CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Netherlands in the Roman era - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"a329b456-96af-4ef0-befb-4eb42b030dfb","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era","wgTitle":"Netherlands in the Roman era","wgCurRevisionId":1276826878,"wgRevisionId":1276826878,"wgArticleId":31228413,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Articles with short description","Short description with empty Wikidata description","Articles with excerpts","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023","Articles containing Dutch-language text","Netherlands in the Roman era","Roman frontiers","Roman fortifications in Germania Inferior"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era","wgRelevantArticleId":31228413,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Romans_in_the_Netherlands","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":20000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era","wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q2272797","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false}; RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.22"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/1200px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="974"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/960px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="649"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="519"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Netherlands in the Roman era - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era rootpage-Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Netherlands+in+the+Roman+era" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Netherlands+in+the+Roman+era" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Netherlands+in+the+Roman+era" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Netherlands+in+the+Roman+era" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Native_tribes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_tribes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Native tribes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_tribes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_tribes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_tribes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Later tribes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_tribes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Batavian_revolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Batavian_revolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Batavian revolt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Batavian_revolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_settlements_in_the_Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_settlements_in_the_Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Roman settlements in the Netherlands</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Roman_settlements_in_the_Netherlands-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Roman settlements in the Netherlands subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Roman_settlements_in_the_Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roman_forts_in_the_Netherlands_(squares_on_the_map)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_forts_in_the_Netherlands_(squares_on_the_map)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Roman forts in the Netherlands (squares on the map)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_forts_in_the_Netherlands_(squares_on_the_map)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Towns_in_the_Netherlands_(triangles_on_the_map)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Towns_in_the_Netherlands_(triangles_on_the_map)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Towns in the Netherlands (triangles on the map)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Towns_in_the_Netherlands_(triangles_on_the_map)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Settlements_or_posts_(circles_on_the_map)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Settlements_or_posts_(circles_on_the_map)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Settlements or posts (circles on the map)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Settlements_or_posts_(circles_on_the_map)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Franks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Franks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Franks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Franks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Netherlands in the Roman era</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 5 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-5" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">5 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D9%87%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7" title="الرومان في هولندا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الرومان في هولندا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa%C3%AFsos_Baixos_durant_l%27era_romana" title="Països Baixos durant l'era romana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Països Baixos durant l'era romana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presenza_Romana_nei_Paesi_Bassi" title="Presenza Romana nei Paesi Bassi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Presenza Romana nei Paesi Bassi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeinen_in_Nederland" title="Romeinen in Nederland – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeinen in Nederland" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E7%B5%B1%E6%B2%BB%E8%8D%B7%E8%98%AD%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="羅馬統治荷蘭時代 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="羅馬統治荷蘭時代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2272797#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&oldid=1276826878" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&id=1276826878&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FNetherlands_in_the_Roman_era"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FNetherlands_in_the_Roman_era"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Romans_in_the_Netherlands" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2272797" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Romans_in_the_Netherlands&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">Romans in the Netherlands</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Category:History of the Netherlands">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">History of the Netherlands</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leo Belgicus"><img alt="Leo Belgicus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/250px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg/500px-Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="3249" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Early</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Netherlands" title="Prehistory of the Netherlands">Prehistory of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons#Saxons_in_the_Netherlands" title="Saxons">Saxons</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Lotharingia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Lotharingia" title="Lower