Ōdai Ichiran</i> stops around 1600, most likely in deference to the sensibilities of the Tokugawa regime. Gahō's text did not continue up through his present day; but rather, he terminated the chronicles just before the last pre-Tokugawa ruler. This book was published in the mid-17th century and it was reissued in 1803, "perhaps because it was a necessary reference work for officials".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Razan's successor as the Tokugawa's chief scholar was his third son, Gahō. After Razan's death, Gahō finished work his father had begun, including a number of other works designed to help readers learn from Japan's history. In 1670, the Hayashi family's scholarly reputation was burnished when Gahō published the 310 volumes of <i>The Comprehensive History of Japan</i> (本朝通鑑, <i>Honchō-tsugan</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Razan argued that <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Jimmu" title="Emperor Jimmu">Emperor Jimmu</a> and the Imperial line were ultimately descended from an offshoot Chinese royal family by <a href="/wiki/Taibo" title="Taibo">Wu Taibo</a>. This opinion was considered dangerous to publish widely, and thus he argued it in a private work entitled <i>Jimmu</i> <i>Tennō Ron</i> (<i>Essay on Emperor Jimmu</i>). These unorthodox claims were supposedly opposed by <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_Mitsukuni" title="Tokugawa Mitsukuni">Tokugawa Mitsukuni</a>, and as a result there were obstacles in being able to publish such ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Razan's writings were compiled, edited and posthumously published by Hayashi Gahō and his younger brother, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayashi_Dokk%C5%8Dsai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hayashi Dokkōsai (page does not exist)">Hayashi Dokkōsai</a> (formerly Morikatsu): </p> <ul><li><i>Hayashi Razan bunshū</i> (<i>The Collected Works of Hayashi Razan</i>), reissued in 1918</li> <li><i>Razan sensei isshū</i> (<i>Master Razan's Poems</i>), reissued in 1921</li></ul> <p>Razan's grandson, <a href="/wiki/Hayashi_H%C5%8Dk%C5%8D" title="Hayashi Hōkō">Hayashi Hōkō</a> (formerly Nobuatsu) would head the Yushima Seidō and he would bear the inherited title <i>Daigaku-no kami</i>. Hōkō's progeny would continue the work begun in the 18th century by the scholarly Hayashi patriarch. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_influence">Political influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayashi_Razan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Political influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As a political theorist, Hayashi lived to witness his philosophical and pragmatic reasoning become a foundation for the dominant ideology of the <i><a href="/wiki/Bakufu" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakufu">bakufu</a></i>. The political dominance of Hayashi's ideas lasted until the end of the 18th century. This evolution developed in part from Razan's equating samurai with the cultured governing class. Razan helped to legitimize the role of the militaristic <i>bakufu</i> at the beginning of its existence. His philosophy moreover encouraged the samurai class to cultivate themselves, a trend which became increasingly widespread over the course of his lifetime and after his death. Razan's aphorism encapsulates this view: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>"No true learning without arms and no true arms without learning."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Hayashi Razan and his family played a significant role is helping to crystallize the theoretical underpinnings of the Tokugawa regime. </p><p>In January 1858, <a href="/wiki/Hayashi_Akira" title="Hayashi Akira">Hayashi Akira</a>, the hereditary <i>Daigaku-no-kami</i> descendant of Hayashi Razan, headed the bakufu delegation that sought advice from the emperor in deciding how to deal with newly assertive foreign powers.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the first time the Emperor's counsel was actively sought since the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate. The most obvious consequence of this transitional overture was the increased numbers of messengers which were constantly streaming back and forth between Tokyo and Kyoto during the next decade. In the 19th century, this scholar-bureaucrat found himself at a crucial nexus of managing political change, moving arguably "by the book" through uncharted waters with Razan's well-settled theories as the only guide.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayashi_Razan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Razan's legacy has been memorialized and praised by some Japanese scholars for his relatively dispassionate attempt at understanding history for the time, leading some scholars to call him the "founder of <a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">modern historical research</a>" in Japan. His work was influential on <a href="/wiki/Arai_Hakuseki" title="Arai Hakuseki">Arai Hakuseki</a>, who is considered to have been even more dispassionate scholar.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayashi_Razan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ponsonby-Fane, Richard A. B. (1956). <i>Kyoto: the Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869</i>, p. 418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ponsonby-Fane, R. (1956). <i>Kyoto: the Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869</i>, p. 418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJosephson2012" class="citation book cs1">Josephson, Jason (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gxzuzIszO60C"><i>The Invention of Religion in Japan</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226412351" title="Special:BookSources/9780226412351"><bdi>9780226412351</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Religion+in+Japan&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780226412351&rft.aulast=Josephson&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgxzuzIszO60C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHayashi+Razan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ponsonby-Fane, p. 418.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Screech, <i>Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822</i>. p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brownlee, John. (1999). <i>Political Thought in Japanese Historical Writing</i>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaitre1903" class="citation journal cs1">Maitre, Cl. E. (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43729146">"LA LITTÉRATURE HISTORIQUE DU JAPON: DES ORIGINES AUX ASHIKAGA"</a>. <i>Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient</i>. <b>3</b> (4): 564–596. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbefeo.1903.1256">10.3406/befeo.1903.1256</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0336-1519">0336-1519</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43729146">43729146</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+de+l%27%C3%89cole+fran%C3%A7aise+d%27Extr%C3%AAme-Orient&rft.atitle=LA+LITT%C3%89RATURE+HISTORIQUE+DU+JAPON%3A+DES+ORIGINES+AUX+ASHIKAGA&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=564-596&rft.date=1903&rft.issn=0336-1519&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43729146%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fbefeo.1903.1256&rft.aulast=Maitre&rft.aufirst=Cl.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43729146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHayashi+Razan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blomberg, Catherina. (1999). <i>The Heart of the Warrior</i>, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cullen, L. M. (2003). <i>A History of Japan, 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds</i>, p. 178 n11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ponsonby-Fane, p. 324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownlee1988" class="citation journal cs1">Brownlee, John S. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2384516">"The Jeweled Comb-Box. Motoori Norinaga's Tamakushige"</a>. <i>Monumenta Nipponica</i>. <b>43</b> (1): 35–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2384516">10.2307/2384516</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-0741">0027-0741</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2384516">2384516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monumenta+Nipponica&rft.atitle=The+Jeweled+Comb-Box.+Motoori+Norinaga%27s+Tamakushige&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35-44&rft.date=1988&rft.issn=0027-0741&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2384516%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2384516&rft.aulast=Brownlee&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2384516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHayashi+Razan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayashi_Razan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hayashi_clan_(Confucian_scholars)" title="Hayashi clan (Confucian scholars)">Hayashi clan (Confucian scholars)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayashi_Razan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YushimaSeidoFlags8628.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/YushimaSeidoFlags8628.jpg/170px-YushimaSeidoFlags8628.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/YushimaSeidoFlags8628.jpg/255px-YushimaSeidoFlags8628.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/YushimaSeidoFlags8628.jpg/340px-YushimaSeidoFlags8628.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Banners mark the entrance to the reconstructed <i><a href="/wiki/Yushima_Seid%C5%8D" title="Yushima Seidō">Yushima Seidō</a></i> (Tokyo).</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Brownlee, John S. (1997) <i>Japanese historians and the national myths, 1600–1945: The Age of the Gods and Emperor Jimmu</i>. Vancouver: <a href="/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia_Press" title="University of British Columbia Press">University of British Columbia Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7748-0644-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7748-0644-3">0-7748-0644-3</a> Tokyo: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tokyo_Press" title="University of Tokyo Press">University of Tokyo Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-13-027031-1" title="Special:BookSources/4-13-027031-1">4-13-027031-1</a></li> <li>Brownlee, John S. (1991). <i>Political Thought in Japanese Historical Writing: From Kojiki (712) to Tokushi Yoron (1712)</i>. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88920-997-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-88920-997-9">0-88920-997-9</a></li> <li>Blomberg, Catherina. (1994). <i>The Heart of the Warrior: Origins and Religious Background of the Samurai in Feudal Japan.</i> London: <a href="/wiki/RoutledgeCurzon" class="mw-redirect" title="RoutledgeCurzon">RoutledgeCurzon</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-873410-06-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-873410-06-9">1-873410-06-9</a></li> <li>Cullen, L. M. (2003). <i>A History of Japan, 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-82155-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-82155-X">0-521-82155-X</a> (cloth). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-52918-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-52918-2">0-521-52918-2</a> (paper)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Keene" title="Donald Keene">Keene</a>, Donald. (1999). <i><a href="/wiki/Travelers_of_a_Hundred_Ages" title="Travelers of a Hundred Ages">Travelers of a Hundred Ages</a>: The Japanese as Revealed through 1,000 Years of Diaries</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-11437-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-11437-0">0-231-11437-0</a></li> <li>Ponsonby-Fane, Richard A. B. (1956). <i>Kyoto: The Old Capital of Japan, 794–1869</i>. Kyoto: The Ponsonby Memorial Society.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephson2012" class="citation book cs1">Josephson, Jason (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gxzuzIszO60C"><i>The Invention of Religion in Japan</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226412351" title="Special:BookSources/9780226412351"><bdi>9780226412351</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Religion+in+Japan&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780226412351&rft.aulast=Josephson&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgxzuzIszO60C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHayashi+Razan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_Screech" title="Timon Screech">Screech</a>, Timon. (2006). <i>Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822.</i> London: <a href="/wiki/RoutledgeCurzon" class="mw-redirect" title="RoutledgeCurzon">RoutledgeCurzon</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1720-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7007-1720-X">0-7007-1720-X</a></li> <li>Yamashita, Samuel Hideo. "Yamasaki Ansai and Confucian School Relations, 1650–1675" in <i>Early Modern Japan</i>, (Fall 2001). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayashi_Razan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japanvisitor.com/index.php?cID=357&pID=1187#bridge">Tokyo's <i>Shōhei-kō</i> (Yushima Sedō) today</a></li> <li>East Asia Institute, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070807114606/http://www.oriental.cam.ac.uk/jbib/edoint2.html">Further reading/bibliography</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold">none</div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <i>Daigaku-no-kami</i><br /> (Head of the state educational system) </b> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Hayashi_Gah%C5%8D" title="Hayashi Gahō">Hayashi Gahō</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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