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<span>Hardening agents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hardening_agents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geometrical_possibilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geometrical_possibilities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Geometrical possibilities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geometrical_possibilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dimensional_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dimensional_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Dimensional changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dimensional_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Workpiece_material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Workpiece_material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Workpiece material</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Workpiece_material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparing_different_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparing_different_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Comparing different methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparing_different_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Choice_of_equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Choice_of_equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Choice of equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Choice_of_equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Цэментацыя сталі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Цэментацыя сталі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Цементация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цементация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Cementování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Cementování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufkohlen" title="Aufkohlen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aufkohlen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementaci%C3%B3n" title="Cementación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cementación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%87_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86" title="کربوریزه کردن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کربوریزه کردن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9mentation_(m%C3%A9tallurgie)" title="Cémentation (métallurgie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cémentation (métallurgie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementiranje_%C4%8Delika" title="Cementiranje čelika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Cementiranje čelika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement%C3%A1l%C3%A1s_(ac%C3%A9l)" title="Cementálás (acél) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Cementálás (acél)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboneren" title="Carboneren – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Carboneren" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B8%E7%82%AD" title="浸炭 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="浸炭" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naw%C4%99glanie" title="Nawęglanie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nawęglanie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Cementação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cementação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Цементация стали – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цементация стали" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburization" title="Carburization – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Carburization" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementa%C4%8Dn%C3%A1_oce%C4%BE" title="Cementačná oceľ – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Cementačná oceľ" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementiranje_jekla" title="Cementiranje jekla – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Cementiranje jekla" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cementiranje_%C4%8Delika" title="Cementiranje čelika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Cementiranje čelika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppkolning" title="Uppkolning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Uppkolning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sementasyon" title="Sementasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sementasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Цементація сталі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Цементація сталі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BA%A5m_carbon" title="Thấm carbon – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thấm carbon" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Heat treatment process in which a metal or alloy is infused with carbon to increase hardness</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Carbonization" title="Carbonization">Carbonization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carburation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carburation">Carburation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Carbonation" title="Carbonation">Carbonation</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg/220px-Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg/330px-Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg/440px-Computerised_Heat_Treatment_Furnance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A modern computerised gas carburising furnace</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Carburizing</b>, or <b>carburising</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">heat treatment</a> process in which <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> absorbs <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> while the metal is heated in the presence of a carbon-bearing material, such as <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>. The intent is to make the metal <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">harder</a> and more wear resistant.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the amount of time and temperature, the affected area can vary in carbon content. Longer carburizing times and higher temperatures typically increase the depth of carbon diffusion. When the iron or steel is cooled rapidly by <a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">quenching</a>, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard due to the transformation from <a href="/wiki/Austenite" title="Austenite">austenite</a> to <a href="/wiki/Martensite" title="Martensite">martensite</a>, while the core remains soft and tough as a <a href="/wiki/Ferritic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferritic">ferritic</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Pearlite" title="Pearlite">pearlite</a> <a href="/wiki/Microstructure" title="Microstructure">microstructure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This manufacturing process can be characterized by the following key points: It is applied to low-carbon workpieces; workpieces are in contact with a high-carbon gas, liquid or solid; it produces a hard workpiece surface; workpiece cores largely retain their <a href="/wiki/Toughness" title="Toughness">toughness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a>; and it produces <a href="/wiki/Case_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Case hardening">case hardness</a> depths of up to 0.25 inches (6.4 mm). In some cases it serves as a remedy for undesired <a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">decarburization</a> that happened earlier in a manufacturing process. