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easy-breadcrumb_segment-2">Darwin's works in letters</a></li> <li><span class="easy-breadcrumb_segment easy-breadcrumb_segment-title" itemprop="title">Cross and self fertilisation</span></li> </ul> </div></div></div></div><h1 class="campl-page-title">Darwin Correspondence Project</h1></div></div></div></div><div class="campl-row campl-page-header"><div class="campl-wrap"><div class="region region-horizontal-navigation"><div id="block-menu-block-1" class="block block-menu-block"> <div> <div class="menu-block-wrapper menu-block-1 menu-name-main-menu parent-mlid-0 menu-level-1"> <div class="campl-wrap clearfix campl-local-navigation"> <div class="campl-local-navigation-container"> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list"> <li class="first leaf menu-mlid-198"><a href="/">Home</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2309"><a href="../../about-darwin">About Darwin</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2309"><a href="../../about-darwin">About Darwin overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-869"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/family-life">Family life</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-869"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/family-life">Family life overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1125"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-childhood">Darwin on childhood</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1038"><a href="../../tags/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-marriage">Darwin on marriage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1258"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-s-observations-his-children">Darwin's observations on his children</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2295"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-and-fatherhood">Darwin and fatherhood</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1039"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/family-life/death-anne-elizabeth-darwin">The death of Annie Darwin</a></li> <li class="last 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menu-mlid-1059"><a href="../../about-darwin/origin-species">On the Origin of Species</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1059"><a href="../../about-darwin/origin-species">On the Origin of Species overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1060"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/origin-species/writing-origin">The writing of "Origin"</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1084"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/origin-species/abstract-darwin-s-theory">Abstract of Darwin's theory</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1093"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/origin-species/alfred-russel-wallace-s-essay-varieties">Alfred Russel Wallace's essay on varieties</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1094"><a href="../../charles-darwin-and-his-publisher">Charles Darwin and his publisher</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1147"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/origin-species/review-origin-species">Review: The Origin of Species</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1126"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/darwins-health">Darwin's health</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first last leaf menu-mlid-2917"><a href="../../tags/darwin/darwin-on-his-health">Darwin's notes for his physician, 1865</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1128"><a href="../../about-darwin/darwin-s-photographic-portraits">Darwin's photographic portraits</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2896"><a href="../../have-you-read-one-about">Have you read the one about....</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2654"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/six-things-darwin-never-said">Six things Darwin never said - and one he did</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2654"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/six-things-darwin-never-said">Six things Darwin never said - and one he did overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2892"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/six-things-darwin-never-said/evolution-misquotation">The evolution of a misquotation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3673"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue">Portraits of Charles Darwin: a catalogue</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3673"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue">Portraits of Charles Darwin: a catalogue overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3676"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/11-ellen-sharples-pastel">1.1 Ellen Sharples pastel</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3709"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/12-george-richmond-marriage-portrait">1.2 George Richmond, marriage portrait</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3718"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/13-thomas-herbert-maguire-lithograph">1.3 Thomas Herbert Maguire, lithograph</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3721"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/14-samuel-laurence-drawing-1">1.4 Samuel Laurence drawing 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3724"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/15-samuel-laurence-drawing-2">1.5 Samuel Laurence drawing 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3727"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/16-ouless-oil-portrait">1.6 Ouless oil portrait</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3730"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/17-ouless-replica">1.7 Ouless replica</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3733"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/18-anonymous-drawing-after-ouless">1.8 anonymous drawing, after Ouless</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3736"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/19-rajon-etching-after-ouless">1.9 Rajon, etching after Ouless</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3679"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/110-rajon-etching-variant-state">1.10 Rajon etching, variant state</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3682"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/111-laura-russell-oil">1.11 Laura Russell, oil</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3685"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/112-marian-huxley-drawing">1.12 Marian Huxley, drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3688"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/113-louisa-nash-drawing">1.13 Louisa Nash, drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3691"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/114-william-richmond-oil">1.14 William Richmond, oil</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3694"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/115-albert-goodwin-watercolour">1.15 Albert Goodwin, watercolour</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3697"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/116-alphonse-legros-drypoint">1.16 Alphonse Legros, drypoint</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3700"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/117-alphonse-legros-drawing">1.17 Alphonse Legros drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3703"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/118-john-collier-oil-linnean">1.18 John Collier, oil in Linnean</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3706"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/119-john-collier-oil-npg">1.19 John Collier, oil in NPG</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3712"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/120-leopold-flameng-etching-after-collier">1.20 Leopold Flameng etching, after Collier</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3715"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/121-window-christs-college-cambridge">1.21 window at Christ's College Cambridge</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3739"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/21-thomas-woolner-bust">2.1 Thomas Woolner bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3772"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/22-thomas-woolner-metal-plaque">2.2 Thomas Woolner metal plaque</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3802"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/23-wedgwood-medallions">2.3 Wedgwood medallions</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3805"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/24-wedgwood-plaque">2.4 Wedgwood plaque</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3808"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/25-wedgwood-medallions-2nd-type">2.5 Wedgwood medallions, 2nd type</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3811"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/26-adolf-von-hildebrand-bust">2.6 Adolf von Hildebrand bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3814"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/27-joseph-moore-midland-union-medal">2.7 Joseph Moore, Midland Union medal</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3817"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/28-alphonse-legros-medallion">2.8 Alphonse Legros medallion</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3820"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/29-legros-medallion-plaster-model">2.9 Legros medallion, plaster model</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3742"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/210-moritz-klinkicht-print-legros">2.10 Moritz Klinkicht, print from Legros</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3745"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/211-christian-lehr-plaster-bust">2.11 Christian Lehr, plaster bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3748"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/212-allan-wyon-royal-society-medal">2.12 Allan Wyon, Royal Society medal</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3751"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/213-edgar-boehm-statue-nhm">2.13 Edgar Boehm, statue in the NHM</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3754"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/214-boehm-westminster-abbey-roundel">2.14 Boehm, Westminster Abbey roundel</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3757"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/215-boehm-terracotta-bust-npg">2.15 Boehm terracotta bust (NPG)</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3760"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/216-horace-montford-statue-shrewsbury">2.16 Horace Montford statue, Shrewsbury</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3763"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/217-montford-statuette">2.17 Montford, statuette</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3766"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/218-montford-carnegie-bust">2.18 Montford, Carnegie bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3769"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/219-montford-bust-royal-society">2.19 Montford, bust at the Royal Society</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3775"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/220-montford-terracotta-bust-npg">2.20 Montford, terracotta bust, NPG</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3778"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/221-montford-relief-christs-college">2.21 Montford, relief at Christ's College</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3781"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/222-l-j-chavalliaud-statue-liverpool">2.22 L.-J. Chavalliaud statue in Liverpool</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3784"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/223-hope-pinker-statue-oxford-museum">2.23 Hope Pinker statue, Oxford Museum</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3787"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/224-herbert-hampton-statue-lancaster">2.24 Herbert Hampton statue, Lancaster</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3790"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/225-henry-pegram-statue-birmingham">2.25 Henry Pegram statue, Birmingham</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3793"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/226-linnean-society-medal">2.26 Linnean Society medal</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3796"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/227-william-couper-bust-new-york">2.27 William Couper bust, New York</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3799"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/228-couper-bust-cambridge">2.28 Couper bust in Cambridge</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3823"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/31-antoine-claudet-daguerreotype">3.1 Antoine Claudet, daguerreotype</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3856"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/32-maull-and-polyblank-photo-1">3.2 Maull and Polyblank photo 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3865"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/33-maull-and-polyblank-photo-2">3.3 Maull and Polyblank photo 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3868"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/34-william-darwin-photo-1">3.4 William Darwin, photo 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3871"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/35-william-darwin-photo-2">3.5 William Darwin, photo 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3874"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/36-william-darwin-photo-3">3.6 William Darwin, photo 3</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3877"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/37-leonard-darwin-photo-verandah">3.7 Leonard Darwin, photo on verandah</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3880"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/38-leonard-darwin-interior-photo">3.8 Leonard Darwin, interior photo</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3883"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/39-leonard-darwin-photo-horseback">3.9 Leonard Darwin, photo on horseback</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3826"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/310-ernest-edwards-men-eminence">3.10 Ernest Edwards, 'Men of Eminence'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3829"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/311-edwards-illustrated-london-news">3.11 Edwards, in Illustrated London News</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3832"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/312-edwards-second-group-photos">3.12 Edwards, second group of photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3835"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/313-edwards-representative-men">3.13 Edwards 'Representative