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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Duties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Duties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Duties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Duties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Census" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Census"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Census</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Census-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Census_beyond_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Census_beyond_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Census beyond Rome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Census_beyond_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_uses_of_census" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_uses_of_census"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Other uses of census</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_uses_of_census-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regimen_morum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regimen_morum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span><i>Regimen morum</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regimen_morum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Punishments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Punishments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Punishments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Punishments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administration_of_the_finances_of_the_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration_of_the_finances_of_the_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Administration of the finances of the state</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administration_of_the_finances_of_the_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overseeing_public_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overseeing_public_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Overseeing public works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overseeing_public_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lustrum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lustrum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Lustrum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lustrum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Census_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Census_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Census statistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Census_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Roman censor</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinse_sensor" title="Romeinse sensor – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Romeinse sensor" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A8_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="رقيب روماني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رقيب روماني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senzor" title="Senzor – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Senzor" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Цензор – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цензор" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor_rom%C3%A0" title="Censor romà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Censor romà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADmsk%C3%BD_cenzor" title="Římský cenzor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římský cenzor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor" title="Censor – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Censor" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor_(Antikkens_Rom)" title="Censor (Antikkens Rom) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Censor (Antikkens Rom)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censur" title="Censur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Censur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsensor_(Vana-Rooma)" title="Tsensor (Vana-Rooma) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tsensor (Vana-Rooma)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%AE%CE%BD%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Κήνσορας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κήνσορας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor_romano" title="Censor romano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Censor romano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censoro" title="Censoro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Censoro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erromatar_zentsore" title="Erromatar zentsore – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erromatar zentsore" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1" title="کنسور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کنسور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censeur_(Rome_antique)" title="Censeur (Rome antique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Censeur (Rome antique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor_romano" title="Censor romano – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Censor romano" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%90%EC%B0%B0%EA%B4%80" title="감찰관 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="감찰관" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%91%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%80" title="Ցենզոր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ցենզոր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenzor" title="Cenzor – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Cenzor" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censoro" title="Censoro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Censoro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor_(Romawi_Kuno)" title="Sensor (Romawi Kuno) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sensor (Romawi Kuno)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censore" title="Censore – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Censore" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A8" title="קנסור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קנסור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%96%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ცენზორი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ცენზორი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor" title="Censor – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Censor" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenzorius_(Roma)" title="Cenzorius (Roma) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Cenzorius (Roma)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor" title="Censor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Censor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Римски цензор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Римски цензор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor_(Rome)" title="Censor (Rome) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Censor (Rome)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B1%E3%83%B3%E3%82%BD%E3%83%AB" title="ケンソル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ケンソル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor" title="Censor – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Censor" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenzor_(staro%C5%BCytny_Rzym)" title="Cenzor (starożytny Rzym) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cenzor (starożytny Rzym)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor_romano" title="Censor romano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Censor romano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenzor" title="Cenzor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cenzor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80_(%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC)" title="Цензор (Древний Рим) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цензор (Древний Рим)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censori" title="Censori – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Censori" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenzor_(starovek%C3%BD_R%C3%ADm)" title="Cenzor (staroveký Rím) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Cenzor (staroveký Rím)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenzor" title="Cenzor – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Cenzor" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Цензор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Цензор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_cenzor" title="Rimski cenzor – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rimski cenzor" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensori" title="Kensori – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kensori" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor" title="Censor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Censor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censor" title="Censor – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Censor" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Цензор Стародавнього Риму – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Цензор Стародавнього Риму" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Roman magistrate and census administrator</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_censors_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="List of censors of the Roman Republic">List of censors of the Roman Republic</a></div><style 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="adr"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of ancient Rome">Politics of ancient Rome</a></div></th></tr><tr><th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_SPQR_banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/150px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/225px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/300px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="229" /></a></span></th></tr><tr><th style="border-bottom: #aaa 1px solid"></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a></b><br />753–509 BC</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></b><br />509–27 BC</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></b><br />27 BC – AD 395</li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a><br />27 BC – AD 284</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a><br />AD 284–641</li></ul> </div> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire"><b>Western</b></a><br />AD 395–476</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire"><b>Eastern</b></a><br />AD 395–1453</li></ul> </div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></b></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">Sullan republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">Augustan reforms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Political