Lotharingia">Lower Lotharingia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Republic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting" title="Dutch Golden Age painting">painting</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch colonial empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of the Dutch Empire">evolution</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">VOC</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">East Indies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">WIC</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonisation_of_the_Guianas" title="Dutch colonisation of the Guianas">Guianas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Brazil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Dutch_Republic" title="List of wars involving the Dutch Republic">List of wars</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/French_period" title="French period">French period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Revolution" title="Batavian Revolution">Batavian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Monarchy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">Sovereign Principality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands_(1900%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Netherlands (1900–present)">Modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">constituent country within the kingdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic history of the Netherlands">Economic history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Netherlands_(1500%E2%80%931815)" title="Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)">Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_guilder" title="Dutch guilder">Dutch guilder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Entrep%C3%B4t" title="Amsterdam Entrepôt">Amsterdam Entrepôt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">Tulip mania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_disease" title="Dutch disease">Dutch disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whaling_in_the_Netherlands" title="Whaling in the Netherlands">Whaling in the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polder_model" title="Polder model">Polder model</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Netherlands" title="Military history of the Netherlands">Military history</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_the_Netherlands" title="List of wars involving the Netherlands">List of wars</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Colonial history</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Dutch_language" title="History of the Dutch language">Language</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in the Netherlands">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch-language_literature" title="Dutch-language literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Dutch_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Lists of Dutch inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands" title="Flood control in the Netherlands">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_healthcare_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of healthcare in the Netherlands">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_heraldry" title="Dutch heraldry">Heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of religion in the Netherlands">Religion</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/17px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/26px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/34px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Netherlands" title="Portal:Netherlands">Netherlands portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Template:History of the Netherlands"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Template talk:History of the Netherlands"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Netherlands" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Netherlands"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Romeinse_wachttoren_fort_vechten_netherlands.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Romeinse_wachttoren_fort_vechten_netherlands.jpg/330px-Romeinse_wachttoren_fort_vechten_netherlands.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="450" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Romeinse_wachttoren_fort_vechten_netherlands.jpg/500px-Romeinse_wachttoren_fort_vechten_netherlands.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Romeinse_wachttoren_fort_vechten_netherlands.jpg/960px-Romeinse_wachttoren_fort_vechten_netherlands.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of a Roman <a href="/wiki/Watch_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Watch tower">watch tower</a> near <a href="/wiki/Fectio" title="Fectio">Fectio</a> in the Netherlands</figcaption></figure> <p>For around 450 <a href="/wiki/Year" title="Year">years</a>, from around 55 BC to around 410 AD, the southern part of the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> was integrated into the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. During this time the Romans in the Netherlands had an enormous influence on the lives and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> of the <a href="/wiki/People" title="People">people</a> who lived in the Netherlands at the time and (indirectly) on the generations that followed.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gallic_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic wars">Gallic wars</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limes1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Limes1.png/250px-Limes1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Limes1.png/330px-Limes1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Limes1.png/500px-Limes1.png 2x" data-file-width="3277" data-file-height="2362" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a> romanus in the Netherlands</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a>, the area south and west of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> was conquered by Roman forces under <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> in a series of campaigns from 57 BC to 53 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-livius.org_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius.org-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The approximately 450 years of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> rule that followed would profoundly change the Netherlands. </p><p>Starting about 15 BC, the Rhine in the Netherlands came to be defended by the Lower <a href="/wiki/Limes_Germanicus" title="Limes Germanicus">Limes Germanicus</a>. After a series of military actions, the Rhine became fixed around 12 AD as Rome's northern frontier on the European mainland.