Men'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3838"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/314-julia-margaret-cameron-photos">3.14 Julia Margaret Cameron, photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3841"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/315-george-charles-wallich-photo">3.15 George Charles Wallich, photo</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3844"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/316-oscar-rejlander-photos">3.16 Oscar Rejlander, photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3847"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/317-lock-and-whitfield-men-mark">3.17 Lock and Whitfield, 'Men of Mark'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3850"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/318-elliott-and-fry-photos-c1869-1871">3.18 Elliott and Fry photos, c.1869-1871</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3853"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/319-elliott-and-fry-photos-c1880-1">3.19 Elliott and Fry photos c.1880-1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3859"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/320-elliott-and-fry-c1880-1-verandah">3.20 Elliott and Fry, c.1880-1, verandah</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3862"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/321-herbert-rose-barraud-photos">3.21 Herbert Rose Barraud, photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3886"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/41-albert-way-comic-drawings">4.1 Albert Way, comic drawings</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3919"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/42-augustus-earle-caricature-drawing">4.2 Augustus Earle, caricature drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3952"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/43-alfred-crowquill-caricature">4.3 Alfred Crowquill, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3985"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/44-thomas-huxley-caricature-sketch">4.4 Thomas Huxley, caricature sketch</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4018"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/45-william-beard-comic-painting">4.5 William Beard, comic painting</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4051"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/46-thomas-nast-cartoon">4.6 Thomas Nast, cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4054"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/47-vanity-fair-caricature">4.7 'Vanity Fair', caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4057"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/48-vanity-fair-preliminary-study">4.8 'Vanity Fair', preliminary study</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4060"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/49-graphic-cartoon">4.9 'Graphic', cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3889"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/410-hornet-caricature-darwin">4.10 'Hornet' caricature of Darwin</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3892"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/411-fun-cartoon-little-lecture">4.11 'Fun' cartoon, 'A little lecture'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3895"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/412-fun-wedding-procession">4.12 'Fun', Wedding procession</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3898"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/413-fun-cartoon-griset-emotional">4.13 'Fun' cartoon by Griset, 'Emotional'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3901"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/414-fun-cartoon-troubles">4.14 'Fun' cartoon, 'That troubles'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3904"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/415-george-cruikshank-comic-drawing">4.15 George Cruikshank, comic drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3907"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/416-joseph-simms-physiognomy">4.16 Joseph Simms, physiognomy</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3910"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/417-figaro-unidentifiable-1871">4.17 'Figaro', unidentifiable 1871</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3913"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/418-figaro-chromolithograph-1">4.18 'Figaro' chromolithograph 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3916"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/419-george-montbard-caricature">4.19 George Montbard, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3922"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/420-frederick-waddy-caricature">4.20 Frederick Waddy, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3925"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/421-gegeef-our-national-church-1">4.21 Gegeef, 'Our National Church', 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3928"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/422-gegeef-et-al-our-national-church-2">4.22 Gegeef et al., 'Our National Church', 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3931"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/423-gegeef-battle-field-science">4.23 Gegeef, 'Battle Field of Science'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3934"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/424-daily-graphic-nast-satire">4.24 'Daily Graphic', Nast satire</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3937"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/425-punch-1877-re-cambridge-doctorate">4.25 'Punch' 1877 re. Cambridge doctorate</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3940"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/426-christmas-card-caricature-monkeys">4.26 Christmas card caricature, monkeys</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3943"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/427-four-founders-darwinismus">4.27 'Four founders of Darwinismus'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3946"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/428-english-celebrities-montage">4.28 'English celebrities' montage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3949"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/429-richard-grant-white-fall-man">4.29 Richard Grant White, 'Fall of man'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3955"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/430-la-petite-lune-gill-cartoon">4.30 'La Petite Lune', Gill cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3958"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/431-la-lune-rousse-gill-cartoon">4.31 'La Lune Rousse', Gill cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3961"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/432-anis-liqueur-label">4.32 Anis liqueur label</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3964"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/433-harpers-weekly-bellew-caricature">4.33 'Harper's Weekly', Bellew caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3967"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/434-punch-sambourne-cartoon-1">4.34 'Punch', Sambourne cartoon 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3970"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/435-frederick-sem-caricature">4.35 Frederick Sem, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3973"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/436-sem-chistmas-card">4.36 Sem, Chistmas card</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3976"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/437-mosquito-satire">4.37 'Mosquito' satire</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3979"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/438-franz-goedecker-caricature">4.38 Franz Goedecker, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3982"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/439-moonshine-magazine-cartoon">4.39 'Moonshine' magazine cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3988"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/440-phrenological-magazine">4.40 'Phrenological Magazine'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3991"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/441-punch-sambourne-cartoon-2">4.41 'Punch', Sambourne cartoon 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3994"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/442-punch-sambourne-cartoon-3">4.42 'Punch' Sambourne cartoon 3</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3997"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/443-illustrated-london-news-article">4.43 'Illustrated London News' article</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4000"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/444-puck-cartoon-1">4.44 'Puck' cartoon 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4003"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/445-puck-cartoon-2">4.45 'Puck' cartoon 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4006"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/446-puck-cartoon-3">4.46 'Puck' cartoon 3</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4009"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/447-puck-cartoon-4">4.47 'Puck' cartoon 4</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4012"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/448-puck-cartoon-5">4.48 'Puck', cartoon 5</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4015"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/449-alfred-bryan-caricature">4.49 Alfred Bryan, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4021"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/450-cigar-box-lid-design">4.50 Cigar box lid design</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4024"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/451-frederick-holder-life-and-work">4.51 Frederick Holder 'Life and Work'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4027"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/452-wasp-caricature">4.52 'Wasp' caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4030"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/453-claud-warren-outlines-hands">4.53 Claud Warren, 'Outlines of Hands'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4033"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/454-jubilees-queen-victoria">4.54 jubilees of Queen Victoria</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4036"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/455-harry-furniss-caricature">4.55 Harry Furniss caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4039"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/456-larks-cartoon">4.56 'Larks' cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4042"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/457-silhouette-cartoon">4.57 silhouette cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4045"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/458-simian-savage-drawings">4.58 'Simian, savage' . . . drawings</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4048"><a href="../../about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/459-simplicissimus-cartoon">4.59 'Simplicissimus' cartoon</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-4066"><a href="../../about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life">Darwin and the experimental life</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed 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href="../../fake-darwin">Fake Darwin: myths and misconceptions</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3402"><a href="../../darwins-bad-days">Darwin's bad days</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3644"><a href="../../people/about-darwin/darwin-s-first-love">Darwin's first love</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded active-trail menu-mlid-800"><a href="../../letters" title="" class="active-trail campl-selected">The letters</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed active-trail menu-mlid-800"><a href="../../letters" title="" class="active-trail">The letters overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2080"><a href="../darwins-life-letters">Darwin's life in letters</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2080"><a href="../darwins-life-letters">Darwin's life in letters overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1097"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1821-1836-childhood-beagle-voyage">1821-1836: Childhood to the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1106"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1837-1843-london-years-natural-selection" title="Charles Darwin's life seen through his letters, 1837-43">1837-43: The London years to 'natural selection'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1107"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1844-1846-building-scientific-network">1844-1846: Building a scientific network</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1108"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1847-1850-microscopes-and-barnacles">1847-1850: Microscopes and barnacles</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1109"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1851-1855-death-daughter">1851-1855: Death of a daughter</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1110"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1856-1857-big-book">1856-1857: The 'Big Book'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-936"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1858-1859-origin">1858-1859: Origin</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-937"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1860-answering-critics">1860: Answering critics</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1111"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1861-gaining-allies">1861: Gaining allies</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1098"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1862-multiplicity-experiments">1862: A multiplicity of experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1099"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1863-quarrels-home-honours-abroad">1863: Quarrels at home, honours abroad</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1100"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1864-failing-health">1864: Failing health</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-935"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1865-delays-and-disappointments">1865: Delays and disappointments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1101"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1866-survival-fittest">1866: Survival of the fittest</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1102"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1867-civilised-dispute">1867: A civilised dispute</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1103"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1868-studying-sex">1868: Studying sex</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1104"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1869-forward-all-fronts">1869: Forward on all fronts</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1105"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1870-human-evolution">1870: Human evolution</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1151"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1871-emptying-nest">1871: An emptying nest</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1152"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1872-job-done">1872: Job done?