institutions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Assemblies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Ordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Extraordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corrector" title="Corrector">Corrector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Public law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ius" title="Ius">Ius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum" title="Senatus consultum">Senatus consultum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quaestio_perpetua" title="Quaestio perpetua">Quaestio perpetua</a></i></li></ul> </div> <i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum_ultimum" title="Senatus consultum ultimum">Senatus consultum ultimum</a></i></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Titles and honours</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praeses" title="Praeses">Praeses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Triumvir_monetalis" title="Triumvir monetalis">Triumvir monetalis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid"> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template talk:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>censor</b> was a <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> who was responsible for maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a>, supervising <a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">public morality</a>, and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Established under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, power of the censor was limited in subject matter but absolute within his sphere: in matters reserved for the censors, no magistrate could oppose his decisions, and only another censor who succeeded him could cancel those decisions. Censors were also given unusually long terms of office; unlike other elected offices of the Republic, which (excluding certain priests elected for life) had terms of 12 months or less, censors' terms were generally 18 months to 5 years (depending on the era). The censorate was thus highly prestigious, preceding all other regular magistracies in dignity if not in power and reserved with rare exceptions for former <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a>. Attaining the censorship would thus be considered the crowning achievement of a Roman politician on the <i><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">cursus honorum</a></i>. However, the magistracy as a regular office did not survive the transition from the Republic to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a>. </p><p>The censor's regulation of public morality is the origin of the modern meaning of the words <i>censor</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history_of_the_magistracy">Early history of the magistracy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history of the magistracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>census</i> was first instituted by <a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a>, sixth <a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">king of Rome</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 575–535</span> BC. After the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rome">monarchy</a> and the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> in 509 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a> had responsibility for the census until 443 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 442 BC, no consuls were elected, but <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">tribunes</a> with consular power were appointed instead. This was a move by the <a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">plebeians</a> to try to attain higher magistracies:<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> only <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> could be elected consuls, while some military tribunes were plebeians. To prevent the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">plebeians</a> obtaining control of the census, the patricians removed the right to take the census from the consuls and tribunes, and appointed for this duty two magistrates, called <i>censores</i> (censors), elected exclusively from the <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The magistracy continued to be controlled by patricians until 351 BC, when <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marcius_Rutilus" title="Gaius Marcius Rutilus">Gaius Marcius Rutilus</a> was appointed the first plebeian censor.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twelve years later, in 339 BC, one of the <a href="/wiki/Publilian_laws" title="Publilian laws">Publilian laws</a> required that one censor had to be a plebeian.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, no plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people (the <i><a href="/wiki/Lustrum" title="Lustrum">lustrum</a></i>; Livy <i><a href="/wiki/Periochae" class="mw-redirect" title="Periochae">Periochae</a></i> 13) until 280 BC. In 131 BC, for the first time, both censors were plebeians.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reason for having two censors was that the two consuls had previously taken the census together. If one of the censors died during his term of office, another was chosen to replace him, just as with consuls. This happened only once, in 393 BC. However, the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> captured Rome in that <i>lustrum</i> (five-year period), and the Romans thereafter regarded such replacement as "an offense against religion".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From then on, if one of the censors died, his colleague resigned, and two new censors were chosen to replace them.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The office of censor was limited to eighteen months by a law proposed by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a> <a href="/wiki/Mamercus_Aemilius_Mamercinus" title="Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus">Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the censorship of <a href="/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Caecus" title="Appius Claudius Caecus">Appius Claudius Caecus</a> (312–308 BC) the prestige of the censorship massively increased. Caecus built the first-ever <a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">Roman road</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Via_Appia" class="mw-redirect" title="Via Appia">Via Appia</a>) and the first <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueduct</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Appia" title="Aqua Appia">Aqua Appia</a>), both named after him.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He changed the organisation of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman tribes">Roman tribes</a> and was the first censor to draw the list of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">senators</a>. He also advocated the founding of Roman <i><a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">coloniae</a></i> throughout <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a> to support the Roman war effort in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Samnite_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Samnite War">Second Samnite War</a>. With these efforts and reforms, Appius <a href="/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Caecus" title="Appius Claudius Caecus">Claudius Caecus</a> was able to hold the censorship for a whole <i>lustrum</i> (five-year period), and the office of censor, subsequently entrusted with various important duties, eventually attained one of the highest political statuses in the Roman Republic, second only to that of the consuls.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Election">Election</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Election"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The censors were elected in the <a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate Assembly</a>, which met under the presidency of a consul.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr" title="Barthold Georg Niebuhr">Barthold Niebuhr</a> suggests that the censors were at first elected by the <a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate Assembly</a>, and that the Assembly's selections were confirmed by the Centuriate, but <a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">William Smith</a> believes that "there is no authority for this supposition, and the truth of it depends entirely upon the correctness of [Niebuhr's] views respecting the election of the consuls". Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished in the same day, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different <a href="/wiki/Auspice" class="mw-redirect" title="Auspice">auspices</a> from those at the election of the consuls and <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetors</a>, so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the <i><a href="/wiki/Maxima_auspicia" title="Maxima auspicia">maxima auspicia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The assembly was held by the new consuls shortly after they began their term of office;<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the censors, as soon as they were elected and the censorial power had been granted to them by a decree of the <a href="/wiki/Centuriate_assembly" title="Centuriate assembly">Centuriate Assembly</a> (<i>lex centuriata</i>), were fully installed in their office.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a general principle, the only ones eligible for the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but there were a few exceptions. At first, there was no law to prevent a person being censor twice, but the only person who was elected to the office twice was <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marcius_Rutilus" title="Gaius Marcius Rutilus">Gaius Marcius Rutilus</a> in 265 BC. In that year, he originated a law stating that no one could be elected censor twice. In consequence of this, he received the <i><a href="/wiki/Cognomen" title="Cognomen">cognomen</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Marcius_Censorinus" title="Marcius Censorinus">Censorinus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attributes">Attributes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Attributes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The censorship differed from all other Roman magistracies in the length of office. The censors were originally chosen for a whole <i>lustrum</i> (a period of five years), but as early as ten years after its institution (433 BC) their office was limited to eighteen months by a law of <a href="/wiki/Mamercus_Aemilius_Mamercinus" title="Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus">Dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The censors were also unique with respect to rank and dignity. They had no <i><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a></i>, and accordingly no <a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">lictors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their rank was granted to them by the <a href="/wiki/Centuriate_assembly" title="Centuriate assembly">Centuriate Assembly</a>, and not by the <i><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">curiae</a></i>, and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictatorship</a>; it was a "sacred magistracy" (<i>sanctus magistratus</i>), to which the deepest reverence was due.