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A number of towns and developments would arise along this line. Perhaps the most evocative Roman ruin is the mysterious <a href="/wiki/Brittenburg" title="Brittenburg">Brittenburg</a>, which emerged from the sand at the beach in Katwijk several centuries ago, only to be buried again. These ruins were part of <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugdunum_Batavorum" class="extiw" title="nl:Lugdunum Batavorum">Lugdunum Batavorum</a>. </p><p>The area to the south would be integrated into the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. At first part of <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a>, this area became part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a>. The tribes already within, or relocated to, this area became part of the Roman Empire. </p><p>The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a>, remained outside Roman rule but not its presence and control. The Frisii were initially "won over" by <a href="/wiki/Nero_Claudius_Drusus" title="Nero Claudius Drusus">Drusus</a>, suggesting a Roman <a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">suzerainty</a> was imposed by <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> on the coastal areas north of the Rhine river.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the course of time the Frisii would provide Roman auxiliaries through treaty obligations, but the tribe would also fight the Romans in concert with other Germanic tribes (finally, in 296 the Frisii were relocated in Flanders and disappeared from recorded history).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Native_tribes">Native tribes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Native tribes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgic</a> area south of the <a href="/wiki/Oude_Rijn_(Utrecht_and_South_Holland)" title="Oude Rijn (Utrecht and South Holland)">Oude Rijn</a> and west of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> was conquered by Roman forces under <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> in a series of campaigns from 57 BC to 53 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Lendering_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lendering-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He established the principle that the Rhine, which runs through the Netherlands, defined a natural boundary between the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a>. But the Rhine was not a strong border, and he made it clear that there was a part of Belgic Gaul where many of the local tribes were "<a href="/wiki/Germani_cisrhenani" title="Germani cisrhenani">Germani cisrhenani</a>", or in other cases, of mixed origin. The approximately 450 years of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> rule that followed would profoundly change the area that would become the Netherlands. Very often this involved large-scale conflict with the "free Germans" over the Rhine. </p><p>When Caesar arrived, various tribes were located in the area of the Netherlands, residing in the inhabitable higher parts, especially in the east and south. These illiterate tribes did not leave behind written records, so all the information known about them during this pre-Roman period is based on what the Romans and Greeks wrote about them. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> himself, in his commentary <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i> wrote in detail only about the southern area which he conquered. Two or three tribes who he described as living in what is now the Netherlands were: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Menapii" title="Menapii">Menapii</a>, a Belgic tribe who stretched from the Flemish coast, through the south of the river deltas, and as far as the modern German border. In terms of modern Dutch provinces this means at least the south of Zeeland, at least the north of North Brabant, at least the southeast of Gelderland, and possible the south of South Holland. In later Roman times this territory seems to have been divided or reduced, so that it became mainly contained in what is now western Belgium.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Eburones" title="Eburones">Eburones</a>, the largest of the <i>Germani Cisrhenani</i> group, whose territory covered a large area between the rivers <a href="/wiki/River_Maas" class="mw-redirect" title="River Maas">Maas</a> and Rhine, and also apparently stretched close to the delta, giving them a border with the Menapii. Their territory may have stretched into Gelderland. Caesar claimed to have destroyed the name of the Eburones, but in Roman times Tacitus reports that the Germani Cisrhenani had taken up a new name, the <a href="/wiki/Tungri" title="Tungri">Tungri</a>. While exact borders are not known the territory of the Eburones, and later the Tungri, (the "<a href="/wiki/Civitas_Tungrorum" title="Civitas Tungrorum">Civitas Tungrorum</a>") included all or most of the modern provinces of Dutch Limburg, and North Brabant. The part in North Brabant was apparently within what became known as <a href="/wiki/Toxandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxandria">Toxandria</a>, the home of the Texuandri.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ambivariti" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambivariti">Ambivariti</a> were apparently a smaller tribe, perhaps part of the Eburones, or Menapii, who Caesar mentions in passing as living west of the Maas, and therefore somewhere in or near North Brabant. (It is possible they lived in what is now Belgium.)</li></ul> <p>In the delta itself, Caesar makes a passing comment about the <i>Insula Batavorum</i> ("Island of the Batavi") in the Rhine river, without discussing who lived there. Later, in imperial times, a tribe called the Batavi became very important in this region. The island's easternmost point is at a split in the Rhine, one arm being the <a href="/wiki/Waal_(river)" title="Waal (river)">Waal</a> the other the <a href="/wiki/Nederrijn" title="Nederrijn">Lower Rhine</a>/<a href="/wiki/Oude_Rijn_(Utrecht_and_South_Holland)" title="Oude Rijn (Utrecht and South Holland)">Old Rhine</a> (hence the Latin name <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much later <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> wrote that they had originally been a tribe of the <a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a>, a tribe in Germany never mentioned by Caesar.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, archaeologists find evidence of continuity, and suggest that the Chattic group may have been a small group, moving into a pre-existing (and possibly non-Germanic) people, who could even have been part of a known group such as the Eburones.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table border="1"> <tbody><tr> <th>Tribes named by Julius Caesar </th> <th>Tribes during Roman empire </th></tr> <tr> <td><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Netherlands_in_time_of_Caesar.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Netherlands_in_time_of_Caesar.png/500px-Netherlands_in_time_of_Caesar.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="406" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Netherlands_in_time_of_Caesar.png/960px-Netherlands_in_time_of_Caesar.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1452" data-file-height="1472" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png/500px-Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="427" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png/960px-Netherlands_in_the_time_of_the_Roman_empire.