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data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Theatre" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Theater_company&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Theater company">Theater company</a>)</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Theatre_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Theatre (disambiguation)">Theatre (disambiguation)</a>. "Theatrical" redirects here. For the racehorse, see <a href="/wiki/Theatrical_(horse)" title="Theatrical (horse)">Theatrical (horse)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style>Theatre or theater<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> is a collaborative form of <a href="/wiki/Performing_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Performing art">performing art</a> that uses live performers, usually <a href="/wiki/Actor" title="Actor">actors or actresses</a>, to present experiences of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a <a href="/wiki/Stage_(theatre)" title="Stage (theatre)">stage</a>. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of <a href="/wiki/Gesture" title="Gesture">gesture</a>, speech, song, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>. It is the oldest form of <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a>, though live theatre has now been joined by modern recorded forms. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and <a href="/wiki/Stagecraft" title="Stagecraft">stagecraft</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">lighting</a> are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlson198636-2">[1]</a> Places, normally buildings, where performances regularly take place are also called "theatres" (or "theaters"), as derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> θέατρον (théatron, "a place for viewing"), itself from θεάομαι (theáomai, "to see", "to watch", "to observe").<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a> <div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:317px;max-width:317px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:150px;max-width:150px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:215px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernhardt_Hamlet2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Bernhardt_Hamlet2.jpg/148px-Bernhardt_Hamlet2.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Bernhardt_Hamlet2.jpg/222px-Bernhardt_Hamlet2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Bernhardt_Hamlet2.jpg/296px-Bernhardt_Hamlet2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2471" data-file-height="3600"></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:163px;max-width:163px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:215px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sun_Wukong_at_Beijing_opera_-_Journey_to_the_West.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Sun_Wukong_at_Beijing_opera_-_Journey_to_the_West.jpg/161px-Sun_Wukong_at_Beijing_opera_-_Journey_to_the_West.jpg" decoding="async" width="161" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Sun_Wukong_at_Beijing_opera_-_Journey_to_the_West.jpg/242px-Sun_Wukong_at_Beijing_opera_-_Journey_to_the_West.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Sun_Wukong_at_Beijing_opera_-_Journey_to_the_West.jpg/322px-Sun_Wukong_at_Beijing_opera_-_Journey_to_the_West.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800"></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:117px;max-width:117px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:253px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sculpture_Mode_Pose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sculpture_Mode_Pose.jpg/115px-Sculpture_Mode_Pose.jpg" decoding="async" width="115" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sculpture_Mode_Pose.jpg/173px-Sculpture_Mode_Pose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Sculpture_Mode_Pose.jpg/230px-Sculpture_Mode_Pose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1792" data-file-height="3953"></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:196px;max-width:196px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:253px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Eduardo_De_Filippo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Eduardo_De_Filippo.jpg/194px-Eduardo_De_Filippo.jpg" decoding="async" width="194" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Eduardo_De_Filippo.jpg/291px-Eduardo_De_Filippo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Eduardo_De_Filippo.jpg/388px-Eduardo_De_Filippo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="705"></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Clockwise, from left to right: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah_Bernhardt" title="Sarah Bernhardt">Sarah Bernhardt</a> in 1899 as <a href="/wiki/Prince_Hamlet" title="Prince Hamlet">Hamlet</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">eponymous tragedy</a></li> <li>The character <a href="/wiki/Sun_Wukong" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun Wukong">Sun Wukong</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Peking_opera" title="Peking opera">Peking opera</a> from <a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_West" title="Journey to the West">Journey to the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduardo_De_Filippo" title="Eduardo De Filippo">Eduardo De Filippo</a> as <a href="/wiki/Pulcinella" title="Pulcinella">Pulcinella</a>, a character from the <a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">Commedia dell'arte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koothu" title="Koothu">Koothu</a>, an ancient Indian form of performing art that originated in early <a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">theatre of ancient Greece</a>, from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genres</a>, and many of its <a href="/wiki/Theme_(narrative)" title="Theme (narrative)">themes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stock_character" title="Stock character">stock characters</a>, and plot elements. Theatre artist <a href="/wiki/Patrice_Pavis" title="Patrice Pavis">Patrice Pavis</a> defines theatricality, <a href="/wiki/Theatre_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre language">theatrical language</a>, stage writing and the <a href="/wiki/Medium_specificity" title="Medium specificity">specificity</a> of theatre as synonymous expressions that differentiate theatre from the other <a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">performing arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a> and the arts in general.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavis1998345%E2%80%93346-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[b]</a> A theatre company is an organisation that produces theatrical performances,<a href="#cite_note-compdef-6">[4]</a> as distinct from a <a href="/wiki/Theatre_troupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre troupe">theatre troupe</a> (or acting company), which is a group of theatrical performers working together.<a href="#cite_note-troupedef1-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-troupedef2-8">[6]</a> Modern theatre includes performances of <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">plays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Musical_theatre" title="Musical theatre">musical theatre</a>. The art forms of <a href="/wiki/Ballet" title="Ballet">ballet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a> are also theatre and use many conventions such as <a href="/wiki/Acting" title="Acting">acting</a>, costumes and staging. They were influential in the development of <a href="/wiki/Musical_theatre" title="Musical theatre">musical theatre</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#History_of_theatre">1 History of theatre</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Classical_and_Hellenistic_Greece">1.1 Classical and Hellenistic Greece</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Roman_theatre">1.2 Roman theatre</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Indian_theatre">1.3 Indian theatre</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#East_Asian_theatre">1.4 East Asian theatre</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Indonesian_theatre">1.5 Indonesian theatre</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Medieval_Islamic_traditions">1.6 Medieval Islamic traditions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Early_modern_and_modern_theatre_in_the_West">1.7 Early modern and modern theatre in the West</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Types">2 Types</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Drama">2.1 Drama</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Musical_theatre">2.2 Musical theatre</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Comedy">2.3 Comedy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Tragedy">2.4 Tragedy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Improvisation">2.5 Improvisation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Theories">3 Theories</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Technical_aspects">4 Technical aspects</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Subcategories_and_organisation">5 Subcategories and organisation</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Repertory_companies">5.1 Repertory companies</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Other_terminology">5.2 Other terminology</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Unions">6 Unions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#See_also">7 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Explanatory_notes">8 Explanatory notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Citations">9 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#General_sources">10 General sources</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Further_reading">11 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#External_links">12 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="History_of_theatre">History of theatre</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of theatre" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_theatre" title="History of theatre">History of theatre</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_and_Hellenistic_Greece">Classical and Hellenistic Greece</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classical and Hellenistic Greece" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taormina_BW_2012-10-05_16-05-05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Taormina_BW_2012-10-05_16-05-05.jpg/220px-Taormina_BW_2012-10-05_16-05-05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3858" data-file-height="2579"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Taormina_BW_2012-10-05_16-05-05.jpg/220px-Taormina_BW_2012-10-05_16-05-05.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Taormina_BW_2012-10-05_16-05-05.jpg/330px-Taormina_BW_2012-10-05_16-05-05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Taormina_BW_2012-10-05_16-05-05.jpg/440px-Taormina_BW_2012-10-05_16-05-05.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ancient_theatre_of_Taormina" title="Ancient theatre of Taormina">Greek theatre of Taormina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, Italy</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Theatre of ancient Greece</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phlyax_scene_Louvre_CA7249.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Phlyax_scene_Louvre_CA7249.jpg/200px-Phlyax_scene_Louvre_CA7249.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="2420"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 210px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Phlyax_scene_Louvre_CA7249.jpg/200px-Phlyax_scene_Louvre_CA7249.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="210" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Phlyax_scene_Louvre_CA7249.jpg/300px-Phlyax_scene_Louvre_CA7249.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Phlyax_scene_Louvre_CA7249.jpg/400px-Phlyax_scene_Louvre_CA7249.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A depiction of actors playing the roles of a master (right) and his slave (left) in a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Phlyax_play" title="Phlyax play">phlyax play</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 350/340 BCE</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">city-state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a> is where Western theatre originated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998441-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge19973%E2%80%935-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[c]</a> It was part of a broader <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> of theatricality and performance in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical Greece</a> that included <a href="/wiki/Athenian_festivals" title="Athenian festivals">festivals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in ancient Greece">religious rituals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Political_structure" title="Ancient Greece">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">law</a>, athletics and gymnastics, <a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature#Classical_and_Pre-Classical_Antiquity" title="Ancient Greek literature">poetry</a>, weddings, funerals, and <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">symposia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge19973,_6-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill200420%E2%80%93xx-14">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERehm19923-15">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[d]</a> Participation in the city-state's many festivals—and mandatory attendance at the <a href="/wiki/Dionysia#City_Dionysia" title="Dionysia">City Dionysia</a> as an audience member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular—was an important part of <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizenship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPelling200583-18">[14]</a> Civic participation also involved the evaluation of the <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> of <a href="/wiki/Orators" class="mw-redirect" title="Orators">orators</a> evidenced in performances in the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_law_court_(classical_period)" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenian law court (classical period)">law-court</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">political assembly</a>, both of which were understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill200425-19">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPelling200583%E2%80%9384-20">[16]</a> The Greeks also developed the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic criticism">dramatic criticism</a> and theatre architecture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDukore197431-21">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanko1987ix-22">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard20071-23">[19]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] Actors were either amateur or at best semi-professional.<a href="#cite_note-24">[20]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">theatre of ancient Greece</a> consisted of three types of <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comedy_(drama)" title="Comedy (drama)">comedy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Satyr_play" title="Satyr play">satyr play</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315%E2%80%9319-25">[21]</a> The origins of theatre in ancient Greece, according to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE), the first theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating 10,000–20,000 people. The stage consisted of a dancing floor (orchestra), dressing room and scene-building area (skene). Since the words were the most important part, good acoustics and clear delivery were paramount. The actors (always men) wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts.<a href="#cite_note-26">[22]</a> Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998441-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge19973%E2%80%935-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754-11">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELey2007206-27">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStyan2000140-28">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[e]</a> Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world), and continued to be popular until the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200332%E2%80%9333-31">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998444-32">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge19973%E2%80%935-10">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[f]</a> No tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy20035-35">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKovacs2005379-36">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[g]</a> We have complete texts <a href="/wiki/Extant_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant literature">extant</a> by <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315-38">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[h]</a> The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutionalized</a> in competitions (<a href="/wiki/Agon" title="Agon">agon</a>) held as part of festivities celebrating <a href="/wiki/Dionysus" title="Dionysus">Dionysus</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_the_Greek_gods" title="Family tree of the Greek gods">god</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fertility" title="Fertility">fertility</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200313%E2%80%9315-40">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998441%E2%80%93447-41">[33]</a> As contestants in the City Dionysia's competition (the most prestigious of the festivals to stage drama) playwrights were required to present a <a href="/wiki/Tetralogy" title="Tetralogy">tetralogy</a> of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998442-42">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315%E2%80%9317-43">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[i]</a> The performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE; official records (didaskaliai) begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200313,_15-45">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998442-42">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[j]</a> Most Athenian tragedies dramatize events from <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>, though <a href="/wiki/The_Persians" title="The Persians">The Persians</a>—which stages the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian</a> response to news of their military defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a> in 480 BCE—is the notable exception in the surviving drama.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998442-42">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[k]</a> When Aeschylus won first prize for it at the City Dionysia in 472 BCE, he had been writing tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest example of <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> to survive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998442-42">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy200315%E2%80%9316-49">[38]</a> More than 130 years later, the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_theory" title="Dramatic theory">dramatic theory</a>—his <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 335 BCE). <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_comedy" title="Ancient Greek comedy">Athenian comedy</a> is conventionally divided into three periods, "Old Comedy", "Middle Comedy", and "New Comedy". Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays of <a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a>, while Middle Comedy is largely lost (preserved only in relatively short fragments in authors such as <a href="/wiki/Athenaeus_of_Naucratis" class="mw-redirect" title="Athenaeus of Naucratis">Athenaeus of Naucratis</a>). New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of <a href="/wiki/Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a>. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster.<a href="#cite_note-50">[l]</a> In addition to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, the festival also included the <a href="/wiki/Satyr_Play" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyr Play">Satyr Play</a>. Finding its origins in rural, agricultural rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually found its way to Athens in its most well-known form. Satyr's themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal woodland companions, often engaging in drunken revelry and mischief at his side. The satyr play itself was classified as tragicomedy, erring on the side of the more modern burlesque traditions of the early twentieth century. The plotlines of the plays were typically concerned with the dealings of the pantheon of Gods and their involvement in human affairs, backed by the chorus of <a href="/wiki/Satyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Satyrs">Satyrs</a>. However, according to <a href="/wiki/T._B._L._Webster" title="T. B. L. Webster">Webster</a>, satyr actors did not always perform typical satyr actions and would break from the acting traditions assigned to the character type of a mythical forest creature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebster1967-51">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_theatre">Roman theatre</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roman theatre" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre of ancient Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg/220px-Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2504" data-file-height="2472"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 217px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg/220px-Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="217" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg/330px-Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg/440px-Choregos_actors_MAN_Napoli_Inv9986.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Roman mosaic depicting actors and an <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a> player (House of the Tragic Poet, <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>).</figcaption></figure> Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a>. The Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> wrote that the Romans first experienced theatre in the 4th century BCE, with a performance by <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Actor" title="Actor">actors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeacham19962-52">[40]</a> Beacham argues that they had been familiar with "pre-theatrical practices" for some time before that recorded contact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeacham19963-53">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">theatre of ancient Rome</a> was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Roman_festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman festival">festival</a> performances of <a href="/wiki/Street_theatre" title="Street theatre">street theatre</a>, nude dancing, and <a href="/wiki/Acrobatics" title="Acrobatics">acrobatics</a>, to the staging of <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>'s broadly appealing situation <a href="/wiki/Comedy_(drama)" title="Comedy (drama)">comedies</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high-style</a>, verbally elaborate <a href="/wiki/Tragedies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragedies">tragedies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>. Although Rome had a native tradition of performance, the <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a> of <a href="/wiki/Roman_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman culture">Roman culture</a> in the 3rd century BCE had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and encouraged the development of <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a> of the highest quality for the stage. The only surviving plays from the Roman Empire are ten dramas attributed to <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Seneca" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Annaeus Seneca">Lucius Annaeus Seneca</a> (4 BCE–65 CE), the Corduba-born Stoic philosopher and tutor of Nero.