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The high rank and dignity which the censorship obtained was due to the various important duties gradually entrusted to it, and especially to its possessing the <i>regimen morum</i>, or general control over the conduct and the morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this power, they were regulated solely by their own views of duty, and were not responsible to any other power in the state.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The censors possessed the official stool called a "<a href="/wiki/Curule_chair" class="mw-redirect" title="Curule chair">curule chair</a>" (<i>sella curulis</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but some doubt exists with respect to their official dress. A well-known passage of Polybius<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> describes the use of the <i>imagines</i> at funerals; we may conclude that a consul or praetor wore the purple-bordered <i><a href="/wiki/Toga_praetexta" class="mw-redirect" title="Toga praetexta">toga praetexta</a></i>, one who triumphed the embroidered <i><a href="/wiki/Toga_picta" class="mw-redirect" title="Toga picta">toga picta</a></i>, and the censor a purple toga peculiar to him, but other writers speak of their official dress as being the same as that of the other higher magistrates.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The funeral of a censor was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a "censorial funeral" (<i>funus censorium</i>) was voted even to the emperors.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abolition">Abolition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Abolition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, from 443 BC to 22 BC, but during this period, many <i>lustra</i> passed by without any censor being chosen at all. According to one statement, the office was abolished by <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Lucius Cornelius Sulla</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the authority on which this statement rests is not of much weight, the fact itself is probable, since there was no census during the two <i>lustra</i> which elapsed from Sulla's dictatorship to <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey)</a>'s first consulship (82–70 BC), and any strict "imposition of morals" would have been found inconvenient to the aristocracy that supported Sulla.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the censorship had been done away with by Sulla, it was at any rate restored in the consulship of Pompey and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Licinius Crassus</a>. Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune <a href="/wiki/Publius_Clodius_Pulcher" title="Publius Clodius Pulcher">Publius Clodius Pulcher</a> (58 BC), which prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding before the censors in expelling a person from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>, and required that the censors be in agreement to exact this punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This law, however, was repealed in the third consulship of Pompey in 52 BC, on the urging of his colleague <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Pius_Scipio_Nasica" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica">Q. Caecilius Metellus Scipio</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the office of the censorship never recovered its former power and influence.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_civil_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Republican civil wars">civil wars</a> which followed soon afterwards, no censors were elected; it was only after a long interval that they were again appointed, namely in 23 BC, when <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> caused <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Munatius_Plancus" title="Lucius Munatius Plancus">Lucius Munatius Plancus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aemilius_Lepidus_Paullus" class="mw-redirect" title="Aemilius Lepidus Paullus">Aemilius Lepidus Paullus</a> to fill the office.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the last time that such magistrates were appointed; the emperors in future discharged the duties of their office under the name of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Praefectura_Morum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Praefectura Morum (page does not exist)">Praefectura Morum</a> ("prefect of the morals").<sup id="cite_ref-:1_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the emperors sometimes took the name of censor when they held a census of the Roman people; this was the case with <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>, who appointed the elder <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Vitellius" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Vitellius">Lucius Vitellius</a> as his colleague,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, who likewise had a colleague in his son <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a> assumed the title of "perpetual censor" (<i>censor perpetuus</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this example was not imitated by succeeding emperors. In the reign of <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a>, the elder <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> was nominated to the censorship, but declined the position.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Duties">Duties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Duties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The duties of the censors may be divided into three classes, all of which were closely connected with one another: </p> <ol><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_census" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman census">Census</a></i>, or register of the citizens and of their property, in which were included the reading of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>'s lists (<i>lectio senatus</i>) and the recognition of who qualified for <a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equestrian</a> rank (<i>recognitio equitum</i>);</li> <li>The <i>Regimen Morum</i>, or keeping of the public morals; and</li> <li>The administration of the finances of the state, under which were classed the superintendence of the public buildings and the erection of all new public works.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The original business of the censorship was at first of a much more limited kind, and was restricted almost entirely to taking the census,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the possession of this power gradually brought with it fresh power and new duties, as is shown below. A general view of these duties is briefly expressed in the following passage of Cicero:<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<i>Censores populi aevitates, soboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus distribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines patiunto: equitum, peditumque prolem describunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto.</i>" This can be translated as: "The Censors are to determine the generations, origins, families, and properties of the people; they are to (watch over/protect) the city's temples, roads, waters, treasury, and taxes; they are to divide the people into three parts; next, they are to (allow/approve) the properties, generations, and ranks [of the people]; they are to describe the offspring of knights and footsoldiers; they are to forbid being unmarried; they are to guide the behavior of the people; they are not to overlook abuse in the Senate." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Census">Census</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Census"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n1.jpg/220px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n1.jpg/330px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n1.jpg/440px-Altar_Domitius_Ahenobarbus_Louvre_n1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2900" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Scene of census-taking from the so-called <a href="/wiki/Altar_of_Domitius_Ahenobarbus" title="Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus">Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus</a>, late 2nd century BC</figcaption></figure> <p>The Census, the first and principal duty of the censors, was always held in the <a href="/wiki/Campus_Martius" title="Campus Martius">Campus Martius</a>, and from the year 435 BC onwards, in a special building called <a href="/wiki/Villa_publica" title="Villa publica">Villa publica</a>, which was erected for that purpose by the second pair of censors, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Furius_Pacilus_Fusus" title="Gaius Furius Pacilus Fusus">Gaius Furius Pacilus Fusus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Geganius_Macerinus" title="Marcus Geganius Macerinus">Marcus Geganius Macerinus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An account of the formalities with which the census was opened is given in a fragment of the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tabulae_Censoriae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tabulae Censoriae (page does not exist)">Tabulae Censoriae</a></i>, preserved by Varro.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Auspices" class="mw-redirect" title="Auspices">auspices</a> had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up separately,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the names in each tribe were probably taken according to the lists previously made out by the tribunes of the tribes. Every <i><a href="/wiki/Pater_familias" title="Pater familias">pater familias</a></i> had to appear in person before the censors, who were seated in their <a href="/wiki/Curule_chair" class="mw-redirect" title="Curule chair">curule chairs</a>, and those names were taken first which were considered to be of good omen, such as <a href="/wiki/Valerius" class="mw-redirect" title="Valerius">Valerius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salvius_Julianus" title="Salvius Julianus">Salvius</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Statorius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Statorius (page does not exist)">Statorius</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Census was conducted according to the judgement of the censor (<i>ad arbitrium censoris</i>), but the censors laid down certain rules,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes called <i>leges censui censendo</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these laws, each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, "declared from the heart".