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="1340" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_tribes">Later tribes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Later tribes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other tribes who eventually inhabited the "Gaulish" islands in the delta during Roman times are mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a>, whom Tacitus says were similar to the Batavians in their ancestry (and so presumably came from Germany). These lived to the west of the Batavi, sharing the same island, in what is today the province of South Holland.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a>, who also inhabited the Netherlands north of the delta, and thus covered a major part of the modern Netherlands, not only in modern Friesland, but also in North Holland and at least in parts of all the other northern Dutch provinces today.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Chauci" title="Chauci">Chauci</a>, whose main territory was the north sea coast of Germany, bordering the Frisii on their east. They are thought to be ancestors of the later <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, and apparently only held a small part of the modern Netherlands in Roman times.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Frisiabones" class="mw-redirect" title="Frisiabones">Frisiabones</a>, who Pliny also counted as a people living in <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a>, to the south of the delta. They probably therefore lived in the north of North Brabant, perhaps stretching into Gelderland and South Holland.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Marsacii" title="Marsacii">Marsacii</a>, who Tacitus refers to as neighbours of the Batavi. Pliny also apparently mentioned these as stretching on to the Flemish coast, and they probably inhabited what is today the province of Zeeland.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Sturii" class="mw-redirect" title="Sturii">Sturii</a>, who are not known from any other sources, but are thought to have lived near the Marsacii, therefore in modern Zeeland or South Holland.</li></ul> <p>As mentioned above, the northern Netherlands, above the Old Rhine, was dominated by the Frisii, with perhaps a small penetration of Chauci. While this area was not officially part of the empire for any long periods, military conscription and other impositions were made for long periods upon the Frisii. Several smaller tribes are known from the eastern Netherlands, north of the Rhine: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Tuihanti" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuihanti">Tuihanti</a> (or Tubantes) from <a href="/wiki/Twenthe" class="mw-redirect" title="Twenthe">Twenthe</a> in Overijssel, had units serving in the Roman army in Britain.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Hamaland" title="Hamaland">Hamaland</a> in northern Gelderland, a <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Frankish</a> tribe that often fought against Rome.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Salians" class="mw-redirect" title="Salians">Salians</a>, also Franks, probably originated in <a href="/wiki/Salland" title="Salland">Salland</a> in Overijssel, before they moved into the empire, forced by Saxons in the 4th century, first into Batavia, and then into Toxandria.</li> <li>South of the Chamavi and on the Rhine the Usipetes lived for some time. Caesar reported that them already in his time as newcomers from the east. Eventually they appear to have been forced southeast under pressure from the Frankish Chamavi and <a href="/wiki/Chatuarii" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatuarii">Chatuarii</a>.</li></ul> <p>In the south of the Netherlands the <a href="/wiki/Toxandri" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxandri">Texuandri</a> inhabited most of North Brabant. The modern province of Limburg, with the Maas running through it, appears to have been inhabited by (from north to south) the <a href="/wiki/Baetasii" title="Baetasii">Baetasii</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Catualinum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Catualinum (page does not exist)">Catualini</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sunuci" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunuci">Sunuci</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tungri" title="Tungri">Tungri</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Batavian_revolt">Batavian revolt</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Batavian revolt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Batavi" title="Revolt of the Batavi">Revolt of the Batavi</a></div> <p>About 38 BC, a pro-Roman faction of the <a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a> (a Germanic tribe located east of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>) was settled by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Agrippa</a> in an area south of the Rhine, now thought to be the <a href="/wiki/Betuwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Betuwe">Betuwe</a> area. They took on the name of the people already living there—the <a href="/wiki/Batavians" class="mw-redirect" title="Batavians">Batavians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-livius.org_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius.org-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Conspiracy_of_Claudius_Civilis_by_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/The_Conspiracy_of_Claudius_Civilis_by_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg/260px-The_Conspiracy_of_Claudius_Civilis_by_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/The_Conspiracy_of_Claudius_Civilis_by_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg/390px-The_Conspiracy_of_Claudius_Civilis_by_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/The_Conspiracy_of_Claudius_Civilis_by_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg/520px-The_Conspiracy_of_Claudius_Civilis_by_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5228" data-file-height="3348" /></a><figcaption><i>The Conspiracy of Julius Civilis</i>, completed in 1661 by <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt_Harmenszoon_van_Rijn" class="mw-redirect" title="Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn">Rembrandt</a>, the best-known painter of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a>. It depicts a <a href="/wiki/Batavii" class="mw-redirect" title="Batavii">Batavian</a> oath to <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Civilis" title="Gaius Julius Civilis">Gaius Julius Civilis</a>, the head of the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Batavian rebellion">Batavian rebellion</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> in 69</figcaption></figure> <p>The relationship with the original inhabitants was on the whole quite good; many <a href="/wiki/Batavians" class="mw-redirect" title="Batavians">Batavians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a> even served in the <a href="/wiki/Ala_(Roman_military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ala (Roman military)">Roman cavalry</a>. Batavian culture was influenced by the Roman one, resulting among other things in Roman-style temples such as the one in <a