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGassnerAllen199293-54">[42]</a> These tragedies are known for their philosophical themes, complex characters, and rhetorical style. While Seneca's plays provide valuable insights into Roman theater, they represent only a small fraction of the dramatic repertoire that existed in ancient Rome. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_theatre">Indian theatre</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Indian theatre" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_India" title="Theatre of India">Theatre of India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_classical_drama" title="Indian classical drama">Indian classical drama</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Koothu" title="Koothu">Koothu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Koodiyattam" title="Koodiyattam">Koodiyattam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Demon_Yakshagana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Demon_Yakshagana.jpg/170px-Demon_Yakshagana.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 255px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Demon_Yakshagana.jpg/170px-Demon_Yakshagana.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="255" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Demon_Yakshagana.jpg/255px-Demon_Yakshagana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Demon_Yakshagana.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rakshasa" title="Rakshasa">Rakshasa</a> or the demon as depicted in <a href="/wiki/Yakshagana" title="Yakshagana">Yakshagana</a>, a form of musical <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>-<a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> from <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_India" title="Theatre of India">India</a></figcaption></figure> The first form of <a href="/wiki/Indian_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian theatre">Indian theatre</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit theatre">Sanskrit theatre</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmondSwannZarrilli199312-55">[43]</a> earliest-surviving fragments of which date from the 1st century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1993xvii-56">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1997516%E2%80%93517-57">[45]</a> It began after the development of <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Roman theatre</a> and before the development of theatre in other parts of Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmondSwannZarrilli199312-55">[43]</a> It emerged sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE and flourished between the 1st century CE and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">history of India</a> during which hundreds of plays were written.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon199770-58">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998516-59">[47]</a> The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998516-59">[47]</a> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a> from between 1500 and 1000 BCE that are among the earliest examples of <a href="/wiki/History_of_literature#India" title="History of literature">literature</a> in the world) contain no hint of it (although a small number are composed in a form of <a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogue</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">rituals</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> do not appear to have developed into theatre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998516-59">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahābhāṣya">Mahābhāṣya</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pata%C3%B1jali" class="mw-redirect" title="Patañjali">Patañjali</a> contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998517-60">[48]</a> This treatise on <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre in India">theatre in India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998517-60">[48]</a> The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is <a href="/wiki/Natyashastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Natyashastra">A Treatise on Theatre</a> (Nātyaśāstra), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Bharata_Muni" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharata Muni">Bharata Muni</a>. The Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses <a href="/wiki/Acting" title="Acting">acting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dramaturgy" title="Dramaturgy">dramatic construction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theater_(structure)" title="Theater (structure)">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costume_design" title="Costume design">costuming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatrical_makeup" title="Theatrical makeup">make-up</a>, <a href="/wiki/Props" class="mw-redirect" title="Props">props</a>, the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a <a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">mythological</a> account of the origin of theatre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998517-60">[48]</a> In doing so, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in a [hereditary process]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB.jpg/200px-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="818"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 164px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB.jpg/200px-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="164" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB.jpg/300px-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB.jpg/400px-%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BB.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Performer playing <a href="/wiki/Sugriva" title="Sugriva">Sugriva</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Koodiyattam" title="Koodiyattam">Koodiyattam</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit theatre">Sanskrit theatre</a></figcaption></figure> Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (sutradhara), who may also have acted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1993xvii-56">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998517-60">[48]</a> This task was thought of as being analogous to that of a <a href="/wiki/Puppetry" title="Puppetry">puppeteer</a>—the literal meaning of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998517-60">[48]</a> The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998518-61">[49]</a> There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their own age, while others played ages different from their own (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre, the Treatise gives most attention to acting (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichmond1998518-61">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[m]</a> Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_literature" title="Sanskrit literature">Sanskrit literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1993xvii-56">[44]</a> It utilised <a href="/wiki/Stock_character" title="Stock character">stock characters</a>, such as the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialized in a particular type. <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81lid%C4%81sa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kālidāsa">Kālidāsa</a> in the 1st century BCE, is arguably considered to be ancient <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>'s greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81lavik%C4%81gnimitram" title="Mālavikāgnimitram">Mālavikāgnimitram</a> (Mālavikā and Agnimitra), <a href="/wiki/Vikramuurvashiiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikramuurvashiiya">Vikramuurvashiiya</a> (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and <a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81na%C5%9B%C4%81kuntala" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhijñānaśākuntala">Abhijñānaśākuntala</a> (The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired by a story in the Mahabharata and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated into <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>. <a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81na%C5%9B%C4%81kuntalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Abhijñānaśākuntalam">Śakuntalā</a> (in English translation) influenced <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Goethe%27s_Faust" title="Goethe's Faust">Faust</a> (1808–1832).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1993xvii-56">[44]</a> The next great Indian dramatist was <a href="/wiki/Bhavabhuti" title="Bhavabhuti">Bhavabhuti</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 7th century CE). He is said to have written the following three plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic of Ramayana. The powerful Indian emperor <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a> (606–648) is credited with having written three plays: the comedy <a href="/wiki/Ratnavali" title="Ratnavali">Ratnavali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Priyadarsika" class="mw-redirect" title="Priyadarsika">Priyadarsika</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> drama <a href="/wiki/Nagananda" title="Nagananda">Nagananda</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asian_theatre">East Asian theatre</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: East Asian theatre" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_China" title="Theatre of China">Theatre of China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Japan" title="Theatre of Japan">Theatre of Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theater_in_Korea" title="Theater in Korea">Theater in Korea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Vietnam" title="Theatre of Vietnam">Theatre of Vietnam</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. 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Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Theatre%22">"Theatre"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Theatre%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Theatre%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Theatre%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Theatre%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Theatre%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (January 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Odori_Keiy%C5%8D_Edo-e_no_sakae_by_Toyokuni_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Odori_Keiy%C5%8D_Edo-e_no_sakae_by_Toyokuni_III.jpg/220px-Odori_Keiy%C5%8D_Edo-e_no_sakae_by_Toyokuni_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="100" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2570" data-file-height="1167"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 100px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Odori_Keiy%C5%8D_Edo-e_no_sakae_by_Toyokuni_III.jpg/220px-Odori_Keiy%C5%8D_Edo-e_no_sakae_by_Toyokuni_III.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="100" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Odori_Keiy%C5%8D_Edo-e_no_sakae_by_Toyokuni_III.jpg/330px-Odori_Keiy%C5%8D_Edo-e_no_sakae_by_Toyokuni_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Odori_Keiy%C5%8D_Edo-e_no_sakae_by_Toyokuni_III.jpg/440px-Odori_Keiy%C5%8D_Edo-e_no_sakae_by_Toyokuni_III.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The July 1858 production of <a href="/wiki/Shibaraku" title="Shibaraku">Shibaraku</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Ichimura-za_theater" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichimura-za theater">Ichimura-za theater</a> theatre in <a href="/wiki/Edo_(Tokyo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Edo (Tokyo)">Edo</a>. <a href="/wiki/Triptych" title="Triptych">Triptych</a> <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_print" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodblock print">woodblock print</a> by <a href="/wiki/Kunisada" title="Kunisada">Utagawa Toyokuni III</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lijiang_Yunnan_China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Lijiang_Yunnan_China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg/220px-Lijiang_Yunnan_China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3597" data-file-height="2698"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Lijiang_Yunnan_China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg/220px-Lijiang_Yunnan_China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Lijiang_Yunnan_China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg/330px-Lijiang_Yunnan_China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Lijiang_Yunnan_China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg/440px-Lijiang_Yunnan_China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Public performance in Jade Dragon Snow Mountain Open Air Theatre</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> is sometimes known as "The Age of 1000 Entertainments". During this era, Ming Huang formed an acting school known as The <a href="/wiki/Pear_Garden" title="Pear Garden">Pear Garden</a> to produce a form of drama that was primarily musical. That is why actors are commonly called "Children of the Pear Garden". During the dynasty of Empress Ling, <a href="/wiki/Shadow_puppetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Shadow puppetry">shadow puppetry</a> first emerged as a recognized form of theatre in China. There were two distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Pekingese (northern) and Cantonese (southern). The two styles were differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the <a href="/wiki/Puppet" title="Puppet">puppets</a>, as opposed to the type of <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">play</a> performed by the puppets. Both styles generally performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre used for political propaganda. Japanese forms of <a href="/wiki/Kabuki" title="Kabuki">Kabuki</a>, <a href="/wiki/N%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Nō">Nō</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%8Dgen" title="Kyōgen">Kyōgen</a> developed in the 17th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeal2007276-63">[50]</a> Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic colour was also very prevalent; a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets' heads. Thus, they were not seen by the audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more delicate and smaller. They were created out of thin, translucent leather (usually taken from the belly of a donkey). They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colourful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were attached to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet and then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the neck. While these rods were visible when the shadow was cast, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they did not interfere with the appearance of the figure. The rods are attached at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or fabric-lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went so far as to store the heads in one book and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the eleventh century before becoming a tool of the government. In the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, there were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music. These developed in the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> into a more sophisticated form known as <a href="/wiki/Zaju" title="Zaju">zaju</a>, with a four- or five-act structure. Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms, one of the best known of which is <a href="/wiki/Peking_Opera" class="mw-redirect" title="Peking Opera">Peking Opera</a> which is still popular today. <a href="/wiki/Xiangsheng" title="Xiangsheng">Xiangsheng</a> is a certain traditional Chinese comedic performance in the forms of monologue or dialogue. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indonesian_theatre">Indonesian theatre</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Indonesian theatre" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Indonesia" title="Theatre of Indonesia">Theatre of Indonesia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balinese_theatre" title="Balinese theatre">Balinese theatre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ramawijaya_dan_Shinta_pada_Sendratari_Ramayana_Prambanan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Ramawijaya_dan_Shinta_pada_Sendratari_Ramayana_Prambanan.jpg/170px-Ramawijaya_dan_Shinta_pada_Sendratari_Ramayana_Prambanan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="4800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 224px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Ramawijaya_dan_Shinta_pada_Sendratari_Ramayana_Prambanan.jpg/170px-Ramawijaya_dan_Shinta_pada_Sendratari_Ramayana_Prambanan.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="224" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Ramawijaya_dan_Shinta_pada_Sendratari_Ramayana_Prambanan.jpg/255px-Ramawijaya_dan_Shinta_pada_Sendratari_Ramayana_Prambanan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Ramawijaya_dan_Shinta_pada_Sendratari_Ramayana_Prambanan.jpg/340px-Ramawijaya_dan_Shinta_pada_Sendratari_Ramayana_Prambanan.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Rama and Shinta in <a href="/wiki/Wayang_Wong" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayang Wong">Wayang Wong</a> performance near <a href="/wiki/Prambanan" title="Prambanan">Prambanan</a> temple complex</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, theatre performances have become an important part of local culture, theatre performances in Indonesia have been developed for thousands of years. Most of <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Indonesia" title="Theatre of Indonesia">Indonesia's</a> oldest theatre forms are linked directly to local literary traditions (oral and written). The prominent <a href="/wiki/Puppet_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Puppet theatre">puppet theatres</a>—<a href="/wiki/Wayang_golek" title="Wayang golek">wayang golek</a> (wooden rod-puppet play) of the <a href="/wiki/Sundanese_people#culture" title="Sundanese people">Sundanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wayang_kulit" title="Wayang kulit">wayang kulit</a> (leather shadow-puppet play) of the <a href="/wiki/Javanese_culture" title="Javanese culture">Javanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balinese_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Balinese culture">Balinese</a>—draw much of their repertoire from indigenized versions of the <a href="/wiki/Ramayana" title="Ramayana">Ramayana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>. These tales also provide source material for the wayang wong (human theatre) of <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, which uses actors. Some wayang golek performances, however, also present Muslim stories, called menak.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin2001p184-64">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wayang" title="Wayang">Wayang</a> is an ancient form of storytelling that renowned for its elaborate puppet/human and complex musical styles.<a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-66">[53]</a> The earliest evidence is from the late 1st millennium CE, in medieval-era texts and archeological sites.<a href="#cite_note-brandon143-67">[54]</a> The oldest known record that concerns wayang is from the 9th century. Around 840 AD an Old Javanese (Kawi) inscriptions called Jaha Inscriptions issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapala from <a href="/wiki/Mataram_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Mataram Kingdom">Mataram Kingdom</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_Java" title="Central Java">Central Java</a> mentions three sorts of performers: atapukan, aringgit, and abanol. Aringgit means Wayang puppet show, Atapukan means Mask dance show, and abanwal means joke art. Ringgit is described in an 11th-century Javanese poem as a leather shadow figure. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Islamic_traditions">Medieval Islamic traditions</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medieval Islamic traditions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Theatre in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Islamic world">medieval Islamic world</a> included <a href="/wiki/Puppet" title="Puppet">puppet</a> theatre (which included hand puppets, <a href="/wiki/Shadow_play" title="Shadow play">shadow plays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marionette" title="Marionette">marionette</a> productions) and live passion plays known as <a href="/wiki/Ta%27zieh" title="Ta'zieh">ta'ziyeh</a>, where actors re-enact episodes from <a href="/wiki/Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim history">Muslim history</a>. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islamic</a> plays revolved around the <a href="/wiki/Shahid" title="Shahid">istishhād</a> (martyrdom) of <a href="/wiki/Ali" title="Ali">Ali</a>'s sons <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Ali" title="Hasan ibn Ali">Hasan ibn Ali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn ibn Ali</a>. Secular plays were known as akhraja, recorded in medieval <a href="/wiki/Adab_(behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Adab (behavior)">adab</a> literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ta'ziya theatre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoreh1986565%E2%80%93601-68">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_and_modern_theatre_in_the_West">Early modern and modern theatre in the West</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early modern and modern theatre in the West" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_acteurs_de_la_Com%C3%A9die_italienne_-_Nicolas_Lancret_-_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Les_acteurs_de_la_Com%C3%A9die_italienne_-_Nicolas_Lancret_-_Louvre.jpg/170px-Les_acteurs_de_la_Com%C3%A9die_italienne_-_Nicolas_Lancret_-_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="561" data-file-height="700"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 212px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Les_acteurs_de_la_Com%C3%A9die_italienne_-_Nicolas_Lancret_-_Louvre.jpg/170px-Les_acteurs_de_la_Com%C3%A9die_italienne_-_Nicolas_Lancret_-_Louvre.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="212" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Les_acteurs_de_la_Com%C3%A9die_italienne_-_Nicolas_Lancret_-_Louvre.jpg/255px-Les_acteurs_de_la_Com%C3%A9die_italienne_-_Nicolas_Lancret_-_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Les_acteurs_de_la_Com%C3%A9die_italienne_-_Nicolas_Lancret_-_Louvre.jpg/340px-Les_acteurs_de_la_Com%C3%A9die_italienne_-_Nicolas_Lancret_-_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harlequin" title="Harlequin">Harlequin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierrot" title="Pierrot">Pierrot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Columbine_(stock_character)" title="Columbine (stock character)">Columbine</a>, stock characters from the <a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">commedia dell'arte</a>, c. 1736</figcaption></figure> Theatre took on many alternative forms in the West between the 15th and 19th centuries, including <a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">commedia dell'arte</a> from <a href="/wiki/Italian_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian theatre">Italian theatre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodrama</a>. The general trend was away from the poetic drama of the Greeks and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and toward a more naturalistic prose style of dialogue, especially following the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuritz1988305-69">[56]</a> Theatre took a big pause during 1642 and 1660 in England because of the <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> Interregnum.