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> First he had to give his full name (<i><a href="/wiki/Praenomen" title="Praenomen">praenomen</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Nomen_gentilicium" title="Nomen gentilicium"><i>nomen</i></a>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Cognomen" title="Cognomen">cognomen</a></i>) and that of his father, or if he were a <i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_freedmen" title="Ancient Roman freedmen">libertus</a></i> ("freedman") that of his <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">patron</a>, and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked, "You, declaring from your heart, do you have a wife?" and if married he had to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians; their names were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the sum total of heads.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, etc., he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it was subject to the census. Only such things were liable to the census (<i>censui censendo</i>) as were property according to the <a href="/wiki/Quirites" title="Quirites">Quiritary</a> law. At first, each citizen appears to have merely given the value of his whole property in general without entering into details;<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it soon became the practice to give a minute specification of each article, as well as the general value of the whole.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Land formed the most important article of the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen, was excluded as not being Quiritarian property. Judging from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and location of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and of the land thus described, he had to give his assessment of its value.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slaves</a> and cattle formed the next most important item. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages.<sup id="cite_ref-autogeneratedxxxix_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogeneratedxxxix-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been doubted by some modern writers whether the censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves gave, but given the discretionary nature of the censors' powers, and the necessity almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, it is likely that the censors had this power. It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury;<sup id="cite_ref-autogeneratedxxxix_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogeneratedxxxix-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even if they did not enter in their books the property of a person at a higher value than he returned it, they accomplished the same end by compelling him <a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Taxation in ancient Rome">to pay a tax</a> upon the property at a higher rate than others. The tax was usually one per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors, but on one occasion the censors compelled a person to pay eight per thousand as a punishment.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A person who voluntarily absented himself from the census was considered <i>incensus</i> and subject to the severest punishment. <a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a> is said to have threatened such individuals with imprisonment and death,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republican</a> period he might be sold by the state as a slave.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the later period of the Republic, a person who was absent from the census might be represented by another, and be thus registered by the censors.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether the soldiers who were absent on service had to appoint a representative is uncertain. In ancient times, the sudden outbreaks of war prevented the census from being taken,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because a large number of the citizens would necessarily be absent. It is supposed from a passage in <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that in later times the censors sent commissioners into the provinces with full powers to take the census of the Roman soldiers there, but this seems to have been a special case. It is, on the contrary, probable from the way in which Cicero pleads the absence of <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Licinius_Archias" title="Aulus Licinius Archias">Archias</a> from Rome with the army under <a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucullus</a>, as a sufficient reason for his not having been enrolled in the census,<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/220px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/330px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg/440px-Foro_romano_tempio_Saturno_09feb08_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a>, which housed the <i>aerarium Saturni</i> and the <i>aerarium sanctum</i></figcaption></figure> <p>After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property (<a href="/wiki/Comitia_Centuriata" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia Centuriata">Comitia Centuriata</a>). These lists formed a most important part of the <i>Tabulae Censoriae</i>, under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These lists, insofar as they were connected with the finances of the state, were deposited in the <i><a href="/wiki/Aerarium" title="Aerarium">aerarium</a></i>, located in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Saturn" title="Temple of Saturn">Temple of Saturn</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the <a href="/wiki/Atrium_Libertatis" title="Atrium Libertatis">Atrium Libertatis</a>, near the Villa publica,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in later times the temple of the Nymphs.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides the division of the citizens into tribes, centuries, and classes, the censors had also to make out the lists of the senators for the ensuing five years, or until new censors were appointed, striking out the names of such as they considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified. In the same manner they held a review of the <i><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equites</a></i> who received a horse from public funds (<i>equites equo publico</i>), and added and removed names as they judged proper. They also confirmed the <i><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">princeps senatus</a></i>, or appointed a new one. The princeps himself had to be a former censor. After the lists had been completed, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced. Accordingly, we find that in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as <i>capita</i> ("heads"), sometimes with the addition of the word <i>civium</i> ("of the citizens"), and sometimes not. Hence, to be registered in the census was the same thing as "having a head" (<i>caput habere</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Census_beyond_Rome">Census beyond Rome</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Census beyond Rome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emperor sent into the provinces special officers called <i>censitores</i> to take the census;<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the duty was sometimes discharged by the Imperial <i><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legati</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>censitores</i> were assisted by subordinate officers, called <i>censuales</i>, who made out the lists, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Rome, the census was still taken under the Empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer performed, and the ceremony of the <i>lustratio</i> was not performed after the time of <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>. The jurists <a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Paulus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a> each wrote works on the census in the imperial period; and several extracts from these works are given in a chapter in the <i>Digest</i> (50 15). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_uses_of_census">Other uses of census</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other uses of census"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word <i>census</i>, besides the conventional meaning of "valuation" of a person's estate, has other meaning in Rome; it could refer to: </p> <ul><li>the amount of a person's property (hence we read of <i>census senatorius</i>, the estate of a senator; <i>census equestris</i>, the estate of an <a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">eques</a>).</li> <li>the lists of the censors.</li> <li>the tax which depended upon the valuation in the census. The Lexicons will supply examples of these meanings.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regimen_morum"><i>Regimen morum</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Regimen morum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Keeping the public morals (<i>regimen morum</i>, or in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> <i>cura morum</i> or <i>praefectura morum</i>) was the second most important branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be one of the most revered and the most dreaded; hence they were also known as <i>castigatores</i> ("chastisers"). It naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding persons from the lists of citizens; for, as has been well remarked, "they would, in the first place, be the sole judges of many questions of fact, such as whether a citizen had the qualifications required by law or custom for the rank which he claimed, or whether he had ever incurred any judicial sentence, which rendered him infamous: but from thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decisions of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank, whether he had not committed some act as justly degrading as those which incurred the sentence of the law." </p><p>In this manner, the censors gradually assumed at least nominal complete superintendence over the whole public and private life of every citizen. They were constituted as the conservators of public morality; they were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, but rather to maintain the traditional Roman character, ethics, and habits (<i>mos majorum</i>)—<i>regimen morum</i> also encompassed this protection of traditional ways,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was called in the times of the Empire <i>cura</i> ("supervision") or <i>praefectura</i> ("command"). The punishment inflicted by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was called <i>nota</i> ("mark, letter") or <i>notatio</i>, or <i>animadversio censoria</i> ("censorial reproach"). In inflicting it, they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of duty; they had to take an oath that they would act biased by neither partiality nor favour; and, in addition to this, they were bound in every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him, <i>subscriptio censoria</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This part of the censors' office invested them with a peculiar kind of jurisdiction, which in many respects resembled the exercise of public opinion in modern times; for there are innumerable actions which, though acknowledged by everyone to be prejudicial and immoral, still do not come within the reach of the positive laws of a country; as often