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1049"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwins-letters-1873-animal-or-vegetable">1873: Animal or vegetable?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1050"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1874-turbulent-year">1874: A turbulent year</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2275"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1875-pulling-strings">1875: Pulling strings</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2894"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1876-midst-life">1876: In the midst of life</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3363"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1877-flowers-and-honours">1877: Flowers and honours</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3383"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1878-movement-and-sleep">1878: Movement and sleep</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3394"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1879-tracing-roots">1879: Tracing roots</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3661"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1880-sensitivity-and-worms">1880: Sensitivity and worms</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4063"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1881-old-friends-and-new-admirers">1881: Old friends and new admirers</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4102"><a href="../darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1882-nothing-too-great-or-too-small">1882: Nothing too great or too small</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded active-trail menu-mlid-3384"><a href="../darwins-works-letters" class="active-trail">Darwin's works in letters</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed active-trail menu-mlid-3384"><a href="../darwins-works-letters" class="active-trail">Darwin's works in letters overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3385"><a href="journal-researches">Journal of researches</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3386"><a href="living-and-fossil-cirripedia">Living and fossil cirripedia</a></li> <li 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leaf menu-mlid-3413"><a href="rewriting-origin-later-editions/origin-lost-changes-second-german">Origin: the lost changes for the second German edition</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3404"><a href="orchids">Orchids</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3662"><a href="climbing-plants">Climbing plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3387"><a href="descent">Descent</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3388"><a href="expression">Expression</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3389"><a href="insectivorous-plants">Insectivorous plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3663"><a href="forms-flowers">Forms of flowers</a></li> <li class="leaf active-trail active menu-mlid-4084 campl-current-page"><a href="cross-and-self-fertilisation" class="active-trail active">Cross and self fertilisation</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3405"><a href="life-erasmus-darwin">Life of Erasmus Darwin</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3665"><a href="movement-plants">Movement in Plants</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2264"><a href="../about-letters">About the letters</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2408"><a href="../lifecycle-letter-film">Lifecycle of a letter film</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2408"><a href="../lifecycle-letter-film">Lifecycle of a letter film overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2411"><a href="../lifecycle-letter-film/editing-letter">Editing a Letter</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2409"><a href="../lifecycle-letter-film/working-darwin-archive">Working in the Darwin archive</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2296"><a href="../capturing-darwin-s-voice-audio-selected-letters">Capturing Darwin's voice: audio of selected letters</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2266"><a href="../correspondence-women">Correspondence with women</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-878"><a href="../../hunt-new-letters">The hunt for new letters</a></li> <li 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class="leaf menu-mlid-4158"><a href="../../darwin-conversation-exhibition">Darwin in Conversation exhibition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4099"><a href="../diagrams-and-drawings-letters">Diagrams and drawings in letters</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-4105"><a href="../favourite-letters">Favourite Letters</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-4105"><a href="../favourite-letters">Favourite Letters overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4162"><a href="../favourite-letters/be-envious-ripe-oranges-w-d-fox-may-1832">Be envious of ripe oranges: To W. D. Fox, May 1832</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4111"><a href="../favourite-letters/monstrous-stain-j-m-herbert-2-june-1833">That monstrous stain: To J. M. Herbert, 2 June 1833</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4166"><a href="../favourite-letters/my-most-solemn-request-emma-darwin-5-july-1844">My most solemn request: To Emma Darwin, 5 July 1844</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4178"><a href="../favourite-letters/our-poor-dear-dear-child-emma-darwin-23-april-1851">Our poor dear dear child: To Emma Darwin, [23 April 1851]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4174"><a href="../favourite-letters/i-beg-million-pardons-john-lubbock-3-september-1862">I beg a million pardons: To John Lubbock, [3 September 1862]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4129"><a href="../favourite-letters/prize-possessions-henry-denny-17-january-1865">Prize possessions: To Henry Denny, 17 January [1865]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4114"><a href="../favourite-letters/how-manage-it-j-d-hooker-17-june-1865">How to manage it: To J. D. Hooker, [17 June 1865]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4117"><a href="../favourite-letters/fly-flower-hermann-m-ller-23-october-1867">A fly on the flower: From Hermann Müller, 23 October 1867</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4138"><a href="../favourite-letters/reading-my-roommate-s-illustrious-ancestor-t-h-huxley-10-june-1868">Reading my roommate's illustrious ancestor: To T. H. Huxley, 10 June 1868</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4169"><a href="../favourite-letters/beginning-something-j-d-hooker-22-january-1869">A beginning, & that is something: To J. D. Hooker, [22 January 1869]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4135"><a href="../favourite-letters/perfect-copper-plate-hand-adolf-reuter-30-may-1869">Perfect copper-plate hand: From Adolf Reuter, 30 May 1869</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4132"><a href="../favourite-letters/darwin-s-favourite-photographer-o-g-rejlander-30-april-1871">Darwin's favourite photographer: From O. G. Rejlander, 30 April 1871</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4172"><a href="../favourite-letters/your-letter-eternalized-us-n-d-doedes-27-march-1873">Your letter eternalized before us: From N. D. Doedes, 27 March 1873</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4120"><a href="../favourite-letters/lost-translation-auguste-forel-12-november-1874">Lost in translation: From Auguste Forel, 12 November 1874</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4182"><a href="../favourite-letters/i-never-trusted-drosera-e-f-lubbock-after-2-july-1875">I never trusted Drosera: From E. F. Lubbock, [after 2 July] 1875</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4126"><a href="../favourite-letters/argus-pheasant-mivart-r-wallace-17-june-1876">From Argus pheasant to Mivart: To A. R. Wallace, 17 June 1876</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4141"><a href="../favourite-letters/wearing-his-knowledge-lightly-fritz-m-ller-5-april-1878">Wearing his knowledge lightly: From Fritz Müller, 5 April 1878</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4123"><a href="../favourite-letters/terms-engagement-julius-wiesner-25-october-1881">Terms of engagement: To Julius Wiesner, 25 October 1881</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4108"><a href="../favourite-letters/intellectual-capacities-caroline-kennard-26-december-1881">Intellectual capacities: From Caroline Kennard, 26 December 1881</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-4144"><a href="../darwin-plays">Darwin plays</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-4144"><a href="../darwin-plays">Darwin plays overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4150"><a href="../darwin-plays/emma-audio-play">'Emma' audio play</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4147"><a href="../darwin-plays/frank-audio-play">'Frank' audio play</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4153"><a href="../darwin-plays/confessing-murder-audio-play">'Like confessing a murder' audio play</a></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-2294"><a href="../darwin-plays/re-design-dramatisation">'Re: Design' dramatisation</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2294"><a href="../darwin-plays/re-design-dramatisation">'Re: Design' dramatisation overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1134"><a href="../../commentary/religion/re-design-dramatisation/dramatisation-script">Dramatisation script</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3377"><a href="/search?sort=date&keyword=darwin&f1-document-type=letter" title="">Browse all Darwin letters in date order</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3391"><a href="../list-correspondents">List of correspondents</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-824"><a href="../../commentary">Commentary</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-824"><a href="../../commentary">Commentary overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2269"><a href="../../commentary/evolution" title="">Evolution</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2269"><a href="../../commentary/evolution" title="">Evolution overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2262"><a href="../../commentary/evolution/natural-selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2293"><a href="../../commentary/evolution/sexual-selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2299"><a href="../../commentary/evolution/inheritance">Inheritance</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2298"><a href="../../commentary/evolution/divergence">Divergence</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3410"><a href="../../commentary/evolution/correlation-growth-deaf-blue-eyed-cats-pigs-and-poison">Correlation of growth: deaf blue-eyed cats, pigs, and poison</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3414"><a href="../../commentary/evolution/natural-selection-trouble-terminology-part-i">Natural Selection: the trouble with terminology Part I</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3415"><a href="../../commentary/evolution/survival-fittest-trouble-terminology-part-ii">Survival of the fittest: the trouble with terminology Part II</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3671"><a href="../../commentary/evolution/darwin-s-species-notebooks-i-think">Darwin's species notebooks: 'I think . . .'</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-871"><a href="../../commentary/geology" title="">Geology</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-871"><a href="../../commentary/geology" title="">Geology overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2259"><a href="../../commentary/geology/darwin-geology">Darwin and geology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1127"><a href="../../topics/geology/darwin-s-introduction-geology">Darwin's introduction to geology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1270"><a href="../../commentary/geology/geology-beagle-voyage">The geology of the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1122"><a href="../../commentary/geology/darwin-coral-reefs">Darwin and coral reefs</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2258"><a href="../../commentary/geology/darwin-s-earthquakes">Darwin's earthquakes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2257"><a href="../../topics/geology/darwin-geological-society" title="">Darwin and the Geological Society</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1123"><a href="../../commentary/geology/darwin-glen-roy">Darwin and Glen Roy</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1087"><a href="../../topics/geology/bibliography-darwin-s-geological-publications">Bibliography of Darwin's geological publications</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2247"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences" title="">Life sciences</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2247"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences" title="">Life sciences overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1117"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down">Darwin and Down</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1117"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down">Darwin and Down overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1149"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down/darwin-s-hothouse-and-lists-hothouse-plants">Darwin's hothouse and lists of hothouse plants</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4087"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/species-and-varieties">Species and varieties</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1058"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/evolution-honeycomb">The evolution of honeycomb</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1083"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/tale-two-bees">A tale of two bees</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1088"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed">Beauty and the seed</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1088"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed">Beauty and the seed overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1055"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed/mauro-galetti-profile-ecologist">Mauro Galetti: profile of an ecologist</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2261"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/casting-about-darwin-worms">Casting about: Darwin on worms</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1081"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/was-darwin-ecologist">Was Darwin an ecologist?