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They were also formerly known as '''Mainotes''', and the peninsula as ''Maina''. The Maniots claim to be the descendants of the ancient [[Sparta|Spartans]] and they have often been described as such.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISQ_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA36|title=The Bureau: Or Repository of Literature, Politics, and Intelligence|date=1812|publisher=S.C. Carpenter.|pages=36|language=en|quote=In this work, the author, giving an account of the conquest made in Greece by the Russians, and of the gallant defence made by the Maniotes (the descendants of the ancient Spartans) against the Turks, describes their invincible spirit with the eloquence of a [[Demosthenes]] or a [[Edmund Burke|Burke]].}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Harris|first1=W. V.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wutuv1ygCxsC&pg=PA282|title=Rethinking the Mediterranean|last2=Harris|first2=William Vernon|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-926545-9|pages=282|language=en|quote=Above all, the Maniots, who are said to be the true heirs of the Spartans and 'have always preserved their liberty' (Pococke, 1743, i. 178) serve as an illustration of this continuity. According to [[John Montagu, 5th Earl of Sandwich|Lord Sandwich]] (1799, 31), '[these] descendants of the ancient Lacedemonians...still preserve their love for liberty so great a degree, as never to have debased themselves under the yoke of the Turkish empire'.}}</ref> The terrain is mountainous and inaccessible (until recently{{when|date=August 2024}} many Mani villages could be accessed only by sea), and the regional name "Mani" is thought to have meant originally "dry" or "barren". The name "Maniot" is a derivative meaning "of Mani". In the [[early modern period]], Maniots had a reputation as fierce and proudly independent [[warrior]]s, who practiced [[piracy]] and fierce [[Feud#Blood feuds/vendetta|blood feuds]]. For the most part, the Maniots lived in fortified villages (and "house-towers") where they defended their lands against the armies of [[William II Villehardouin]] and later against those of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. ==Names== The surnames of the Maniots uniformly end in "eas" in what is now the [[Messenia]]n ("outer" or northwestern) part of Mani, "akis" or "-akos" in what is now the [[Laconia]]n ("inner" or southwestern and eastern) part of Mani and the occasional "-oggonas".<ref name="Form and evolution of Maniot surnames">[http://www.mani.org.gr/fonimanis/2001/1_2001epif_epon.htm Form and evolution of Maniot surnames], Centre for Research of Greek Folklore of the Academy of Athens (in Greek)</ref> ==Ancient Mani== ===Mycenaean Mani=== [[File:GreeceMani.png|thumb|left|Map showing the location of [[Mani Peninsula]].]] [[Homer]]'s "[[Catalogue of Ships]]" in the ''[[Iliad]]'' mentions the cities of Mani: Messi (Mezapos), Oetylus (Oitylo), Kardamili (or Skardamoula), Gerenia, Teuthrone (Kotronas), and Las ([[Passavas]]).<ref name="Homer 2.581">Homer. ''The Iliad'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hom.+Il.+2.581 2.581].</ref> Under the Mycenaeans, Mani flourished and a temple dedicated to the Greek god [[Apollo]] was built at Cape [[Tenaro]]n. The temple was of such importance that it rivaled [[Delphi]] which was then a temple dedicated to [[Poseidon]]. Eventually, the temple of Tenaron was dedicated to Poseidon and the temple at Delphi was dedicated to Apollo. According to other legends, there is a cave near [[Tenaro]] that leads to [[Hades]]. Mani was also featured in other tales such as when [[Helen of Troy]] (Queen of [[Sparta]]), and [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] spent their first night together on the island of [[Cranae]], off the coast of Gytheio.<ref name="Kassis7">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=7}}.</ref> During the 12th century BC, the [[Dorians]] [[Dorian Invasion|invaded]] [[Laconia]]. The Dorians settled originally at [[Sparta]], but they soon started to expand their territory and by around 800 BC they had occupied Mani and the rest of Laconia. Mani was given the social caste of [[Perioeci]].<ref name="Saitas13">{{harvnb|Saitas|1990|p=13}}.</ref> During that time, the [[Phoenicians]] came to Mani and were thought to have established a colony at [[Gythium|Gythion]] (Roman name: Gythium). This colony collected [[murex]], a sea shell that was used to make purple dye and was plentiful in the [[Laconian Gulf]].<ref name="Fermor">{{harvnb|Fermor|1984|p=302}}.</ref> ===Classical Mani=== [[File:Mani 2000.png|thumb|Map of Modern Mani, also showing Laconia]] While the [[Sparta]]ns ruled Mani, Tenaron became an important gathering place for mercenaries.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos20">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=20}}.</ref> Gythium became a major port under the [[Sparta]]ns as it was only {{Convert|27|km|mi|abbr=on}} away from [[Sparta]]. In 455 BC, during the [[First Peloponnesian War]], it was besieged and captured by the Athenian [[admiral]] [[Tolmides]] along with 50 triremes and 4,000 hoplites.<ref name="Fermor"/> The city and the dockyards were rebuilt and by the late [[Peloponnesian War]], Gythium was the main building place for the new [[Sparta]]n fleet.<ref>Xenophon. ''Hellenica'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Hell.+1.4.11&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0206 1.4.11] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930224840/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Xen.+Hell.+1.4.11&fromdoc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0206 |date=2012-09-30 }}.</ref> The Spartan leadership of the Peloponnese lasted until 371 BC, when the [[Thebes, Greece|Thebans]] under [[Epaminondas]] defeated them at [[Battle of Leuctra|Leuctra]]. The Thebans began a campaign against Laconia and captured Gythium after a three-day siege. The Thebans only briefly managed to hold Gythium, which was captured by 100 elite warriors posing as athletes.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos20"/> ===Hellenistic Mani=== [[File:Ancient theatre of gythio.jpg|thumb|Ancient theatre near [[Gytheio]].]] During the [[Hellenistic period]] of [[Greece]], Mani remained controlled by the Spartans. The [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]] under the command of [[Philip V of Macedon]] tried to invade Mani and the rest of Laconia (219–218 BC) and unsuccessfully besieged the cities of Gythium, [[Passavas|Las]] and [[Skoutari (Laconia), Greece|Asine]].<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos20"/> When [[Nabis of Sparta|Nabis]] took over the Spartan throne in 207 BC, he implemented some democratic reforms. One of these reforms entailed making Gythium into a major port and naval arsenal.<ref name="Green302">{{harvnb|Green|1990|p=302}}.</ref> In 195 BC, during the [[Roman–Spartan War]], the [[Roman Republic]] and the [[Achaean League]] with assistance from a combined Pergamene and Rhodian force captured Gythium after a lengthy siege.<ref name="Livy 34.29">[[Livy]]. ''[[Ab urbe condita libri]]'', [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy34.html 34.29] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907205819/http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy34.html |date=2006-09-07 }}.</ref> The allies went on to besiege Sparta and tried to force Nabis to surrender. As part of the terms of the peace treaty, the coastal cities of Mani were forced to become autonomous. The cities formed the [[Koinon of Free Laconians]] with Gythium as the capital under the Achaean League's protection.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos20"/> Nabis, not content with losing his land in Mani, built a fleet and strengthened his army and advanced upon Gythium in 192 BC.<ref name="perseus.tufts.edu">{{harvnb|Smith|1873}}, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aentry%3Dnabis-bio-1 Nabis] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604212347/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=nabis-bio-1 |date=2011-06-04 }}.</ref> The Achaean League's army and navy under [[Philopoemen]], tried to relieve the city but the Achaean navy was defeated off Gythium and the army was forced to retreat to [[Tegea]].<ref name="perseus.tufts.edu"/> A Roman fleet under Atilius managed to re-capture Gythium later that year. Nabis was murdered later that year and Sparta was made part of the Achaean League.<ref name="Livy35.35">[[Livy]]. ''[[Ab urbe condita libri]]'', [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy35.html 35.35] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929133118/http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy35.html |date=2007-09-29 }}.</ref> However, the Spartans, while searching for a port captured Las. The Achaeans responded by seizing Sparta and unsuccessfully forcing their laws on it.<ref name="Cartledge and Spawforth">{{harvnb|Cartledge|Spawforth|2002|p=78}}.</ref> ==Roman Mani== The Maniots lived in peace until 146 BC when the [[Achaean League]] rebelled against Roman dominance, resulting in the [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)|Battle of Corinth]]. The conflict resulted in the destruction of [[Corinth]] by the forces of [[Lucius Mummius Achaicus]] and the annexation of the [[Achaean League]] by the [[Roman Republic]]. Even though the Romans conquered the Peloponnese, the Koinon was allowed to retain its independence. The Maniots suffered from pirate raids by Cretans and [[Cilicia]]ns who plundered Mani and pillaged the temple of [[Poseidon]]. The Maniots were delivered from the pirates when [[Pompey the Great]] defeated them. Most probably in gratitude, the Maniots supplied Pompey with archers in his battles against [[Julius Caesar]] during [[Caesar's civil war]] (49–45 BC) and were defeated.<ref name="Kassis16">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=16}}.</ref> During the [[Civil war between Antony and Octavian]] (32–30 BC), the Maniots and the rest of the Laconians supplied [[Augustus]] with troops for his confrontation with [[Mark Antony]] and [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt]] at the [[Battle of Actium]] (September 2, 31 BC) and in gratitude they officially recognized Augustus as Emperor and invited him at [[Psamathous]] (near modern [[Porto Kagio]]), and their Koinon stayed an independent state. This signified the beginning of the "Golden Age" of the Koinon.<ref name="Kassis16"/><ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos21">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=21}}.</ref> Mani flourished under the Romans, because of its respectful obedience to Rome. The Koinon consisted of 24 cities (later 18), of which Gythium remained the most prominent. However, many parts of Mani remained under the also semi-independent (autonomous under Roman sovereignty) Sparta, the most notable being Asine and Kardamyli.<ref name="Kassis16"/> Mani became a center for purple dye, which was popular in [[Rome]], as well as being well known for its rose antique marble and [[porphyry (geology)|porphyry]].<ref name="Fermor"/> Las is recorded to have been a comfortable city with Roman baths and a gymnasium.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos49">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=49}}.