said, "immorality does not equal illegality". Even in cases of real crimes, the positive laws frequently punish only the particular offence, while in public opinion the offender, even after he has undergone punishment, is still incapacitated for certain honours and distinctions which are granted only to persons of unblemished character. </p><p>Hence, the Roman censors might brand a man with their "censorial mark" (<i>nota censoria</i>) in case he had been convicted of a crime in an ordinary court of justice, and had already suffered punishment for it. The consequence of such a <i>nota</i> was only <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ignominia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ignominia (page does not exist)">ignominia</a></i> and not <i><a href="/wiki/Infamia" title="Infamia">infamia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Infamia</i> and the censorial verdict was not a <i>judicium</i> or <i>res judicata</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for its effects were not lasting, but might be removed by the following censors, or by a <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">lex</a></i> (roughly "law"). A censorial mark was moreover not valid unless both censors agreed. The <i>ignominia</i> was thus only a transitory reduction of status, which does not even appear to have deprived a magistrate of his office,<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and certainly did not disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed as <i>judices</i> by the <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a>, or for serving in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mamercus_Aemilius_Mamercinus" title="Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus">Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus</a> was thus, notwithstanding the reproach of the censors (<i>animadversio censoria</i>), made <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A person might be branded with a censorial mark in a variety of cases, which it would be impossible to specify, as in a great many instances it depended upon the discretion of the censors and the view they took of a case; and sometimes even one set of censors would overlook an offence which was severely chastised by their successors.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the offences which are recorded to have been punished by the censors are of a threefold nature. </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:decimal"><li>Such as occurred in the private life of individuals: <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>Living in celibacy at a time when a person ought to be married to provide the state with citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The obligation of marrying was frequently impressed upon the citizens by the censors, and the refusal to fulfil it was punished with a fine (<i><a href="/wiki/Aes_uxorium" title="Aes uxorium">aes uxorium</a></i>).</li><li>The dissolution of matrimony or betrothment in an improper way, or for insufficient reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Improper conduct towards one's wife or children, as well as harshness or too great indulgence towards children, and disobedience of the latter towards their parents.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Inordinate and luxurious mode of living, or an extravagant expenditure of money. A great many instances of this kind are recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a later time the <i><a href="/wiki/Sumptuary_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumptuary laws">leges sumptuariae</a></i> were made to check the growing love of luxuries.</li><li>Neglect and carelessness in cultivating one's fields.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Cruelty towards slaves or clients.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>The carrying on of a disreputable trade or occupation,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as acting in theatres.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Legacy-hunting, defrauding orphans, etc.</li></ol></div></li><li>Offences committed in public life, either in the capacity of a public officer or against magistrates, <br /> <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>If a magistrate acted in a manner not befitting his dignity as an officer, if he was accessible to bribes, or forged auspices.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Improper conduct towards a magistrate, or the attempt to limit his power or to abrogate a law which the censors thought necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Perjury.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>Neglect, disobedience, and cowardice of soldiers in the army.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li>The keeping of the <i><a href="/wiki/Equus_publicus" title="Equus publicus">equus publicus</a></i> (a horse kept by patrician equestrian militia at public expense) in bad condition.</li></ol></div></li><li>A variety of actions or pursuits which were thought to be injurious to public morality, might be forbidden by an edict,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and those who acted contrary to such edicts were branded with the <i>nota</i> and degraded. For an enumeration of the offences that might be punished by the censors with <i>ignominia</i>, see <a href="/wiki/Barthold_Georg_Niebuhr" title="Barthold Georg Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol></div> <p>A person who had been branded with a <i>nota censoria</i>, might, if he considered himself wronged, endeavour to prove his innocence to the censors,<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and if he did not succeed, he might try to gain the protection of one of the censors, that he might intercede on his behalf. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Punishments">Punishments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Punishments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The punishments inflicted by the censors generally differed according to the station which a man occupied, though sometimes a person of the highest rank might suffer all the punishments at once, by being degraded to the lowest class of citizens. The punishments are generally divided into four classes: </p> <ol><li><i>Motio</i> ("removal") or <i>ejectio e senatu</i> ("ejection from the Senate"), or the exclusion of a man from the ranks of senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an <i><a href="/wiki/Aerarii" title="Aerarii">aerarian</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter course seems to have been seldom adopted; the ordinary mode of inflicting the punishment was simply this: the censors in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, quietly omitted the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the expression <i>praeteriti senatores</i> ("senators passed over") is equivalent to <i>e senatu ejecti</i> (those removed from the Senate).<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, however, the censors did not acquiesce to this simple mode of proceeding, but addressed the senator whom they had noted, and publicly reprimanded him for his conduct.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As in ordinary cases an ex-senator was not disqualified by his <i>ignominia</i> for holding any of the magistracies which opened the way to the Senate, he might at the next census again become a senator.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <i>ademptio equi</i>, or the taking away the publicly funded horse from an <a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">equestrian</a>. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank of an <i>aerarian</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <i>motio e tribu</i>, or the exclusion of a person from his tribe. This punishment and the degradation to the rank of an <i>aerarian</i> were originally the same, but when in the course of time a distinction was made between the rural or rustic tribes and the urban tribes, the <i>motio e tribu</i> transferred a person from the rustic tribes to the less respectable city tribes, and if the further degradation to the rank of an <i>aerarian</i> was combined with the <i>motio e tribu</i>, it was always expressly stated.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The fourth punishment was called <i>referre in aerarios</i><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>facere aliquem aerarium</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and might be inflicted on any person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. This degradation, properly speaking, included all the other punishments, for an equestrian could not be made an <i>aerarius</i> unless he was previously deprived of his horse, nor could a member of a rustic tribe be made an <i>aerarius</i> unless he was previously excluded from it.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>It was this authority of the Roman censors which eventually developed into the modern meaning of "censor" and "<a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a>"—i.e., officials who review published material and forbid the publication of material judged to be contrary to "public morality" as the term is interpreted in a given political and social environment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administration_of_the_finances_of_the_state">Administration of the finances of the state</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Administration of the finances of the state"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The administration of the state's finances was another part of the censors' office. In the first place the <i><a href="/wiki/Tributum" title="Tributum">tributum</a></i>, or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the censors.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also had the superintendence of all the other revenues of the state, the <i><a href="/wiki/Vectigalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Vectigalia">vectigalia</a></i>, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the salt works, the mines, the customs, etc. </p><p>The censors typically auctioned off to the highest bidder for the space of a <i>lustrum</i> the collection of the tithes and taxes (<a href="/wiki/Tax_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax farming">tax farming</a>). This auctioning was called <i>venditio</i> or <i>locatio</i>, and seems to have taken place in the month of March,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in a public place in Rome<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms on which they were let, together with the rights and duties of the purchasers, were all specified in the <i>leges censoriae</i>, which the censors published in every case before the bidding commenced.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For further particulars see <a href="/wiki/Publicani" class="mw-redirect" title="Publicani">Publicani</a>. </p><p>The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the assent of the Senate, of imposing new <i>vectigalia</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even of selling the land belonging to the state.