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3641"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/dipsacus-and-drosera-frank-s-favourite-carnivores">Dipsacus and Drosera</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2318"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles">Darwin and barnacles</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2318"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles">Darwin and barnacles overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2317"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles/darwin-s-study-cirripedia">Darwin's study of the Cirripedia</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2280"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection">Darwin and vivisection</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2280"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection">Darwin and vivisection overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2284"><a href="../../topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-draft-petition">Vivisection: draft petition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2285"><a href="../../topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-baas-committee-report">Vivisection: BAAS committee report</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2286"><a href="../../topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-first-sketch-bill">Vivisection: first sketch of the bill</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2287"><a href="../../topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-darwins-testimony-royal-commission">Vivisection: Darwin's testimony</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2288"><a href="../../topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/appeal-against-animal-cruelty">'An Appeal' against animal cruelty</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2916"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences/biodiversity-and-its-histories">Biodiversity and its histories</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-873"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature" title="">Human nature</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-873"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature" title="">Human nature overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2604"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/darwin-human-evolution">Darwin on human evolution</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1269"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions">The expression of emotions</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1269"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions">The expression of emotions overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1262"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/emotion-experiment">Emotion experiment</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1262"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/emotion-experiment">Emotion experiment overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1263"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/emotion-experiment/results-darwin-online-emotions">Results of the Darwin Online Emotions Experiment</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2256"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/face-emotion">Face of emotion</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2292"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/darwin-s-queries-expression">Darwin's queries on expression</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1052"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/origin-language">The origin of language</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1052"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/origin-language">The origin of language overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1053"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-key-letters">Language: key letters</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1153"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-interview-gregory-radick">Language: Interview with Gregory Radick</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1140"><a href="../../commentary/human-nature/darwin-and-human-nature-film-series">Film series podcasts</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-874"><a href="../../commentary/religion" title="">Religion</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-874"><a href="../../commentary/religion" title="">Religion overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1033"><a href="../../commentary/religion/darwin-and-design">Darwin and design</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1288"><a href="../../commentary/religion/what-did-darwin-believe">What did Darwin believe?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1034"><a href="../../commentary/religion/darwin-and-church">Darwin and the Church</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1089"><a href="../../commentary/religion/british-association-meeting-1860">British Association meeting 1860</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1121"><a href="../../commentary/religion/darwin-and-religion-america">Darwin and religion in America</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1045"><a href="../../commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray">Essays and reviews by Asa Gray</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1045"><a href="../../commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray">Essays and reviews by Asa Gray overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2271"><a href="../../commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/darwiniana-preface">Darwiniana - Preface</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2272"><a href="../../commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-design-versus-necessity">Essay: Design versus necessity</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1046"><a href="../../commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-natural-selection-natural-theology">Essay: Natural selection & natural theology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1146"><a href="../../commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-evolution-theology">Essay: Evolution and theology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2273"><a href="../../commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-what-darwinism">Essay: What is Darwinism?</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2274"><a href="../../commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-evolutionary-teleology">Essay: Evolutionary teleology</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-2249"><a href="../../commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews">Science and religion Interviews</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2249"><a href="../../commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews">Science and religion Interviews overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2250"><a href="../../commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-emily-ballou">Interview with Emily Ballou</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2251"><a href="../../commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-simon-conway-morris">Interview with Simon Conway Morris</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2252"><a href="../../commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-john-hedley-brooke">Interview with John Hedley Brooke</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2253"><a href="../../commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-randal-keynes">Interview with Randal Keynes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2254"><a href="../../commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-tim-lewens">Interview with Tim Lewens</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2255"><a href="../../commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-pietro-corsi">Interview with Pietro Corsi</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-3395"><a href="../../commentary/curious" title="">For the curious...</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3395"><a href="../../commentary/curious" title="">For the curious... overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4155"><a href="../../commentary/curious/cordillera-beagle-expedition">Cordillera Beagle expedition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4096"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-family">The Darwin family</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4093"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-s-plant-experiments">Darwin's plant experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4090"><a href="../../commentary/curious/behind-scenes">Behind the scenes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3664"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-s-networks">Darwin's Networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3643"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-and-beagle-voyage">Darwin and the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3403"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-and-working-home">Darwin and working from home</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3409"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-cats-and-cat-shows">Darwin, cats and cat shows</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3396"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-and-dogs">Darwin and dogs</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3397"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwins-illness">Darwin's illness</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3398"><a href="../../commentary/curious/plant-or-animal-or-don-t-try-home">Plant or animal? (Or: Don't try this at home!)</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3399"><a href="../../commentary/curious/strange-things-sent-darwin-post">Strange things sent to Darwin in the post</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-823"><a href="../../people">People</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-823"><a href="../../people">People overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2150"><a href="../../commentary/key-correspondents" title="">Key correspondents</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2153"><a href="../../commentary/beagle-voyage-networks" title="">Beagle voyage networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2152"><a href="../../commentary/family-and-friends" title="">Family and friends</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2159"><a href="../../commentary/darwins-scientific-network" title="">Darwin's scientific network</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2155"><a href="../../tags/readers-and-critics" title="">Readers and critics</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2162"><a href="../../tags/publishers-artists-and-illustrators" title="">Publishers, artists and illustrators</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3381"><a href="../../correspondents-alphabetical" title="">People pages in alphabetical order</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3367"><a href="../../people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums">German and Dutch photograph albums</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3367"><a href="../../people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums">German and Dutch photograph albums overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3372"><a href="../../people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums/photograph-album-german-and-austrian-scientists">Photograph album of German and Austrian scientists</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3371"><a href="../../people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums/photograph-album-dutch-admirers">Photograph album of Dutch admirers</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3370"><a href="../../german-poems-presented-darwin">German poems presented to Darwin</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3380"><a href="/search?f1-document-type=people&sort=name" title="">List of all people mentioned in letters</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-825"><a href="../../learning-resources" title="">Learning</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-825"><a href="../../learning-resources" title="">Learning overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1739"><a href="../../learning/7-11">Ages 7-11</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1739"><a href="../../learning/7-11">Ages 7-11 overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2601"><a href="../../learning/7-11/darwin-the-collector">Darwin The Collector</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2602"><a href="../../learning/7-11/detecting-darwin">Detecting Darwin</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2603"><a href="../../learning/7-11/darwin-and-evolution">Darwin And Evolution</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2600"><a href="../../learning/7-11/darwins-fantastical-voyage">Darwin's Fantastical Voyage</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3408"><a href="../../learning/7-11/home-learning-7-11-years">Home learning: 7-11 years</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1744"><a href="../../learning/11-14">Ages 11-14</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1744"><a href="../../learning/11-14">Ages 11-14 overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2899"><a href="../../learning/11-14/darwin-and-religion">Darwin and Religion</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2898"><a href="../../learning/11-14/doing-darwins-experiments">Doing Darwin's Experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2900"><a href="../../learning/11-14/how-dangerous-was-darwin">How dangerous was Darwin?