</ref> [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] has left us a description of Gythium as it existed during the reign of [[Marcus Aurelius]] (reigned 161–180). The agora, the Acropolis, the island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where Paris on his way to Troy celebrated his nuptials with Beautiful Helen after taking her from Sparta, the Migonium or precinct of [[Aphrodite]] Migonitis (occupied by the modern town), and the hill Larysium (Koumaro) rising above it. Nowadays, the most noteworthy remains of the theatre and the buildings partially submerged by the sea all belong to the Roman period.<ref>Pausanias. ''Description of Greece'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Paus.+3.21.8 3.21.8].</ref> The Koinon remained semi-independent (autonomous under Roman sovereignty) until the provincial reforms of [[Roman Emperor]] [[Diocletian]] in 297. With the [[Migration Period|barbarian invasion]] affecting the [[Roman Empire]], Mani became a haven for refugees. In 375, a massive earthquake in the area took its toll on Gythium, which was severely devastated.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos21"/><ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos49"/> Most of the ruins of ancient Gythium are now submerged in the Laconian Gulf. ==Medieval Mani== ===From Theodosius I to the Avar invasion=== [[File:ByzantineEmpire717AD2lightpurple.PNG|thumb|left|A map of the [[Byzantine Empire]] showing Mani and the eastern Peloponnese as part of the Empire (the rest of the Peloponnese was occupied temporarily by Slavic tribes), c. 717]] On January 17, 395, [[Theodosius I]], who had managed to unite the [[Roman Empire]] under his control, died. His eldest son, [[Arcadius]], succeeded him in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], while his younger son, [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]], received the [[Western Roman Empire]]. The Roman Empire had divided for the last time, and Mani became part of the Eastern or [[Byzantine Empire]]. Between 395 and 397, [[Alaric I]] and his [[Visigoths]] plundered the [[Peloponnese]] and destroyed what was left of Gythium. Alaric captured the most famous cities, [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], [[Ancient Argos|Argos]], and [[Sparta]]. He was at last defeated by [[Stilicho]] and then crossed the [[Gulf of Corinth]] towards the north.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos21"/> In 468, [[Gaiseric]] of the [[Vandals]] attempted to conquer Mani with the purpose of using it as a base to raid and then conquer the Peloponnese. Gaiseric tried to land his fleet at Kenipolis (near modern village of Kyparissos in [[Cape Matapan|Cape Tenaron]]), but as his army disembarked, the inhabitants of the town attacked the Vandals and made them retreat after heavy casualties.<ref name="Fermor120">{{harvnb|Fermor|1984|p=120}}.</ref> Decades later, the famed Byzantine general [[Belisarius]], on the way to his victorious campaign against the Vandals, stopped at Kenipolis to get supplies, honor the Kenipolitans for their victory, and recruit some soldiers.<ref name="Kassis19">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=19}}.</ref> According to Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos, the [[Pannonian Avars|Eurasian Avars]] (along with the [[Slavs]]) attacked and occupied most of the western Peloponnese in 590.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos22">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=22}}.</ref> However, there is no archaeological evidence for a Slavic (or Avar) penetration of imperial Byzantine territory before the end of the 6th century. Overall, traces of Slavic culture in Greece are very rare.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|pp=1916–1919 under '''SLAVS'''}}</ref> ===During the Macedonian dynasty=== [[File:Gythios 09.JPG|thumb|A characteristic door with the symbol of the [[double-headed eagle]] in [[Gytheio]].]] There is a description of Mani and its inhabitants in [[Constantine VII]]'s ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'':<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos22"/> {{cquote|''Be it known that the inhabitants of [[Megali Maini|Castle Maina]] are not from the race of aforesaid [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]] ([[Melingoi]] and [[Ezeritai]] dwelling on the [[Taygetus]]) but from the older [[Names of the Greeks|Romaioi]], who up to the present time are termed Hellenes by the local inhabitants on account of their being in olden times idolatres and worshippers of idols like the ancient Greeks, and who were baptized and became Christians in the reign of the glorious [[Basil I|Basil]]. The place in which they live is waterless and inaccessible, but has olives from which they gain some consolation.''}} The area inhabited by the Maniates (or Maniots) was first called by the name 'Maina' and was associated probably with the castle of [[Tigani]] (situated in the small peninsula of Tigani in Mezapos bay in northwestern [[Mani Peninsula]]). The Maniots at that time were called 'Hellenes'—that is, [[paganism|pagans]] (see [[Names of the Greeks]])—and were only [[Christianization|Christianized]] fully in the 9th century AD, though some church ruins from the 4th century AD indicate that [[Christianity]] was practiced by some Maniots in the region at an earlier time. The Maniots were the last inhabitants of Greece to openly follow the pagan [[Ancient Greek religion|Hellenic religion]]. This can be explained by the mountainous nature of Mani's terrain, which enabled them to escape the attempts of the Eastern Roman Empire to Christianize Greece.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos22"/> ===Under the Principality of Achaea=== [[File:Armoiries Achaïe.svg|thumb|left|100px|Coat of Arms of the [[Principality of Achaea]].]] During the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1201–1204), the Crusaders captured [[Constantinople]]. The Eastern Roman Empire was partitioned between several Greek and Latin successor states, notably including (from west to east) the [[Despotate of Epirus]], the [[Latin Empire]], the [[Empire of Nicaea]], and the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. These four empires produced rival emperors, struggling for control over each other and the rest of the semi-independent states emerging in the area. [[William of Champlitte]] and [[Geoffrey I Villehardouin]] defeated the Peloponnesian Greeks at the [[Battle of the Olive Grove of Koundouros]] (1205), and the Peloponnese became the [[Principality of Achaea]]. In 1210, Mani was given to Baron Jean de Neuilly as Hereditary Marshal, and he built the castle of [[Passavas]] on the ruins of [[Las (Greece)|Las]]. The castle occupied a significant position, as it controlled an important pass from Gythium to [[Oitylo]] and contained the Maniots.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos23">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=23}}.</ref><ref name="Kassis23">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=23}}.</ref> The Maniots, however, were not easily contained, and they were not the only threat to the Frankish occupation of the Peloponnese. The [[Melingoi|Melengi]], a [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] tribe in the [[Taygetus]] [[mountain range]], raided Laconia from the west, and the [[Tsakonians]] also resisted the Franks. In 1249, the new prince, [[William II of Villehardouin]], acted against the raiders. He used the newly captured fortress of [[Monemvasia]] to keep the Tsakonians at bay, and he built the castle at [[Mystras]] in the Taygetus mountains overlooking Sparta in order to contain the Melengi. To stop the Maniot raids, he built the castle of [[Grand Magne|Megali Maina]], which is most probably [[Tigani]]. It is described as ''at a fearful cliff with a headland above''. A Latin bishop was appointed for Mani during the 1250s. In 1259, the bishop was captured during the [[Battle of Pelagonia]] by the renewed Byzantine Empire under the leadership of Nicaea.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos24">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=24}}.</ref> ===Under the Despotate of Morea=== [[File:Despotate of Morea 1450.svg|thumb|[[Despotate of Morea]], c. 1450.]] On July 25, 1261, the Byzantines under [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] recaptured Constantinople. Prince William was set free, on the condition that he had to surrender the fortresses of Megali Maina, Mystras, [[Geronthrae]] and Monemvasia, as well as surrender hostages including [[Lady Margaret, Baroness of Passavas]]. With the Franks gone from Laconia, the Maniots lived in peace under the [[Despotate of Morea]], whose successive [[Despotes]] governed the province. Mani seems to have been dominated by the Nikliani family, who were refugees. However, the peace was terminated when the Ottoman Turks started their attacks on the Peloponnese.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos24"/>{{refn|group=Note|name=cnoteα|In the second period of Byzantine rule over Mani, there were four social castes, the Nikliani, the Megalogenites, the Achamnomeri and the Fameyi. The Nikliani were the inhabitants of the town of [[Nikli]] before it was sacked in the reign of Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]]. Kyriakos Kassis claims that the Nikliani were a family<ref name="Kassis24">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=24}}.</ref> while [[Patrick Leigh Fermor]] claims they were the inhabitants of Nikli.<ref name="Fermor86">{{harvnb|Fermor|1984|p=86}}.</ref> The Nikliani were wealthy, upper class people who started the building of castles in Mani.<ref name="Kassis24"/> The Megalogenites (meaning "great births") were refugees from other parts of Greece who were from wealthy and renowned families like the [[Komnenoi]], [[Palaiologoi]], and others. They mostly ignored the Niklianis' laws or tried to live in harmony with them. The Megalogenites also started building towers like the ones built by the Nikliani.<ref name="Kassis24"/> The Achamnomeri were the third Maniot class and formed the middle class, having fewer rights than the first two classes. They had the right to build only one-storey towers and they were not allowed to build towers out of limestone or marble. They owned most of the fields and had a right to a portion of common property like quail, salt, and fish. They also had the freedom of movement and means of production. If during the night, they managed to raise a tower larger than one of their neighbors, they were considered more powerful.<ref name="Kassis25">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=25}}.</ref> The last caste were the Fameyi who were [[serf]]s. They had no property and they have been sometimes confused with the Achamnomeri by modern historians. They could be subject to emancipation and become Achamnomeri.<ref name="Kassis25"/>}} ==Ottoman times== ===15th century=== After the [[Ottoman Empire]] under [[Mehmed II|Sultan Mehmed II]] [[Fall of Constantinople|took Constantinople]] in May 1453, Mani remained under the control of the Despotate of Morea. In May 1460, Mehmed occupied the Peloponnese. The Despotate of Morea had been ruled by the two brothers of [[Constantine XI]], who had died defending Constantinople. However, neither [[Demetrios Palaiologos]] nor [[Thomas Palaiologos]] chose to follow his example and defend the Peloponnese. Instead, Thomas fled to [[Italy]], while Demetrios sought refuge with Mehmed. [[Helena Palaiologina (daughter of Demetrios Palaiologos)|Helena Palaiologina]], a daughter of Demetrios and his second wife Theodora Asanina, was given in marriage to Mehmed II.