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would thus appear that it was the duty of the censors to bring forward a budget for a five-year period, and to take care that the income of the state was sufficient for its expenditure during that time. In part, their duties resembled those of a modern <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_finance" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of finance">minister of finance</a>. The censors, however, did not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid into the <i><a href="/wiki/Aerarium" title="Aerarium">aerarium</a></i>, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the Senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the <a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestors</a> as its officers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Overseeing_public_works">Overseeing public works</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Overseeing public works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In one important department, the public works, the censors were entrusted with the expenditure of the public money (though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors). </p><p>The censors had the general superintendence of all the public buildings and works (<i>opera publica</i>), and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the Senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had to see that the temples and all other public buildings were in a good state of repair,<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that no public places were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons,<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (Roman)">aqueducts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">roads</a>, drains, etc. were properly attended to. </p><p>The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in proper condition were let out by the censors by <a href="/wiki/Public_auction" class="mw-redirect" title="Public auction">public auction</a> to the lowest bidder, just as the <i>vectigalia</i> were let out to the highest bidder. These expenses were called <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ultrotributa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ultrotributa (page does not exist)">ultrotributa</a></i>, and hence we frequently find <i>vectigalia</i> and <i>ultrotributa</i> contrasted with one another.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The persons who undertook the contract were called <i>conductores</i>, <i>mancipes</i>, <i>redemptores</i>, <i>susceptores</i>, etc., and the duties they had to discharge were specified in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Leges_Censoriae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leges Censoriae (page does not exist)">Leges Censoriae</a>. The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods, even for instance the feeding of the sacred geese in the Capitol; these various tasks were also let out on contract.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was ordinary for censors to expend large amounts of money (“by far the largest and most extensive” of the state)<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in their public works. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Musei_vaticani,_braccio_chiaramonti,_busto_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Musei_vaticani%2C_braccio_chiaramonti%2C_busto_02.JPG/170px-Musei_vaticani%2C_braccio_chiaramonti%2C_busto_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Musei_vaticani%2C_braccio_chiaramonti%2C_busto_02.JPG/255px-Musei_vaticani%2C_braccio_chiaramonti%2C_busto_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Musei_vaticani%2C_braccio_chiaramonti%2C_busto_02.JPG/340px-Musei_vaticani%2C_braccio_chiaramonti%2C_busto_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="2176" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Caecus" title="Appius Claudius Caecus">Appius Claudius Caecus</a>, one of the most influential censors</figcaption></figure> <p>Besides keeping existing public buildings and facilities in a proper state of repair, the censors were also in charge of constructing new ones, either for ornament or utility, both in Rome and in other parts of Italy, such as temples, <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilicae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">theatres</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portico" title="Portico">porticoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">fora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (Roman)">aqueducts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">town walls</a>, harbours, bridges, cloacae, roads, etc. These works were either performed by them jointly, or they divided between them the money, which had been granted to them by the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were let out to contractors, like the other works mentioned above, and when they were completed, the censors had to see that the work was performed in accordance with the contract: this was called <i>opus probare</i> or <i>in acceptum referre</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first ever Roman road, the <a href="/wiki/Via_Appia" class="mw-redirect" title="Via Appia">Via Appia</a>, and the first Roman aqueduct, the <a href="/wiki/Aqua_Appia" title="Aqua Appia">Aqua Appia</a>, were all constructed under the censorship of <a href="/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Caecus" title="Appius Claudius Caecus">Appius Claudius Caecus</a>, one of the most influential censors. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aediles</a> had likewise a superintendence over the public buildings, and it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles, but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors were more financial in subject matter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lustrum">Lustrum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Lustrum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the censors had performed their various duties and taken the five-yearly census, the <i><a href="/wiki/Lustrum" title="Lustrum">lustrum</a></i>, a solemn purification of the people, followed. When the censors entered upon their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this purification;<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but both censors were of course obliged to be present at the ceremony. </p><p>Long after the Roman census was no longer taken, the Latin word <i>lustrum</i> has survived, and been adopted in some modern languages, in the derived sense of a period of five years, i.e., half a decennium. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Census_statistics">Census statistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Census statistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th width="70">Census </th> <th width="90">Number of Roman citizens </th> <th style="width:130px;">Economic crises </th> <th width="80">Wars </th> <th width="90">Epidemics </th></tr> <tr> <td>508 BC </td> <td>130,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>505–504 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>503 BC </td> <td>120,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>499 or 496 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>498 BC </td> <td>150,700</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>493 BC </td> <td>110,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>492–491 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>486 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>474 BC </td> <td>103,000 </td> <td>474 BC</td> <td>474 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>465 BC </td> <td>104,714</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>459 BC </td> <td>117,319</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>456 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>454 BC</td> <td></td> <td>454 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>440–439 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>433 BC</td> <td></td> <td>433 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>428 BC</td> <td></td> <td>428 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>412 BC</td> <td></td> <td>412 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>400 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>396 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>392 BC </td> <td>152,573</td> <td>392 BC</td> <td></td> <td>392 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>390 BC</td> <td></td> <td>390 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>386 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>383 BC</td> <td></td> <td>383 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>343–341 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>340 BC </td> <td>165,000</td> <td></td> <td>340–338 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>326–304 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>323 BC </td> <td>150,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>299 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>298–290 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>294 BC </td> <td>262,321</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>293/292 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>289 BC </td> <td>272,200</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>281 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>280 BC </td> <td>287,222</td> <td></td> <td>280–275 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>276 BC </td> <td>271,224</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>276 BC? </td></tr> <tr> <td>265 BC </td> <td>292,234</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>264–241 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>252 BC </td> <td>297,797</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>250 BC</td> <td>250 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>247 BC </td> <td>241,712</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>241 BC </td> <td>260,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>234 BC </td> <td>270,713</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>216 BC</td> <td>216 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>211–210 BC</td> <td>211–210 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>209 BC </td> <td>137,108</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>204 BC </td> <td>214,000</td> <td>204 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>203 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>201 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>200 BC</td> <td>200–195 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>194 BC </td> <td>143,704</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>192–188 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>189 BC </td> <td>258,318</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>187 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>182–180 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>179 BC </td> <td>258,318</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>176–175 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>174 BC </td> <td>269,015</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>171–167 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>169 BC </td> <td>312,805</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>165 