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2901"><a href="../../learning/11-14/offer-of-a-lifetime">Offer of a lifetime</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2903"><a href="../../learning/11-14/darwin-and-slavery">Darwin and slavery</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2902"><a href="../../learning/11-14/beagle-voyage">Beagle Voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2904"><a href="../../learning/11-14/darwins-scientific-women">Darwin's scientific women</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1154"><a href="../../case-studies-using-darwin-s-letters-classroom">Schools Gallery: Using Darwin's letters in the classroom</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-833"><a href="../../learning/universities">Universities</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-833"><a href="../../learning/universities">Universities overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1063"><a href="../../learning/universities/letters-primary-source" title="">Letters as a primary source</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1063"><a href="../../learning/universities/letters-primary-source" title="">Letters as a primary source overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2276"><a href="../../learning/universities/letters-primary-source/scientific-networks">Scientific networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2277"><a href="../../learning/universities/letters-primary-source/scientific-practice">Scientific practice</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2278"><a href="../../learning/universities/letters-primary-source/controversy">Controversy</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2279"><a href="../../learning/universities/letters-primary-source/religion">Religion</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1066"><a href="../../learning/universities/letters-primary-source/discussion-questions-and-essay-questions">Discussion questions and essay questions</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1286"><a href="../../learning/universities/letters-primary-source/suggested-reading">Suggested reading</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1550"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science">Getting to know Darwin's science</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1550"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science">Getting to know Darwin's science overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2144"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/early-days">Early days</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1086"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/barnacles">Barnacles</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-932"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1287"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/variation-under-domestication">Variation under domestication</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1259"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/orchids">Orchids</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1150"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/instinct-and-evolution-mind">Instinct and the evolution of mind</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1048"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/insectivorous-plants">Insectivorous plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1095"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/climbing-plants">Climbing plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1141"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/floral-dimorphism">Floral dimorphism</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1260"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/power-movement-plants">Power of movement in plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1135"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/earthworms">Earthworms</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1132"><a href="../../learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/dining-down-house">Dining at Down House</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2314"><a href="../../learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature">Darwin and human nature</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2314"><a href="../../learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature">Darwin and human nature overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1155"><a href="../../learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature/moral-nature">Moral nature</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1261"><a href="../../learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature/race-civilization-and-progress">Race, civilization, and progress</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-1289"><a href="../../learning/universities/women-and-science">Women and science</a> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1289"><a href="../../learning/universities/women-and-science">Women and science overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2281"><a href="../../learning/universities/women-and-science/women-s-scientific-participation">Women's scientific participation</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1290"><a href="../../learning/universities/women-and-science/women-scientific-audience">Women as a scientific audience</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1041"><a href="../../learning/universities/women-and-science/referencing-women-s-work">Referencing women's work</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2312"><a href="../../learning/universities/women-and-science/darwin-public-and-private">Darwin in public and private</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2283"><a href="../../learning/universities/women-and-science/darwin-mentor">Darwin as mentor</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2313"><a href="../../learning/universities/women-and-science/discussion-questions">Discussion questions</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2311"><a href="../../learning/universities/women-and-science/suggested-reading">Suggested reading</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2897"><a href="../../learning-resources/timeline" title="">Darwin timeline</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3668"><a href="../../learning-resources/exploring-evolution">Teacher training</a></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-4186"><a href="../../commentary/curious" title="">For the curious...</a> <ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"> <li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-4186"><a href="../../commentary/curious" title="">For the curious... overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4189"><a href="../../commentary/curious/cordillera-beagle-expedition" title="">Cordillera Beagle expedition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4192"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-family" title="">The Darwin family</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4195"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-s-plant-experiments" title="">Darwin's plant experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4198"><a href="../../commentary/curious/behind-scenes" title="">Behind the scenes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4201"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-s-networks" title="">Darwin's Networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4204"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-and-beagle-voyage" title="">Darwin and the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4207"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-and-working-home" title="">Darwin and working from home</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4210"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-cats-and-cat-shows" title="">Darwin, cats and cat shows</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4213"><a href="../../commentary/curious/darwin-and-dogs" title="">Darwin and dogs</a></li> <li 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class="campl-content-container"> <h1 class="campl-sub-title">Cross and self fertilisation</h1> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="campl-row campl-content campl-recessed-content"><div class="campl-wrap clearfix"><div class="campl-column9 campl-main-content" id="page-content"> <div class=""> <div class="region region-content"> <div id="block-darwin-sharing-darwin-sharing-add" class="block block-darwin-sharing campl-content-container"> <div> <div class="social-media-share"><a class="icon-sm darwin-facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletters%2Fdarwins-works-letters%2Fcross-and-self-fertilisation" title="Share on Facebook" target="_blank"><i class="fab fa-facebook-f"></i></a> <a class="icon-sm darwin-twitter" href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Cross+and+self+fertilisation&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darwinproject.ac.uk%2Fletters%2Fdarwins-works-letters%2Fcross-and-self-fertilisation" title="Share on Twitter" 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class="content"><a href="/sites/default/files/Cross%20and%20Self%20Diagram.jpg"><img typeof="foaf:Image" class="campl-scale-with-grid" src="/sites/default/files/Cross%20and%20Self%20Diagram.jpg" width="381" height="403" alt="Diagram showing the mean heights of the crossed and self-fertilised plants of Ipomoea purpurea" title="Diagram showing the mean heights of the crossed and self-fertilised plants of Ipomoea purpurea"/></a> <div class="field field-name-field-file-caption field-type-text field-label-hidden"> <div class="field-items"> <div class="field-item even">Diagram showing the mean heights of the crossed and self-fertilised plants of Ipomoea purpurea</div> </div> </div> <div class="field field-name-field-file-identifier field-type-text field-label-hidden"> <div class="field-items"> <div class="field-item even">Cross and self fertilisation, p. 53</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden"> <div class="field-items"> <div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"> <p><em>The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom</em>, published on 10 November 1876, was the result of a decade-long project to provide evidence for Darwin's belief that ''Nature thus tells us, in the most emphatic manner, that she abhors perpetual self-fertilisation' (<em>Orchids</em>, p. 359). In his book, <em>On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects, and on the good effects of intercrossing</em> (1862), and in several papers on plants with two or three different forms of flowers, Darwin had focused on the anatomical and physiological adaptations that promoted intercrossing and limited or prevented self fertilisation in flowering (angiosperm) plants. The research for those works had been limited to studying the structure of flowers and the physiological effects of different forms of pollen. Although many plants that Darwin observed had flowers with adaptations to prevent self fertilisation, many of these were nevertheless fertile with their own pollen. He set out to compare several generations of cross and self fertilised plants, comparing germination rates, growth, and constitutional vigour. Although Darwin was no stranger to long months and years of research on other projects, <em>Cross and self fertilisation</em> would become one of his most sustained and detailed studies, encompassing plants from as many families as he could obtain from his wide network of correspondents.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>'The difference … is highly remarkable'</strong></p> <p>In September 1866, Darwin announced to the American botanist Asa Gray, 'I have just begun a large course of experiments on the germination of the seed & on the growth of the young plants when raised from a pistil fertilized by pollen from the same flower, & from pollen from a distinct plant of the same or of some other variety. I have not made sufficient experiments to judge certainly, but in some cases the difference in the growth of the young plants is highly remarkable' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5210.xml">To Asa Gray, 10 September [1866]</a>). By early December, the French botanist Édouard Bornet had provided seeds of some varieties of poppy (<em>Papaver</em>) that always bred true even when grown together for several years (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5292.xml">To Édouard Bornet, 1 December 1866</a>). Darwin began a series of experiments, reporting back to Bornet in August 1867 that all but one of the varieties bred true (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5611.xml">To Edouard Bornet, 20 August [1867]</a>). It was only after a new season of experiments that Darwin would confirm that this poppy shed its pollen immediately after the flower opened, resulting in self fertilisation; his earlier results were thus called into question since even those flowers to which he applied foreign pollen had probably already been self fertilised. This case highlighted the complexity of the research: simply preventing or allowing insect access to flowers was only the tip of the iceberg.</p> <p>Darwin next focused on the California poppy (<em>Eschscholzia californica</em>). Fritz Müller, writing from Brazil in December 1866, noted that plants of this poppy growing in his garden were completely self-sterile, on which he commented, 'This complete infertility with own pollen could hardly have remained unnoticed, had it existed in all individuals of such a common garden plant. Perhaps in the case of my plants it can be attributed to their cultivation in divergent climatic conditions' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5292A.xml">From Fritz Müller, 1 December 1866</a>). Darwin's interest was piqued and he described the case as 'extremely curious' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5331.xml">To Fritz Müller, [late December 1866 and] 1 January 1867</a>). The following year, his experiments showed that plants of this species produced seed when self-fertilised, although fewer than crossed plants. Darwin sent some of these seeds to Müller, hoping that he would 'raise a plant, cover it with a net, & observe whether it is self-fertile; at the same time allowing several uncovered plants to produce capsules' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5816.xml">To Fritz Müller, 30 January [1868]</a>). Müller, in turn, sent seeds from his plants to Darwin and both men continued to experiment, observing changes in the degree of self-fertility over subsequent generations. In June 1869, Müller remarked, on receiving a new batch of seeds from Darwin, 'that it was 'curious to see, on what trifling circumstances fertility sometimes depends' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-6835.xml">From Fritz Müller, 15 June 1869</a>). By May 1870, Darwin reported that he was 'rearing crossed & self-fertilized plants, in antagonism to each other, from your semi-sterile plants, so that I may compare their comparative growth with that of the offspring of English fertile plants' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-7184.xml">To Fritz Müller, 12 May 1870</a>).</p> <p>From a fairly early stage in his experimental programme, Darwin began to pay more attention to the conditions that might affect his results. In March 1867, he told his close friend Joseph Hooker, 'The only fact which I have lately ascertained, & about which I dont know whether you w<sup>d</sup> care, is that a great excess of, or very little pollen produced not the least difference in the average number, weight, or period of germination in the seeds of Ipomœa. I remember saying the contrary to you & M<sup>r</sup> Smith at Kew. But the result is now clear from a great series of trials. On the other hand seeds from this plant, fertilised by pollen from the same flower, weigh less, produce dwarfer plants, but indisputably <u>germinate quicker</u> than seeds produced by a cross between two distinct plants' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5445.xml">To J. D. Hooker, 17 March [1867]</a>). He noted another factor in a letter to Gray, remarking, 'I am going on with my trials of the growth of plants raised from self-fertilised & crossed seeds, & begin now to suspect that the wonderful difference in growth & conststitutional vigour occurs only with exotic plants which have been raised by seed during many generations in England, but which are not properly visited by insects & so have been rarely crossed' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5442.xml">To Asa Gray, 15 April [1867]</a>). One of these 'exotics' was the sweet pea (<em>Lathyrus odoratus</em>), and in October 1867, Darwin wrote to James Moggridge to ask him to observe whether spontaneous crossing of different varieties of this plant occurred in the south of France where Moggridge lived for part of the year (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5638.xml">To J. T. Moggridge, 1 October [1867]</a>). Darwin was beginning to suspect that the insects which could transfer pollen in sweet peas simply did not exist in Britain.