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos24"/> [[File:Ottoman.jpg|left|thumb|A map of the [[Ottoman Empire]].]] [[Krokodeilos Kladas]], a Greek from Laconia, was granted lordship by Mehmed over [[Elos]] and [[Sminos|Vardounia]] in 1461. Mehmed hoped that Kladas would defend Laconia from the Maniots.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos24"/> During that time, Mani's population grew as a result of an influx of refugees who came from other areas of Greece.<ref name="Kassis38">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=38}}.</ref>{{refn|group=Note|name=cnoteβ|In 1453, Mani's population grew drastically as a large number of refugees arrived from other parts of Greece, after the [[Fall of Constantinople]].<ref name="Kassis38"/> Around that time, towns like Skoutari were founded by people who had escaped from Constantinople.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos54">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=54}}.</ref> Kassis tells us that the population of Mani at that time was between 40,000 and 80,000.<ref name="Kassis38"/> Count Chateau-Reneau says that at the beginning of the 17th century, there were 700 cities and many villages in Mani which was thought to be an exaggerated number. In 1700, 14,773 people were recorded in the census despite the constant migrations in Mani. In 1805, [[William Martin Leake]] recorded that there were 30,000 people living in Mani. Twelve years later, K. Koumas writes in his geography that Mani had 100,000 inhabitants which was deemed a wildly exaggerated number. In 1820, Anagnostras composition for the [[Filiki Eteria]] says that Mani had 8,000 fighting men. Kassis comes to the conclusion that Mani had around 45,000 inhabitants in 1820.<ref name="Kassis38"/>}} In 1463, Kladas joined the Venetians in their [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479)|ongoing war]] against the Ottomans. He led the Maniots against the Ottomans with Venetian aid until 1479, when the Venetians made peace with the Ottomans and gave the Ottomans the right to rule the ''Brazzo di Maina''. Kladas refused to accept the conditions, and so the Venetians put a price on his head.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos24"/> After the end of the Turko-Venetian War, the Venetians left the Maniots to fend for themselves. Many of the Greeks who had revolted alongside the Venetians were massacred by the Ottomans, but many of them fled to find refuge in Mani. The Maniots continued to resist, and Mehmed dispatched an army of 2,000 infantry and 300 cavalry under the command of Ale Boumico.<ref name="Kassis28">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=28}}.</ref> The Venetians, trying to gain favor with the [[Sublime Porte|Porte]], handed over some Maniot rebels. The Ottomans reached Oitylo before Kladas, and the Maniots attacked and massacred them.{{Citation needed|date=July 2015}} Only a few escaped; amongst them was Ale Boumico. Kladas invaded the Laconian plain with 14,000 Maniots and killed the Turkish inhabitants.<ref name="Kassis29">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=29}}.</ref> A month later, a larger force under the command of Ahmed Bey invaded Mani and drove Kladas to [[Porto Kagio]].<ref name="zorbas.de">{{cite web|url=http://www.zorbas.de/maniguide/turkok.html|title=Turkokratia: Kladas Revolt|access-date=2007-01-19|work=Mani: A Guide and a History|author=John Chapman|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015000124/http://www.zorbas.de/maniguide/turkok.html|archive-date=2006-10-15}}</ref> There, he was picked up by three galleys of King [[Ferdinand I of Naples]].<ref name="zorbas.de"/> To delay the Turks long enough for Kladas to escape, the Maniot rear guard attacked the Turkish army.<ref name="zorbas.de"/> Kladas reached the [[Kingdom of Naples]], whence he became a mercenary leader. He returned to Mani in 1490 and was killed in a battle at Monemvasia.<ref name="zorbas.de"/> ===16th century=== From 1500 to 1570, Mani kept its autonomy without any invasion from the Ottomans.<ref name="Kassis29"/> The Ottomans were busy driving the Venetians out of the Peloponnese and succeeded in 1540, when they [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1537–1540)|conquered]] Monemvasia and [[Nafplio]]. The Ottomans under [[Selim II]], preparing to [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)|invade]] the Venetian island of [[Cyprus]], built a fortress in Mani, at Porto Kagio, and they also garrisoned Passavas. The aim of this was to disrupt the Venetians' communication lines and to keep the Maniots at bay. Alarmed, the Maniots called upon Venetian assistance, and the Venetian navy in combination with the Maniot army captured the castle.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos25">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=25}}.</ref> Cyprus fell later that year, but the fleet of the [[Holy League (Mediterranean)|Holy League]] defeated the Ottoman fleet at the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)]]. The Greeks assumed that [[John of Austria]] would champion their revolt under the command of the bishop of Monemvasia.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos25"/> The promised army never arrived, and by 1572 the bishop was forced to retreat to Mani. The Maniots did not succeed when they appealed to [[Pope Gregory VIII]] to convince [[Philip II of Spain]] to provide military support.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos26">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=26}}.</ref> ===17th century=== [[File:Vathia Mani Greece.jpg|thumb|left|[[Vatheia]], a typical Maniot village famous for its towers.]] In 1603, the Maniots approached [[Pope Clement VIII]], who had recently taken up the [[crusade|cross]]. Clement died two years later, and the Maniots began to seek a new champion, centering their attention on the King of Spain, [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]].<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos26"/> They urged him to land his army at Porto Kagio and promised to join him with 15,000 armed men as well as 80,000 other Peloponnesians.<ref name="Kassis29"/> The Maniots also sent envoys to some major powers of the Mediterranean, as for example the [[Republic of Venice]], the [[Ancien Régime in France|Kingdom of France]], the [[Republic of Genoa]], the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]], and once again [[Spain]]. These states were interested and sent several expeditionary forces to Mani, but with the exception of a Spanish expedition that sacked Passavas, they all failed to achieve anything.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos26"/> The Maniots found a champion in 1612, [[Carlo I Gonzaga|Charles Gonzaga]], Duke of Mantua and Nevers. Charles was a descendant of the Byzantine Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] through his grandmother, who was of the line of [[Theodore I of Montferrat]], Andronikos' son.<ref name="Kassis30">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=30}}.</ref> Through this connection he claimed the throne of Constantinople. He began plotting with the Maniots, who addressed him as "King Constantine Palaiologos". When the [[Sublime Porte|Porte]] heard about this, they sent Arslan in command of an army of 20,000 men and 70 ships to invade Mani. He succeeded in ravaging Mani and imposing taxes on the Maniots (which they did not pay). This caused Nevers to move more actively for his crusade. Nevers sent envoys to the courts of Europe looking for support. In 1619, he recruited six ships and a number of men, but he was forced to abort the mission because of the beginning of the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos26"/><ref name="Kassis30"/> The idea of the crusade faded and Nevers died in 1637.<ref name="Kassis30"/> In 1645, a new Turkish-Venetian War, the so-called "[[Cretan War (1645–1669)|Cretan War]]" began, during which the Republic of Venice was attempting to defend [[Crete]], one of their provinces since 1204, from the Ottoman Empire, initially under [[Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire|Ibrahim I]]. The Maniots supported the Venetians by offering them ships. In 1659, Admiral [[Francesco Morosini]], with 13,000 Maniots as his allies, occupied [[Kalamata]], a large city near Mani. In 1667, during the [[Siege of Candia]], some Maniot pirate ships sneaked into the Ottoman fleet and managed to loot and burn some ships. However, Candia fell in 1669, and Crete became part of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos26"/><ref name="Kassis30"/>{{refn|group=Note|name=cnoteγ|As a result of the many revolts against the Ottoman Empire, the Maniots welcomed new Greek refugees from various areas including [[Asia Minor]], and especially Crete when the Turks acquired the island from the Venetians in 1669. The Cretan refugees settled in Mani and created villages with Cretan names that enriched the Maniot dialect with Cretan words and idioms.<ref name="Fermor150">{{harvnb|Fermor|1984|p=150}}.</ref> The mass migration of refugees caused new problems in Mani. The limited area of good arable land led to many local wars between families, clans, and different villages. The era of [[vendettas]] began in Mani and it seemed that only a new Ottoman invasion could save the country from a civil war. Many Maniot people began to serve as mercenaries in the army of the [[Doge of Venice]] while some others became pirates to fulfill their patriotic duties. In fact, the Ottoman fleet near [[Chania]], Crete was destroyed by Maniot pirates.<ref name="Kassis32"/>}} The piracy of Maniots was also observed by [[Evliya Çelebi]], who visited Mani with the Ottoman expedition and recorded numerous villages, castles and churches; he described the Maniots with the following words: "They capture the Frank and sell him to us, they capture us and sell us to the Franks."<ref>{{Citation |last=Yerasimos |first=Marianna |title=Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi'nde Yunanistan: Rota ve Güzergâhlar |date=2020-05-27 |url=http://books.openedition.org/ifeagd/1963 |work=Bir allame-i cihan : Stefanos Yerasimos (1942-2005) |pages=735–835 |editor-last=Anadol |editor-first=Çağatay |access-date=2023-07-13 |series=IFEA/Kitap yayınevi |place=İstanbul |publisher=Institut français d’études anatoliennes |language=tr |isbn=978-2-36245-044-0 |editor2-last=Eldem |editor2-first=Edhem |editor3-last=Pekin |editor3-first=Ersu |editor4-last=Tibet |editor4-first=Aksel}}</ref> With Crete captured, the Ottomans turned their attention to Mani. The [[Grand Vizier]], [[Köprülü Fazıl Ahmet Pasha]], sent the pirate Hasan Baba to subdue Mani. Baba arrived in Mani demanding that the Maniots surrender hostages, but instead he was answered with bullets. During the night, ten Maniots went and cut the [[hawser]]s of Hasan's ships. This caused some of Baba's ships to founder on some rocks, and the Maniots, taking advantage of the situation, attacked and killed the Turks and seized the ships. Baba managed to escape with only one ship.<ref name="Kassis30-1">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|pp=30–31}}.