<a href="#cite_note-OUP-70">[57]</a> The rising anti-theatrical sentiment among Puritans saw <a href="/wiki/William_Prynne" title="William Prynne">William Prynne</a> write <a href="/wiki/Histriomastix" title="Histriomastix">Histriomastix</a> (1633), the most notorious attack on theatre prior to the ban.<a href="#cite_note-OUP-70">[57]</a> Viewing theatre as sinful, the Puritans ordered the <a href="/wiki/London_theatre_closure_1642" title="London theatre closure 1642">closure of London theatres in 1642</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[58]</a> On 24 January 1643, the actors protested against the ban by writing a pamphlet titled The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses.<a href="#cite_note-72">[59]</a> This stagnant period ended once Charles II came back to the throne in 1660 in the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_(England)" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration (England)">Restoration</a>. Theatre (among other arts) exploded, with influence from French culture, since Charles had been exiled in France in the years previous to his reign. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theatre_Royal_20130408_023.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Theatre_Royal_20130408_023.JPG/170px-Theatre_Royal_20130408_023.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="1024"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 254px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Theatre_Royal_20130408_023.JPG/170px-Theatre_Royal_20130408_023.JPG" data-width="170" data-height="254" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Theatre_Royal_20130408_023.JPG/255px-Theatre_Royal_20130408_023.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Theatre_Royal_20130408_023.JPG/340px-Theatre_Royal_20130408_023.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Drury_Lane" title="Theatre Royal, Drury Lane">Theatre Royal, Drury Lane</a> in the <a href="/wiki/West_End_theatre" title="West End theatre">West End</a>. Opened in May 1663, it is the oldest theatre in London.<a href="#cite_note-Oldest-73">[60]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1660, two companies were licensed to perform, the <a href="/wiki/Duke%27s_Company" title="Duke's Company">Duke's Company</a> and the <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Company" title="King's Company">King's Company</a>. Performances were held in converted buildings, such as <a href="/wiki/Lisle%27s_Tennis_Court" title="Lisle's Tennis Court">Lisle's Tennis Court</a>. The first <a href="/wiki/West_End_theatre" title="West End theatre">West End theatre</a>, known as Theatre Royal in <a href="/wiki/Covent_Garden" title="Covent Garden">Covent Garden</a>, London, was designed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Killigrew" title="Thomas Killigrew">Thomas Killigrew</a> and built on the site of the present <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Drury_Lane" title="Theatre Royal, Drury Lane">Theatre Royal, Drury Lane</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Oldest-73">[60]</a> One of the big changes was the new theatre house. Instead of the type of the Elizabethan era, such as the <a href="/wiki/Globe_Theatre" title="Globe Theatre">Globe Theatre</a>, round with no place for the actors to prepare for the next act and with no "theatre manners", the theatre house became transformed into a place of refinement, with a stage in front and stadium seating facing it. Since seating was no longer all the way around the stage, it became prioritized—some seats were obviously better than others. The king would have the best seat in the house: the very middle of the theatre, which got the widest view of the stage as well as the best way to see the point of view and vanishing point that the stage was constructed around. <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Jacques_de_Loutherbourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg">Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg</a> was one of the most influential set designers of the time because of his use of floor space and scenery. Because of the turmoil before this time, there was still some controversy about what should and should not be put on the stage. <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Collier" title="Jeremy Collier">Jeremy Collier</a>, a preacher, was one of the heads in this movement through his piece A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage. The beliefs in this paper were mainly held by non-theatre goers and the remainder of the Puritans and very religious of the time. The main question was if seeing something immoral on stage affects behaviour in the lives of those who watch it, a controversy that is still playing out today.<a href="#cite_note-74">[61]</a> The seventeenth century had also introduced women to the stage, which was considered inappropriate earlier. These women were regarded as celebrities (also a newer concept, thanks to ideas on individualism that arose in the wake of <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a>), but on the other hand, it was still very new and revolutionary that they were on the stage, and some said they were unladylike, and looked down on them. Charles II did not like young men playing the parts of young women, so he asked that women play their own parts.<a href="#cite_note-75">[62]</a> Because women were allowed on the stage, playwrights had more leeway with plot twists, like women dressing as men, and having narrow escapes from morally sticky situations as forms of comedy. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_XII_High_Life_below_Stairs_Mr._Macready_1829.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Charles_XII_High_Life_below_Stairs_Mr._Macready_1829.jpg/170px-Charles_XII_High_Life_below_Stairs_Mr._Macready_1829.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="236" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="722"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 236px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Charles_XII_High_Life_below_Stairs_Mr._Macready_1829.jpg/170px-Charles_XII_High_Life_below_Stairs_Mr._Macready_1829.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="236" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Charles_XII_High_Life_below_Stairs_Mr._Macready_1829.jpg/255px-Charles_XII_High_Life_below_Stairs_Mr._Macready_1829.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Charles_XII_High_Life_below_Stairs_Mr._Macready_1829.jpg/340px-Charles_XII_High_Life_below_Stairs_Mr._Macready_1829.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Billing for a British theatre in 1829</figcaption></figure> Comedies were full of the young and very much in vogue, with the storyline following their love lives: commonly a young roguish hero professing his love to the chaste and free minded heroine near the end of the play, much like <a href="/wiki/Richard_Brinsley_Sheridan" title="Richard Brinsley Sheridan">Sheridan's</a> <a href="/wiki/The_School_for_Scandal" title="The School for Scandal">The School for Scandal</a>. Many of the comedies were fashioned after the French tradition, mainly Molière, again hailing back to the French influence brought back by the King and the Royals after their exile. <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a> was one of the top comedic playwrights of the time, revolutionizing the way comedy was written and performed by combining Italian <a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">commedia dell'arte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neoclassical</a> French comedy to create some of the longest lasting and most influential satiric comedies.<a href="#cite_note-76">[63]</a> Tragedies were similarly victorious in their sense of righting political power, especially poignant because of the recent Restoration of the Crown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlack2010533%E2%80%93535-77">[64]</a> They were also imitations of French tragedy, although the French had a larger distinction between comedy and tragedy, whereas the English fudged the lines occasionally and put some comedic parts in their tragedies. Common forms of non-comedic plays were sentimental comedies as well as something that would later be called tragédie bourgeoise, or <a href="/wiki/Domestic_tragedy" title="Domestic tragedy">domestic tragedy</a>—that is, the tragedy of common life—were more popular in England because they appealed more to English sensibilities.<a href="#cite_note-78">[65]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Theatre_troupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre troupe">theatre troupes</a> were formerly often travelling, the idea of the national theatre gained support in the 18th century, inspired by <a href="/wiki/Ludvig_Holberg" title="Ludvig Holberg">Ludvig Holberg</a>. The major promoter of the idea of the national theatre in Germany, and also of the <a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a> poets, was <a href="/wiki/Abel_Seyler" title="Abel Seyler">Abel Seyler</a>, the owner of the <a href="/wiki/Hamburgische_Entreprise" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamburgische Entreprise">Hamburgische Entreprise</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seyler_Theatre_Company" title="Seyler Theatre Company">Seyler Theatre Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-abel-seyler-79">[66]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tartu_asv2022-04_img27_Vanemuine_small_building.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Tartu_asv2022-04_img27_Vanemuine_small_building.jpg/170px-Tartu_asv2022-04_img27_Vanemuine_small_building.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="96" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6412" data-file-height="3607"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 96px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Tartu_asv2022-04_img27_Vanemuine_small_building.jpg/170px-Tartu_asv2022-04_img27_Vanemuine_small_building.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="96" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Tartu_asv2022-04_img27_Vanemuine_small_building.jpg/255px-Tartu_asv2022-04_img27_Vanemuine_small_building.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Tartu_asv2022-04_img27_Vanemuine_small_building.jpg/340px-Tartu_asv2022-04_img27_Vanemuine_small_building.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The "Little House" of the <a href="/wiki/Vanemuine" title="Vanemuine">Vanemuine Theatre</a> from 1918 in <a href="/wiki/Tartu" title="Tartu">Tartu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[67]</a></figcaption></figure> Through the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth-century_theatre" title="Nineteenth-century theatre">19th century</a>, the popular theatrical forms of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodrama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victorian_burlesque" title="Victorian burlesque">Victorian burlesque</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Well-made_play" title="Well-made play">well-made plays</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Scribe" title="Eugène Scribe">Scribe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victorien_Sardou" title="Victorien Sardou">Sardou</a> gave way to the <a href="/wiki/Problem_play" title="Problem play">problem plays</a> of <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(theatre)" title="Naturalism (theatre)">Naturalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Realism_(theatre)" title="Realism (theatre)">Realism</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Farce" title="Farce">farces</a> of <a href="/wiki/Feydeau" class="mw-redirect" title="Feydeau">Feydeau</a>; <a href="/wiki/Wagner%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Wagner's">Wagner's</a> <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">operatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Gesamtkunstwerk" title="Gesamtkunstwerk">Gesamtkunstwerk</a>; <a href="/wiki/Musical_theatre" title="Musical theatre">musical theatre</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a>'s operas); <a href="/wiki/F._C._Burnand" title="F. C. Burnand">F. C. Burnand</a>'s, <a href="/wiki/W._S._Gilbert" title="W. S. Gilbert">W. S. Gilbert</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a>'s drawing-room comedies; <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a>; proto-<a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a> in the late works of <a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg">August Strindberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Henrik Ibsen</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrockettHildy2003293%E2%80%93426-81">[68]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedy" title="Edwardian musical comedy">Edwardian musical comedy</a>. These trends continued through the <a href="/wiki/Twentieth-century_theatre" title="Twentieth-century theatre">20th century</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Realism_(theatre)" title="Realism (theatre)">realism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stanislavski" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislavski">Stanislavski</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lee_Strasberg" title="Lee Strasberg">Lee Strasberg</a>, the political theatre of <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Piscator" title="Erwin Piscator">Erwin Piscator</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a>, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurd" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre of the Absurd">Theatre of the Absurd</a> of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionesco" title="Eugène Ionesco">Eugène Ionesco</a>, American and British musicals, the collective creations of companies of actors and directors such as <a href="/wiki/Joan_Littlewood" title="Joan Littlewood">Joan Littlewood</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Workshop" title="Theatre Workshop">Theatre Workshop</a>, experimental and <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_theatre" title="Postmodern theatre">postmodern theatre</a> of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Wilson_(director)" title="Robert Wilson (director)">Robert Wilson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lepage" title="Robert Lepage">Robert Lepage</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial" class="mw-redirect" title="Postcolonial">postcolonial</a> theatre of <a href="/wiki/August_Wilson" title="August Wilson">August Wilson</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tomson_Highway" title="Tomson Highway">Tomson Highway</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Boal" title="Augusto Boal">Augusto Boal</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Oppressed" title="Theatre of the Oppressed">Theatre of the Oppressed</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Types" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Drama">Drama</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Drama" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a> is the specific <a href="/wiki/Mode_(literature)" title="Mode (literature)">mode</a> of <a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a> <a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">represented</a> in <a href="/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">performance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElam198098-82">[69]</a> The term comes from a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> word meaning "<a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">action</a>", which is derived from the verb δράω, dráō, "to do" or "to act". The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by <a href="/wiki/Actor" title="Actor">actors</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Stage_(theatre)" title="Stage (theatre)">stage</a> before an <a href="/wiki/Audience" title="Audience">audience</a>, presupposes <a href="/wiki/Collaborative" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborative">collaborative</a> modes of production and a <a href="/wiki/Collective" title="Collective">collective</a> form of reception. The <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic structure">structure of dramatic texts</a>, unlike other forms of <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfister200011-83">[70]</a> The <a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">early modern</a> <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a> <a href="/wiki/Hamlet" title="Hamlet">Hamlet</a> (1601) by <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">classical Athenian</a> tragedy <a href="/wiki/Oedipus_Rex" title="Oedipus Rex">Oedipus Rex</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 429 BCE) by <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a> are among the masterpieces of the art of drama.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFergusson19682%E2%80%933-84">[71]</a> A modern example is <a href="/wiki/Long_Day%27s_Journey_into_Night" title="Long Day's Journey into Night">Long Day's Journey into Night</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill" title="Eugene O'Neill">Eugene O'Neill</a> (1956).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurt200830%E2%80%9335-85">[72]</a> Considered as a genre of <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> in general, the dramatic mode has been contrasted with the <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyrical</a> modes ever since <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 335 BCE); the earliest work of <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_theory" title="Dramatic theory">dramatic theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[n]</a> The use of "drama" in the narrow sense to designate a specific type of <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">play</a> dates from the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth-century_theatre" title="Nineteenth-century theatre">19th century</a>. Drama in this sense refers to a play that is neither a comedy nor a tragedy—for example, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Zola" title="Émile Zola">Zola's</a> <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Raquin" title="Thérèse Raquin">Thérèse Raquin</a> (1873) or <a href="/wiki/Anton_Chekhov" title="Anton Chekhov">Chekhov's</a> <a href="/wiki/Ivanov_(play)" title="Ivanov (play)">Ivanov</a> (1887). In Ancient Greece however, the word drama encompassed all theatrical plays, tragic, comic, or anything in between. Drama is often combined with <a href="/wiki/Theatre_music" title="Theatre music">music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>: the drama in <a href="/wiki/Opera" title="Opera">opera</a> is generally sung throughout; <a href="/wiki/Musicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Musicals">musicals</a> generally include both spoken <a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Song" title="Song">songs</a>; and some forms of drama have <a href="/wiki/Incidental_music" title="Incidental music">incidental music</a> or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue (<a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodrama</a> and Japanese <a href="/wiki/N%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Nō">Nō</a>, for example).<a href="#cite_note-87">[o]</a> In certain periods of history (the ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> and modern <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a>) some dramas have been written to be <a href="/wiki/Closet_drama" title="Closet drama">read</a> rather than performed.<a href="#cite_note-88">[p]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Improvisational_theatre" title="Improvisational theatre">improvisation</a>, the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.<a href="#cite_note-89">[q]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Musical_theatre">Musical theatre</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Musical theatre" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Musical_theatre" title="Musical theatre">Musical theatre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palladium_Theatre_(16427934069).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Palladium_Theatre_%2816427934069%29.jpg/220px-Palladium_Theatre_%2816427934069%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Palladium_Theatre_%2816427934069%29.jpg/220px-Palladium_Theatre_%2816427934069%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Palladium_Theatre_%2816427934069%29.jpg/330px-Palladium_Theatre_%2816427934069%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Palladium_Theatre_%2816427934069%29.jpg/440px-Palladium_Theatre_%2816427934069%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cats_(musical)" title="Cats (musical)">Cats</a> at the <a href="/wiki/London_Palladium" title="London Palladium">London Palladium</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> and theatre have had a close relationship since ancient times—<a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athenian</a> <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a>, for example, was a form of <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>-<a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> that employed a <a href="/wiki/Greek_chorus" title="Greek chorus">chorus</a> whose parts were sung (to the accompaniment of an <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a>—an instrument comparable to the modern <a href="/wiki/Oboe" title="Oboe">oboe</a>), as were some of the actors' responses and their 'solo songs' (<a href="/wiki/Monodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Monodies">monodies</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERehm1992150n7-90">[73]</a> Modern <a href="/wiki/Musical_theatre" title="Musical theatre">musical theatre</a> is a form of theatre that also combines music, spoken dialogue, and dance. It emerged from <a href="/wiki/Comic_opera" title="Comic opera">comic opera</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan" title="Gilbert and Sullivan">Gilbert and Sullivan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Variety_show" title="Variety show">variety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Music_hall" title="Music hall">music hall</a> genres of the late <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth-century_theatre" title="Nineteenth-century theatre">19th</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Twentieth-century_theatre" title="Twentieth-century theatre">20th century</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20034%E2%80%9311-91">[74]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedy" title="Edwardian musical comedy">Edwardian musical comedy</a> that began in the 1890s, the <a href="/wiki/Princess_Theatre,_New_York_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Theatre, New York City">Princess Theatre</a> musicals of the early 20th century, and comedies in the 1920s and 1930s (such as the works of <a href="/wiki/Rodgers_and_Hammerstein" title="Rodgers and Hammerstein">Rodgers and Hammerstein</a>), with <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma!" title="Oklahoma!">Oklahoma!</a> (1943), musicals moved in a more dramatic direction.<a href="#cite_note-92">[r]</a> Famous musicals over the subsequent decades included <a href="/wiki/My_Fair_Lady" title="My Fair Lady">My Fair Lady</a> (1956), <a href="/wiki/West_Side_Story" title="West Side Story">West Side Story</a> (1957), <a href="/wiki/The_Fantasticks" title="The Fantasticks">The Fantasticks</a> (1960), <a href="/wiki/Hair_(musical)" title="Hair (musical)">Hair</a> (1967), <a href="/wiki/A_Chorus_Line" title="A Chorus Line">A Chorus Line</a> (1975), <a href="/wiki/Les_Mis%C3%A9rables_(musical)" title="Les Misérables (musical)">Les Misérables</a> (1980), <a href="/wiki/Cats_(musical)" title="Cats (musical)">Cats</a> (1981), <a href="/wiki/Into_the_Woods" title="Into the Woods">Into the Woods</a> (1986), and <a href="/wiki/The_Phantom_of_the_Opera_(1986_musical)" title="The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)">The Phantom of the Opera</a> (1986),<a href="#cite_note-93">[75]</a> as well as more contemporary hits including <a href="/wiki/Rent_(musical)" title="Rent (musical)">Rent</a> (1994), <a href="/wiki/The_Lion_King_(musical)" title="The Lion King (musical)">The Lion King</a> (1997), <a href="/wiki/Wicked_(musical)" title="Wicked (musical)">Wicked</a> (2003), <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)" title="Hamilton (musical)">Hamilton</a> (2015) and <a href="/wiki/Frozen_(musical)" title="Frozen (musical)">Frozen</a> (2018). Musical theatre may be produced on an intimate scale <a href="/wiki/Off-Broadway" title="Off-Broadway">Off-Broadway</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Community_theatre" title="Community theatre">regional theatres</a>, and elsewhere, but it often includes spectacle. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Broadway_theatre" title="Broadway theatre">Broadway</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_End_theatre" title="West End theatre">West End</a> musicals often include lavish costumes and sets supported by multimillion-dollar budgets. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosaic_depicting_theatrical_masks_of_Tragedy_and_Comedy_(Thermae_Decianae).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mosaic_depicting_theatrical_masks_of_Tragedy_and_Comedy_%28Thermae_Decianae%29.jpg/220px-Mosaic_depicting_theatrical_masks_of_Tragedy_and_Comedy_%28Thermae_Decianae%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4024" data-file-height="3264"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 178px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mosaic_depicting_theatrical_masks_of_Tragedy_and_Comedy_%28Thermae_Decianae%29.jpg/220px-Mosaic_depicting_theatrical_masks_of_Tragedy_and_Comedy_%28Thermae_Decianae%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="178" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mosaic_depicting_theatrical_masks_of_Tragedy_and_Comedy_%28Thermae_Decianae%29.jpg/330px-Mosaic_depicting_theatrical_masks_of_Tragedy_and_Comedy_%28Thermae_Decianae%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Mosaic_depicting_theatrical_masks_of_Tragedy_and_Comedy_%28Thermae_Decianae%29.jpg/440px-Mosaic_depicting_theatrical_masks_of_Tragedy_and_Comedy_%28Thermae_Decianae%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Theatrical masks of Tragedy and Comedy. Mosaic, <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman artwork</a>, 2nd century CE. <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a>, Rome</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comedy">Comedy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Comedy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></div> Theatre productions that use <a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">humour</a> as a vehicle to tell a story qualify as comedies. This may include a modern <a href="/wiki/Farce" title="Farce">farce</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Boeing-Boeing_(play)" title="Boeing-Boeing (play)">Boeing Boeing</a> or a classical play such as <a href="/wiki/As_You_Like_It" title="As You Like It">As You Like It</a>. Theatre expressing bleak, controversial or taboo subject matter in a deliberately humorous way is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Black_comedy" title="Black comedy">black comedy</a>. Black Comedy can have several genres like slapstick humour, dark and sarcastic comedy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tragedy">Tragedy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tragedy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude: in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[76]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Aristotle's phrase "several kinds being found in separate parts of the play" is a reference to the structural origins of drama. In it the spoken parts were written in the <a href="/wiki/Attic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Attic dialect">Attic dialect</a> whereas the choral (recited or sung) ones in the <a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric dialect</a>, these discrepancies reflecting the differing religious origins and <a href="/wiki/Metre_(poetry)" title="Metre (poetry)">poetic metres</a> of the parts that were fused into a new entity, the theatrical drama. <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a> refers to a specific <a href="/wiki/Poetic_tradition" title="Poetic tradition">tradition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a> that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of <a href="/wiki/Western_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Western civilisation">Western civilisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanham19981118-95">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams196614%E2%80%9316-96">[78]</a> That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">cultural identity</a> and historical continuity—"the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Greeks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Elizabethans" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabethans">Elizabethans</a>, in one cultural form; <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a>, in a common activity", as <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Raymond Williams</a> puts it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams196616-97">[79]</a> From its obscure origins in the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">theatres of Athens</a> 2,500 years ago, from which there survives only a fraction of the work of <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>, through its singular articulations in the works of <a href="/wiki/Shakespeare" class="mw-redirect" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lope_de_Vega" title="Lope de Vega">Lope de Vega</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racine" class="mw-redirect" title="Racine">Racine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Schiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Schiller">Schiller</a>, to the more recent <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(theatre)" title="Naturalism (theatre)">naturalistic</a> tragedy of <a href="/wiki/Strindberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Strindberg">Strindberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Beckett's</a> <a href="/wiki/Modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist">modernist</a> meditations on death, loss and suffering, and <a href="/wiki/Heiner_M%C3%BCller" title="Heiner Müller">Müller's</a> <a href="/wiki/Postmodernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernist">postmodernist</a> reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams196613%E2%80%9384-98">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004193%E2%80%93209-99">[81]</a> In the wake of Aristotle's <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a> (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a> distinctions, whether at the scale of <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a> in general (where the tragic divides against <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric</a>) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to <a href="/wiki/Comedy_(drama)" title="Comedy (drama)">comedy</a>). In the <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modern</a> era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, <a href="/wiki/Melodrama" title="Melodrama">melodrama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">the tragicomic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Epic_theatre" title="Epic theatre">epic theatre</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[s]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Improvisation">Improvisation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Improvisation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Improvisational_theatre" title="Improvisational theatre">Improvisational theatre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dario.fo.writer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Dario.fo.writer.jpg/170px-Dario.fo.writer.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1968" data-file-height="2349"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 203px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Dario.fo.writer.jpg/170px-Dario.fo.writer.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="203" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Dario.fo.writer.jpg/255px-Dario.fo.writer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Dario.fo.writer.jpg/340px-Dario.fo.writer.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dario_Fo" title="Dario Fo">Dario Fo</a></figcaption></figure> Improvisation has been a consistent feature of theatre, with the Commedia dell'arte in the sixteenth century being recognized as the first improvisation form. Popularized by <a href="/wiki/1997_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1997 Nobel Prize in Literature">1997 Nobel Prize in Literature</a> winner <a href="/wiki/Dario_Fo" title="Dario Fo">Dario Fo</a> and troupes such as the <a href="/wiki/Upright_Citizens_Brigade" title="Upright Citizens Brigade">Upright Citizens Brigade</a> improvisational theatre continues to evolve with many different streams and philosophies. <a href="/wiki/Keith_Johnstone" title="Keith Johnstone">Keith Johnstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viola_Spolin" title="Viola Spolin">Viola Spolin</a> are recognized as the first teachers of improvisation in modern times, with Johnstone exploring improvisation as an alternative to scripted theatre and Spolin and her successors exploring improvisation principally as a tool for developing dramatic work or skills or as a form for situational comedy. Spolin also became interested in how the process of learning improvisation was applicable to the development of human potential.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon2006%5BhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidFmAue-VUMmYClpgPA194pgPA194_194%5D-101">[82]</a> Spolin's son, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sills" title="Paul Sills">Paul Sills</a> popularized improvisational theatre as a theatrical art form when he founded, as its first director, <a href="/wiki/The_Second_City" title="The Second City">The Second City</a> in Chicago. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Theories" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_theory" title="Dramatic theory">Dramatic theory</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kirmestheater1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Kirmestheater1.JPG/220px-Kirmestheater1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4728" data-file-height="3576"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 166px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Kirmestheater1.JPG/220px-Kirmestheater1.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="166" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Kirmestheater1.JPG/330px-Kirmestheater1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Kirmestheater1.JPG/440px-Kirmestheater1.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Village feast with theatre performance <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1600</figcaption></figure> Having been an important part of human culture for more than 2,500 years, theatre has evolved a wide range of different <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_theory" title="Dramatic theory">theories</a> and practices. Some are related to political or spiritual ideologies, while others are based purely on "artistic" concerns. Some processes focus on a story, some on theatre as event, and some on theatre as catalyst for social change. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">classical Greek philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, in his seminal treatise, <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 335 BCE) is the earliest-surviving example and its arguments have influenced theories of theatre ever since.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDukore197431-21">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanko1987ix-22">[18]</a> In it, he offers an account of what he calls "poetry" (a term which in Greek literally means "making" and in this context includes <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">drama</a>—<a href="/wiki/Comedy_(drama)" title="Comedy (drama)">comedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Satyr_play" title="Satyr play">satyr play</a>—as well as <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dithyramb" title="Dithyramb">dithyramb</a>). He examines its "first principles" and identifies its <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genres</a> and basic elements; his analysis of <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a> constitutes the core of the discussion.<a href="#cite_note-102">[83]</a> Aristotle argues that tragedy consists of six qualitative parts, which are (in order of importance) <a href="/wiki/Mythos_(Aristotle)" title="Mythos (Aristotle)">mythos</a> or "plot", <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a> or "character", <a href="/wiki/Dianoia" title="Dianoia">dianoia</a> or "thought", <a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">lexis</a> or "diction", <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/melos" class="extiw" title="wikt:melos">melos</a> or "song", and <a href="/wiki/Opsis" title="Opsis">opsis</a> or "spectacle".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlson199319-103">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanko1987xx,_7%E2%80%9310-104">[85]</a> "Although Aristotle's Poetics is universally acknowledged in the <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western</a> critical tradition", <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Carlson" title="Marvin Carlson">Marvin Carlson</a> explains, "almost every detail about his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlson199316-105">[86]</a> Important <a href="/wiki/Theatre_practitioner" title="Theatre practitioner">theatre practitioners</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Twentieth-century_theatre" title="Twentieth-century theatre">20th century</a> include <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Stanislavski" title="Konstantin Stanislavski">Konstantin Stanislavski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vsevolod_Meyerhold" title="Vsevolod Meyerhold">Vsevolod Meyerhold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Copeau" title="Jacques Copeau">Jacques Copeau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gordon_Craig" title="Edward Gordon Craig">Edward Gordon Craig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Artaud" title="Antonin Artaud">Antonin Artaud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joan_Littlewood" title="Joan Littlewood">Joan Littlewood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Brook" title="Peter Brook">Peter Brook</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jerzy_Grotowski" title="Jerzy Grotowski">Jerzy Grotowski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Boal" title="Augusto Boal">Augusto Boal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Barba" title="Eugenio Barba">Eugenio Barba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dario_Fo" title="Dario Fo">Dario Fo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viola_Spolin" title="Viola Spolin">Viola Spolin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Johnstone" title="Keith Johnstone">Keith Johnstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Wilson_(director)" title="Robert Wilson (director)">Robert Wilson (director)</a>. Stanislavski treated the theatre as an <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">art-form</a> that is <a href="/wiki/Medium_specificity" title="Medium specificity">autonomous</a> from <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a> and one in which the <a href="/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright">playwright</a>'s contribution should be respected as that of only one of an ensemble of creative artists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedetti1999124,_202-106">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedetti20086-107">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarnicke1998162-108">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGauss19992-109">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[t]</a> His innovative contribution to modern acting theory has remained at the core of mainstream <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">western</a> performance training for much of the last century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanham19981032-111">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarnicke19981-112">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECounsell199624%E2%80%9325-113">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGordon200637%E2%80%9340-114">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeach200429-115">[95]</a> That many of the precepts of his <a href="/wiki/Stanislavski%27s_system" title="Stanislavski's system">system of actor training</a> seem to be common sense and self-evident testifies to its hegemonic success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECounsell199625-116">[96]</a> Actors frequently employ his basic concepts without knowing they do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECounsell199625-116">[96]</a> Thanks to its promotion and elaboration by acting teachers who were former students and the many translations of his theoretical writings, Stanislavski's 'system' acquired an unprecedented ability to cross cultural boundaries and developed an international reach, dominating debates about acting in Europe and the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBanham19981032-111">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarnicke19981,_167-117">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECounsell199624-118">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillingLey20011-119">[99]</a> Many actors routinely equate his 'system' with the North American <a href="/wiki/Method_acting" title="Method acting">Method</a>, although the latter's exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply with Stanislavski's multivariant, holistic and <a href="/wiki/Psychophysiology" title="Psychophysiology">psychophysical</a> approach, which explores character and action both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in' and treats the actor's mind and body as parts of a continuum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedetti2005147%E2%80%93148-120">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarnicke19981,_8-121">[101]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Technical_aspects">Technical aspects</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Technical aspects" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vienna_-_Vienna_Opera_Backstage_-_9729.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Vienna_-_Vienna_Opera_Backstage_-_9729.jpg/220px-Vienna_-_Vienna_Opera_Backstage_-_9729.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2854"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Vienna_-_Vienna_Opera_Backstage_-_9729.jpg/220px-Vienna_-_Vienna_Opera_Backstage_-_9729.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Vienna_-_Vienna_Opera_Backstage_-_9729.jpg/330px-Vienna_-_Vienna_Opera_Backstage_-_9729.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Vienna_-_Vienna_Opera_Backstage_-_9729.jpg/440px-Vienna_-_Vienna_Opera_Backstage_-_9729.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A theatre stage building in the backstage of <a href="/wiki/Vienna_State_Opera" title="Vienna State Opera">Vienna State Opera</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stagecraft" title="Stagecraft">Stagecraft</a></div> Theatre presupposes <a href="/wiki/Collaborative" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborative">collaborative</a> modes of production and a <a href="/wiki/Collective" title="Collective">collective</a> form of reception. The <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic structure">structure of dramatic texts</a>, unlike other forms of <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>, is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPfister200011-83">[70]</a> The production of <a href="/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">plays</a> usually involves contributions from a <a href="/wiki/Playwright" title="Playwright">playwright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatre_director" title="Theatre director">director</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Cast_member" class="mw-redirect" title="Cast member">cast</a> of <a href="/wiki/Actor" title="Actor">actors</a>, and a technical <a href="/wiki/Production_team" title="Production team">production team</a> that includes a <a href="/wiki/Set_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Set designer">scenic or set designer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lighting_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighting designer">lighting designer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costume_designer" title="Costume designer">costume designer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sound_design" title="Sound design">sound designer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stage_manager" class="mw-redirect" title="Stage manager">stage manager</a>, <a href="/wiki/Production_manager_(theatre)" title="Production manager (theatre)">production manager</a> and technical director. Depending on the production, this team may also include a <a href="/wiki/Composer" title="Composer">composer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dramaturg" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramaturg">dramaturg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_design" title="Video design">video designer</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fight_director" class="mw-redirect" title="Fight director">fight director</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yokatsomo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Yokatsomo.jpg/220px-Yokatsomo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="1772"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 142px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Yokatsomo.jpg/220px-Yokatsomo.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="142" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Yokatsomo.jpg/330px-Yokatsomo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Yokatsomo.jpg/440px-Yokatsomo.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The rotating auditorium of the open air <a href="/wiki/Pyynikki_Summer_Theatre" title="Pyynikki Summer Theatre">Pyynikki Summer Theatre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tampere" title="Tampere">Tampere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></figcaption></figure> Stagecraft is a generic term referring to the technical aspects of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes, but is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Stagecraft is distinct from the wider umbrella term of scenography. Considered a technical rather than an artistic field, it relates primarily to the practical implementation of a designer's artistic vision. In its most basic form, stagecraft is managed by a single person (often the stage manager of a smaller production) who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, and sound, and organizes the cast. At a more professional level, for example in modern Broadway houses, stagecraft is managed by hundreds of skilled carpenters, painters, electricians, stagehands, stitchers, wigmakers, and the like. This modern form of stagecraft is highly technical and specialized: it comprises many subdisciplines and a vast trove of history and tradition. The majority of stagecraft lies between these two extremes. Regional theatres and larger community theatres will generally have a technical director and a complement of designers, each of whom has a direct hand in their respective designs. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Subcategories_and_organisation">Subcategories and organisation</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Subcategories and organisation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> There are many modern theatre movements which produce theatre in a variety of ways. Theatrical enterprises vary enormously in sophistication and purpose. People who are involved vary from novices and hobbyists (in community theatre) to professionals (in Broadway and similar productions). Theatre can be performed with a shoestring budget or on a grand scale with multimillion-dollar budgets. This diversity manifests in the abundance of theatre subcategories, which include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadway_theatre" title="Broadway theatre">Broadway theatre</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_End_theatre" title="West End theatre">West End theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_theatre" title="Community theatre">Community theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinner_theater" title="Dinner theater">Dinner theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_theatre" title="Fringe theatre">Fringe theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersive_theater" title="Immersive theater">Immersive theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_theatre" title="Interactive theatre">Interactive theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off-Broadway" title="Off-Broadway">Off-Broadway</a> and <a href="/wiki/Off_West_End" title="Off West End">Off West End</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Off-off-Broadway" title="Off-off-Broadway">Off-off-Broadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playback_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Playback theatre">Playback theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_theatre_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional theatre in the United States">Regional theatre in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site-specific_theatre" title="Site-specific theatre">Site-specific theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_theatre" title="Street theatre">Street theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summer_stock_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Summer stock theatre">Summer stock theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_and_disability" title="Theatre and disability">Theatre and disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touring_theatre" title="Touring theatre">Touring theatre</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repertory_companies">Repertory companies</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Repertory companies" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cruikshank_Pierce%27_Egan%27s_Real_Life_-_Drury_Lane_Theatre_1821.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Cruikshank_Pierce%27_Egan%27s_Real_Life_-_Drury_Lane_Theatre_1821.jpg/220px-Cruikshank_Pierce%27_Egan%27s_Real_Life_-_Drury_Lane_Theatre_1821.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="471"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 145px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Cruikshank_Pierce%27_Egan%27s_Real_Life_-_Drury_Lane_Theatre_1821.jpg/220px-Cruikshank_Pierce%27_Egan%27s_Real_Life_-_Drury_Lane_Theatre_1821.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="145" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Cruikshank_Pierce%27_Egan%27s_Real_Life_-_Drury_Lane_Theatre_1821.jpg/330px-Cruikshank_Pierce%27_Egan%27s_Real_Life_-_Drury_Lane_Theatre_1821.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Cruikshank_Pierce%27_Egan%27s_Real_Life_-_Drury_Lane_Theatre_1821.jpg/440px-Cruikshank_Pierce%27_Egan%27s_Real_Life_-_Drury_Lane_Theatre_1821.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Drury_Lane" title="Theatre Royal, Drury Lane">Theatre Royal, Drury Lane</a>, London, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1821</figcaption></figure> While most modern theatre companies rehearse one piece of theatre at a time, perform that piece for a set "run", retire the piece, and begin rehearsing a new show, <a href="/wiki/Repertory" class="mw-redirect" title="Repertory">repertory</a> companies rehearse multiple shows at one time. These companies are able to perform these various pieces upon request and often perform works for years before retiring them. Most dance companies operate on this repertory system. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_National_Theatre" title="Royal National Theatre">Royal National Theatre</a> in London performs on a repertory system. Repertory theatre generally involves a group of similarly accomplished actors, and relies more on the reputation of the group than on an individual star actor. It also typically relies less on strict control by a director and less on adherence to theatrical conventions, since actors who have worked together in multiple productions can respond to each other without relying as much on convention or external direction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeterson1982-122">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_terminology">Other terminology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Other terminology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A theatre company is an organisation that produces theatrical performances,<a href="#cite_note-compdef-6">[4]</a> as distinct from a <a href="/wiki/Theatre_troupe" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre troupe">theatre troupe</a> (or acting company), which is a group of theatrical performers working together.<a href="#cite_note-troupedef1-7">[5]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Touring_theatre" title="Touring theatre">touring company</a> is an independent theatre or dance company that travels, often internationally, being presented at a different theatre venue in each city.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panor%C3%A1mica_interior_del_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Panor%C3%A1mica_interior_del_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Panor%C3%A1mica_interior_del_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="934" data-file-height="1418"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 258px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Panor%C3%A1mica_interior_del_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Panor%C3%A1mica_interior_del_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="258" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Panor%C3%A1mica_interior_del_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Panor%C3%A1mica_interior_del_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Panor%C3%A1mica_interior_del_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Panor%C3%A1mica_interior_del_Teatro_Col%C3%B3n_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Interior of the <a href="/wiki/Teatro_Col%C3%B3n" title="Teatro Colón">Teatro Colón</a>, a modern theatre</figcaption></figure> In order to put on a piece of theatre, both a theatre company and a <a href="/wiki/Theatre_(structure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre (structure)">theatre venue</a> are needed. When a theatre company is the sole company in residence at a theatre venue, this theatre (and its corresponding theatre company) are called a resident theatre or a producing theatre, because the venue produces its own work. Other theatre companies, as well as dance companies, who do not have their own theatre venue, perform at rental theatres or at presenting theatres. Both rental and presenting theatres have no full-time resident companies. They do, however, sometimes have one or more part-time resident companies, in addition to other independent partner companies who arrange to use the space when available. A rental theatre allows the independent companies to seek out the space, while a presenting theatre seeks out the independent companies to support their work by presenting them on their stage.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some performance groups perform in non-theatrical spaces. Such performances can take place outside or inside, in a non-traditional performance space, and include <a href="/wiki/Street_theatre" title="Street theatre">street theatre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Site-specific_theatre" title="Site-specific theatre">site-specific theatre</a>. Non-traditional venues can be used to create more immersive or meaningful environments for audiences. They can sometimes be modified more heavily than traditional theatre venues, or can accommodate different kinds of equipment, lighting and sets.<a href="#cite_note-123">[103]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Unions">Unions</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Unions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> There are many theatre <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">unions</a>, including: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actors%27_Equity_Association" title="Actors' Equity Association">Actors' Equity Association</a> (AEA), for actors and stage managers in the U.S.)<a href="#cite_note-ae-124">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Actors%27_Equity_Association" title="Canadian Actors' Equity Association">Canadian Actors' Equity Association</a>, for actors in Canada</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(British_trade_union)" title="Equity (British trade union)">Equity</a>, for many kind of performing artists as well as designers, directors, and stage managers in the UK<a href="#cite_note-125">[105]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Theatrical_Stage_Employees" title="International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees">International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees</a> (IATSE), for designers and technicians).<a href="#cite_note-ae-124">[104]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media,_Entertainment_and_Arts_Alliance" title="Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance">Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance</a>, an Australian union created in 1992 as a merger of the unions covering actors, journalists and entertainment industry employees<a href="#cite_note-about-126">[106]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stage_Directors_and_Choreographers_Society" title="Stage Directors and Choreographers Society">Stage Directors and Choreographers Society</a> (SDC)<a href="#cite_note-ae-124">[104]</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acting" title="Acting">Acting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antitheatricality" title="Antitheatricality">Antitheatricality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_light_theatre" title="Black light theatre">Black light theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culinary_theatre" title="Culinary theatre">Culinary theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusionistic_tradition" title="Illusionistic tradition">Illusionistic tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_awards_in_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="List of awards in theatre">List of awards in theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_playwrights" title="List of playwrights">List of playwrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_theatre_personnel" title="List of theatre personnel">List of theatre personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_theatre_festivals" title="List of theatre festivals">List of theatre festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_theatre_directors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of theatre directors">List of theatre directors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_theatres" title="Lists of theatres">Lists of theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">Performance art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puppetry" title="Puppetry">Puppetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reader%27s_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Reader's theatre">Reader's theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site-specific_theatre" title="Site-specific theatre">Site-specific theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_consultant" title="Theatre consultant">Theatre consultant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_for_development" title="Theatre for development">Theatre for development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(structure)" title="Theater (structure)">Theater (structure)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_technique" title="Theatre technique">Theatre technique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_style" title="Theatrical style">Theatrical style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatrical_troupe" title="Theatrical troupe">Theatrical troupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Theatre_Day" title="World Theatre Day">World Theatre Day</a></li></ul> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_theatre" title="Outline of theatre">Outline of theatre</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:P_culture.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/P_culture.svg/31px-P_culture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 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data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" data-alt="icon" data-width="32" data-height="28" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Originally spelled theatre and teatre. From around 1550 to 1700 or later, the most common spelling was theater. Between 1720 and 1750, theater was dropped in <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a>, but was either retained or revived in <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a> (Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., 2009, CD-ROM: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956383-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956383-8">978-0-19-956383-8</a>). Recent dictionaries of American English list theatre as a less common variant, e.g., Random House Webster's College Dictionary (1991); The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition (2006); New Oxford American Dictionary, third edition (2010); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/theater">Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2011)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Drawing on the "<a href="/wiki/Semiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiotic">semiotics</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, Pavis goes on to suggest that "the specificity of theatrical signs may lie in their ability to use <a href="/wiki/Semiotic_theory_of_Charles_Sanders_Peirce#II._Icon,_index,_symbol" title="Semiotic theory of Charles Sanders Peirce">the three possible functions of signs</a>: as <a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">icon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mimetically" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimetically">mimetically</a>), as <a href="/wiki/Indexicality" title="Indexicality">index</a> (in the situation of <a href="/wiki/Enunciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Enunciation">enunciation</a>), or as symbol (as a <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiological system</a> in the fictional mode). In effect, theatre makes the sources of the words visual and concrete: it indicates and incarnates a fictional world by means of signs, such that by the end of the process of signification and symbolization the spectator has reconstructed a theoretical and aesthetic model that accounts for the dramatic universe."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavis1998345%E2%80%93346-4">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Brown writes that <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek drama">ancient Greek drama</a> "was essentially the creation of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">classical Athens</a>: all the dramatists who were later regarded as classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE (the time of the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian democracy</a>), and all the surviving plays date from this period".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998441-9">[7]</a> "The dominant culture of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens in the fifth century</a>", Goldhill writes, "can be said to have invented theatre".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754-11">[9]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Goldhill argues that although activities that form "an integral part of the exercise of citizenship" (such as when "the Athenian citizen speaks in the Assembly, exercises in the gymnasium, sings at the symposium, or courts a boy") each have their "own regime of display and regulation", nevertheless the term "performance" provides "a useful heuristic category to explore the connections and overlaps between these different areas of activity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill20041-16">[13]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Taxidou notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004104-29">[25]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Cartledge writes that although <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athenians</a> of the 4th century judged <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a> "as the nonpareils of the <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a>, and regularly honoured their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was not merely a 5th-century phenomenon, the product of a short-lived <a href="/wiki/Fifth-century_Athens" title="Fifth-century Athens">golden age</a>. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the <a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">democracy</a>—and beyond it".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge199733-33">[28]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> We have seven by Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by Euripides. In addition, we also have the <a href="/wiki/Cyclops_(play)" title="Cyclops (play)">Cyclops</a>, a satyr play by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as Euripides'—<a href="/wiki/Rhesus_(play)" title="Rhesus (play)">Rhesus</a>—is a 4th-century play by an unknown author; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides; see Walton (1997, viii, xix). (This uncertainty accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies.) </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> The theory that <a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Bound" title="Prometheus Bound">Prometheus Bound</a> was not written by <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a> adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Exceptions to this pattern were made, as with <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a>' <a href="/wiki/Alcestis_(play)" title="Alcestis (play)">Alcestis</a> in 438 BCE. There were also separate competitions at the <a href="/wiki/Dionysia#City_Dionysia" title="Dionysia">City Dionysia</a> for the performance of <a href="/wiki/Dithyramb" title="Dithyramb">dithyrambs</a> and, after 488–87 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_comedy" title="Ancient Greek comedy">comedies</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Rush_Rehm" title="Rush Rehm">Rush Rehm</a> offers the following argument as evidence that tragedy was not institutionalised until 501 BCE: "The specific cult honoured at the <a href="/wiki/Dionysia#City_Dionysia" title="Dionysia">City Dionysia</a> was that of Dionysus Eleuthereus, the god 'having to do with <a href="/wiki/Eleutherae" title="Eleutherae">Eleutherae</a>', a town on the border between <a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Attica" title="Attica">Attica</a> that had a sanctuary to Dionysus. At some point <a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a> annexed Eleutherae—most likely after the overthrow of the <a href="/wiki/Peisistratid" class="mw-redirect" title="Peisistratid">Peisistratid</a> tyranny in 510 and the democratic reforms of <a href="/wiki/Cleisthenes" title="Cleisthenes">Cleisthenes</a> in 508–07 BCE—and the cult-image of Dionysus Eleuthereus was moved to its new home. Athenians re-enacted the incorporation of the god's cult every year in a preliminary rite to the City Dionysia. On the day before the festival proper, the cult-statue was removed from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek temple">temple</a> near the <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Dionysus" title="Theatre of Dionysus">theatre of Dionysus</a> and taken to a temple on the road to Eleutherae. That evening, after <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">sacrifice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a>, a torchlight procession carried the statue back to the temple, a symbolic re-creation of the god's arrival into Athens, as well as a reminder of the inclusion of the Boeotian town into Attica. As the name Eleutherae is extremely close to eleutheria, 'freedom', Athenians probably felt that the new cult was particularly appropriate for celebrating their own political liberation and democratic reforms."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERehm199215-46">[37]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Vernant" title="Jean-Pierre Vernant">Jean-Pierre Vernant</a> argues that in <a href="/wiki/The_Persians" title="The Persians">The Persians</a> <a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a> substitutes for the usual temporal distance between the audience and the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Heroic_Age" title="Greek Heroic Age">age of heroes</a> a spatial distance between the Western audience and the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian culture</a>. This substitution, he suggests, produces a similar effect: "The 'historic' events evoked by the chorus, recounted by the messenger and interpreted by Darius' ghost are presented on stage in a legendary atmosphere. The light that the tragedy sheds upon them is not that in which the political happenings of the day are normally seen; it reaches the Athenian theatre refracted from a distant world of elsewhere, making what is absent seem present and visible on the stage"; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988, 245). </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Aristotle, Poetics, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Aristot.+Poet.+1449a">line 1449a</a>: "Comedy, as we have said, is a representation of inferior people, not indeed in the full sense of the word bad, but the laughable is a species of the base or ugly. It consists in some blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster, an obvious example being the comic mask which is ugly and distorted but not painful'." </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> The literal meaning of abhinaya is "to carry forwards". </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Fergusson" title="Francis Fergusson">Francis Fergusson</a> writes that "a drama, as distinguished from a <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">lyric</a>, is not primarily a composition in the verbal medium; the <a href="/wiki/Dialogue_(fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialogue (fiction)">words</a> result, as one might put it, from the underlying <a href="/wiki/Dramatic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic structure">structure of incident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Character_(arts)" title="Character (arts)">character</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Aristotle</a> remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should be the maker of <a href="/wiki/Plot_(narrative)" title="Plot (narrative)">plots</a> rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he <a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">imiates</a>, and what he imitates are <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">actions</a>'" (1949, 8). </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" in <a href="#CITEREFBanham1998">Banham 1998</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> While there is some dispute among theatre historians, it is probable that the plays by the Roman <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> were not intended to be performed. <a href="/wiki/Manfred" title="Manfred">Manfred</a> by <a href="/wiki/Byron" class="mw-redirect" title="Byron">Byron</a> is a good example of a "<a href="/wiki/Dramatic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Dramatic poem">dramatic poem</a>". See the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" in <a href="#CITEREFBanham1998">Banham 1998</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Some forms of improvisation, notably the <a href="/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte" title="Commedia dell'arte">Commedia dell'arte</a>, improvise on the basis of '<a href="/wiki/Lazzi" title="Lazzi">lazzi</a>' or rough outlines of scenic action (see <a href="#CITEREFGordon1983">Gordon 1983</a> and <a href="#CITEREFDuchartre1966">Duchartre 1966</a>). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, often, their interaction with the audience. The classic formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated with <a href="/wiki/Joan_Littlewood" title="Joan Littlewood">Joan Littlewood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Keith_Johnstone" title="Keith Johnstone">Keith Johnstone</a> in the UK and <a href="/wiki/Viola_Spolin" title="Viola Spolin">Viola Spolin</a> in the US; see <a href="#CITEREFJohnstone2007">Johnstone 2007</a> and <a href="#CITEREFSpolin1999">Spolin 1999</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> The first "<a href="/wiki/Edwardian_musical_comedy" title="Edwardian musical comedy">Edwardian musical comedy</a>" is usually considered to be <a href="/wiki/In_Town" title="In Town">In Town</a> (1892), even though it was produced eight years before the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a>; see, for example, Fraser Charlton, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/fraser.charlton/edmuscom/page12/edmuscom_what.html">"What are EdMusComs?"</a> (FrasrWeb 2007, accessed May 12, 2011). </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> See <a href="#CITEREFCarlson1993">Carlson 1993</a>, <a href="#CITEREFPfister2000">Pfister 2000</a>, <a href="#CITEREFElam1980">Elam 1980</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFTaxidou2004">Taxidou 2004</a>. <a href="/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a>, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-<a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">generic</a> <a href="/wiki/Deterritorialization" title="Deterritorialization">deterritorialization</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_century_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nineteenth century theatre">mid-19th century</a> onwards. Both <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Boal" title="Augusto Boal">Augusto Boal</a> define their <a href="/wiki/Epic_theatre" title="Epic theatre">epic theatre</a> projects (<a href="/wiki/Non-Aristotelian_drama" title="Non-Aristotelian drama">Non-Aristotelian drama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Oppressed" title="Theatre of the Oppressed">Theatre of the Oppressed</a> respectively) against models of <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragedy</a>. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaxidou2004193%E2%80%93209-99">[81]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> In 1902, Stanislavski wrote that "the author writes on paper. The actor writes with his body on the stage" and that the "score of an opera is not the opera itself and the script of a play is not drama until both are made flesh and blood on stage"; quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 124). </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Citations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarlson198636-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarlson198636_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarlson1986">Carlson 1986</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> In <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a> always "theatre", in <a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a> normally "theater". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPavis1998345–346-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPavis1998345%E2%80%93346_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPavis1998345%E2%80%93346_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPavis1998">Pavis 1998</a>, pp. 345–346. </li> <li id="cite_note-compdef-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-compdef_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-compdef_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/theatre-company">"Theatre company definition and meaning"</a>. Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved December 14, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Theatre+company+definition+and+meaning&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Ftheatre-company&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-troupedef1-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-troupedef1_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-troupedef1_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/troupe">"Definition of Troupe"</a>. www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved June 15, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+Troupe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Ftroupe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-troupedef2-8"><a href="#cite_ref-troupedef2_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/troupe">"Troupe definition and meaning"</a>. Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved December 14, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Troupe+definition+and+meaning&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Ftroupe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998441-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown1998441_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown1998441_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown1998441_9-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown1998">Brown 1998</a>, p. 441. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge19973–5-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge19973%E2%80%935_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge19973%E2%80%935_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge19973%E2%80%935_10-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFCartledge1997">Cartledge 1997</a>, pp. 3–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhill199754_11-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldhill1997">Goldhill 1997</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartledge19973,_6-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartledge19973,_6_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCartledge1997">Cartledge 1997</a>, pp. 3, 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill200420–xx-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhill200420%E2%80%93xx_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldhill2004">Goldhill 2004</a>, pp. 20–xx. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERehm19923-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERehm19923_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRehm1992">Rehm 1992</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill20041-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhill20041_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldhill2004">Goldhill 2004</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPelling200583-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPelling200583_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPelling2005">Pelling 2005</a>, p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldhill200425-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldhill200425_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldhill2004">Goldhill 2004</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPelling200583–84-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPelling200583%E2%80%9384_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPelling2005">Pelling 2005</a>, pp. 83–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDukore197431-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukore197431_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDukore197431_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDukore1974">Dukore 1974</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanko1987ix-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanko1987ix_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanko1987ix_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanko1987">Janko 1987</a>, p. ix. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard20071-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWard20071_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWard2007">Ward 2007</a>, p. 1. 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Carter, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_575857.html">Non-traditional venues can inspire art, or just great performances</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100903150133/http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_575857.html">Archived</a> 2010-09-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Tribune-Review" title="Pittsburgh Tribune-Review">Pittsburgh Tribune-Review</a>, July 7, 2008. Retrieved February 12, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-ae-124">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ae_124-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ae_124-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ae_124-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.actorsequity.org/news/PR/AEMIPolicyInitiative/">"Actors' Equity Association joins other arts, entertainment and media industry unions To Announce Legislative Push To Advance Diversity, Equity and Inclusion"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Actors%27_Equity_Association" title="Actors' Equity Association">Actors' Equity Association</a>. February 11, 2021. 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(1998) [1995]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh">The Cambridge Guide to Theatre</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8"><bdi>0-521-43437-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Guide+to+Theatre&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-43437-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeguideto0000banh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeacham1996" class="citation book cs1">Beacham, Richard C. (1996). The Roman Theatre and Its Audience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-77914-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-77914-3"><bdi>978-0-674-77914-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Theatre+and+Its+Audience&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-674-77914-3&rft.aulast=Beacham&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedetti1999" class="citation book cs1">Benedetti, Jean (1999) [1988]. Stanislavski: His Life and Art (Rev. ed.). London: Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-413-52520-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-413-52520-1"><bdi>0-413-52520-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stanislavski%3A+His+Life+and+Art&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-413-52520-1&rft.aulast=Benedetti&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedetti2005" class="citation book cs1">Benedetti, Jean (2005). The Art of the Actor: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present Day. London: Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-413-77336-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-413-77336-1"><bdi>0-413-77336-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+the+Actor%3A+The+Essential+History+of+Acting%2C+From+Classical+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-413-77336-1&rft.aulast=Benedetti&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedetti2008" class="citation book cs1">Benedetti, Jean (2008). Dacre, Kathy; Fryer, Paul (eds.). Stanislavski on Stage. Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Centre Rose Bruford College. pp. 6–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903454-01-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903454-01-5"><bdi>978-1-903454-01-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stanislavski+on+Stage&rft.place=Sidcup%2C+Kent&rft.pages=6-9&rft.pub=Stanislavski+Centre+Rose+Bruford+College&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-903454-01-5&rft.aulast=Benedetti&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack2010" class="citation book cs1">Black, Joseph, ed. (2010) [2006]. The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: Volume 3: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century. Canada: Broadview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-611-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-611-2"><bdi>978-1-55111-611-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Broadview+Anthology+of+British+Literature%3A+Volume+3%3A+The+Restoration+and+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.place=Canada&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-55111-611-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandon1993" class="citation book cs1">Brandon, James R. (1993) [1981]. "Introduction". In Baumer, Rachel Van M.; Brandon, James R. (eds.). Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xvii–xx. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0772-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0772-3"><bdi>978-81-208-0772-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+Theatre+in+Performance&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pages=xvii-xx&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0772-3&rft.aulast=Brandon&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandon1997" class="citation book cs1">Brandon, James R., ed. (1997). The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre (2nd, rev. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58822-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58822-5"><bdi>978-0-521-58822-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Guide+to+Asian+Theatre&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd%2C+rev.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-58822-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrockettHildy2003" class="citation book cs1">Brockett, Oscar G. & Hildy, Franklin J. (2003). History of the Theatre (Ninth, International ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-41050-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-205-41050-2"><bdi>0-205-41050-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Theatre&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=Ninth%2C+International&rft.pub=Allyn+and+Bacon&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-205-41050-2&rft.aulast=Brockett&rft.aufirst=Oscar+G.&rft.au=Hildy%2C+Franklin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1998" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Andrew (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/441">"Greece, Ancient"</a>. In Banham, Martin (ed.). The Cambridge Guide to Theatre (Rev. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/441">441–447</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8"><bdi>0-521-43437-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Greece%2C+Ancient&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Guide+to+Theatre&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=441-447&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-43437-8&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeguideto0000banh%2Fpage%2F441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurt2008" class="citation book cs1">Burt, Daniel S. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/drama100rankingo0000burt">The Drama 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Plays of All Time</a>. New York: Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6073-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6073-3"><bdi>978-0-8160-6073-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Drama+100%3A+A+Ranking+of+the+Greatest+Plays+of+All+Time&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6073-3&rft.aulast=Burt&rft.aufirst=Daniel+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdrama100rankingo0000burt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Carlson" title="Marvin Carlson">Carlson, Marvin</a> (Fall 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.ku.edu/index.php/jdtc/article/view/1642/1606">"Psychic Polyphony"</a>. 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Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-8154-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-8154-6"><bdi>0-8014-8154-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theories+of+the+Theatre%3A+A+Historical+and+Critical+Survey+from+the+Greeks+to+the+Present&rft.place=Ithaca+and+London&rft.edition=Expanded&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8014-8154-6&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarnicke1998" class="citation book cs1">Carnicke, Sharon Marie (1998). Stanislavsky in Focus. Russian Theatre Archive series. London: Harwood Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5755-070-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-5755-070-9"><bdi>90-5755-070-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stanislavsky+in+Focus&rft.place=London&rft.series=Russian+Theatre+Archive+series&rft.pub=Harwood+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=90-5755-070-9&rft.aulast=Carnicke&rft.aufirst=Sharon+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartledge1997" class="citation book cs1">Cartledge, Paul (1997). "'Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life". In <a href="/wiki/P._E._Easterling" title="P. E. Easterling">Easterling, P. E.</a> (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42351-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42351-1"><bdi>0-521-42351-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Deep+Plays%27%3A+Theatre+as+Process+in+Greek+Civic+Life&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Greek+Tragedy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Companions+to+Literature+series&rft.pages=3-35&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-42351-1&rft.aulast=Cartledge&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCounsell1996" class="citation book cs1">Counsell, Colin (1996). Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10643-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10643-6"><bdi>978-0-415-10643-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Signs+of+Performance%3A+An+Introduction+to+Twentieth-Century+Theatre&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10643-6&rft.aulast=Counsell&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeal2007" class="citation book cs1">Deal, William E. (2007). Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533126-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533126-4"><bdi>978-0-19-533126-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+Life+in+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Japan&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533126-4&rft.aulast=Deal&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuchartre1966" class="citation book cs1">Duchartre, Pierre Louis (1966) [1929]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italiancomedyimp0000duch">The Italian Comedy: The Improvisation Scenarios Lives Attributes Portraits and Masks of the Illustrious Characters of the Commedia dell'Arte</a>. Translated by Randolph T. Weaver. New York: Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-21679-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-21679-9"><bdi>0-486-21679-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Italian+Comedy%3A+The+Improvisation+Scenarios+Lives+Attributes+Portraits+and+Masks+of+the+Illustrious+Characters+of+the+Commedia+dell%27Arte&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=0-486-21679-9&rft.aulast=Duchartre&rft.aufirst=Pierre+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fitaliancomedyimp0000duch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDukore1974" class="citation book cs1">Dukore, Bernard F., ed. (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dramatictheorycr00duko">Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski</a>. Florence, Kentucky: Heinle & Heinle. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-091152-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-091152-1"><bdi>978-0-03-091152-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dramatic+Theory+and+Criticism%3A+Greeks+to+Grotowski&rft.place=Florence%2C+Kentucky&rft.pub=Heinle+%26+Heinle&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-03-091152-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdramatictheorycr00duko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElam1980" class="citation book cs1">Elam, Keir (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/semioticsoftheat0000elam_y4s7">The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama</a>. New Accents series. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-03984-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-03984-0"><bdi>978-0-415-03984-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Semiotics+of+Theatre+and+Drama&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.series=New+Accents+series&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-415-03984-0&rft.aulast=Elam&rft.aufirst=Keir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsemioticsoftheat0000elam_y4s7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFergusson1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fergusson" title="Francis Fergusson">Fergusson, Francis</a> (1968) [1949]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ideaoftheaterstu0000ferg">The Idea of a Theater: A Study of Ten Plays, The Art of Drama in a Changing Perspective</a>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01288-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01288-1"><bdi>0-691-01288-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Idea+of+a+Theater%3A+A+Study+of+Ten+Plays%2C+The+Art+of+Drama+in+a+Changing+Perspective&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-691-01288-1&rft.aulast=Fergusson&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fideaoftheaterstu0000ferg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGassnerAllen1992" class="citation book cs1">Gassner, John & Allen, Ralph G. (1992) [1964]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theatredramainma0000unse">Theatre and Drama in the Making</a>. New York: Applause Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55783-073-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-55783-073-8"><bdi>1-55783-073-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theatre+and+Drama+in+the+Making&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Applause+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-55783-073-8&rft.aulast=Gassner&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Allen%2C+Ralph+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheatredramainma0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauss1999" class="citation book cs1">Gauss, Rebecca B. (1999). Lear's Daughters: The Studios of the Moscow Art Theatre 1905–1927. American University Studies, Ser. 26 Theatre Arts. Vol. 29. New York: Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-4155-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-4155-9"><bdi>978-0-8204-4155-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lear%27s+Daughters%3A+The+Studios+of+the+Moscow+Art+Theatre+1905%E2%80%931927&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=American+University+Studies%2C+Ser.+26+Theatre+Arts&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-4155-9&rft.aulast=Gauss&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldhill1997" class="citation book cs1">Goldhill, Simon (1997). 