</p> <p>During a visit to Darwin in May 1866, Robert Caspary, a specialist in aquatic plants, had discussed his observations on <em>Euryale ferox</em>, an Asian water lily that produced both open flowers above water and closed ones below. Caspary later counted seeds from the unopened self-fertilised flowers as well as those from artificially cross-fertilised ones, finding that more seed was produced by the former (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5894.xml">From Robert Caspary, 18 February 1868</a>). Darwin eagerly requested seed from both cross and self-fertilised plants in order to 'compare their power of growth' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5932.xml">To Robert Caspary, 25 February [1868]</a>). By this time he had already recorded results with several generations of some more common garden plants like morning glory (<em>Ipomoea purpurea</em>) and monkey flower (<em>Mimulus luteus</em>). He added these preliminary findings to his new book, <em>The variation of plants and animals under domestication</em> (Variation 2: 128-9), which was published on 30 January 1868.</p> <p>In April 1868, Darwin informed George Bentham, 'I am experimenting on a very large scale on the difference in power of growth between plants raised from self fertilised & crossed seeds; and it is no exaggeration to say that the difference in growth & vigour is sometimes truly wonderful.' Visitors were astonished by his plants, he told Bentham, adding, 'I always supposed until lately that no evil effects w<sup>d</sup> be visible until after several generations of self fertilisation; but now I see that one generation sometimes suffices; & the existence of dimorphic plants & all the wonderful contrivances of orchids are quite intelligible to me' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-6138.xml">To George Bentham, 22 April 1868</a>). A month later, he had another set of remarkable experimental results: he had found mignonette (<em>Reseda odorata</em>) was absolutely sterile with pollen from same plant in spite of the fact that stamens bent upward to shed pollen on stigmas of the same flower. 'How utterly mysterious it is', he reported to Hooker, 'that there sh<sup>d</sup> be some difference in ovules & contents of pollen-grains (for the tubes penetrate own stigma) causing fertilisation when these are taken from <u>any</u> two distinct plants, & invariably leading to impotence when taken from the same plant!' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-6196.xml">To J. D. Hooker, 21 May [1868]</a>) Pollen tubes, or rapidly elongating vegetative cells enclosing the sperm, provide a conduit through the style to the ovary of a flower; they are triggered to elongate when the pollen touches the stigmatic surface. Darwin was able to discern that penetration of the pollen tubes did not necessarily result in fecundation.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>'The essence of sexual reproduction'</strong></p> <p>In an article on plant sexual relations, Müller, who sent the publication to Darwin, reported that he was surprised at the lessened fertility when he pollinated plants using pollen from other plants of the same species growing close by. He speculated that these plants might have grown from seeds of the same 'mother plant' and that this close relationship had lessened the fertility of the offspring (F. Müller 1868b, p. 629). Darwin urged further experimentation. 'I am convinced that if you can prove that a plant growing in a distant place under different conditions is more effective in fertilization than one growing close by, you will make a great step in the essence of sexual reproduction', he told Müller (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-6483.xml">To Fritz Müller, 28 November 1868</a>). In March 1869, Müller reported results of experiments with a new species of <em>Abutilon</em> found by him on the Rio Capivary (now Capivari), a small tributary of the Rio Grande, in Bahia, Brazil. Not only were the plants self sterile, but plants raised from seeds from the same pod were mutually sterile (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-6662F.xml">From Fritz Müller, 14 March 1869</a>). 'The case of the Abutilon sterile with some individuals is remarkable', Darwin replied, adding that he had sown seeds of this plant sent by Müller (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-6835.xml">To Fritz Müller, 18 July [1869]</a>). Darwin sent specimens of plants he raised from this seed to Hooker, who named it <em>Abutilon darwinii</em>. 'I am glad to hear the Abutilon is a new species, & I am honoured by its name', Darwin told Hooker, 'It offers an instance, of which I have known others, of being during the early part of the flowering season quite sterile with pollen from the same plant, though fertile with the pollen of any other plant, though later in the season it becomes capable of self-fertilisation' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-7878.xml">To J. D. Hooker, 23 July [1871]</a>). Darwin also informed Müller of this fact. It had taken only one generation for the plant to go from self-sterility in its native Brazilian setting to moderate self-fertility in his hothouse (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-7892.xml">To Fritz Müller, 2 August [1871]</a>).</p> <p>By late 1871, Darwin was already planning to publish these experimental results. He told the Italian botanist Federico Delpino, 'Next summer or autumn I hope to publish a long Essay, the result of 5 or 6 years work, on the comparative growth, vigour & fertility of crossed & self-fertilised plants during several successive generations' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8082.xml">To Federico Delpino, 22 November 1871</a>). Delpino replied that he looked forward to the appearance of the work, noting its practical importance for agriculture and horticulture (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8089.xml">From Federico Delpino, 5 December 1871</a>). When Darwin began writing in February 1873, he asked Hooker for names of families of several genera as well as guidance with choosing which taxonomic system to follow (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8769.xml">To J. D. Hooker, 17 February 1873</a>). Despite also working on experiments with insectivorous plants such as <em>Drosera</em>, Darwin had been able to concentrate solely on cross and self-fertilised plants, as he explained to Gray, 'I worked last summer hard at Drosera, but could not finish till I got fresh plants, & consequently took up the effect of crossing & self-fertilising plants & am got so interested that Drosera must go to the dogs till I finish with this & get it published' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8806.xml">To Asa Gray, 11 March [1873]</a>).</p> <p>In April 1873, the publisher John Murray announced in the <em>Athenæum</em> that a book by Darwin with the title 'The Evil Effects of Interbreeding in the Vegetable Kingdom' was forthcoming. Darwin begged him not to advertise it again, warning, 'Heaven knows when it will be ready. The announcement took me quite by surprise. I am already plagued by foreign Translators, Reviewers, &c.' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8897.xml">To John Murray, 4 May [1873]</a>). In reply to his German translator Julius Carus, who wrote in early May, Darwin stated, 'M<sup>r</sup> Murray announced my next book without my knowledge & I was vexed about it, for it is only half-written, & I have no idea when it will be published' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8906.xml">To J. V. Carus, 8 May [1873]</a>). Hermann Müller also wrote from Germany, informing Darwin 'The book you are now about to write will indeed be of the highest interest to me and probably will decide in a great measure my further working' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8941.xml">From Hermann Müller, 10 June 1873</a>). Darwin, in turn, had found Müller's book on the fertilisation of flowers of great interest and had told Müller, 'The whole discussion seems to me quite excellent, and it has pleased me not a little to find that in the rough M.S. of my last chapter, I have arrived on many points at nearly the same conclusions that you have done, though we have reached them by different routes' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8929.xml">To Hermann Müller, 30 May 1873</a>). Although Darwin had completed a first draft of his book, the publication would be delayed for years while he finished his work on insectivorous plants. In the meantime, he continued his experiments on further generations of crossed and self fertilised plants.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>'We must turn to the vegetable kingdom'</strong></p> <p>In June 1873, Delpino informed Darwin that gardeners in Florence kept varieties of sweet peas separated to avoid crossing (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8945.xml">From Federico Delpino, 18 June 1873</a>). Darwin was intrigued. 'I am very glad to hear about <u>Lathyrus odoratus</u>; for here in England the vars. never cross, & yet are sometimes visited by Bees', he told Delpino (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8951.xml">To Federico Delpino, 25 June [1873]</a>). Darwin's suspicion that sweet peas were cross fertilised in their native setting was confirmed; the English environment lacked the large solitary bees that visited these flowers in their native Mediterranean setting. Although he continued his crossing experiments through the early summer, by August 1873, Darwin decided to shift focus back to <em>Drosera</em>. He informed Carus that his next book would be on this and other insectivorous plants and not on 'the evil effects of Interbreeding' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-8996.xml">To J. V. Carus, 2 August [1873]</a>).</p> <p>In September, Darwin wrote a long letter to <em>Nature</em> commenting on a seemingly unrelated phenomenon, the existence of complemental males in some species of barnacles. Darwin noted that the most interesting occurrence of these tiny reduced males was not with females, but with hermaphrodites and added, 'We must turn to the vegetable kingdom for anything analogous to this; for, as is well known, certain plants present hermaphrodite and male individuals, the latter aiding in the cross-fertilisation of the former'. The comparison was extended to the more typical hermaphrodite species of both barnacles and plants; Darwin added that 'the good depends on the crossed individuals having been exposed to slightly different conditions of life' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-9061.xml">To <em>Nature</em>, 20 September [1873]</a>). Just as the free-swimming barnacle larvae could come from different parts of their environment before settling as adults forever fixed in close proximity to others, so pollen from widely separated flowers could be transported to their sedentary recipients.</p> <p>Darwin remained optimistic regarding the publication of his results, telling Fritz Müller that he hoped to publish in a year and that his results would 'prove what great vigour is given to seedling plants by the crossing of their parents' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-9067.xml">To Fritz Müller, 25 September 1873</a>). But by March 1874, some doubts seemed to have arisen when he told Carus, 'My next book, (if I live & have strength to complete it) will be on the advantages of Crossing Plants, & this will include all my papers on Dimorphic & Trimorphic plants with new & related matter. (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-5367.xml">To J. V. Carus, 19 March [1874]</a>). A year later, Darwin still planned to add his reworked papers on heterostyled plants, but told Carus, 'I have to add new researches on this subject. (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-9844.xml">To J. V. Carus 7 February 1875</a>). In fact, Darwin had planned a new set of experiments for the summer, as he informed Gray when asking for seeds of <em>Nesaea verticillata</em> (swamp loosestrife), 'to raise seedlings from illegitimate unions to see if the seedlings are sterile like true Hybrids & like the illeg. offspring of Lythrum; for the fact seems to me all important.' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10002.xml">To Asa Gray, 30 May [1875]</a>). In earlier papers on plants with two or more stylar forms of flowers, Darwin had referred to unions where pollen from one form had been applied to the same form as 'illegitimate'. He had discovered that some forms were absolutely sterile with their own pollen while others had varying degrees of fertility. Darwin had briefly discussed this North American relative of purple loostrife (<em>Lythrum salicaria</em>) in his 1864 paper, 'Three forms of <em>Lythrum salicaria</em>'. There are no notes to indicate that Darwin ever carried out these experiments, but as he had just finished correcting proof sheets of his book <em>Insectivorous plants</em>, he probably decided to devote one more summer to research on crossed and self fertilised plants.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>'There will always be men who dispute and differ'</strong></p> <p>Thomas Meehan had been a vocal opponent of Darwin's views on crossing, and his paper, 'Are insects any material aid to plants in fertilization?' (Meehan 1875) prompted Darwin to inform him that he had 'begun to prepare for press observations continued for 10 years on the effects of crossing plants, & I think that these will convince you & every one else that it is a great advantage to plants to intercross' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10181.xml">To Thomas Meehan, 3 October 1875</a>). Hermann Müller had also read Meehan's work and told Darwin, 'I am the more glad to hear that you have begun putting your notes thereabout together, as newly some Italian and American botanists have done their best work in order to obscure this matter' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10219.xml">From Hermann Müller, 23 October 1875</a>). The Italian botanists were identified by Müller as Nicola Pedicino and Orazio Comes, who had published papers on fertilisation in which they merely inferred from observations on self fertilising plants that crossing was of little importance (Pedicino 1875; Comes 1875). Darwin was philosophical, telling Müller, 'There will always be men who dispute and differabout everything that is discovered; and we may take comfort by remembering that even the sexuality of plants was disputed for half a century after Kölreuter's papers' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10228.xml">To Hermann Müller, 26 October 1875</a>). Darwin's copy of Johann Kölreuter's paper describing his experiments and observations regarding the sex of plants in the 1760s (Kölreuter 1761-6) is heavily annotated.</p> <p>Darwin had no doubts about the significance of his findings in a broader context. He told his long-time supporter Ernst Haeckel, 'It is really wonderful what an effect pollen from a distinct seedling plant which has been exposed to different conditions of life, has on the offspring, in comparison with pollen from the same flower or from a distinct individual but which has been long subjected to the same conditions. The subject bears on the very principle of Life, which seems almost to require changes in the conditions' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10257.xml">To Ernst Haeckel, 13 November 1875</a>). He added on a darker note, 'What I shall do in Future if I live, Heaven only knows: I ought perhaps to avoid general and large subjects as too difficult for me with my advancing years, and I suppose enfeebled brain'. At this point, Darwin still planned to publish his earlier papers in the same book (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10323.xml">To J. V. Carus, 25 December 1875</a>).