</ref> [[File:Carse-Cargèse-Vue des deux églises.jpg|thumb|A street of [[Cargèse]] in [[Corsica]], which was founded by Maniot [[refugees]], with its [[Greek Catholic Church|Greek Catholic]] church in the background.]] In the [[Bagnio]] of [[Constantinople]], there was a notorious twenty-five-year-old Maniot pirate named [[Limberakis Gerakaris]]. At the age of fifteen, he was in the Venetian galleys as a rower. After being released by the Venetians, he continued piracy and was captured by the Turks in 1667. The Grand Vizier decided to give him amnesty if he cooperated with the Turks and helped them conquer Mani. Gerakaris agreed and in 1670 became the bey of Mani. One of Gerakis' first acts was to exile his clan's enemies, the Iatriani family and the Stephanopoulos family from Oitylo. The Iatriani fled in 1670 and settled in [[Livorno]], [[Tuscany]]. The Stephanopoulos clan was forced to leave Oitylo in 1676, and after having gained permission from the [[Republic of Genoa]], went to [[Corsica]]. The Stephanopoulos family first lived in the town of Paomia before moving to [[Cargèse]], and to this day consider themselves Greeks.<ref name="Kassis31">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=31}}. See also Nicholas, 2006.</ref> {{refn|group=Note|name=cnoteδ|Between 1600 and 1700, there was a mass exodus of Maniots leaving Mani for European countries. In 1570, some Maniots immigrated to [[Volterra]].<ref name="Kassis27">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=27}}.</ref> Around 700 members of the Stephanopoulos clan migrated to [[Corsica]], as well as the Latriani, (whose Latinized name happened to be Medici) who went to live in [[Tuscany]] after gaining Ferdinand Medici's permission.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos27"/> There are still towers in Tuscany that look similar to the ones in Mani. The [[Duke of Genoa]] wanted some Maniots to colonize the western Italian coast and protect it from pirates. There are mentions of Maniots in Naples and T. Asanis Palaeologus building a church there. There are also tombs of Palaeologi in [[Cornwall]], [[England]], as well as one in [[Westminster]] of a Palaeologus who fought with [[Oliver Cromwell]]. [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], the [[King of Spain]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], had an army corps named the ''Mainoti''.<ref name="Kassis28"/>}} Limberakis soon fell out of favor with the Turks since he joined his fellow Maniots in piracy and was captured in 1682.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos27">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=27}}.</ref> With Ottoman forces preoccupied with the Austrians, the Venetians under Morosini saw their opportunity to take over Turkish-held territories in the Peloponnese, beginning the [[Morean War]]. The Turkish general in the Peloponnese, [[Ismael (Turkish general)|Ismael]], discovered this plan and attacked Mani with 10,000 men. The Turks ravaged the plains, but during the night the Maniots attacked and killed 1,800 Turks. The other Turks retreated to the castles of Kelefa and Zarnatas, where they were besieged by the Maniots. After brief sieges, the Maniots managed to capture both [[Koroni]] and Kelefa. However, Ismael returned with 10,000 infantry and 2,500 artillery and started besieging the Maniots at Kelefa. The Turks nearly succeeded in breaching the walls before 4,500 Venetians under the command of Morosini arrived and forced the Turks to retreat to [[Kastania, Laconia|Kastania]] with the Maniots in pursuit.<ref name="Kassis32">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=32}}.</ref><ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos28">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=28}}.</ref> The Venetians, with assistance of the Greeks, conquered the rest of the [[Peloponnese]] and then besieged [[Athens]]. During the siege of Athens, the Ottomans used the Parthenon as an ammunition depot. When artillery fire from the Venetians struck the depot, the resulting explosion damaged large portions of the Parthenon.<ref name="Kassis32"/> The desperate Ottomans freed Limberakis and gave him the title "His Highness, the Ruler of Mani". Limberakis immediately launched several raids into Venetian-held territories of the Peloponnese. However, when the Ottomans attempted to poison Limberakis, he defected to the Venetian side.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos29">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=29}}.</ref><ref name="Kassis33">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=33}}.</ref> The Venetians made Limberakis a Knight of St. Mark and recognized him as ruler of [[Rumelia|Roumeli]]. Limberakis first attacked the city of [[Arta, Greece|Arta]], when the Ottomans destroyed his estates at [[Karpenisi]]. He captured and plundered the city before going back to Mani. The Arteans sent a committee to Venice and reported everything to the [[Doge (title)|Doge]]. Ultimately, Limberakis moved to Italy where he died fourteen years later.<ref name="Kassis33"/> ===18th century=== In 1715, the [[Turkish–Venetian War (1714–1718)|Ottomans attacked the Peloponnese]] and managed to drive out the Venetians within seventy days. The Venetians won some minor naval battles off Mani but abandoned the Peloponnese in 1715. The next year, the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] was signed, and the Venetians abandoned their claim to the Peloponnese.<ref name="Kassis34">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=34}}.</ref> ====Orlov Revolt==== {{main|Orlov Revolt}} Georgios Papazolis, a Greek officer of the Russian army, was a friend of the [[Orlov (family)|Orlovs]] and had them convince [[Catherine the Great]] to send an army to Mani and liberate Greece.<ref name="Kassis34"/> A Russian fleet of five ships and 500 soldiers under the command of [[Aleksey Grigoryevich Orlov]] sailed from the [[Baltic Sea]] in 1769 and reached Mani in 1770.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos29"/> The fleet landed at Oitylo, where it was met by the Maniots. It was decided to divide the army into two groups, the ''Western Legion'' and the ''Eastern Legion''. The Eastern Legion, under the command of Barkof, Grigorakis, and Psaros, consisted of 500 Maniots and 6 Russians. The Western Legion, under the command of John Mavromichalis (nicknamed ''The Dog''), Piotr Dolgorukov, and Panagiotis Koumoundouros, consisted of 200 Maniots and 12 Russians.<ref name="Kassis34"/> Meanwhile, the Russian fleet was besieging [[Koroni]] with assistance from the Western Legion. The siege proved to be difficult, and soon Orlov got into a dispute with John the Dog. Mavromichalis stated to Orlov that if they wanted to start a real war, they had to occupy Koroni, and that if they did not, they should not excite the Greeks in vain. Orlov replied by calling the Maniots "ragged" and "rude booty men".<ref name="Kassis34"/> To this, Mavromichalis replied, "The last of these ragged booty men keeps his freedom with his own sword and deserves more than you, slave of a whore!"<ref name="Kassis35">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=35}}.</ref> The Russians left and conducted their own operations until the end of the year, when they ultimately sailed back to Russia.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos29"/> The Eastern Legion met with success when it defeated an army of 3,500 Turks.<ref name="Kassis34"/> The Ottomans responded to this by sending an army of 8,000 to invade the Peloponnese. The Ottoman army first plundered [[Attica]] before entering the Peloponnese. At Rizomylos in Messenia, they were blocked by John Mavromichalis and 400 of his followers. The Maniots held them off for a while, but the Ottoman forces eventually did not lose due to their superior numbers. They captured John Mavromichalis, who was not only seriously wounded but also the last survivor of the battle. He was ultimately tortured to death. They then invaded Mani and began ravaging the land near Almiros (near the modern village of Kyparissos). During the night, an army of 5,000 Maniot men and women attacked the enemy camp. The Ottoman forces lost 1,700, while the Maniots only suffered thirty-nine casualties.<ref name="Kassis35"/> ====Ottoman invasion of Mani (1770)==== {{main|Ottoman invasion of Mani (1770)}} Around 1770, the Ottoman commander Hasan Ghazi with 16,000 men besieged the two fighting towers (pyrgoi) of Venetsanakis clan in [[Kastania, Laconia|Kastania]]. The defenders were Constantine Kolokotronis and Panagiotis Venetsanakis with 150 men and women. The fight lasted for twelve days: most of the defenders were killed, and all prisoners of war were tortured and dismembered. The wife of Constantine Kolokotronis was dressed like a warrior and fought her way out carrying her baby, [[Theodoros Kolokotronis]], the future commander of the Greek War of Independence.<ref>{{harvnb|Roumeliōtēs|2002|p=31}}.</ref> [[File:Mani 1 small.jpg|thumb|Maniot towers like the one that held off the Ottomans at [[Skoutari, Laconia|Skoutari]].]] From Kastania, Hasan Ghazi advanced towards [[Skoutari, Laconia|Skoutari]] and laid siege to the tower of the powerful Grigorakis clan. The tower contained fifteen men, who held out for three days until the Turks undermined the tower, placed gunpowder, and blew up the entire garrison. By this time, the main Maniot army of 5,000 men and 2,000 women had established a defensive position which was on mountainous terrain above the town of [[Parasyros]]. The entire army was under the command of Exarchos Grigorakis and his nephew [[Zanetos Grigorakis]]. The Ottoman army advanced to the plain of Agio Pigada (meaning "Holy Well"). They sent envoys to the Maniots telling them that Hasan wanted to negotiate. The Maniots knew that if they sent envoys to the Turks, they would be executed by Hasan if the negotiations failed. However, the Maniots sent six men to discuss the terms.<ref name="Kassis35"/> Six Maniot envoys were sent to Hasan and, without bowing, asked him what he wanted. Hasan's demands entailed the children of ten captains as hostages, all Maniot-held arms, and an annual head-tax to be paid as punishment for supporting the Russians. The Maniots answered Hasan's demands saying, "We prefer to die rather than give to you our guns and children. We don't pay taxes, because our land is poor." Hasan became furious and had the six men decapitated and impaled on stakes so that the Maniots could see them.<ref name="Kassis36">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=36}}.</ref> After the envoys were killed, the remaining Maniots attacked the Ottomans. The fighting was fierce, and only 6,000 Turks managed to reach [[Mystras]]. No one knew exactly how many casualties the Maniots suffered, but the Turks definitively lost 10,000 men.<ref name="Kassis36"/> In 1780, Hasan Ghazi, the Bey of the Peloponnese, tried to weaken the Grigorakis family by arranging the assassination of Exarchos Grigorakis. He invited him to [[Tripoli, Greece|Tripolitsa]] and treated him as an honored guest but then had him hanged.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos30">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=30}}.</ref> On Easter Sunday, Exarchos' mother incited the men of Skoutari to take revenge for the death of her son.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos51">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=51}}.</ref> Commanded by Zanetos Grigorakis, the men of Skoutari dressed as priests and were allowed into Passavas. Once inside, the Skoutariotes took out their concealed weapons and killed all the Turkish inhabitants of Passavas.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos52">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=52}}.</ref> In 1782, the Ottomans lured Michalis Troupakis, [[Bey of Mani]], onto a ship and sent him to [[Lesbos]], where he was executed for piracy. The [[Sublime Porte|Porte]] tried to get Zanetos Grigorakis to replace him, but Zanetos refused until he was lured onto a ship and forced to become bey.