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La spécificité du paysage et la multiplicité des sites </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="LOS ANGELES, Les étapes du développement " href="/encyclopedie/los-angeles/2-les-etapes-du-developpement/"> 2. Les étapes du développement </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="LOS ANGELES, Los Angeles, ville-monde" href="/encyclopedie/los-angeles/3-los-angeles-ville-monde/"> 3. Los Angeles, ville-monde </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="LOS ANGELES, Bibliographie" href="/encyclopedie/los-angeles/4-bibliographie/"> 4. Bibliographie </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>LOS ANGELES</strong> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yC071486_0"><i class="anchor" id="yC071486_0"></i><p> Le nom de Los Angeles (mégalopole située dans le sud de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Située à l’ouest des États-Unis et bordée par l’océan Pacifique, la Californie est l’État le plus peuplé (39,5 millions d’habitants au recensement de 2020) et le plus riche du pays. Il s’étend sur 423 967 kilomètres carrés et sa capitale est Sacramento. Son économie innovante et sa capacité d’attraction en font un symbole du rêve américain.. La Californie offre u..." title="Article : CALIFORNIE" href="/encyclopedie/californie/">Californie</a> à proximité de l'océan Pacifique) fait indifféremment référence à la ville de Los Angeles – qui comptait 3,9 millions d'habitants en 2010 – ou à l'aire métropolitaine (Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area, CMSA), incluant les comtés d'Orange (3 millions d'habitants), de Los Angeles (9,8 millions d'habitants), de Ventura (0,8 million d'habitants) et de Riverside-San Bernardino (2,1 millions d'habitants). Selon les estimations de 2017, la CMSA comptait 18,77 millions d’habitants. Los Angeles se situe au deuxième rang des villes et métropoles américaines, après <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le nom de New York renvoie à deux réalités urbaines : la ville et l'aire métropolitaine, dénommée par le bureau du recensement « Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area » (CMSA). Cette catégorie statistique englobe ici une douzaine de métropoles et leurs banlieues respectives, soit vingt-cinq comtés répartis dans trois États, New York, New Jersey et Connecticut. En tant que..." title="Article : NEW YORK" href="/encyclopedie/new-york/">New York</a>, et s’est pendant longtemps caractérisée par un paysage de maisons et de jardins sur l'ensemble de son territoire, par une multiplicité de pôles économiques et par l'absence d'une centralité forte. Cette difficile distinction entre la ville et la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le terme « banlieue » reste très marqué dans sa signification par la période au cours de laquelle les banlieues se sont formées autour des villes, en général aux xix e et xx e siècles. Durant cette phase de formation, les banlieues sont fortement dépendantes de la ville-centre, elles croissent rapidement et souvent dans le désordre, accueillent les fonctions dont la ville n..." title="Article : BANLIEUE" href="/encyclopedie/banlieue/">banlieue</a> lui a valu tout au long du <span class="pc">xx</span><sup>e</sup> siècle d'être qualifiée de phénomène urbain unique, et certains ont eu tendance à attribuer cette spécificité à la voiture et au réseau autoroutier alors que de récents travaux insistent sur le choix délibéré de ses habitants en faveur d'une ville de maisons et jardins. Les Los Angelinos ont en effet toujours manifesté cette volonté d'enraciner et de pérenniser cette idéologie américaine du <span class="pc">xix</span><sup>e</sup> siècle qui veut que la maison et le jardin soient le cadre de vie idéal de la famille américaine. Avant même que Los Angeles ne se hisse au rang de ville-monde (ville globale) dans les années 1980, son rayonnement avait dépassé les frontières des États-Unis, en raison de la présence de l'industrie du cinéma à Hollywood qu'une inscription lumineuse située au sommet d'une colline rappelle en permanence. </p><div class="clearfix"></div><div class="row"><div class="col-12 col-md-6 text-center p-1"><figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"><a data-ucode="AT006403" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy media-atlas" title="Média : États-Unis : carte administrative" href="/media/etats-unis-carte-administrative-at006403/"><img id="AT006403" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/c/csm_at006403_902d5b65cb.