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 54–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42351-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-42351-1"><bdi>0-521-42351-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Audience+of+Athenian+Tragedy&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Greek+Tragedy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Companions+to+Literature+series&rft.pages=54-68&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-42351-1&rft.aulast=Goldhill&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldhill2004" class="citation book cs1">Goldhill, Simon (2004). "Programme Notes". In Goldhill, Simon; Osborne, Robin (eds.). 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60431-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-60431-4"><bdi>978-0-521-60431-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Programme+Notes&rft.btitle=Performance+Culture+and+Athenian+Democracy&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=1-29&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-60431-4&rft.aulast=Goldhill&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon1983" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Mel (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lazzicomicroutin00gord">Lazzi: The Comic Routines of the Commedia dell'Arte</a>. New York: Performing Arts Journal. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-933826-69-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-933826-69-9"><bdi>0-933826-69-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lazzi%3A+The+Comic+Routines+of+the+Commedia+dell%27Arte&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Performing+Arts+Journal&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-933826-69-9&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Mel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flazzicomicroutin00gord&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2006" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Robert (2006). The Purpose of Playing: Modern Acting Theories in Perspective. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06887-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06887-6"><bdi>978-0-472-06887-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Purpose+of+Playing%3A+Modern+Acting+Theories+in+Perspective&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-472-06887-6&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanko1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (1987). Poetics with Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics II and the Fragments of the On Poets. Translated by Janko, Richard. Cambridge: Hackett. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-033-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-033-3"><bdi>978-0-87220-033-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poetics+with+Tractatus+Coislinianus%2C+Reconstruction+of+Poetics+II+and+the+Fragments+of+the+On+Poets&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-033-3&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstone2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Johnstone" title="Keith Johnstone">Johnstone, Keith</a> (2007) [1981]. Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre (Rev. ed.). London: Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7136-8701-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7136-8701-9"><bdi>978-0-7136-8701-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Impro%3A+Improvisation+and+the+Theatre&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7136-8701-9&rft.aulast=Johnstone&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2003" class="citation book cs1">Jones, John Bush (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ourmusicalsourse00jone">Our Musicals, Ourselves: A Social History of the American Musical Theatre</a>. Hanover: Brandeis University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58465-311-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-58465-311-6"><bdi>1-58465-311-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+Musicals%2C+Ourselves%3A+A+Social+History+of+the+American+Musical+Theatre&rft.place=Hanover&rft.pub=Brandeis+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-58465-311-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=John+Bush&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fourmusicalsourse00jone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKovacs2005" class="citation book cs1">Kovacs, David (2005). "Text and Transmission". In Gregory, Justina (ed.). A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World series. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 379–393. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-7549-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-7549-4"><bdi>1-4051-7549-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Text+and+Transmission&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greek+Tragedy&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA+and+Oxford&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+the+Ancient+World+series&rft.pages=379-393&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4051-7549-4&rft.aulast=Kovacs&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuritz1988" class="citation book cs1">Kuritz, Paul (1988). The Making of Theatre History. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-547861-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-547861-5"><bdi>978-0-13-547861-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+Theatre+History&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-13-547861-5&rft.aulast=Kuritz&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeach2004" class="citation book cs1">Leach, Robert (2004). Makers of Modern Theatre: An Introduction. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-31241-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-31241-7"><bdi>978-0-415-31241-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Makers+of+Modern+Theatre%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-31241-7&rft.aulast=Leach&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLey2007" class="citation book cs1">Ley, Graham (2007). The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy: Playing Space and Chorus. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47757-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-47757-2"><bdi>978-0-226-47757-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theatricality+of+Greek+Tragedy%3A+Playing+Space+and+Chorus&rft.place=Chicago+and+London&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-226-47757-2&rft.aulast=Ley&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillingLey2001" class="citation book cs1">Milling, Jane; Ley, Graham (2001). Modern Theories of Performance: From Stanislavski to Boal. Basingstoke, Hampshire, and New York: Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-77542-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-77542-4"><bdi>978-0-333-77542-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Theories+of+Performance%3A+From+Stanislavski+to+Boal&rft.place=Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire%2C+and+New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-333-77542-4&rft.aulast=Milling&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Ley%2C+Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoreh1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Moshe_Sharon" title="Moshe Sharon">Moreh, Shmuel</a> (1986). "Live Theater in Medieval Islam". In Sharon, Moshe (ed.). Studies in Islamic History and Civilization in Honour of Professor David Ayalon. Cana, Leiden: Brill. pp. 565–601. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/965-264-014-X" title="Special:BookSources/965-264-014-X"><bdi>965-264-014-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Live+Theater+in+Medieval+Islam&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Islamic+History+and+Civilization+in+Honour+of+Professor+David+Ayalon&rft.place=Cana%2C+Leiden&rft.pages=565-601&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=965-264-014-X&rft.aulast=Moreh&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPavis1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrice_Pavis" title="Patrice Pavis">Pavis, Patrice</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofthea0000pavi">Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis</a>. Translated by Christine Shantz. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8163-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-8163-6"><bdi>978-0-8020-8163-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Theatre%3A+Terms%2C+Concepts%2C+and+Analysis&rft.place=Toronto+and+Buffalo&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-8163-6&rft.aulast=Pavis&rft.aufirst=Patrice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofthea0000pavi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelling2005" class="citation book cs1">Pelling, Christopher (2005). "Tragedy, Rhetoric, and Performance Culture". 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Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 83–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-7549-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-7549-4"><bdi>1-4051-7549-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tragedy%2C+Rhetoric%2C+and+Performance+Culture&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greek+Tragedy&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA+and+Oxford&rft.series=Blackwell+Companions+to+the+Ancient+World+series&rft.pages=83-102&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4051-7549-4&rft.aulast=Pelling&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson1982" class="citation journal cs1">Peterson, Richard A. (1982). "Five Constraints on the Production of Culture: Law, Technology, Market, Organizational Structure and Occupational Careers". <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Popular_Culture" title="The Journal of Popular Culture">The Journal of Popular Culture</a>. 16 (2): 143–153. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.0022-3840.1982.1451443.x">10.1111/j.0022-3840.1982.1451443.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Popular+Culture&rft.atitle=Five+Constraints+on+the+Production+of+Culture%3A+Law%2C+Technology%2C+Market%2C+Organizational+Structure+and+Occupational+Careers&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=143-153&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.0022-3840.1982.1451443.x&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfister2000" class="citation book cs1">Pfister, Manfred (2000) [1977]. The Theory and Analysis of Drama. European Studies in English Literature series. Translated by John Halliday. Cambridige: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42383-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42383-0"><bdi>978-0-521-42383-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+and+Analysis+of+Drama&rft.place=Cambridige&rft.series=European+Studies+in+English+Literature+series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42383-0&rft.aulast=Pfister&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRehm1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rush_Rehm" title="Rush Rehm">Rehm, Rusj</a> (1992). Greek Tragic Theatre. Theatre Production Studies. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-11894-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-11894-8"><bdi>0-415-11894-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Tragic+Theatre&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.series=Theatre+Production+Studies&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-415-11894-8&rft.aulast=Rehm&rft.aufirst=Rusj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmond1998" class="citation book cs1">Richmond, Farley (1998) [1995]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/516">"India"</a>. In Banham, Martin (ed.). The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/516">516–525</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-43437-8"><bdi>0-521-43437-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=India&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Guide+to+Theatre&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=516-525&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-43437-8&rft.aulast=Richmond&rft.aufirst=Farley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeguideto0000banh%2Fpage%2F516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichmondSwannZarrilli1993" class="citation book cs1">Richmond, Farley P.; Swann, Darius L. & Zarrilli, Phillip B., eds. (1993). Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1322-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1322-2"><bdi>978-0-8248-1322-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Theatre%3A+Traditions+of+Performance&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-1322-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpolin1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Viola_Spolin" title="Viola Spolin">Spolin, Viola</a> (1999) [1963]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/improvisationfor0000spol">Improvisation for the Theater</a> (3rd ed.). Evanston, Il: Northwestern University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8101-4008-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8101-4008-X"><bdi>0-8101-4008-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Improvisation+for+the+Theater&rft.place=Evanston%2C+Il&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Northwestern+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-8101-4008-X&rft.aulast=Spolin&rft.aufirst=Viola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimprovisationfor0000spol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStyan2000" class="citation book cs1">Styan, J. L. (2000). Drama: A Guide to the Study of Plays. New York: Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-4489-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-4489-5"><bdi>978-0-8204-4489-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drama%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Study+of+Plays&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-4489-5&rft.aulast=Styan&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaxidou2004" class="citation book cs1">Taxidou, Olga (2004). Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7486-1987-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7486-1987-9"><bdi>0-7486-1987-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tragedy%2C+Modernity+and+Mourning&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7486-1987-9&rft.aulast=Taxidou&rft.aufirst=Olga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2007" class="citation book cs1">Ward, A.C (2007) [1945]. Specimens of English Dramatic Criticism XVII–XX Centuries. The World's Classics series. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4086-3115-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4086-3115-7"><bdi>978-1-4086-3115-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Specimens+of+English+Dramatic+Criticism+XVII%E2%80%93XX+Centuries&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=The+World%27s+Classics+series&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4086-3115-7&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=A.C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWebster1967" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/T._B._L._Webster" title="T. B. L. Webster">Webster, T. B. L.</a> (1967). "Monuments Illustrating Tragedy and Satyr Play". <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Institute_of_Classical_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies">Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies</a> (Supplement, with appendix) (20) (2nd ed.). University of London: iii–190.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Institute+of+Classical+Studies&rft.atitle=Monuments+Illustrating+Tragedy+and+Satyr+Play&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=iii-190&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Webster&rft.aufirst=T.+B.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1966" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams, Raymond</a> (1966). Modern Tragedy. London: Chatto & Windus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7011-1260-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7011-1260-3"><bdi>0-7011-1260-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Tragedy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Chatto+%26+Windus&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=0-7011-1260-3&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>Aston, Elaine, and George Savona. 1991. Theatre as Sign-System: A Semiotics of Text and Performance. London and New York: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-04932-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-04932-0">978-0-415-04932-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin, Walter</a>. 1928. The Origin of German Tragic Drama. Trans. John Osborne. London and New York: Verso, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85984-899-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85984-899-0">1-85984-899-0</a>.</li> <li>Brown, John Russell. 1997. What is Theatre?: An Introduction and Exploration. Boston and Oxford: Focal P. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-240-80232-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-240-80232-9">978-0-240-80232-9</a>.</li> <li>Bryant, Jye (2018). Writing & Staging A New Musical: A Handbook. Kindle Direct Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781730897412" title="Special:BookSources/9781730897412">9781730897412</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Carnicke, Sharon Marie (2000). "Stanislavsky's System: Pathways for the Actor". In Hodge, Alison (ed.). Twentieth-Century Actor Training. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 11–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-19452-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-19452-5"><bdi>978-0-415-19452-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stanislavsky%27s+System%3A+Pathways+for+the+Actor&rft.btitle=Twentieth-Century+Actor+Training&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=11-36&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-19452-5&rft.aulast=Carnicke&rft.aufirst=Sharon+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dacre, Kathy, and Paul Fryer, eds. 2008. Stanislavski on Stage. Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Centre Rose Bruford College. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-903454-01-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-903454-01-8">1-903454-01-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze, Gilles</a> and <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Félix Guattari</a>. 1972. <a href="/wiki/Anti-%C5%92dipus" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Œdipus">Anti-Œdipus</a>. Trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem and Helen R. Lane. London and New York: Continuum, 2004. Vol. 1. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-416-72060-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-416-72060-9">0-416-72060-9</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rita_Felski" title="Rita Felski">Felski, Rita</a>, ed. 2008. Rethinking Tragedy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-8740-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-8740-2">0-8018-8740-2</a>.</li> <li>Harrison, Martin. 1998. The Language of Theatre. London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0878300877" title="Special:BookSources/978-0878300877">978-0878300877</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllis_Hartnoll" title="Phyllis Hartnoll">Hartnoll, Phyllis</a>, ed. 1983. The Oxford Companion to the Theatre. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-211546-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-211546-1">978-0-19-211546-1</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Leach, Robert (1989). Vsevolod Meyerhold. Directors in Perspective series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31843-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31843-3"><bdi>978-0-521-31843-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vsevolod+Meyerhold&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Directors+in+Perspective+series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-31843-3&rft.aulast=Leach&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Leach, Robert, and Victor Borovsky, eds. 1999. A History of Russian Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03435-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03435-7">978-0-521-03435-7</a>.</li> <li>Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel. 2001. Approaches to Acting: Past and Present. London and New York: Continuum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-7879-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-7879-5">978-0-8264-7879-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vsevolod_Meyerhold" title="Vsevolod Meyerhold">Meyerhold, Vsevolod</a>. 1991. Meyerhold on Theatre. Ed. and trans. Edward Braun. Rev. ed., London: Methuen. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-413-38790-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-413-38790-5">978-0-413-38790-5</a>.</li> <li>Mitter, Shomit. 1992. Systems of Rehearsal: Stanislavsky, Brecht, Grotowski and Brook. London and New York: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06784-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-06784-3">978-0-415-06784-3</a>.</li> <li>O'Brien, Nick. 2010. Stanislavski In Practise. London: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-56843-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-56843-2">978-0-415-56843-2</a>.</li> <li>Rayner, Alice. 1994. To Act, To Do, To Perform: Drama and the Phenomenology of Action. Theater: Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10537-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10537-3">978-0-472-10537-3</a>.</li> <li>Roach, Joseph R. 1985. The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08244-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-08244-5">978-0-472-08244-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiccittoRobinson2023" class="citation book cs1">Piccitto, Diane & Robinson, Terry F., eds. (2023). The Visual Life of Romantic Theater, 1780-1830. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780472132881" title="Special:BookSources/9780472132881"><bdi>9780472132881</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Visual+Life+of+Romantic+Theater%2C+1780-1830&rft.pub=Ann+Arbor%3A+University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9780472132881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Speirs, Ronald, trans. 1999. The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings. By <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>. Ed. Raymond Geuss and Ronald Speirs. Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy ser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-63987-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-63987-5">0-521-63987-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Terry_Teachout" title="Terry Teachout">Teachout, Terry</a> (December 13, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/stephen-sondheim-assassins-lackawanna-blues-the-lehman-trilogy-clyde's-trouble-in-mind-11639424305">"The Best Theater of 2021: The Curtain Goes Up Again"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>. Retrieved March 3, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Best+Theater+of+2021%3A+The+Curtain+Goes+Up+Again&rft.date=2021-12-13&rft.aulast=Teachout&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2Fstephen-sondheim-assassins-lackawanna-blues-the-lehman-trilogy-clyde%27s-trouble-in-mind-11639424305&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATheatre" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Theatre <hr></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Theatre">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sounds.bl.uk/Arts-literature-and-performance/Theatre-Archive-Project">Theatre Archive Project (UK)</a> British Library & University of Sheffield.