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos31">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=31}}.</ref> Soon after the Orlov Expedition, a number of Maniots entered Russian military service. Remnants of the two legions joined Russian sea forces as marines, participating in operations in the Aegean and the eastern Mediterranean. Two leaders of these volunteers, Stephanos Mavromichalis and Dimitrios Grigorakis, were scions of the main Maniot clans, each rising to the rank of major. ====Lambros Katsonis==== [[File:Lambros Katsonis.JPG|thumb|left|[[Lambros Katsonis]]]] During Zanetos' rule, Mani became a base for many [[klephts]] and other Greek bandits. Among them was the famous Greek pirate and officer of the Russian army, [[Lambros Katsonis]], who helped the Russians with their wars against the Ottomans, Andreas Androutsos (father of [[Odysseas Androutsos|Odysseas]]), and [[Zacharias Barbitsiotis]].<ref name="Kassis37">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=37}}.</ref> On January 9, 1792, [[Catherine II of Russia]] had her representative [[Alexander Bezborodko]] sign the [[Treaty of Jassy]] with [[Grand Vizier]] Koca Yusuf Pasha of the Ottoman Empire. The treaty ended the [[Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)|Russo-Turkish War]], recognized Russia's 1783 annexation of the [[Crimean Khanate]], and transferred [[Yedisan]] to Russia, making the [[Dniester]] the Russo-Turkish frontier in [[Europe]] while leaving the [[Asia]]tic frontier ([[Kuban River]]) unchanged.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos140">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=140}}.</ref> Lambros Katsonis said: "Aikaterini (Greek: Catherine) made her treaty, but Katsonis didn't make his treaty with the enemy."<ref name="Kassis37"/> Katsonis, together with Androutsos and Barbitsiotis, built a gun battery at Porto Kagio. He gathered a small army and a navy of eleven ships and attacked Ottoman ships in the area. However, not being able to maintain his ships, he started attacking ships from other countries. Later that year, he sank two French ships, which was the beginning of the end for Katsonis. An Ottoman fleet of thirty ships and a French destroyer attacked Katsonis at Porto Kagio. Katsonis' men fled to land; Katsonis himself escaped to [[Odessa]] on one of the ships.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos140"/> Androutsos with 500 men tried to cross the Peloponnese and enter Roumelia. Barbitsiotis in a rear-guard action managed to help fight his way through the Peloponnese and into Roumelia.<ref name="Kassis37"/> In 1798, [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], at the time a general serving in the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] under the orders of the [[French Directory]], sent two members of the Stephanopoulos family to Mani in order to convince the Maniots to attack the Ottomans from the Peloponnese while he attacked from [[Egypt]]. Zacharias Barbitsiotis and Zanetbey (Zanetos Grigorakis) accepted the offer, and Napoleon sent them weapons. When the Turks discovered this, they had{{how|date=June 2014}} Zanetos replaced as bey with Panagiotis Koumoundouros.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos31"/> {{Clear}} ==Modern Mani== ===Early 19th century and the beginning of the Greek War of Independence=== During [[Ottoman Invasion of Mani (1803)|1803]], the Ottomans deposed Panagiotis Koumoundouros, because he was not capable of subduing Zanetos Grigorakis, who was still receiving weapons from the French at his castle at [[Cranae]]. The Ottomans replaced him with Antony Grigorakis, cousin of Zanetos.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos31"/> The Turkish fleet under the command of the [[admiral]] Seremet,<ref name="Kassis37"/> was unable to capture Cranae and was soon forced to retreat.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos31"/> [[File:Limeni Mani.jpg|thumb|[[Limeni]], [[Areopoli]], stronghold of Mavromichalis' clan]] In 1805, Seremet attacked Zacharias Barbitsiotis at his fortress in the [[Taygetus]] mountains and managed to kill him.<ref name="Kassis37"/> In [[Ottoman Invasion of Mani (1807)|1807]], the Ottomans attacked Antonbey at [[Gytheio]], because he was unwilling to suppress his cousin, who was still attacking the Turks. The Turks were once again forced to retreat. Three years later, Grigorakis resigned in favor of his son-in-law, Konstantis Zervakos, who was favorable to the bey of the Peloponnese. However, the Maniots did not agree with the choice and deposed Zervakos.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos32">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=32}}.</ref> Later that year, the Maniot leaders gathered at Gytheio and elected Theodoros Zanerakos or Theodorobey, nephew of Zanetos Grigorakis, as a leader of Mani. During [[Ottoman Invasion of Mani (1815)|1815]], the Ottomans attacked Mani but were driven back.<ref name="Kassis38"/> Theodorobey was removed from power later that year and was replaced by [[Petros Mavromichalis]] or Petrobey.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos32"/> Pierros Grigorakis, a son of Zanetos, entered Russian service on Zante and commanded a force of some 500 Maniots known as the Spartan Legion. This was part of the Legion of Light Riflemen, a force made up of mainland refugees that defended the Ionian Islands and participated in Russian operations in the Mediterranean in the years 1805–1807. Many veterans of this unit later joined the secret society [[Filiki Eteria]] ("Friendly Company") and participated with the Greek Revolution, including Elias Chrisospathis, who initiated the Maniots into the secret society, as well as Pierros and his brothers Giorgos and Zanetakos. Petros Mavromichalis was John the Dog's nephew. He was the first Maniot bey from Mesa Mani (Inner Mani).<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos32"/> In 1798, he had also been approached by Napoleon to join the war on the Ottomans, but after the failure of the [[French invasion of Egypt (1798)|French invasion of Egypt]], Petros joined the French army only for a while and fought in the [[Ionian Islands]]. It was rumored at the time that he was appointed bey only because his uncle was not killed, had converted to Islam, and had become an officer in the Ottoman army. In 1819, he joined the [[Filiki Eteria]], which by 1821 was prepared to revolt.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos33">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=33}}.</ref> ==="Declaration of War" and Contributions to the Greek Revolution=== [[File:Mani Flag (Greece).svg|thumb|Maniot flag with the motto "Victory or Death".]] Maniots, known for their martial traditions, were the very first to join the Greek liberation movement (a claim shared with many other Greek areas) and their contribution proved to be pivotal. The society called the [[Filiki Eteria]] sent their representatives Perrevos and Chrisospathis to organize the Maniots.<ref name="Paroulakis40">{{harvnb|Paroulakis|1984|p=40}}.</ref>{{Broken footnote|date=February 2020}} On March 17, 1821, 12,000 Maniots gathered in the church of the Taxiarchs (Archangels) of the town of [[Areopoli]] and declared war against the Ottoman Empire, preceding the rest of Greece by about a week.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos58">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=58}}.</ref> Their flag was white with a blue cross in the center. Atop the flag was the motto "[[Victory or death]]". The Maniots were responsible for writing "Victory" and not "Freedom" on their banner, since Mani was always free. At the bottom of the flag was an ancient Spartan inscription, "With the shield or on the shield."<ref name="Kassis39">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=39}}.</ref> [[File:Nikolaos Pierrakos Mavromichalis.jpg|thumb|left|[[Nikolaos Pierrakos Mavromichalis]] (Greek: Νικόλαος Πιερράκος Μαυρομιχάλης), fighter during the [[Greek War of Independence]]]] On March 21, an army of 2,000 Maniots under the command of Petros Mavromichalis, [[Theodoros Kolokotronis]], and [[Papaflessas]] marched towards [[Kalamata]]. On March 23, they captured the city.<ref name="Kassis39"/> From Kalamata, Mavromichalis wrote letters to the states of [[Europe]], informing them of what the Greeks were doing and signing them as "Commander in Chief of the Spartan Forces". The Messenian Senate was also held in Kalamata. Kolokotronis wanted to attack [[Tripoli, Greece|Tripolitsa]] and capture the main Turkish city in the Peloponnese. However, Mavromichalis wanted to capture the smaller towns first and then take [[Tripoli, Greece|Tripolitsa]]. The Senate agreed with Mavromichalis, and the Maniots attacked the Turks of Messenia and Laconia.<ref name="Paroulakis58">{{harvnb|Paroulakis|1984|p=58}}.</ref>{{Broken footnote|date=February 2020}} Kolokotronis, convinced that he was correct, moved into [[Arcadia (ancient region)|Arcadia]] with 300 Maniots. When he entered Arcadia his band of 300 fought a Turkish force of 1,300 men and defeated them.<ref name="Kassis39"/> On April 28, a few thousand Maniot soldiers under the command of Petros Mavromichalis' sons joined Kolokotronis' camp outside Tripolitsa. On September 12, 1821, the Turkish capital in the Peloponnese fell. On July 4, 1822, [[Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis (military commander)|Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis]], Petros Mavromichalis' younger brother, was killed in [[Ammoudia, Preveza|Splantza]], near the [[Souli]]ote fortress of Kiafa. [[Mahmud II]] became desperate and during 1824 called on his [[Viceroy]], [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]], to aid him to attack Mani. Ali promised to aid him in return for the islands of [[Crete]] and [[Cyprus]], as well as making his eldest son, [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]], pasha of the [[Peloponnese]]. Mahmud II accepted the offer and Ali sent his son in command of the expedition. Meanwhile, the Greeks were in disarray because of political rivalries, which caused a civil war. Kolokotronis was arrested, his son [[Panos Kolokotronis|Panos]] was killed, and his nephew [[Nikitaras]] fled.<ref name="Paroulakis113">{{harvnb|Paroulakis|1984|p=113}}.</ref>{{Broken footnote|date=February 2020}} [[File:Konstantinos Mavromichalis by Eleni Prosalenti.jpg|thumb|right|Konstantinos Mavromichalis]] Ibrahim made good use of this turmoil and landed with his army (25-30,000 infantry, cavalry and artillery supported by the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet) at [[Methoni, Messenia|Methoni]]. Ibrahim soon had recaptured the Peloponnese except for [[Nafplio]] and Mani. When he tried to capture Nafplio, he was repelled by [[Dimitrios Ypsilantis]] and [[Konstantinos Mavromichalis]], Petros' brother.<ref name="Paroulakis125">{{harvnb|Paroulakis|1984|p=125}}.</ref>{{Broken footnote|date=February 2020}} Ibrahim then decided to head for Mani. He sent an envoy to the Maniots demanding that they surrender or else he would ravage their land. Instead of surrendering, the Maniots replied:<ref name="Kassis39"/> ''From the few Greeks of Mani and the rest of Greeks who live there to Ibrahim Pasha. We received your letter in which you try to frighten us saying that if we don't surrender, you'll kill the Maniots and plunder Mani. That's why we are waiting for you and your army. We, the inhabitants of Mani, sign and await you.'' Enraged by the Spartan reply, Ibrahim, commanding an army of 7,000 men, attacked Mani on June 21, 1826.