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>164 BC </td> <td>337,022</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>159 BC </td> <td>328,316</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>154 BC </td> <td>324,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>153 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>147 BC </td> <td>322,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>142 BC </td> <td>322,442</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>142 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>138 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>136 BC </td> <td>317,933</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>131 BC </td> <td>318,823</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>125 BC </td> <td>394,736</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>123 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>115 BC </td> <td>394,336</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>104 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>87 BC </td></tr> <tr> <td>86 BC </td> <td>463,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>75 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>70 BC </td> <td>910,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>67 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>65 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>54 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>49–46 BC</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>43 BC</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>28 BC </td> <td>4,063,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>23–22</td> <td>23–22</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 BC </td> <td>4,233,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>5–6</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>10</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>14 AD </td> <td>4,937,000</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_registration_in_Ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth registration in Ancient Rome">Birth registration in Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lex_Caecilia_de_censoria" title="Lex Caecilia de censoria">Lex Caecilia de censoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline of ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Political institutions of Rome">Political institutions of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauly%E2%80%93Wissowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Pauly–Wissowa">Pauly–Wissowa</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suolahti, J. (1963) <i>The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure</i> (Helsinki)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/censorship">"censorship | Etymology, origin and meaning of censorship by etymonline"</a>. <i>www.etymonline.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.etymonline.com&rft.atitle=censorship+%26%23124%3B+Etymology%2C+origin+and+meaning+of+censorship+by+etymonline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fcensorship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0153:book=4:chapter=8#note-link1">"Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome, Book 4, chapter 8"</a>. <i>www.perseus.tufts.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=Titus+Livius+%28Livy%29%2C+The+History+of+Rome%2C+Book+4%2C+chapter+8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0153%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D8%23note-link1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Censor.html">"LacusCurtius • The Roman Censor (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)"</a>. <i>penelope.uchicago.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=penelope.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=LacusCurtius+%E2%80%A2+The+Roman+Censor+%28Smith%27s+Dictionary%2C+1875%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2FSMIGRA%2A%2FCensor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></i> vii.22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy viii.12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwithinbank2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Swithinbank, Hannah J. (October 2012). "Censor". <i>The Encyclopedia of Ancient History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444338386.wbeah20027">10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah20027</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781444338386" title="Special:BookSources/9781444338386"><bdi>9781444338386</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Censor&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+History&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444338386.wbeah20027&rft.isbn=9781444338386&rft.aulast=Swithinbank&rft.aufirst=Hannah+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy v.31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy vi.27, ix.34, xxiv.43, xxvii.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy iv.24, ix.33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Romans: From Village to Empire: A History of Rome from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire" by M. Boatwright, et al. 2nd edition. 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFthehistorianshut2020" class="citation web cs1">thehistorianshut (2020-04-23). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thehistorianshut.com/2020/04/23/the-tale-of-the-censors-revenge-against-mamercus-aemilius/">"The Tale Of The Censors' Revenge Against Mamercus Aemilius"</a>. <i>The Historian's Hut</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Historian%27s+Hut&rft.atitle=The+Tale+Of+The+Censors%E2%80%99+Revenge+Against+Mamercus+Aemilius&rft.date=2020-04-23&rft.au=thehistorianshut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthehistorianshut.com%2F2020%2F04%2F23%2Fthe-tale-of-the-censors-revenge-against-mamercus-aemilius%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a> xiii.15; <i>Livy</i> xl.45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy ix.34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Gellii</i> xiii.15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxiv.10, xxxix.41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=De_Lege_Agraria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="De Lege Agraria (page does not exist)">de Lege Agraria</a></i> ii.11; <i>Livy</i> xl.45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Life_of_Coriolanus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Life of Coriolanus (page does not exist)">Life of Coriolanus</a></i> 1; <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a> iv.1 §3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Zonar</i>. vii.19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <i>de Lege Agraria</i> ii.11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Life_of_Cato_the_Elder&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Life of Cato the Elder (page does not exist)">Life of Cato the Elder</a></i> 16, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Life_of_Flaminius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Life of Flaminius (page does not exist)">Life of Flaminius</a></i> 18, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Life_of_Camillus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Life of Camillus (page does not exist)">Life of Camillus</a></i> 2, 14, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Life_of_Aemilius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Life of Aemilius (page does not exist)">Life of Aemilius</a></i> 38; Cicero <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ad_Familiares&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ad Familiares (page does not exist)">ad Familiares</a></i> iii.10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dionys. in <i>Mai, Nova Coll.</i> vol. ii p516; Livy iv.24, xxix.37; Valerius Maximus vii.2 §6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xl.45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">vi.53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zonar. vii.19; Athen. xiv. p660c.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)" title="Annals (Tacitus)">Annales</a></i> iv.15, xiii.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schol. Gronov. <i>ad Cic. Div. in Caecil.</i> 3, p384, ed. <a href="/wiki/Johann_Caspar_Orelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Caspar Orelli">Johann Caspar Orelli</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/censor-ancient-Roman-official">"Censor | Magistrate, Supervision, Morality | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Censor+%7C+Magistrate%2C+Supervision%2C+Morality+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fcensor-ancient-Roman-official&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> xxxviii.13; Cicero <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pro_Sestio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pro Sestio (page does not exist)">pro Sestio</a></i> 25, <i>de Prov. Cons.</i> 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio xl.57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartwright" class="citation web cs1">Cartwright, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/censor/">"Censor"</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Censor&rft.aulast=Cartwright&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Fcensor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Twelve_Caesars" class="mw-redirect" title="Lives of the Twelve Caesars">Suetonius</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Life of Augustus">Life of Augustus</a></i> 37, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Life_of_Claudius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Life of Claudius (page does not exist)">Life of Claudius</a></i> 16; Cassius Dio liv.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suetonius <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Life_of_Claudius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Life of Claudius (page does not exist)">Life of Claudius</a></i> 16; Tacitus Annales xii.4, <a href="/wiki/Histories_(Tacitus)" title="Histories (Tacitus)">Historia</a> i.9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suet. Vesp. 8, Tit. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio liii.18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Symmach. <i>Ep.</i> iv.29, v.9)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeigel1998" class="citation web cs1">Weigel, Richard D. (3 August 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230411002145/http://roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/gallval.htm">"An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/gallval.htm">the original</a> on 11 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+Online+Encyclopedia+of+Roman+Emperors&rft.date=1998-08-03&rft.aulast=Weigel&rft.aufirst=Richard+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Froman-emperors.sites.luc.edu%2Fgallval.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suolahti, J. (1963) <i>The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure</i> (Helsinki) 58f</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy iv.8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/De_legibus" class="mw-redirect" title="De legibus">De legibus</a></i> iii.