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Method">Method</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Carburization of steel involves a heat treatment of the metallic surface using a source of carbon.<sup id="cite_ref-Low-carbon_steels_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Low-carbon_steels-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carburization can be used to increase the surface hardness of low carbon steel.<sup id="cite_ref-Low-carbon_steels_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Low-carbon_steels-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early carburization used a direct application of <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> packed around the sample to be treated (initially referred to as <a href="/wiki/Case_hardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Case hardening">case hardening</a>), but modern techniques use carbon-bearing gases or plasmas (such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>). The process depends primarily upon ambient gas composition and furnace temperature, which must be carefully controlled, as the heat may also impact the microstructure of the remainder of the material. For applications where great control over gas composition is desired, carburization may take place under very low pressures in a <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> chamber. </p><p>Plasma carburization is increasingly used to improve the surface characteristics (such as wear, <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> resistance, <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>, load-bearing capacity, in addition to quality-based variables) of various metals, notably <a href="/wiki/Stainless_steel" title="Stainless steel">stainless steels</a>. The process is environmentally friendly (in comparison to gaseous or solid carburizing). It also provides an even treatment of components with complex geometry (the plasma can penetrate into holes and tight gaps), making it very flexible in terms of component treatment. </p><p>The process of carburization works via the diffusion of carbon atoms into the surface layers of a metal. As metals are made up of atoms bound tightly into a metallic <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_lattice" class="mw-redirect" title="Crystalline lattice">crystalline lattice</a>, the carbon atoms diffuse into the crystal structure of the metal and either remain in solution (dissolved within the metal crystalline matrix — this normally occurs at lower temperatures) or react with elements in the host metal to form carbides (normally at higher temperatures, due to the higher mobility of the host metal's atoms). If the carbon remains in solid solution, the steel is then heat treated to harden it. Both of these mechanisms strengthen the surface of the metal, the former by forming pearlite or martensite, and the latter via the formation of carbides. Both of these materials are hard and resist abrasion. </p><p>Gas carburizing is normally carried out at a temperature within the range of 900 to 950 °C. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Oxy-fuel_welding_and_cutting" title="Oxy-fuel welding and cutting">oxy-acetylene welding</a>, a carburizing flame is one with little oxygen, which produces a <a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">sooty</a>, lower-temperature flame. It is often used to <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">anneal</a> metal, making it more malleable and flexible during the welding process. </p><p>A main goal when producing carburized workpieces is to ensure maximum contact between the workpiece surface and the carbon-rich elements. In gas and liquid carburizing, the workpieces are often supported in mesh baskets or suspended by wire. In pack carburizing, the workpiece and carbon are enclosed in a container to ensure that contact is maintained over as much surface area as possible. Pack carburizing containers are usually made of carbon steel coated with aluminum or heat-resisting nickel-chromium alloy and sealed at all openings with fire clay. </p><p>Carburizing can be achieved in either a Conventional Furnace (Atmosphere Furnace) or a Low Pressure Carburizing Furnace (LPC).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Conventional Furnace (Atmosphere Furnace): conventional carburizing is an atmosphere controlled process with control of the carbon potential.</li> <li>Low Pressure Carburizing Furnace (LPC): low pressure carburizing is running without any oxygen and with injections of carburizing gas (ex. <a href="/wiki/Acetylene" title="Acetylene">acetylene</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hardening_agents">Hardening agents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hardening agents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are different types of elements or materials that can be used to perform this process, but these mainly consist of high carbon content material. A few typical hardening agents include <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> gas (CO), <a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyanide" title="Sodium cyanide">sodium cyanide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barium_carbonate" title="Barium carbonate">barium carbonate</a>, or hardwood charcoal. In gas carburizing, carbon is given off by <a href="/wiki/Propane" title="Propane">propane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>. In liquid carburizing, the carbon is derived from a molten salt composed mainly of sodium cyanide (NaCN) and barium chloride (BaCl<sub>2</sub>). In pack carburizing, carbon monoxide is given off by coke or hardwood charcoal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geometrical_possibilities">Geometrical possibilities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Geometrical possibilities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are all sorts of workpieces that can be carburized, which means almost limitless possibilities for the shape of materials that can be carburized. However careful consideration should be given to materials that contain nonuniform or non-symmetric sections. Different cross sections may have different cooling rates which can cause excessive stresses in the material and result in breakage.<sup id="cite_ref-todd_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todd-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dimensional_changes">Dimensional changes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dimensional changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is virtually impossible to have a workpiece undergo carburization without having some dimensional changes. The amount of these changes varies based on the type of material that is used, the carburizing process that the material undergoes and the original size and shape of the work piece. However changes are small compared to heat-treating operations.