<ref name="Kassis40">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=40}}.</ref> He was stopped at the walls of Almiros and Verga, which ran for around 500 meters.<ref>{{harvnb|Saitas|1990|p=12}}.</ref> Defending the walls were 2,000 Maniots under the command of Ilias Mavromichalis (Katsakos) and 500 Greek refugees.<ref name="Kassis40"/><ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos62">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=62}}.</ref> As Ibrahim moved his infantry and cavalry against the Maniot position, he also ordered two of his ships, including the one he was on, to attack the Maniot fortifications from the sea with their artillery. The Egyptian army attacked the Maniot position eight times and was thrown back.<ref name="Kassis40"/> The fighting continued for a few more days before the Egyptians retreated when rumors that Kolokotronis was approaching their rear with 2,000 men proved true.<ref name="Barrow21">{{harvnb|Barrow|2000|p=21}}.</ref> The Maniots pursued the Egyptians all the way to Kalamata before returning to Verga. This battle not only was costly for Ibrahim, who suffered 2,500 casualties, but also ruined his plan to invade Mani from the north.<ref name="Kassis39"/><ref name="Kassis40"/> [[File:Portrait of Ilias Mavromichalis on November 3, 2022.jpg|thumb|left|Ilias Mavromichalis]] While Ibrahim was beginning his attack on the Maniot position at Verga, he decided to launch a small fleet and attack [[Areopoli]]. This plan was described by Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos as "excellent" because it would catch Areopoli by surprise since it was ill defended. By capturing Areopoli, Ibrahim could disrupt the Maniot communication lines and control the mountain passes that led to [[Gytheio]]. This would also allow the Egyptians to attack the Maniots at Verga from the rear.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos62"/> On June 24, Ibrahim sent a small fleet carrying 1,500 troops to land at the Bay of Diros and capture Areopoli.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos62"/> As the Egyptians landed on the beach, the alarm bells rang.<ref name="Kassis40"/> Soon, 300 women and old men who had been harvesting the crops gathered and, armed only with their scythes and cudgels, charged at the Egyptians. The Egyptians, not expecting any resistance, were caught by surprise at this sudden attack and were forced to retreat to a fortified position on the beach where they could receive support from their ships. Eventually, 300 Maniots arrived from other towns, and the Egyptians were forced to either swim to their ships or be slain.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos62"/> Not only was Ibrahim's defeat costly, as he lost 1,000 men, but his plan to invade and conquer Mani was utterly ruined. Later on, the women of Diros were dubbed the 'Amazons of Diros'.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos63">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=63}}.</ref> Ibrahim, annoyed by his defeats at Verga and Diros, plundered the Peloponnese for a month before turning his attention back to Mani. He sent an army of 6,000 Arabs to advance to the Taygetus and capture Gytheio and Laconian Mani. In command of the army was a Greek traitor from the village of [[Vordonia]], called Bosinas. As he advanced towards Polytsaravos (nowadays a deserted place in the southern part of [[Taygetus]]), he was stopped by Theodoros Stathakos, who together with his family of thirteen people was waiting in their tower. Bosinas tried to make Stathakos surrender, and when the latter feigned surrender, Bosinas came towards the tower. However, once Bosinas was within range, Stathakos and his small band killed him. In retaliation, Bosinas' army shot at the tower with their cannons and destroyed it.<ref name="Kassis41">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=41}}.</ref> The Egyptians then proceeded towards the town of Polytsaravos and reached it on August 28. The inhabitants of the town had sent the women and children to take refuge in the mountains before improving the fortifications they had there. The town militia was reinforced by other Maniots, and soon the defenders numbered 2,500 men.<ref name="Kassis41"/> The Egyptians had trouble advancing to Polytsaravos, because it was surrounded by rocks situated on high ground.<ref name="Barrow102">{{harvnb|Barrow|2000|p=102}}.</ref> As soon as the Arabs arrived, the Maniots rallied around their fortifications and attacked the Arabs. The Arabs retreated from Polytsaravos after sustaining 400 casualties while the Maniots only suffered nine.<ref name="Kassis41"/> Even though this campaign is overshadowed by other battles of the revolution, it was one of the most important, according to Maniot regional historians. The Maniots stopped the Egyptians and Ibrahim Pasha who had not been defeated this decisively before. This was the last invasion of Mani by the Egyptians or the Ottomans, as the Peloponnese, central Greece, and some of the Aegean islands were liberated in 1828 after the naval forces of [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]] France under [[Henri de Rigny]], the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] under [[Edward Codrington]], and the [[Russian Empire]] under [[Login Geiden]] defeated Ibrahim at the [[Battle of Navarino|Navarino]] in 1827. ===Republic and Regency=== {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = Petrobey Mavromichalis1.jpg | width1 = 130 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Kapodistrias2.jpg | width2 = 105 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = The imprisonment of [[Petros Mavromichalis]] (left) by [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]] (right) led to the assassination of Kapodistrias. }} In 1831, [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]] became governor of Greece.<ref name="Kassis41"/> Kapodistrias quarreled with the Mavromichalis clan because the Maniots refused to pay taxes to the new government.<ref name="Paroulakis165">{{harvnb|Paroulakis|1984|p=165}}.</ref>{{Broken footnote|date=February 2020}} Kapodistrias requested that [[Tzanis Mavromichalis|Tzanis]], Petros' brother, go to [[Nafplio]], then capital of Greece, and negotiate. As soon as Tzanis arrived, he was arrested and imprisoned. Kapodistrias then sent soldiers to Mani and had Petros arrested, imprisoned, and charged with [[high treason]]. His brother Konstantinos, the defender of Nafplio, and Petros' son, [[Georgios Mavromichalis]], were put under house arrest in the capital.<ref name="Paroulakis168">{{harvnb|Paroulakis|1984|p=168}}.</ref>{{Broken footnote|date=February 2020}} On September 27, 1831 (October 9 in the [[Gregorian calendar]]), Kapodistrias went to attend a church service at the Church of Saint Spyridon. He noticed that Konstantinos and Georgios were waiting at the church doors. As he passed them, he briefly stopped before proceeding into the church. As he was about to step into the church, Konstantinos used his gun and the bullet hit Kapodistrias at the back of the head while at the same time Georgios stabbed him through the heart. Kapodistrias collapsed into the arms of his attendants. Kapodistrias' bodyguard shot Konstantinos as he was running, and Konstantinos was hit by several more bullets before he died. Kostantinos' body was then dragged by an angry mob, who threw it into the sea. Georgios was captured and executed on the island of Bourzi, off the coast of Nafplio, while his father watched.<ref name="Paroulakis168"/> In 1833, [[Otto of Greece|Otto von Wittelsbach]], a son of [[Ludwig I of Bavaria]] and Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen, became [[King of Greece]] after he was appointed by the [[Great Powers]]. Since he was underage, he had a Council of Regency headed by [[Josef Ludwig von Armansperg]] governing the country for him.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos58"/> One of the Council's first acts was to try to subdue the unruly Maniots and pull down their towers; another was to free Petros and Tzanis from their prisons.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos35">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=35}}.</ref> The council sent an army of [[Bavarians]] in order to tame Mesa Mani.<ref name="Kassis43">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=43}}.</ref> They made it to [[Areopoli]], but during the night the Maniots surrounded and captured them, forcing them to leave the area.<ref name="Kassis44">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=44}}.</ref> On May 14, 1834, four companies of Bavarian troops, assisted by four cannons, besieged the town of [[Petrovouni, Messenia|Petrovouni]]. Ultimately, 800 Maniots from the surrounding towns attacked the Bavarians. The Bavarians were massacred as most of them were either slain by the Maniots or fell into a ravine near the town while escaping. Later that year, an army of 6,000 men with five cannons under the command of General [[Christian von Schmaltz]], assisted by five squadrons of royalist Maniots, once again besieged Petrovouni. When news of an army of 1,000 Maniots was approaching, they retreated to Gytheio.<ref name="Kassis44"/> The Council decided that they could not subdue the Maniots by force, so they decided to send a diplomat, Max Feder, with the intention of subduing Mani by playing the love of money against the love of independence. He went to different Maniot families and offered them positions if they supported the king. Many of the Achamnomeri (see note α below) and some Megalogenites were convinced by his offers and submitted. However, several of the older families and the poorer Achamnomeri rejected the offer, because the former did not want to be dependent on a king and the latter did not want governors with superior rights. In [[Koita]], this division caused bloodshed when the king's supporters started fighting the other Maniots under the command of Giorgaros Skylakakos.<ref name="Kassis44"/> Feder soon arrived with his new allies and exploded Skylakakos and all his allies in his towers. Thus the Bavarians managed to annex the whole peninsula to the Greek kingdom.<ref name="Kassis45">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=45}}.</ref> ===Late 19th century=== [[File:Alèxandros Koumoundoùros.JPG|thumb|[[Alexandros Koumoundouros]] (1817–1883), born in the Messenian side of Mani, was a political personality famous for his work towards national progress.]] During Otto's rule, blood was spilled in Mani because of the [[vendettas]], which have plagued the area for centuries.<ref name="Kassis45"/> The vendettas continued until 1870, when a Maniot vendetta was halted by the efforts of a regular army with artillery support.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos36">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=36}}.</ref> In 1841, [[Crete]] revolted against the Ottomans. The Maniots, described as ''cousins'' of the Cretans,{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} rushed to Crete to support them. The Cretans, together with the Maniots, forced the Turks into a fortress, where they besieged them. A combined Ottoman-British fleet managed to subdue the Cretans, but the undefeated Maniots chose to go back to Mani. In 1866, a new revolution sparked in Crete, and 2,000 Maniots under the command of Petropoulakos went to assist their cousins. However, the Cretans were defeated, and the undefeated Maniots again returned to Mani.