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/">University of Bristol Theatre Collection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arthurlloyd.co.uk">Music Hall and Theatre History of Britain and Ireland</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Theatre at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 14px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="14" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Theatre" class="extiw" title="c:Theatre">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="11" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 11px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/21px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="11" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/32px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/42px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Theatre" class="extiw" title="n:Category:Theatre">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="16" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Theatre" class="extiw" title="q:Theatre">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 19px;height: 19px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="19" data-height="19" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Theatre" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Theatre">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 21px;height: 17px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="21" data-height="17" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Theatre" class="extiw" title="v:Theatre">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre&oldid=1257972191">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theatre&oldid=1257972191</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Theatre&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 17 November 2024, at 13:15 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater" title="Teater – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Teater" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater" title="Theater – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Theater" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%B4%E1%8B%AB%E1%89%B5%E1%88%AD" title="ቴያትር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቴያትር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%95" title="नाटक – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="नाटक" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD" title="مسرح – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مسرح" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%A1%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Թատրոն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Թատրոն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatro" title="Theatro – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Theatro" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0" title="থিয়েটাৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="থিয়েটাৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatru" title="Teatru – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Teatru" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%91oha%E2%80%99%C3%A3ngao" title="Ñoha’ãngao – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ñoha’ãngao" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatr" title="Teatr – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Teatr" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="تئاتر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تئاتر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE" title="নাট্যকলা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নাট্যকলা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%AC-kio%CC%8Dk" title="Hì-kio̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hì-kio̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Тэатр – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тэатр" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Тэатар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Тэатар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80" title="Театър – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Театър" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theata" title="Theata – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Theata" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%9F%E0%BE%B3%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8D" title="ཟློས་གར། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཟློས་གར།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozori%C5%A1te" title="Pozorište – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pozorište" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arz_ar_c%27hoariva" title="Arz ar c'hoariva – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Arz ar c'hoariva" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatre" title="Teatre – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teatre" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teyatro" title="Teyatro – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Teyatro" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divadlo" title="Divadlo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Divadlo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatr" title="Theatr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Theatr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater" title="Teater – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Teater" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater" title="Theater – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Theater" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatrikunst" title="Teatrikunst – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teatrikunst" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%AD%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF" title="Θέατρο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θέατρο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Театрась – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Театрась" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatru" title="Teatru – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Teatru" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzerki" title="Antzerki – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzerki" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="تئاتر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تئاتر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Theatre" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B3nleikur" title="Sjónleikur – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sjónleikur" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre" title="Théâtre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théâtre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C3%A4ter_(keunstfoarm)" title="Teäter (keunstfoarm) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Teäter (keunstfoarm)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatri" title="Teatri – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Teatri" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E6%BC%94" title="表演 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="表演" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="تياتر – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="تياتر" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AD%C3%A1t%C3%A0" title="Tíátà – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Tíátà" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gungbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B0%EA%B7%B9" title="연극 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="연극" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gidan_wasan_kwaikwayo" title="Gidan wasan kwaikwayo – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Gidan wasan kwaikwayo" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%A1%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Թատրոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թատրոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A" title="रंगमंच – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रंगमंच" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazali%C5%A1te" title="Kazalište – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kazalište" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater" title="Teater – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teater" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatro" title="Theatro – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Theatro" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatre" title="Teatre – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Teatre" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiklist" title="Leiklist – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Leiklist" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9F" title="תיאטרון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תיאטרון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9ater" title="Téater – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Téater" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%AA" title="ರಂಗಮಂಟಪ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರಂಗಮಂಟಪ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatru" title="Teatru – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Teatru" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="თეატრი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თეატრი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9ater" title="Téater – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Téater" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kaszëbsczi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamthilia" title="Tamthilia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Tamthilia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teyat" title="Teyat – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Teyat" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9yat" title="Téyat – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Téyat" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eano" title="Şano – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Şano" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater" title="Teater – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Teater" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_scenica" title="Ars scenica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ars scenica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C4%81tris" title="Teātris – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Teātris" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater" title="Theater – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Theater" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatras" title="Teatras – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Teatras" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiatro" title="Tiatro – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Tiatro" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater" title="Theater – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Theater" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatru" title="Teatru – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Teatru" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater" title="Teater – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Teater" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%ADnh%C3%A1zm%C5%B1v%C3%A9szet" title="Színházművészet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Színházművészet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Драмска уметност – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Драмска уметност" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B2" title="രംഗകല – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="രംഗകല" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="თეატრი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="თეატრი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AD" title="مسرح – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مسرح" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="تیاتر – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="تیاتر" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater" title="Teater – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Teater" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triato" title="Triato – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Triato" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Театрась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Театрась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakatasuasua" title="Vakatasuasua – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vakatasuasua" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater_(kunstvorm)" title="Theater (kunstvorm) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Theater (kunstvorm)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater_(keunstvorm)" title="Theater (keunstvorm) – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Theater (keunstvorm)" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%82" title="दबू प्याखं – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="दबू प्याखं" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E5%8A%87" title="演劇 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="演劇" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiatro" title="Tiatro – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Tiatro" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater" title="Teater – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Teater" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater" title="Teater – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Teater" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thi%C3%A2tre" title="Thiâtre – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Thiâtre" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatre" title="Teatre – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Teatre" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatre" title="Teatre – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Teatre" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiyaatira" title="Tiyaatira – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Tiyaatira" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatr" title="Teatr – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Teatr" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97-%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%9A" title="ਰੰਗ-ਮੰਚ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੰਗ-ਮੰਚ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%BE%DB%8C%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="تھیٹر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تھیٹر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="نندارغالی – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="نندارغالی" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tieta" title="Tieta – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Tieta" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%81%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%93" title="ល្ខោន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ល្ខោន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9%C3%AFate" title="Téïate – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Téïate" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater" title="Theater – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Theater" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatr" title="Teatr – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Teatr" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatr" title="Teatr – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Teatr" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatr" title="Teatr – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Teatr" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatru_(spectacol)" title="Teatru (spectacol) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Teatru (spectacol)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aranwa" title="Aranwa – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Aranwa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Театер – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Театер" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Theatre" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatri" title="Teatri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Teatri" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiatru" title="Tiatru – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Tiatru" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="නාට්‍ය කලාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නාට්‍ය කලාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Theatre" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BD%DA%AA_%DA%AF%DA%BE%D8%B1" title="ناٽڪ گھر – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ناٽڪ گھر" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divadlo_(umenie)" title="Divadlo (umenie) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Divadlo (umenie)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gledali%C5%A1%C4%8De" title="Gledališče – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Gledališče" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyjater" title="Tyjater – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Tyjater" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%86" title="شانۆ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شانۆ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Позориште – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Позориште" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatar" title="Teatar – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Teatar" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9ater" title="Téater – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Téater" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatteri" title="Teatteri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Teatteri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teater" title="Teater – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Teater" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanghalan" title="Tanghalan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Tanghalan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88" title="நாடகக்கொட்டகை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நாடகக்கொட்டகை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amezgun" title="Amezgun – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Amezgun" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%82" title="నాటకరంగం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నాటకరంగం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3" title="ละคร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ละคร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiyatro" title="Tiyatro – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tiyatro" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80" title="Театр – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Театр" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%BE%DB%8C%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="تھیٹر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تھیٹر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro" title="Teatro – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Teatro" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatr" title="Teatr – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Teatr" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A2n_kh%E1%BA%A5u" title="Sân khấu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sân khấu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiatrikunst" title="Tiatrikunst – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Tiatrikunst" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tey%C3%A5te" title="Teyåte – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Teyåte" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyatro" title="Tyatro – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Tyatro" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%9E%E8%87%BA%E5%8A%87" title="舞臺劇 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="舞臺劇" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="טעאטער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="טעאטער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%AD%C3%A1t%C3%A0" title="Tíátà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Tíátà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%9E%E5%8F%B0%E5%8A%87" title="舞台劇 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="舞台劇" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiyatro" title="Tiyatro – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Tiyatro" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%93tros" title="Tētros – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Tētros" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8A%87%E5%A0%B4%E8%97%9D%E8%A1%93" title="劇場藝術 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="劇場藝術" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%C9%99tr" title="Teətr – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Teətr" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-qzp9h","wgBackendResponseTime":237,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.018","walltime":"2.363","ppvisitednodes":{"value":17618,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":249267,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":25630,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":37,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":345773,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1932.165 1 -total"," 16.26% 314.192 107 Template:Sfn"," 14.96% 288.968 53 Template:Cite_book"," 14.11% 272.653 2 Template:Reflist"," 6.68% 129.116 1 Template:Transliteration"," 6.45% 124.642 19 Template:ISBN"," 6.31% 121.831 15 Template:Cite_web"," 6.28% 121.317 20 Template:Efn"," 4.31% 83.239 19 Template:Catalog_lookup_link"," 4.27% 82.479 1 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[\"CITEREFFergusson1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGassnerAllen1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauss1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldhill1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldhill2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_R._Brandon2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanko1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnstone2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenrick2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKovacs2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuritz1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeach2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLey2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthew\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillingLey2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoreh1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPavis1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPelling2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfister2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiccittoRobinson2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRehm1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichmond1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichmondSwannZarrilli1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpolin1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStyan2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaxidou2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWebster1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1966\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 8,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 53,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 15,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 3,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 20,\n [\"Em\"] = 1,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 10,\n [\"Hatnote group\"] = 1,\n [\"Humanities\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 19,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 14,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"P.\"] = 1,\n [\"Performing arts\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refimprove\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 107,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Subject bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Theatre\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","20.3"],["?","240","17.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","100","7.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","7.2"],["dataWrapper 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