</p> <p>As Darwin continued to write up the results of his experiments comparing growth over several generations in several different species, he decided that some sort of comparative table of the average heights would be useful. He asked his mathematician son George whether it would be 'an easy calculation to give the average or mean height of the 33 self-fertilised plants, the 34 crossed plants being still taken as 100.? I sh<sup>d</sup>. rather like to know what the general mean is of all the crossed & self-fertilised plants which I measured; but I want more particularly, because in half-a-dozen cases the self-fertilised plants exceeded in height the crossed, & I desire to know whether this mean excess equals the mean excess of the crossed over the self-fertilised' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10348.xml">To G. H. Darwin, 8 January [1876]</a>). George explained the difficulties of lumping different species together, questioning whether the procedure would be 'wholly justifiable', but then decided it would be 'worth while to give a mean not of all the plants which were measured, but a mean of the means, assuming for the moment that all of equal value.' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10349.xml">From G. H. Darwin, [after 8 January 1876]</a>). It was his cousin, the statistician Francis Galton, who provided a statistical table and report on Darwin's results. Darwin thanked Galton for 'the immense labour' he had taken and promised to publish the report in the introduction to the book (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10357.xml">To Francis Galton, 13 January [1876]</a>).</p> <p class="rtecenter"><img alt="" src="/sites/default/files/Joseph_Henry_Gilbert.png" style="width: 500px; height: 551px;"/></p> <p class="rtecenter"><small>Joseph Henry Gilbert (1817-1901) of the Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden (Biodiversity Heritage Library)</small></p> <p>The fact that he was now writing in earnest did not deter Darwin from setting out on yet another experimental aspect of his work. In February 1876, he wrote to the agricultural chemist Joseph Gilbert, describing experiments with common garden plants self fertilised and grown under constant conditions in which the flower colour often changed in each generation. Darwin suspected 'that the cause of variation must lie in different substances absorbed from the soil by these plants when their powers of absorption are not interfered with by other plants with which they grow mingled in a state of nature' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10399.xml">To J. H. Gilbert, 16 February 1876</a>). Darwin wanted to try to remove all nutrients from soil before adding different substances to see how each affected variability. Gilbert responded with a recipe for treating soil to remove nutrients (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10414F.xml">From J. H. Gilbert, 4 March 1876</a>). In June 1876, Darwin had supposedly nutrient-free and natural soil samples analysed by Edward Frankland to see how the samples differed (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10533A.xml">To Edward Frankland, [before 6 June 1876]</a>). The project proved to be too complex and Francis Darwin later recalled, 'the research was ultimately abandoned.' (<em>LL</em> 3: 342).</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>'I am convinced that the book is of value'</strong></p> <p>By August 1876, the book had gone to press and Darwin told Gray, 'This will complete all that I shall ever do on this subject' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10575.xml">To Asa Gray, 9 August 1876</a>). As Darwin began correcting proofsheets, he wrote to his publisher, 'The greater part of the book is extremely dry & the whole on a special subject. Nevertheless I am convinced that the book is of value, and I am convinced that for <u>many</u> years copies will be occasionally sold. Judging from the Sale of my former books and from supposing that some persons will purchase it to complete the set of all my works, I would suggest 1,500' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10603.xml">To R. F. Cooke, 16 September 1876</a>). In the meantime, a happy event, the birth of Darwin's first grandchild, a son born to Amy and Francis Darwin on 7 September, suddenly turned to tragedy when Amy died only four days later. Francis returned to Wales where his wife was to be buried, but still continued to help his father going over proofs. Darwin sent a chapter for review but advised, 'I earnestly beg you not to strain your mind & return the sheets marked "uncorrected" if, as I expect, you find it too much for you' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10604.xml">To Francis Darwin, 16 September [1876]</a>). Francis must have found some solace in work, for Darwin soon told him, 'You have worked excellently at my Proof-sheets, but I have gone through (for it is hard work) only about a quarter of them, & as yet have accepted all, though some slightly modified' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10611.xml">To Francis Darwin, 20 September [1876]</a>). Darwin continued to send work, encouraging his son, 'Your corrections are very good & very useful' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10617.xml">To Francis Darwin 25 September [1876]</a>).</p> <p>At the end of September 1876, Darwin sent sheets to his German translator, noting, 'I sent by this morning's Post the 4 first perfect sheets of my new book, the title of which you will see on first page, & which will be published early in November' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10619.xml">To J. V. Carus, 27 September 1876</a>). The title had now changed from that first advertised ('The evil effects of intercrossing in the vegetable kingdom') to the more sober and cautious <em>The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom</em>. When Darwin told correspondents about his forthcoming book, he warned them not to read most of it, advising, 'The book is a very dull one, but I think has some value. All the first chapters are mere record of experiments.-The latter chapters alone worth reading. (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10632.xml">To Otto Zacharias, 5 October [1876]</a>). Hermann Müller, in contrast, wrote that the book would be of the 'highest interest' and hoped it would silence writers like Meehan, Pedecino, and Comes (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10631.xml">From Hermann Müller, 4 October 1876</a>).</p> <p>Gray was impatient for a copy and asked for proofsheets if the book had not yet been released (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10639.xml">From Asa Gray, 12 October 1876</a>). Darwin sent the sheets, apologised for his writing style, and added, 'Please observe that the 6 first chapters are not readable, & the 6 last very dull. Still I believe that the results are valuable. If you review the book, I shall be very curious to see what you think of it, for I care more for your judgment than for that of almost anyone else' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10656.xml">To Asa Gray, 28 October 1876</a>). Gray reassured him, 'I have as yet read only the introduction. This is far from dull. The dullness you deprecate I may find in the details of experiments and statistical matter', adding, 'It is most amusing to read what you write of "licking a horrid bad style into intelligible English". Over here we are accustomed to hear your style spoken and written of, as being as faultless as your temper' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10668.xml">From Asa Gray, 12 November 1876</a>).</p> <p>The book was published on 10 November 1876. Within days, Darwin received a statement of all his book sales and pronounced himself 'well satisfied', adding, 'I am rejoiced about the Fertilisation as I did not expect that more than 6 or 700 would sell.' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10672.xml">To John Murray, 15 November 1876</a>). In fact, Murray sold 1100 copies of <em>Cross and self fertilisation</em> at his annual trade sale dinner. Recipients of presentation copies were mostly positive in their reaction to the book. Hildebrand wrote that 'a peep into it has shown me what I could not expect otherwise, that it is again of very great value for science' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10701.xml">From Friedrich Hildebrand, 6 December 1876</a>). After reading the book, Hildebrand was even more impressed, noting, 'Surely the most important matter is, that you have proved the benefits derived not only from mere crossfertilization, but from fertilization between individuals, that are not related nearly, and have grown under different conditions of life. This explains the high value of the adaptation for wide dissemination of plants.' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10803.xml">From Friedrich Hildebrand, 18 January 1877</a>). Hermann Müller enthused that Darwin's references to Müller's own book on fertilisation were, 'the highest reward I am capable of imagining and will be to me the most efficacious encouragement for further work' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10702.xml">From Hermann Müller, 6 December 1876</a>). Alphonse de Candolle noted the importance of Darwin's research and concluded that plant physiology had nothing as satisfying, also marvelling at Darwin's perseverance over such a long series of experiments (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10724.xml">From Alphonse de Candolle 16 December 1876</a>). One critical review came from Alfred Wallace, who complained, 'I am afraid this book will not do much or anything to get rid of the one great objection, that the physiological characteristic of <u>species</u>, the infertility of hybrids, has not yet been produced' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10717.xml">From A. R. Wallace, 13 December 1876</a>). No reply to this letter has been found, but Darwin had long rejected the idea that sterility was a test for physiological species, based on his research on different stylar forms of flowers that showed sterility could exist when pollen from one form was applied to the same form of flower.</p> <p>Most published reviews that appeared were also positive, but George Henslow, in his review in <em>Gardeners' Chronicle</em>, criticised Darwin's statistics. Darwin wrote to the journal, 'I hope that any reader who is interested in the subject will not take Mr. Henslow's interpretation of my statements without consulting my book' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10854.xml">To <em>Gardeners' Chronicle</em>, 19 February [1877]</a>). In contrast, as Hooker told Darwin, 'Dyer is full of your Cross & Self Fertilization & about to review it for "Nature"- he gloats over it' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10817.xml">From J. D. Hooker, 27 January 1877</a>). Darwin was especially pleased with Gray's review, and told him, 'Your abstract of my book is inimitably good. You have given everything,-you have quite eviscerated it' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10851.xml">To Asa Gray, 18 February [1877]</a>). By mid-March 1877, the edition was 'nearly exhausted' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10896.xml">From R. F. Cooke, 16 March 1877</a>). In November 1877, Murray suggested stereotyping the book, but Darwin refused as he wanted to make corrections for a new edition. On 11 December, Darwin sent corrected sheets to the publisher, noting 'the last 100 pages will have to be repaged & the index a little altered' (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-11276.xml">To R. F. Cooke, 11 December [1877]</a>). These changes were necessitated by the addition of a long note discussing Wilhelm Rimpau's observations on the predominance of self-sterile individuals in the populations of rye and wheat that he had studied (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-11273.xml">From A. W. Rimpau, 10 December 1877</a>). By the end of February 1878, Murray was ready to print the second edition, after which the book would be stereotyped (<a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-11376.xml">From R. F. Cooke, 26 February 1878</a>). In the end, the 'unreadable' and 'dull' book had proved far more popular than Darwin ever imagined.</p> <p> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="field field-name-field-terms field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above"> <div class="field-label">Terms: </div> <div class="field-items"> <div class="field-item even"><a href="../../commentary/life-sciences" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Life sciences</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="field field-name-field-related-bibliographic-refe field-type-text field-label-above"> <div class="field-label">Related bibliographic reference: </div> <div class="field-items"> <div class="field-item even"> <div class="bibliography even"><i>Orchids</i>: <i>On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects, and on the good effects of intercrossing.</i> By Charles Darwin. London: John Murray. 1862.</div> </div> <div class="field-item odd"> <div class="bibliography even"><i>Cross and self fertilisation</i>: <i>The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom.</i> By Charles Darwin. London: John Murray. 1876.</div> </div> <div class="field-item even"> <div class="bibliography even"><i>Variation</i>: <i>The variation of animals and plants under domestication.</i> By Charles Darwin. 2 vols. London: John Murray. 1868.</div> </div> <div class="field-item odd"> <div class="bibliography even">Müller, Fritz. 1868b. Notizen über die Geschlechtsverhältnisse brasilianischer Pflanzen. <i>Botanische Zeitung</i> 26: 113-16.</div> </div> <div class="field-item even"> <div class="bibliography even">Meehan, Thomas. 1875. Are insects any material aid to plants in fertilization? <i>Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science</i> 24: 243-51.</div> </div> <div class="field-item odd"> <div class="bibliography even">Pedicino, Nicola Antonio. 1875. Della impollinazione nella <i>Thalia dealbata</i>, <i>Fraso</i>, e del modo di ricercare sperimentalmente i processi di impollinazione. <i>Rendiconto dell'Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche</i> 14: 25-7.</div> </div> <div class="field-item even"> <div class="bibliography even">Comes, Orazio. 1875. Continuazione degli studii sulla impollinazione. <i>Rendiconto dell'Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche</i> 14: 64-71.</div> </div> <div class="field-item odd"> <div class="bibliography even">Kölreuter, Joseph Gottlieb. 1761-6. <i>Vorläufige Nachricht von einigen das Geschlecht der Pflanzen betreffenden Versuchen und Beobachtungen.</i> Leipzig: Gleditschischen Handlung.</div> </div> <div class="field-item even"> <div class="bibliography even"><i>LL</i>: <i>The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter.</i> Edited by Francis Darwin. 3 vols. London: John Murray. 1887-8.</div> </div> <div class="field-item odd"> <div class="bibliography even"><i>Insectivorous plants.</i> By Charles Darwin. London: John Murray. 1875.