<ref name="Kassis45"/> ===20th century=== [[File:Gythio.JPG|thumb|left|View of the promenade of [[Gytheio]], largest town of Mani.]] At the start of the 20th century, Greece was involved with the [[Greek Struggle for Macedonia|Macedonian Struggle]], military conflicts against the Bulgarian organization known as the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]], and Turkish forces in [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-occupied [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. Many volunteers from Mani took part in the war such as soldiers from the Dritsakos, Koutsonikolakos, Kosteas, Georgopapadakos, Iliopiereas, Loukakos, Kyriakoulakos, and Kalantzakos families. The Maniots also took part in the series of wars that followed including the [[Balkan Wars]], [[World War I]], and the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]]. The participation of troops from Mani in these wars under [[Constantine I of Greece]], created strong [[Monarchism|royalist]] feelings amongst Maniots. That is why most Maniots remained loyal to Constantine during the Greek [[National Schism]].<ref name="Kassis46">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=46}}.</ref> During [[World War II]], the Maniot armed forces significantly helped the [[Hellenic Army]] to win the [[Battle of Greece]]. A Maniot named Colonel [[Konstantinos Davakis]] was among the leaders of the armed forces.<ref name="Kassis46"/> Davakis, in command of the Pindus Detachment, defeated the elite Italian SOF brigade "Julia" at the [[Battle of Pindus]] (October 28-November 13, 1940), despite the Italians having more advanced weaponry. Later, Maniots won another victory when the [[Royal Navy]] of the [[United Kingdom]] defeated the [[Regia Marina]] of Italy in the [[Battle of Cape Matapan]] (March 27-March 29, 1941) on Cape [[Tenaro]]. However, [[Nazi Germany]] attacked Greece in order to support the Italians. The Greeks were forced to retreat, and soon Mani revived its forgotten role as a center for refugees. During April 1941, the British started evacuating their troops from Porto Kagio. By the end of that month, Mani and the rest of Greece were under [[Axis occupation of Greece during World War II|Italian and German occupation]].<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos141">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=141}}.</ref> During the occupation, Mani became a stronghold of the [[Security Battalions]], because of the [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] sentiment of the Maniots. The Germans and Italians left Greece in 1944, but as soon as they left the [[Greek Civil War]] began. The armies of the [[Communist Party of Greece]], [[Ellinikos Laïkos Apeleftherotikos Stratos|ELAS]], and [[Dimokratikos Stratos Elladas|DSE]], fought against the Hellenic Army and the royalists.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos38">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=38}}.</ref> Mani never recovered from both wars, and soon many of the young people of Mani left for [[Athens]], the [[United States]], and [[Australia]].<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos39">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=39}}.</ref> Nowadays, Mani is divided between two regional units: [[Laconia]] and [[Messenia]]. Mani has around 18,000 inhabitants, with the most important and populous town being [[Gytheio]]. Mani's main source of income is tourism. The most famous of the tourist attractions are the [[Pyrgos Dirou|Caves of Diros]], which are two caves that have underwater rivers flowing through them. ==Maniot dialect== [[File:Modern Greek dialects en.svg|left|thumb|A map showing the distribution of the Maniot dialect.]] The Maniot dialect of Modern Greek has several archaic properties that distinguishes it from most mainstream varieties. One of them, shared with the highly divergent [[Tsakonian language|Tsakonian]] as well as with the old dialects spoken around Athens until the 19th century, is the divergent treatment of historical {{IPA|/y/}} (written <υ>). Although this sound merged to {{IPA|/i/}} everywhere else, these dialects have {{IPA|/u/}} instead (e.g. {{IPA|[ˈksulo]}} versus standard {{IPA|[ˈksilo]}} 'wood').<ref name="Trudgill5">{{harvnb|Trudgill|2003|pp=54–59}}.</ref> These varieties are thought to be relic areas of a previously larger areal dialect group that used to share these features and was later divided by the penetration of [[Arvanitika]] settlement in much of its area in the late Middle Ages. Other features of the Maniot dialect include the palatalization of velar consonants, i.e. the realization of {{IPA|/k, ɡ, x, ɣ/}} as ({{IPA|[tɕ, dʑ]}} or {{IPA|[ɕ, ʑ]}} before {{IPA|/i, e, j/}}. This feature is shared with many southern dialects of Greek, especially Cretan. ==Economy== There is little information on the economy of Mani during the early stages of Ottoman dominance of Greece, and what is known of the economy in the 17th and 18th centuries is from foreign observers. In Exo Mani ('outer Mani'), [[olives]] were grown in great numbers but it was not until the 18th century that olives were widely spread in Mesa Mani ('inner Mani'). Exports from Exo Mani also included [[pine]] for masts as well [[turpentine]], hides as well as a tanning agent and {{Lang|el-Latn|prinokoki}}, a crimson-colored dye. The north-west parts of Mesa Mani were rich in [[morus (plant)|mulberries]] and [[silk]]. Honey is also of superior quality. Another important part of the Maniot economy was piracy. Nowadays the main industries in Mani are [[agriculture]] and tourism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zorbas.de/maniguide/turkok.html|title=The Economy|access-date=2008-01-02|author=John Chapman|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080105042231/http://www.zorbas.de/maniguide/turkok.html|archive-date=2008-01-05}}</ref> ==Culture== [[File:Maniatissa.jpg|thumb|left|Woman from Mani.]] ===Dances=== Two dances come from Mani: {{Lang|el-Latn|Palio Maniatiko}} ({{Lang|el|Παλιό Μανιάτικο}}, {{Literal translation|Old Maniot}}) and the Modern Maniatiko. The Palio Maniatiko is only found in Mani and is described as an ancient dance.<ref name="mani.org.au">{{cite web|url=http://www.mani.org.au/dancegroup/dgDanceTypes.asp|title=Types of Dances |access-date=2007-01-25|work=PMDG: Types of Dances|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060820234026/http://www.mani.org.au/dancegroup/dgDanceTypes.asp  |archive-date = 2006-08-20}}</ref> The Modern Maniatiko is the modern version of the Palio Maniatiko dance and includes certain aspects of the [[Kalamatiano]] dance in it. Like the Palio Maniatiko, it is only performed in Mani.<ref name="mani.org.au"/> ===Piracy=== {| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5" | style="text-align: left;" | "If any ship come to anchor on their coast, many arm themselves and go to the place, over against where the ship doth ride; some of them will be in priests habits, walking by the sea side, with their wallets, in which they will have some wine and bread. Their companions lye hid behind the bushes at some convenient post. When any strangers come ashore, who do not understand their language, the feigned priests make signes to them, shewing them their bread and wine, which they offer to them for money, by which the strangers being enticed from the sea side (and it may be to sit down and taste their wine) the hidden Manjotts come and make their prey. The priests will seem to be sorry, and endeavor to make the strangers to believe they were altogether ignorant of any such design. So a white flagg is put out, and a treaty held with the ship for their ransome. The priests endeavor to moderate the price, shewing a great deal of respect to their companions, who are clothed in Turkish habits. Many ships have been thus served." |- | style="text-align: left;" |[[Bernard Randolph (writer)|Bernard Randolph]], ''Present State of the Morea''.<ref>{{harvnb|Eisner|1993|p=60}}.</ref> |} Part of Maniot culture involved [[piracy]]. The Maniots were famous and fearsome pirates whose ships dominated the Maniot coastline. The Maniots became pirates because Mani was not a very fertile land and the Maniots did not have many natural resources. The Maniots considered piracy a legitimate response to the fact that their land was poor, and it became their main source of income.<ref name="Barrow16">{{harvnb|Barrow|2000|p=16}}.</ref> The pirate raids were not stopped by the local priests of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], who in fact blessed the ships before they left and sometimes accompanied them on raids. Most of the Maniot pirates came from {{Lang|el-Latn|Mesa Mani}} ({{Lang|el|Μέσα Μάνη}}, 'Inner Mani').<ref name="Barrow17">{{harvnb|Barrow|2000|p=17}}.</ref> The main victims of Maniot pirates were the Ottomans, but the ships of powerful European nations were targeted as well.<ref name="Kassis38"/> ===Superstition=== There is a strong history of superstition and folklore in Maniot culture; most common stories revolve around [[Witchcraft|witches]], [[demon]]s, [[vampire]]s, and [[ghost]]s. When [[Henry Herbert, 3rd Earl of Carnarvon]], was touring Mani in 1839, he found a fresh egg by the side of the road and offered it to a Maniot soldier who escorted him, who declined the offer explaining that if a [[hag]] had enchanted it he would have to marry her. The Maniots thought that certain areas were haunted by demons.<ref name="Barrow18">{{harvnb|Barrow|2000|p=18}}.</ref> ===Vendettas=== Another important aspect of Maniot culture were the [[vendettas]] which frequently plagued Mani. Usually, the decision to start a vendetta was made at a family gathering. The main aim of a vendetta was usually to wipe out the other family. The families involved locked themselves in their towers and whenever they got the chance murdered members of the opposing family. The other families in the village normally locked themselves in their towers in order not to get in the way of the fighting.<ref name="mani.org.gr">{{cite web|title=Vendetta|url=http://www.mani.org.gr/en/history/venteta.htm|author=Venizeleas|work=Mani.org.gr|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061230081926/http://www.mani.org.gr/en/history/venteta.htm|archive-date=2006-12-30|access-date=2007-01-25}}</ref> Vendettas could go on for months, sometimes years, and usually ended when one family was exterminated or left the town. In some cases (like the [[tit for tat]] killing of a murderer) vendettas would be concluded after the 'guilty' individual(s) were killed. In other cases vendettas, particularly long-running ones, were ended in a peaceful to terms or exchange of property. In the case of long vendettas, families often agreed upon a temporary {{Lang|el-Latn|treva}} ({{Lang|el|τρέβα}}, 'truce') in order to allow for crop harvests or the attendance of religious ceremonies; when the {{Lang|el-Latn|treva|italic=no}} ended, the killing could resume. A cornerstone of the Maniot's vendetta culture was the agreement that all vendettas immediately stop in a universal {{Lang|el-Latn|treva|italic=no}} whenever the community faced a Turkish threat. The longest of all {{Lang|el-Latn|trevas|italic=no}} was announced by the [[Mavromichalis family|Mavromichalis clan]] when war was declared on the Ottoman Empire in March 1821, beginning the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek War for Independence]]. Vendettas continued after the liberation of Greece even though the Regency tried to demolish the towers.