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="États-Unis : carte administrative - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="Carte administrative des États-Unis." data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="2000" height="1351" /></a><figcaption class="figure-caption"><p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> États-Unis : carte administrative </p><p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p></figcaption></figure></div><div class="col-12 col-md-6 text-center p-1"><figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"><a data-ucode="PH230819" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Los Angeles, États-Unis" href="/media/los-angeles-etats-unis-ph230819/"><img id="PH230819" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/5/csm_ph230819_633ddd0c56.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Los Angeles, États-Unis - crédits : Stas Moroz/ Shutterstock" data-description="Installées sur le mont Lee, au-dessus de Los Angeles (Californie), les lettres monumentales qui forment le mot Hollywood constituent le plus grand panneau publicitaire du monde (100 mètres de longueur sur 13 mètres de hauteur)." data-copyright="Stas Moroz/ Shutterstock" width="683" height="1024" /></a><figcaption class="figure-caption"><p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Los Angeles, États-Unis </p><p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Stas Moroz/ Shutterstock </p></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yC071486_1"><i class="anchor" id="yC071486_1"></i><h2>La spécificité du paysage et la multiplicité des sites</h2><p> Los Angeles (« LA »), se caractérise par un urbanisme horizontal qui se densifie au fur et à mesure de sa croissance démographique et économique. La ville ne s'est pas développée à partir d'un centre, mais au gré de la construction des voies de transports en commun, engagée et financée le plus souvent par des promoteurs fonciers qui, à partir des années 1860-1870, ont commencé de transformer des ranches (propriétés agricoles appartenant souvent à des Californios, métissage d'Indiens et d'Espagnols) en lotissements urbains dont ils revendaient les parcelles aux nouveaux arrivants. Le Pueblo (situé à une vingtaine de kilomètres du Pacifique) créé en 1781 par les Espagnols n'était qu'une petite ville mexicaine (la Californie fut mexicaine de 1822 à 1848) de 1 600 habitants au moment de l'entrée de la Californie dans la fédération américaine en 1850. La croissance démographique et économique de Los Angeles résulte de l'arrivée, en 1876, du Southern Pacific la reliant à <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="San Francisco, ville de Californie située sur la côte pacifique, a été fortement marquée, avant son entrée dans la fédération américaine, par d'importants flux migratoires venus principalement d'Europe et des États-Unis, mais aussi d'Asie, en raison de la découverte de l'or. Le territoire de la ville, qui inclut une quarantaine de collines, correspond ici à celui du comté, alors que..." title="Article : SAN FRANCISCO" href="/encyclopedie/san-francisco/">San Francisco</a> au nord ; une deuxième ligne de chemin de fer la relie à Saint Louis (Missouri) par Santa Fe en 1887. Son urbanisation prend alors l'aspect d'une juxtaposition de lotissements. Los Angeles n'ayant intégré dans son développement ni la notion de « place publique » ni celle de monument, elle offre peu de « lieux » susceptibles d'être visités en dehors des sites naturels comme la plage et la montagne, des parcs d'attractions comme Disneyland (créé en 1955 à Anaheim, dans le comté d'Orange), des studios de cinéma et de télévision et des musées comme le Los Angeles County Museum (LACM) et le Centre Getty à Brentwood, sur les collines de Santa Monica, inauguré en décembre 1997.</p><div class="block_2" data-ucode="yC071486_1_0"><i class="anchor" id="yC071486_1_0"></i><h3>L'organisation de la ville</h3><p>Le paysage de Los Angeles, dont l'uniformité est assurée par le principe de la trame orthogonale et par la présence d'une végétation importante – cette dernière ayant souffert d’incendies successifs,<a href="javascript:" title="Lire la suite" class="read-more ms-1">[...]</a></p></div></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center 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class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="C071486_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">Écrit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="GHORRA-GOBIN, Cynthia"><a title="Auteur : Cynthia GHORRA-GOBIN" rel="author" href="/auteurs/cynthia-ghorra-gobin/"><strong>Cynthia GHORRA-GOBIN</strong></a> : directrice de recherche émérite au CNRS-CREDA, université Sorbonne Nouvelle, Paris, professeur à l'institut des hautes études de l'Amérique latine, Paris </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : LOS ANGELES" href="/carte-mentale/los-angeles/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans 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href="/classification/sciences-humaines-et-sociales/urbanisme-et-habitat/histoire-de-l-urbanisme/urbanisme-xxe-s-et-xxie-s/"> Urbanisme, <span class="pc">xx</span><sup>e</sup> s. et <span class="pc">xxi</span><sup>e</sup> s. </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 5"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire" href="/classification/histoire/"> Histoire </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire thématique" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-thematique/"> Histoire thématique </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Histoire sociale" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-thematique/histoire-sociale/"> Histoire sociale </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Histoire urbaine"> <a title="Classification : Histoire urbaine" href="/classification/histoire/histoire-thematique/histoire-sociale/histoire-urbaine/"> Histoire urbaine </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none"> <i class="anchor" id="yC071486_MEDIAS"></i> <p class="title-minor">Médias</p> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="AT006403" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy media-atlas" title="Média : États-Unis : carte administrative" href="/media/etats-unis-carte-administrative-at006403/"> <img id="AT006403" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/c/csm_at006403_902d5b65cb.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="États-Unis : carte administrative - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" data-description="Carte administrative des États-Unis." data-copyright="Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="2000" height="1351" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> États-Unis : carte administrative </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Encyclopædia Universalis France </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH230819" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Los Angeles, États-Unis" href="/media/los-angeles-etats-unis-ph230819/"> <img id="PH230819" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/0/5/csm_ph230819_633ddd0c56.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Los Angeles, États-Unis - crédits : Stas Moroz/ Shutterstock" data-description="Installées sur le mont Lee, au-dessus de Los Angeles (Californie), les lettres monumentales qui forment le mot Hollywood constituent le plus grand panneau publicitaire du monde (100 mètres de longueur sur 13 mètres de hauteur)." data-copyright="Stas Moroz/ Shutterstock" width="683" height="1024" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Los Angeles, États-Unis </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Stas Moroz/ Shutterstock </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> <div class="col-12 col-md-4 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH993289" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Los Angeles" href="/media/los-angeles-ph993289/"> <img id="PH993289" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/2/csm_ph993289_b59d753d21.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Los Angeles - crédits : Chad Ehlers/ The Image Bank/ Getty Images " data-description="Pour symboliser son rôle de métropole américaine du Pacifique, Los Angeles s'est dotée de gratte-ciel, dans les années 1970 et 1980, sans renoncer pour autant à son traditionnel urbanisme horizontal et extensif." data-copyright="Chad Ehlers/ The Image Bank/ Getty Images " width="677" height="1024" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Los Angeles </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Chad Ehlers/ The Image Bank/ Getty Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yC071486_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/californie/#c17476"> <span class="rg">CALIFORNIE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Annick FOUCRIER</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">3 080 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">8 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CALIFORNIE" href="/encyclopedie/californie/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="États-Unis : carte administrative - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/e/c/csm_at006403_75d91570c3.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...développement de la ville malgré une reconstruction rapide. En 1914, l’ouverture du canal de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Ancienne province colombienne, le Panamá obtient son indépendance en 1903 à la suite de la politique menée par les États-Unis pour creuser et exploiter un canal permettant le transport des marchandises par voie maritime, sans rupture de charge, entre les océans Pacifique et Atlantique. L'existence du canal va structurer la vie de ce pays de petite superficie (75 517 km 2 ), où le relie..." title="Article : PANAMÁ" href="/encyclopedie/panama/">Panamá</a> relance l’économie de la région au bénéfice de Los Angeles, en facilitant le commerce maritime entre la côte est et la côte ouest des États-Unis. C’est aussi à « L.A. », dans le quartier de ... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/etats-unis-d-amerique-le-territoire-et-les-hommes-geographie/#c17476"> <span class="rg">ÉTATS-UNIS D'AMÉRIQUE </span><span class="rm">(Le territoire et les hommes) - Géographie</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Jacqueline BEAUJEU-GARNIER</span> , <span rel="author">Catherine LEFORT</span> et <span rel="author">Laurent VERMEERSCH</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">19 922 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">19 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : &Eacute;TATS-UNIS D'AM&Eacute;RIQUE (Le territoire et les hommes) - G&eacute;ographie" href="/encyclopedie/etats-unis-d-amerique-le-territoire-et-les-hommes-geographie/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="États-Unis : carte physique - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/a/f/csm_at006404_f14053fddb.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> – L'ensemble « San-San », de <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Située à l’extrême sud de la Californie , dans une vaste baie abritée de l’océan Pacifique par la péninsule de North Island, San Diego (3,33 millions d’habitants en 2017, dont 1,4 million dans la ville même), troisième agglomération de l’État et dix-septième à l’échelle du pays, constitue l’un des principaux maillons du cordon littoral urbanisé qui court de Los Angele..." title="Article : SAN DIEGO" href="/encyclopedie/san-diego/">San Diego</a> à San Francisco, est en effet le plus dynamique. Centrée sur l'aire métropolitaine de Los Angeles, la mégalopole californienne s'organise autour de deux pôles majeurs : l'ensemble San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose au nord, et celui qui est formé par Los Angeles-San... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/etats-unis-d-amerique-le-territoire-et-les-hommes-histoire/#c17476"> <span class="rg">ÉTATS-UNIS D'AMÉRIQUE </span><span class="rm">(Le territoire et les hommes) - Histoire</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author"> Encyclopædia Universalis</span> , <span rel="author">Claude FOHLEN</span> , <span rel="author">Annick FOUCRIER</span> et <span rel="author">Marie-France TOINET</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">33 218 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">62 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : &Eacute;TATS-UNIS D'AM&Eacute;RIQUE (Le territoire et les hommes) - Histoire" href="/encyclopedie/etats-unis-d-amerique-le-territoire-et-les-hommes-histoire/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="George Washington - crédits : Hulton Archive/ Getty Images" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/5/1/csm_ph990285_4c41b0171c.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> ...la scène publique lorsque de violentes émeutes raciales éclatent à <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Ville portuaire située sur la baie de Biscayne, au sud-est de la Floride , abritée de l’océan par un chapelet d’îlots (les keys ), Miami (453 000 habitants en 2016) est à la tête de la septième agglomération des États-Unis (6,15 millions d’habitants) et s’étale sur 200 kilomètres le long de la côte atlantique, principalement vers le nord de la ville jusqu’à North Palm B..." title="Article : MIAMI" href="/encyclopedie/miami/">Miami</a> en 1989, à Crown Heights, un quartier de Brooklyn, en 1991, et, surtout, à South Central (Los Angeles) en avril 1992 (faisant 52 morts, 21 millions de dollars de dommages). Dans cette dernière affaire, quatre policiers blancs,... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/frank-o-gehry/#c17476"> <span class="rg">GEHRY </span><span class="pc">FRANK O. </span><span class="rm">(1929- )</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author"> Encyclopædia Universalis</span> et <span rel="author">Simon TEXIER</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 608 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> La source première de l'inspiration de Gehry demeure toutefois cette ville chaotique qu'est Los Angeles. Chaque bâtiment en est une métaphore, l'occasion d'exprimer un désordre doublé du spectre du tremblement de terre qui menace la Californie. La maison qu'il construit pour un cinéaste (1981) ou le... </div> </li> <li class="list-unstyled text-center mt-3"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" title="Afficher la liste complète des références" rel="related" href="/index/los-angeles/"> Afficher les 9 références <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_f303c484f7.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item d-none d-md-inline-block"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2024 Encyclopædia Universalis France. 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