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy iv.22; <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> <i><a href="/wiki/De_Re_Rustica_(Columella)" class="mw-redirect" title="De Re Rustica (Columella)">de Re Rustica</a></i> iii.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>De lingua Latina</i> vi.86, 87, ed. Müller.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dionys. v.75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Festus, <i>s.v. Lacus Lucrinus</i>; Schol. Bob. <i>ad Cic. pro Scaur.</i> p374, ed. Orelli.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy iv.8, xxix.15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liv. xliii.14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius</a> iv.15; Livy xliii.14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gell. iv.20; Cicero <i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">de Oratore</a></i> ii.64; Tab. Heracl. 142 (68); <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Digesta_Iustiniani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Digesta Iustiniani (page does not exist)">Digesta Iustiniani</a></i> 50 tit.15 s3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf. Livy iii.3, <i><a href="/wiki/Periochae" class="mw-redirect" title="Periochae">Periochae</a></i> 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dionysius iv.15; Cicero <i><a href="/wiki/De_Legibus" title="De Legibus">de Legibus</a></i> iii.3; Festus, s.v. <i>Censores</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf. Cicero <i>pro Flacc.</i> 32; Gell. vii.11; Plutarch <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Life_of_Cato_the_Elder&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Life of Cato the Elder (page does not exist)">Life of Cato the Elder</a></i> 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Digesta Iustiniani</i> 50 tit.15 s4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogeneratedxxxix-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogeneratedxxxix_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogeneratedxxxix_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxxix.44; Plutarch <i>Life of Cato the Elder</i> 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy iv.24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy i.44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pro_Caecina_Oratio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pro Caecina Oratio (page does not exist)">pro Caecina Oratio</a></i> 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Varro <i>De lingua Latina</i> vi.86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy vi.31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">xxix.37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pro_Licinio_Archia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pro Licinio Archia (page does not exist)">pro Licinio Archia</a></i> 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Liv. xxiv.18; Plut. Cat. Maj. 16; Cic. de Leg. Agr. i.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liv. xxix.37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liv. xliii.16, xlv.15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cic. pro Mil. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i><a href="/wiki/In_Verrem" title="In Verrem">In Verrem</a></i> ii.53, 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dig. 50 tit.15 s4 § 1; Cassiod. Var. ix.11; Orelli, Inscr. No. 3652.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> Ann. i.31, ii.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Capitol. Gordian. 12; Symmach. Ep. x.43; Cod. Theod. 8 tit.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i>de Legibus</i> iii.3; Livy iv.8, xxiv.18, xl.46, xli.27, xlii.3; Suetonius <i>Life of Augustus</i> 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxxix.42; Cicero <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pro_Cluentio_Oratio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pro Cluentio Oratio (page does not exist)">pro Cluentio Oratio</a></i> 42‑48; Gell. iv.20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> iv.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i>pro Cluentio Oratio</i> 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Livy xxiv.18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy iv.31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i><a href="/wiki/De_senectute" class="mw-redirect" title="De senectute">De senectute</a></i> 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Valerius Maximus ii.9 §1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Valerius Maximus ii.9 §2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch <i>Life of Cato the Elder</i> 17; cf. Cicero <i>de Re Publica</i> iv.6; Dionys. xx.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy <i>Periochae</i> 14, xxxix.4; Plutarch <i>Life of Cato the Elder</i> 18; Gellius, iv.8; Valerius Maximus ii.9 §4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Auli Gellii iv.12; Pliny <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i> xviii.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dionysius xx.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dionysius, l.c.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy vii.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i><a href="/wiki/De_Senectute" class="mw-redirect" title="De Senectute">de Senectute</a></i> 12; Livy xxxix. 42; Valerius Maximus ii. 9. § 3; Plutarch <i>Cato Major</i> 17; Cicero <i><a href="/wiki/De_Divinatione" title="De Divinatione">De Divinatione</a></i> i. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy iv. 24; Cicero <i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">de Oratore</a></i> ii. 64; Valerius Maximus ii. 9. § 5; Gellius, iv. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">de Oratore</a></i> i. 13; Livy xxiv. 18; Gellius vii. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Valerius Maximus ii. 9. § 7; Livy. xxiv. 18, xxvii. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gellius, xv.11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>History of Rome</i>, vol. ii p399, &c.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>causam agere apud censores</i>, Varro <i>de re Rustica</i> i.7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liv. xxiv.18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxxviii.28, xxvii.11, xxxiv.44; Festus, s.v. Praeteriti.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxiv.18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i>pro Cluentio Oratio</i> 42, Plutarch <i>Life of Cicero</i> 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxiv.18, 43, xxvii.11, xxix.37, xliii.16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liv. xlv.15, Plin. H.N. xviii.3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxiv.18; Cicero <i>pro Cluentio Oratio</i> 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xliii.43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy iv.24, xxiv.18, &c.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">cf. Livy xxxix.44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Macrobius#Saturnalia" title="Macrobius">Saturnalia</a></i> i.12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i>de Lege Agraria</i> i.3, ii.21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i>ad Qu. Fr.</i> i.1 §12, <i><a href="/wiki/In_Verrem" title="In Verrem">In Verrem</a></i> iii.7, <i><a href="/wiki/De_Natura_Deorum" title="De Natura Deorum">De Natura Deorum</a></i> iii.19, Varro <i>de re rustica</i> ii.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxix.37, xl.51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxxii.7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> vi.13; Livy xl.46, xliv.16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Aedes_(Roman_religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aedes (Roman religion)">aedes</a> sacras tueri</i> and <i>sarta tecta exigere</i>, Livy xxiv.18, xxix.37, xlii.3, xlv.15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>loca tueri</i>, Livy xlii.3, xliii.16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livy xxxix.44, xliii.16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_Questions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Questions">Roman Questions</a></i> 98; Pliny <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i> x.22; Cicero <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pro_Sexto_Roscio_Amerino_Oratio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pro Sexto Roscio Amerino Oratio (page does not exist)">pro Sexto Roscio Amerino Oratio</a></i> 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Polybius 6.13.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liv. xl.51, xliv.16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero <i>In Verrem</i> i.57; Livy iv.22, xlv.15; Lex Puteol. p73, Spang.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>lustrum facere</i> or <i>condere</i>, Varro <i>De lingua Latina</i> vi.86; Livy xxix.37, xxxv.9, xxxviii.36, xlii.10.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Brunt, P. 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"The Census in the First Century B.C.". <i>Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <b>59</b> (1/2): 59–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F299848">10.2307/299848</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/299848">299848</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163672978">163672978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Census+in+the+First+Century+B.C.&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=59-75&rft.date=1969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163672978%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F299848%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F299848&rft.aulast=Wiseman&rft.aufirst=T.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Virlouvet, C. Famines et émeutes à Rome, des origines de la République à la mort de Néron. Roma, 1985;</li> <li>Suder, W., Góralczyk, E. Sezonowość epidemii w Republice Rzymskiej. Vitae historicae, Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana profesorowi Lechowi A. Tyszkiewiczowi w siedemdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin. Wrocław, 2001.</li> <li>Suolahti, J. The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure. Helsinki, 1963.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elar.uniyar.ac.ru/jspui/handle/123456789/1718">Melnichuk Y. Birth of the Roman censorship: Exploring the ancient tradition of the civil control of ancient Rome. - Moscow, 2010</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1870" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">Smith, William</a>, ed. (1870). <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Antiquities" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities">Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</a></i>. London: John Murray.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1870&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+censor" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&oldid=1258667549">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_censor&oldid=1258667549</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_censors" title="Category:Ancient Roman censors">Ancient Roman censors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_titles" 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