{{Clarify|reason=What is this reference to Towers about exactly?|date=May 2020}}<ref name="mani.org.gr"/> The Maniot vendetta culture is considered one of the most vicious and ruthless of all the Mediterranean vendetta cultures. One of the last large scale vendettas on record required the [[Greek Police]], 1,000 [[Greek Army]] soldiers, and 200 [[Greek Navy]] sailors to stop.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cretapost.gr/282097/1906-i-ematiri-venteta-anamesa-se-maniates-ke-kritikous/|date=2018-09-14|website=cretapost.gr|language=el|script-title=el:1906: Η αιματηρή βεντέτα ανάμεσα σε Μανιάτες και Κρητικούς|trans-title=1906: The bloody feud between Maniots and Cretans|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702011328/https://www.cretapost.gr/282097/1906-i-ematiri-venteta-anamesa-se-maniates-ke-kritikous/|archive-date=2018-07-02|access-date=2020-05-01|quote=Την επομένη, στην κηδεία των θυμάτων, τα επεισόδια απλώθηκαν σ’ όλο τον Πειραιά, με νέα θύματα... ενώ κινητοποιήθηκαν, η αστυνομία, χίλιοι στρατιώτες και διακόσιοι ναύτες για να σταματήσουν το αιματοκύλισμα.}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== Local specialities: * ''[[Hilopites]]'' * ''Kolokythokorfades'' * ''Paspalas'' * ''Regali'', lamb soup * ''Tsouchtí'', pasta with egg dish * ''[[Syglino]]'' (pork meat, coldcut) * ''[[Dakos]]'' * ''Lalagides'' or ''Lalagia'' (Λαλαγγίδες) * ''[[Diples]]'' (dessert) ==Ethnology== The inhabitants of Mani claim to be direct descendants of the ancient [[Sparta]]ns and are considered more "pure-blooded" Greeks. According to their tradition, after the Romans took over Laconia, many of the Spartan citizens who were loyal to the Spartan laws of [[Lycurgus (Sparta)|Lycurgus]] decided to go to the Spartan mountains of Mani with the rest of the Spartans rather than be in Achaean or, later, Roman service.<ref name="Hellander263">{{harvnb|Hellander|2008|p=204}}.</ref> [[Kyriakos D. Kassis|Kyriakos Kassis]] claims that Maniots rarely mated with non-Maniots until the 20th century.<ref name="Kassis20">{{harvnb|Kassis|1979|p=20}}.</ref> Mani became a refuge during the 4th century when the [[Barbarian invasions]] started in Europe. When the Avars and Slavs invaded the Peloponnese, many Greek refugees fled to Mani since the invaders could not infiltrate the mountainous terrain. According to [[Constantine Porphyrogenitus]], the Maniots were not conquered by the Slavs and were descended from the ancient 'Romaioi'.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos22"/> The [[British people|British]] historian [[David Armine Howarth]] states: "''The only Greeks that have had an unbroken descent were the clans like the Maniotes who were so fierce, and lived so far up the mountain, that invaders left them alone.''"<ref name="Howarth69">{{harvnb|Howarth|1976|p=69}}.</ref> == Genetic studies == The paper "''Genetics of the peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval peloponnesean Greeks''" (2017), published in the [[European Journal of Human Genetics]], showed that Maniot individuals share on average 0.25% of their genome (or 35–36 cM) identical by descent, with 95% of pairs of individuals sharing at least one [[Identity by descent|IBD]] segment. The Maniots differ from all other Peloponnesians by [[Principal component analysis|PCA]] and [[Genetic admixture|ADMIXTURE]] analysis. They also differ from mainland, island and Asia Minor Greek populations who have been compared by PCA analysis, but they "partially" overlap with [[Sicilians]] and southern Italians. This can be explained by the fact that Maniots (along with [[Tsakonia]]ns) inherited the lowest amounts of Slavic [[Autosome|autosomal]] ancestry throughout the [[Peloponnese]], especially the ones from Deep Mani. Namely, in the case of [[East Mani|Deep Mani]] or Mesa/Inner Mani (22 samples) it amounts to 0.7%–1.6%, while in the cases of Maniots from [[West Mani|West Taygetos]] or Exo/Outer Mani (24 samples) to 4.9%–8.6% and of East Taygetos or Kato/Lower Mani (23 samples) to 5.7%–10.9% of common ancestry with Slavs (Belarusians, Russians, Polish, and Ukrainians) respectively. The Slavic ancestry possessed by the latter two is five to eight times higher than that of Deep Mani but lower to the ancestry the other Peloponnesians (148 samples - excluding the Tsakonians) share with the Slavs, which even though low, it's still relatively higher than Maniots (and Tsakonians) at 4.8%–14.4%. Even though Tsakonians, divided between Southerners (15 samples) and Northerners (9 samples) also possess low levels of common ancestry with the Slavs at 0.2%–0.9% and 3.9%–8.2% respectively, they remain a distinct population from both the Maniots and the rest of the Peloponnesians, something that is attributed to [[isolation by distance]] and the possibility that Tsakonia in antiquity was inhabited by [[Doric Greek|Doric]]-speaking [[Ionians]] (per [[Herodotus]]), while similarly conservative Mani by actual [[Dorians]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stamatoyannopoulos|first1=George|last2=Bose|first2=Aritra|last3=Teodosiadis|first3=Athanasios|last4=Tsetsos|first4=Fotis|last5=Plantinga|first5=Anna|last6=Psatha|first6=Nikoletta|last7=Zogas|first7=Nikos|last8=Yannaki|first8=Evangelia|last9=Zalloua|first9=Pierre|last10=Kidd|first10=Kenneth K.|last11=Browning|first11=Brian L.|date=8 March 2017|title=Genetics of the peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval peloponnesean Greeks|journal=[[European Journal of Human Genetics]]|language=en|volume=25|issue=5|pages=637–645|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2017.18|pmid=28272534|pmc=5437898|issn=1476-5438|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==Notable Maniots==  * [[Georgios Antonakos]], Chief of Staff of Greek Air Force under the King. Five star general. * [[Stephen Antonakos]], sculptor, in major international collections including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Museum of Modern Art, The Whitney Museum of American Art, The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, all in New York City, The National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., and the National Museum of Contemporary Art, Athens * [[Panagiotis Doxaras]], painter, founder of the [[Heptanese School (painting)|Heptanese School]] * [[Konstantinos Davakis]], [[Colonel]] * [[Limberakis Gerakaris]], First [[Bey]] of [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]] and one of the most feared Maniot Pirates * [[Elias Koteas]], [[actor]] * [[Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis (military commander)|Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis]], hero of the [[Greek War of Independence]] * [[Stylianos Mavromichalis]], lawyer, president of the [[Court of Cassation (Greece)|Areopagus]] and Prime Minister (1963) * [[Demetrios Mavromichalis]], politician, [[major general]] and aide to King [[Otto of Greece]] * [[Kyriakoulis Mavromichalis|Kyriakoulis P. Mavromichalis]], [[Prime Minister of Greece]] (1909–10). * [[Petros Mavromichalis]], starter and fighter of the [[Greek War of Independence]], last [[Bey]] of [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]], [[Lieutenant General]] and President of the Executive (1823) * [[Michail Anagnostakos]], military officer and army leader of the [[Macedonian Struggle]] * [[George Tsimbidaros-Fteris]], poet and journalist * [[Tzannis Tzannetakis]], naval officer, [[Member of the Hellenic Parliament]], [[Prime Minister of Greece]] (1989) and [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Greece)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=Note}}  ==References== ===Citations=== {{Reflist|2}} ===Sources=== {{Refbegin|2}} * {{cite book|last=Barrow|first=Bob|title=Mani: A Guide to the Villages, Towers and Churches of the Mani Peninsular|publisher=Antonis Thomeas Services|year=2000|isbn=0-9537517-0-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Cartledge|first1=Paul|last2=Spawforth|first2=Antony|title=Hellenistic and Roman Sparta: A Tale of Two Cities|location=London|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=0-415-26277-1}} * {{cite book|last=Eisner|first=Robert|title=Travelers to an Antique Land: The History and Literature of Travel to Greece|publisher=University of Michigan Press|year=1993|isbn=0-472-08220-5}} * {{cite book|last=Fermor|first=Patrick Leigh|title=Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1984|isbn=0-14-011511-0}} * {{cite book|last=Green|first=Peter|title=Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age|location=Los Angeles|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|isbn=0-500-01485-X|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree|edition=Second}} * {{cite book|last1=Greenhalgh|first1=P. A. L.|last2=Eliopoulos|first2=Edward|title=Deep into Mani: Journey to the Southern Tip of Greece|publisher=Faber and Faber|year=1985|isbn=0-571-13524-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/deepintomanijour0000gree}} * {{cite book|last=Hellander|first=Paul|title=Greece|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2008|isbn=978-1-74104-656-4}} * {{cite book|last=Howarth|first=David Armine|title=The Greek Adventure: Lord Byron and Other Eccentrics in the War of Independence|url=https://archive.org/details/greekadventurelo0000howa|url-access=registration|publisher=Atheneum|year=1976|isbn=0-689-10653-X}} * {{cite book|last=Kassis|first=Kyriakos|title=Mani's History|location=Athens|publisher=Presoft|year=1979}} * {{cite journal|last=Nicholas|first=Nick|title=Negotiating a Greco-Corsican Identity|journal=Journal of Modern Greek Studies|year=2006|volume=24|pages=91–133|doi=10.1353/mgs.2006.0009 |s2cid=145285702 }} * {{cite book|last=Kazhdan|first=Alexander P.|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium |publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=1991|isbn=0-19-504652-8}} * {{cite book |last1=Paroulakis |first1=Peter H. |title=The Greeks: Their Struggle for Independence |date=1984 |publisher=Hellenic International Press |isbn=978-0-9590894-0-0}} * {{cite book|last=Roumeliōtēs|first=Giannēs Ch.|title=Herōides tēs Lakonias kai tēs Manēs holēs (1453–1944)|year=2002|publisher=Ekdoseis Adoulōtē Manē|isbn=960-87030-1-8}} * {{cite book|last=Saitas|first=Yiannis|title=Greek Traditional Architecture: Mani|location=Athens|publisher=Melissa Publishing House|year=1990}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=William|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology|url=https://archive.org/details/adictionarygree10smitgoog|location=London|publisher=John Murray|year=1873}} * {{cite journal|last=Trudgill|first=Peter|title=Modern Greek Dialects: A Preliminary Classification|journal=Journal of Greek Linguistics|year=2003|volume=4|pages=45–63|doi=10.1075/jgl.4.04tru |s2cid=145744857 |doi-access=free}} {{Refend}} ==External links== * {{Commonscatinline}} * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Maina and Mainotes |short=x}} {{Greek language}} [[Category:Maniots| ]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Greece]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Abbr" title="Template:Abbr">Template:Abbr</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Abbr&action=edit" title="Template:Abbr">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Blockquote" title="Template:Blockquote">Template:Blockquote</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Blockquote&action=edit" title="Template:Blockquote">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Blockquote/styles.css" 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