</div> </div> <div class="field-item even"> <div class="bibliography even">'Three forms of <i>Lythrum salicaria</i>': On the sexual relations of the three forms of <i>Lythrum salicaria.</i> By Charles Darwin. [Read 16 June 1864.] <i>Journal of the Linnean Society</i> (<i>Botany</i>) 8 (1865): 169-96. [<i>Collected papers</i> 2: 106-31.]</div> </div> <div class="field-item odd"> <div class="bibliography even">Carter, Henry John. 1858. On fecundation in <i>Eudorina elegans</i> and <i>Cryptoglena.</i> <i>Annals and Magazine of Natural History</i> 3d ser. 2: 237-53.</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div><div class="campl-column3 campl-secondary-content"> <div class="region region-sidebar"> <div id="block-menu-block-3" class="block block-menu-block"> <div class="campl-content-container campl-no-bottom-padding"> <div class="campl-heading-container"> <h2>In this section:</h2> </div> </div> <div class="campl-content-container"> <div class="menu-block-wrapper menu-block-3 menu-name-main-menu parent-mlid-0 menu-level-3"> <ul class="menu"> <li class="first leaf menu-mlid-3385 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Barrier%20reef.jpg?itok=2F1QJpfK)"><a href="journal-researches">Journal of researches</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3386 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Nomenclature%20of%20the%20valves.jpg?itok=IPSwrW5J)"><a href="living-and-fossil-cirripedia">Living and fossil cirripedia</a></li> <li class="collapsed menu-mlid-3400 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Natural%20Selection%20page.jpg?itok=3t8mZVx1)"><a href="origin-big-book">Before Origin: the 'big book'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3406 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Origin%20cover_1859.jpg?itok=eUmxW2gz)"><a href="origin">Origin</a></li> <li class="collapsed menu-mlid-3407 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Origin-Spines.jpg?itok=jHvAD6fT)"><a href="rewriting-origin-later-editions">Rewriting Origin - the later editions</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3404 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/orchids_cover3.jpg?itok=kMlJZfRP)"><a href="orchids">Orchids</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3662 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Solanum%20jasminoides.jpg?itok=FqrfKrMP)"><a href="climbing-plants">Climbing plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3387 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/DAR_225_178.jpg?itok=Zc3lfCgr)"><a href="descent">Descent</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3388 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/DAR%2053.1%20C125r.jpg?itok=D-Wc1iAl)"><a href="expression">Expression</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3389 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Drosera-rotundiflora.jpg?itok=ybw7Urdy)"><a href="insectivorous-plants">Insectivorous plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3663 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Long%20and%20short%20styled%20form.jpg?itok=4k9jJCMj)"><a href="forms-flowers">Forms of flowers</a></li> <li class="leaf active-trail active menu-mlid-4084 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Cross%20and%20Self%20Diagram.jpg?itok=WOMOPSji)"><a href="cross-and-self-fertilisation" class="active-trail active">Cross and self fertilisation</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3405 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Erasmus%20Darwin.jpg?itok=4asdQNd3)"><a href="life-erasmus-darwin">Life of Erasmus Darwin</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3665 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/MS-DAR-00209-00015-000-00089c.jpg?itok=7_bZSSKt)"><a href="movement-plants">Movement in Plants</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="block-cudl-related-people" class="block block-cudl"> <div class="campl-content-container campl-no-bottom-padding"> <div class="campl-heading-container"> <h2>Related people</h2> </div> </div> <div class="campl-content-container"> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_1053.xml">Cooke, R. F.</a></h3> <div class="date">1816-91</div> <div class="summary">Publisher. Cousin of John Murray and partner in his publishing company, which published many of CD's books.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_1222.xml">Darwin, Francis</a></h3> <div class="date">1848-1925</div> <div class="summary">CD and Emma Darwin's son. Botanist. BA, Cambridge (Trinity College), 1870. Qualified as a physician but did not practise. CD's secretary from 1874. Collaborated with CD on several botanical projects. Lecturer in botany, Cambridge University, 1884; reader, 1888-1904. Published Life and letters of Charles Darwin and More letters. President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1908. Knighted, 1913. FRS 1882.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_1224.xml">Darwin, G. H.</a></h3> <div class="date">1845-1912</div> <div class="summary">CD and Emma Darwin's son. Mathematician. BA, Cambridge (Trinity College), 1868; fellow, 1868-78; re-elected in 1884. Studied law in London, 1869-72; called to the bar, 1872, but did not practise. Plumian Professor of astronomy and experimental philosophy, Cambridge University, 1883-1912. President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1905. Knighted, 1905. FRS 1879.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_1286.xml">Delpino, Federico</a></h3> <div class="date">1833-1905</div> <div class="summary">Italian botanist. Travelled extensively for botanical purposes as a youth and in 1873. Civil servant, ministry of finances, Turin, 1852-6; assistant in the botanic garden and museum, Florence, 1867; lecturer, Vallombrosa school of forestry, 1871; professor of botany and director of the botanic garden, Genoa, 1875-84; professor, University of Bologna, 1884; professor of botany and head of the botanic garden, Naples, 1894.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_1739.xml">Frankland, Edward</a></h3> <div class="date">1825-99</div> <div class="summary">Chemist. Professor of chemistry, Putney College for Civil Engineering, 1850, and Owens College, Manchester, 1851-7. Lecturer in chemistry, St Bartholomew's Hospital, London, 1857-64. Professor of chemistry, Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1863-8, and Royal College of Chemistry, 1865-8. President of the Chemical Society, 1871-2; of the Institute of Chemistry, 1877-80. Director of the Royal College of Chemistry, 1868-85. Knighted, 1897. FRS 1853.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_1797.xml">Galton, Francis</a></h3> <div class="date">1822-1911</div> <div class="summary">Traveller, statistician, and scientific writer. Son of Samuel Tertius Galton and Violetta Galton, née Darwin; CD's cousin. Explored in south-western Africa, 1850-2. Carried out various researches on heredity. Founder of the eugenics movement. FRS 1860.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_1871.xml">Gilbert, J. H.</a></h3> <div class="date">1817-1901</div> <div class="summary">Agricultural chemist. Collaborated with John Bennet Lawes at the Rothamsted Agricultural Station, 1843-1900. Sibthorpian Professor of rural economy, Oxford University, 1884-90. Knighted, 1893. FRS 1860.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_1957.xml">Gray, Asa</a></h3> <div class="date">1810-88</div> <div class="summary">American botanist. Fisher Professor of natural history, Harvard University, 1842-73. Wrote numerous botanical textbooks and works on North American flora. President of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1863-73; of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1872. Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, 1874-88. Foreign member, Royal Society of London, 1873.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_2048.xml">Haeckel, Ernst</a></h3> <div class="date">1834-1919</div> <div class="summary">German zoologist. MD, Berlin, 1857. Lecturer in comparative anatomy, University of Jena, 1861-2; professor extraordinarius of zoology, 1862-5; professor of zoology and director of the Zoological Institute, 1865-1909. Specialist in marine invertebrates. Leading populariser of evolutionary theory. His Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866) linked morphology to the study of the phylogenetic evolution of organisms.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_2283.xml">Hildebrand, Friedrich</a></h3> <div class="date">1835-1915</div> <div class="summary">German botanist. After studying mineralogy, geology, and agriculture at Berlin, took up botany, studying at Bonn, then from 1855 to 1858 at Berlin, where he received his doctorate. Habilitated at Bonn, becoming privat-dozent there, in 1859. Professor of botany, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1868-1907. Worked mainly on hybridity, dimorphism, and generation.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_2357.xml">Hooker, J. D.</a></h3> <div class="date">1817-1911</div> <div class="summary">Botanist. Worked chiefly on taxonomy and plant geography. Son of William Jackson Hooker. Friend and confidant of CD. Accompanied James Clark Ross on his Antarctic expedition, 1839-43, and published the botanical results of the voyage. Appointed palaeobotanist to the Geological Survey of Great Britain, 1846. Travelled in the Himalayas, 1847-9. Assistant director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 1855-65; director, 1865-85. Knighted, 1877. FRS 1847.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_3069.xml">Müller, Hermann</a></h3> <div class="date">1829-83</div> <div class="summary">German botanist and entomologist. Brother of Johann Friedrich Theodor (Fritz) Müller. Schoolteacher in Schwerin, 1854-5. Studied blind cave insects in Krain, 1855. Teacher of natural sciences at the Realschule in Lippstadt, 1855-83; became director of the school. After settling in Lippstadt, studied the local flora, in particular the mosses. CD's Orchids directed Müller's attention to the pollination and fertilisation of flowers, on which he published several papers and books.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_3070.xml">Müller, Fritz</a></h3> <div class="date">1822-97</div> <div class="summary">German naturalist. Emigrated to the German colony in Blumenau, Brazil, in 1852. Taught mathematics at the Lyceum in Destêrro (now Florianópolis), 1856-67. Naturalista viajante of the National Museum, Rio de Janeiro, 1876-91. His anatomical studies on invertebrates and work on mimicry provided important support for CD's theories.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_3286.xml">Meehan, Thomas</a></h3> <div class="date">1826-1901</div> <div class="summary">English-born botanist, horticulturist, and author. Gardener at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 1845-8. In 1848, emigrated to the United States, where he worked as a gardener. Established a nursery in Germantown, Pennsylvania, circa 1853. Editor, Gardener's Monthly, 1859-87; Meehan's Monthly, 1891-1901. Botanist on the Philadelphia state board of agriculture, 1877-1901. Elected to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1860; to the American Philosophical Society, 1871.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_3353.xml">Moggridge, J. T.</a></h3> <div class="date">1842-74</div> <div class="summary">Entomologist and botanist. Wintered in Mentone, France, and studied the flora of the area.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_3463.xml">Murray, John (b)</a></h3> <div class="date">1808-92</div> <div class="summary">Publisher, and author of guide-books. CD's publisher from 1845.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_398.xml">Bentham, George</a></h3> <div class="date">1800-84</div> <div class="summary">Botanist. Moved his botanical library and collections to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1854, and was provided with facilities there for his research from 1861. President of the Linnean Society of London, 1861-74. Published Genera plantarum (1862-83) with Joseph Dalton Hooker. FRS 1862.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_4009.xml">Rimpau, Wilhelm</a></h3> <div class="date">1842-1903</div> <div class="summary">German farmer and plant breeder. Studied agriculture at the Academy of Agriculture, Bonn-Poppelsdorf, 1861-3; economics, physics, and meteorology at Berlin, 1863-4. Caretaker of the domain Schlanstedt, 1865-8; co-leaseholder, 1868; leaseholder, 1877-1903. Landowner of manor Langenstein, 1892-1903. Co-founder of the Deutsche Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft (German Agricultural Society). Developed new varieties of wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, and sugar beets. Developed the first fertile wheat-rye cross (triticale) Received an honorary doctorate from Halle for his work in plant breeding.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_4935.xml">Wallace, A. R.</a></h3> <div class="date">1823-1913</div> <div class="summary">Naturalist. Collector in the Amazon, 1848-52; in the Malay Archipelago, 1854-62. Independently formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection in 1858. Lecturer and author of works on protective coloration, mimicry, and zoogeography. President of the Land Nationalisation Society, 1881-1913. Wrote on socialism, spiritualism, and vaccination. FRS 1893.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_5291.xml">Zacharias, Otto</a></h3> <div class="date">1846-1916</div> <div class="summary">German journalist and zoologist. Edited several magazines and wrote articles and book reviews on evolution. Populariser of CD's theories, and supporter of Ernst Haeckel. Had a second career as a zoologist, specialising in plankton. Founded a private research station in Plön, northern Germany, which later became the Max Planck Institute for Limnology.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_547.xml">Bornet, Édouard</a></h3> <div class="date">1828-1911</div> <div class="summary">French botanist. Collaborated with Gustave Adolphe Thuret at Thuret's garden in Antibes. Worked especially on algae and lichens.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_813.xml">Candolle, Alphonse de</a></h3> <div class="date">1806-93</div> <div class="summary">Swiss botanist, lawyer, and politician. Son of Augustin Pyramus de Candolle. Active in the administration of the city of Geneva until 1860. Responsible for the introduction of postage stamps to Switzerland. Professor of botany and director of the botanic gardens, Geneva, from 1835. Concentrated on his own research after 1850. Foreign member, Royal Society of London, 1869.</div> </div> <div class="people even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_849.xml">Carus, J. V.</a></h3> <div class="date">1823-1903</div> <div class="summary">German comparative anatomist. Conservator of the Museum of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford University, 1849-51. Professor extraordinarius of comparative anatomy and director of the zoological museum, University of Leipzig, 1853. Translated the third German edition of Origin (1867) and, subsequently, twelve other works by CD.</div> </div> <div class="people odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=nameregs/nameregs_852.xml">Caspary, Robert</a></h3> <div class="date">1818-87</div> <div class="summary">German botanist. Director, Bonn herbarium, 1856. Professor of botany and director of the botanic gardens at the University of Königsberg from 1858. 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