<sup id="cite_ref-todd_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todd-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" border="1"> <caption>Change in material properties<sup id="cite_ref-todd_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todd-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Work material properties </th> <th>Effects of carburizing </th></tr> <tr> <td>Mechanical </td> <td> <ul><li>Increased surface hardness</li> <li>Increased wear resistance</li> <li>Increased fatigue/tensile strengths</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Physical </td> <td> <ul><li>Grain growth may occur</li> <li>Change in volume may occur</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chemical </td> <td> <ul><li>Increased surface carbon content</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Workpiece_material">Workpiece material</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Workpiece material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Typically the materials that are carbonized are low-carbon and alloy steels with initial carbon content ranging from 0.2 to 0.3%. The workpiece surface must be free from contaminants, such as oil, oxides, or alkaline solutions, which prevent or impede the diffusion of carbon into the workpiece surface.<sup id="cite_ref-todd_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todd-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparing_different_methods">Comparing different methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Comparing different methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In general, pack carburizing equipment can accommodate larger workpieces than liquid or gas carburizing equipment, but liquid or gas carburizing methods are faster and lend themselves to mechanized material handling. Also the advantages of carburizing over <a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">carbonitriding</a> are greater case depth (case depths of greater than 0.3 inch are possible), less distortion, and better impact strength. This makes it perfect for high strength and wear applications (e.g. scissors or swords). The disadvantages include added expense, higher working temperatures, and increased time.<sup id="cite_ref-todd_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todd-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Choice_of_equipment">Choice of equipment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Choice of equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In general, gas carburizing is used for parts that are large. Liquid carburizing is used for small and medium parts and pack carburizing can be used for large parts and individual processing of small parts in bulk. Vacuum carburizing (low pressure carburizing or LPC) can be applied across a large spectrum of parts when used in conjunction with either oil or high pressure gas quenching (HPGQ), depending on the alloying elements within the base material.<sup id="cite_ref-todd_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-todd-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">Carbonitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case-hardening" title="Case-hardening">Case-hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_armor" title="Harvey armor">Harvey armor</a> (also known as Harveyized steel), an early application of carburizing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayward_A._Harvey" title="Hayward A. Harvey">Hayward A. Harvey</a>, a pioneer in the development of carburizing</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krupp_armor" class="mw-redirect" title="Krupp armor">Krupp armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitridization" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitridization">Nitridization</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110831165255/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Carburizing+of+Steel">"Carburizing of Steel"</a>. The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Carburizing+of+Steel">the original</a> on 2011-08-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-05-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Carburizing+of+Steel&rft.pub=The+Free+Dictionary+By+Farlex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com%2FCarburizing%2Bof%2BSteel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarburizing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oberg, E., Jones, F., and Ryffel, H. (1989) <i>Machinery's Handbook 23rd Edition.</i> New York: Industrial Press Inc.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Low-carbon_steels-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Low-carbon_steels_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Low-carbon_steels_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/carbon_steels/low_carbon.cfm">"Low-carbon steels"</a>. efunda<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-05-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Low-carbon+steels&rft.pub=efunda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.efunda.com%2Fmaterials%2Falloys%2Fcarbon_steels%2Flow_carbon.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarburizing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecm-usa.com/resources/lpc-comparison">"Low Pressure Carburizing vs. Atmospheric Furnace Technology"</a>. <i>ECM USA Vacuum Furnace Systems Manufacturer</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ECM+USA+Vacuum+Furnace+Systems+Manufacturer&rft.atitle=Low+Pressure+Carburizing+vs.+Atmospheric+Furnace+Technology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecm-usa.com%2Fresources%2Flpc-comparison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarburizing" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-todd-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-todd_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-todd_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-todd_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-todd_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-todd_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-todd_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert H. Todd, Dell K. Allen and Leo Alting <i>Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide</i>. Industrial Press Inc., 1994. pp. 421–426</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Geoffrey Parrish, Carburizing: Microstructures and Properties. ASM International. 1999. pg 11</li> <li>ECM USA, Conventional Atmospheric Carburizing Versus Low Pressure Carburizing Furnace Systems. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.ecm-usa.com/resources/lpc-comparison">https://www.ecm-usa.com/resources/lpc-comparison</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carburizing&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190829173110/http://everyspec.com/MIL-SPECS/MIL-SPECS-MIL-S/MIL-S-6090A_8810/">"MIL-S-6090A, Military Specification: Process for Steels Used In Aircraft Carburizing and Nitriding"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a>. 7 Jun 1971. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.everyspec.com/MIL-SPECS/MIL-SPECS-MIL-S/MIL-S-6090A_8810/">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 29 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=MIL-S-6090A%2C+Military+Specification%3A+Process+for+Steels+Used+In+Aircraft+Carburizing+and+Nitriding&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Defense&rft.date=1971-06-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.everyspec.com%2FMIL-SPECS%2FMIL-SPECS-MIL-S%2FMIL-S-6090A_8810%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACarburizing" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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talk:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iron_and_steel_production" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iron and steel production"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iron_and_steel_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> production</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ferrous_metallurgy" title="Ferrous metallurgy">History of ferrous metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_steel_producers" title="List of steel producers">List of steel producers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iron production<br />(<a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">Ironworks</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">Bloomery</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">sponge iron</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a> (produces <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_blast" title="Cold blast">Cold blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_blast" title="Hot blast">Hot blast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite_iron" title="Anthracite iron">Anthracite iron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">Direct reduced iron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wrought_iron" title="Wrought iron">Wrought iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Finery_forge" title="Finery forge">Finery forge</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reverberatory_furnace" title="Reverberatory furnace">Reverberatory</a> <a href="/wiki/Puddling_(metallurgy)" title="Puddling (metallurgy)">Puddling</a> <a href="/wiki/Industrial_furnace" title="Industrial furnace">Furnace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cast_iron" title="Cast iron">Cast iron</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Cupola_furnace" title="Cupola furnace">Cupola furnace</a> or <a href="/wiki/Induction_furnace" title="Induction furnace">Induction furnace</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/120px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/180px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg/240px-Fotothek_df_n-08_0000320.jpg 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="778" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Steelmaking" title="Steelmaking">Steelmaking</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Steel_mill" title="Steel mill">Steel mill</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Pre-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_welding" title="Pattern welding">Pattern welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucible_steel" title="Crucible steel">Crucible steel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Damascus_steel" title="Damascus steel">Damascus steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wootz_steel" title="Wootz steel">Wootz steel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatara_(furnace)" title="Tatara (furnace)">Tatara furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cementation_process" title="Cementation process">Cementation process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary (Post-1850)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bessemer_process" title="Bessemer process">Bessemer process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_hearth_furnace" class="mw-redirect" title="Open hearth furnace">Open hearth furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">Electric arc furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_oxygen_steelmaking" title="Basic oxygen steelmaking">Basic oxygen process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secondary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-slag_remelting" title="Electro-slag remelting">Electro-slag remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_arc_remelting" title="Vacuum arc remelting">Vacuum arc remelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argon_oxygen_decarburization" title="Argon oxygen decarburization">Argon oxygen decarburization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heat_treating" title="Heat treating">Heat treatment</a> methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">Annealing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_hydrogen_annealing" title="Low hydrogen annealing">Low hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_by_short_circuit" title="Annealing by short circuit">Short circuit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hardening_(metallurgy)" title="Hardening (metallurgy)">Hardening</a> / <br /><a href="/wiki/Case-hardening" title="Case-hardening">Case-hardening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ausforming" title="Ausforming">Ausforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boriding" title="Boriding">Boriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonitriding" title="Carbonitriding">Carbonitriding</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Carburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Cryogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferritic_nitrocarburizing" title="Ferritic nitrocarburizing">Ferritic nitrocarburizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_hardening" title="Induction hardening">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitriding" title="Nitriding">Nitriding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation_hardening" title="Precipitation hardening">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quench_polish_quench" title="Quench polish quench">Quench polish quench</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempering_(metallurgy)" title="Tempering (metallurgy)">Tempering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austempering" title="Austempering">Austempering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martempering" title="Martempering">Martempering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_treatment" title="Cryogenic treatment">Cryogenic treatment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deburring" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic deburring">Deburring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_deflashing" title="Cryogenic deflashing">Deflashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_hardening" title="Cryogenic hardening">Hardening</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_heat_treatment" title="Differential heat treatment">Differential heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decarburization" title="Decarburization">Decarburization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forming_gas" title="Forming gas">Forming gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post_weld_heat_treatment" title="Post weld heat treatment">Post weld heat treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenching" title="Quenching">Quenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superplastic_forming" title="Superplastic forming">Superplastic forming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_steel_production" title="List of countries by steel production">Production by country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Bangladesh" title="Steel industry in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_China" title="Steel industry in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_India" title="Iron and steel industry in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Luxembourg" title="Steel industry in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Nigeria" title="Steel industry in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Iron and steel industry in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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