href="/wiki/Elst_(Overbetuwe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elst (Overbetuwe)">Elst</a>, dedicated to local gods. Trade also flourished: the salt used in the Roman empire was won from the North Sea and remains are found across the whole Roman empire. </p><p>However, this did not prevent the <a href="/wiki/Batavian_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Batavian rebellion">Batavian rebellion</a> of 69 AD, a very successful <a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Batavi" title="Revolt of the Batavi">revolt</a> under the leadership of Batavian <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Civilis" title="Gaius Julius Civilis">Gaius Julius Civilis</a>. Forty <i>castella</i> were burnt down because the Romans violated the rights of the Batavian leaders by taking young Batavians as their <a href="/wiki/Slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Slaves">slaves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Roman soldiers (like those in <a href="/wiki/Xanten" title="Xanten">Xanten</a> and the auxiliary troops of Batavians and Cananefates from the legions of <a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a>) joined the revolt, which split the northern part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>. In April 70, <a href="/wiki/Vespasianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Vespasianus">Vespasianus</a> sent a few legions to stop the revolt. Their commander, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Petillius_Cerialis" title="Quintus Petillius Cerialis">Petilius Cerialis</a>, eventually defeated the Batavians and started negotiations with <a href="/wiki/Julius_Civilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Civilis">Julius Civilis</a> on his home ground, somewhere between the <a href="/wiki/Waal_(river)" title="Waal (river)">Waal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Meuse_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Meuse River">Maas</a> near Noviomagus (<a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a>) or—as the Batavians probably called it—Batavodurum.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Batavi may have merged into the Salian Frankish community, who first appear in the written record in the third century as a group who had been living in Batavia before being pushed southwards out of the delta.<sup id="cite_ref-Previté-Orton_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Previté-Orton-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_settlements_in_the_Netherlands">Roman settlements in the Netherlands</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Roman settlements in the Netherlands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During their stay in Germania Inferior, the Romans established a number of towns and smaller settlements in the Netherlands and reinforced the <a href="/wiki/Limes_Germanicus" title="Limes Germanicus">Limes Germanicus</a> with military forts. More notable towns include <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulpia_Noviomagus_Batavorum" class="extiw" title="nl:Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum">Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Forum_Hadriani" title="Forum Hadriani">Forum Hadriani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Voorburg" title="Voorburg">Voorburg</a>). </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Romeinen_kaart.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Romeinen_kaart.png/400px-Romeinen_kaart.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="663" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Romeinen_kaart.png 1.5x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="995" /></a><figcaption>Map showing Roman settlements in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman_forts_in_the_Netherlands_(squares_on_the_map)"><span id="Roman_forts_in_the_Netherlands_.28squares_on_the_map.29"></span>Roman forts in the Netherlands (squares on the map)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Roman forts in the Netherlands (squares on the map)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Flevum" title="Flevum">Flevum</a> (at modern <a href="/wiki/Velsen" title="Velsen">Velsen</a>) A harbour has been found here as well. (Disputed)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum_Batavorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugdunum Batavorum">Lugdunum Batavorum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brittenburg" title="Brittenburg">Brittenburg</a> at modern <a href="/wiki/Katwijk_aan_Zee" title="Katwijk aan Zee">Katwijk aan Zee</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetorium_Agrippinae" title="Praetorium Agrippinae">Praetorium Agrippinae</a> (at modern <a href="/wiki/Valkenburg_(South_Holland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Valkenburg (South Holland)">Valkenburg</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matilo" title="Matilo">Matilo</a> (in the modern Roomburg area of <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albaniana_(Roman_fort)" title="Albaniana (Roman fort)">Albaniana</a> (at modern <a href="/wiki/Alphen_aan_den_Rijn" title="Alphen aan den Rijn">Alphen aan den Rijn</a>)</li> <li>Fort of an unknown name (near <a href="/wiki/Bodegraven" title="Bodegraven">Bodegraven</a>)</li> <li>Laurium (at modern <a href="/wiki/Woerden" title="Woerden">Woerden</a>)</li> <li>A fort perhaps called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fletio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fletio (page does not exist)">Fletio</a> (at modern <a href="/wiki/Vleuten" title="Vleuten">Vleuten</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traiectum_(Utrecht)" title="Traiectum (Utrecht)">Traiectum</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Utrecht" title="Utrecht">Utrecht</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fectio" title="Fectio">Fectio</a> (Vechten)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Levefanum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Levefanum (page does not exist)">Levefanum</a> (at modern <a href="/wiki/Wijk_bij_Duurstede" title="Wijk bij Duurstede">Wijk bij Duurstede</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Carvo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carvo (page does not exist)">Carvo</a> (at modern Kesteren in <a href="/wiki/Neder-Betuwe" title="Neder-Betuwe">Neder-Betuwe</a>)</li> <li>Fort of an unknown name at (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Meinerswijk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meinerswijk (page does not exist)">Meinerswijk</a>)</li> <li>Noviomagus (in modern (<a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a>)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Towns_in_the_Netherlands_(triangles_on_the_map)"><span id="Towns_in_the_Netherlands_.28triangles_on_the_map.29"></span>Towns in the Netherlands (triangles on the map)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Towns in the Netherlands (triangles on the map)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A) <a href="/wiki/Forum_Hadriani" title="Forum Hadriani">Forum Hadriani</a>, a.k.a. Aellium Cananefatum (modern <a href="/wiki/Voorburg" title="Voorburg">Voorburg</a>) <br /> B) <a href="/wiki/Ulpia_Noviomagus_Batavorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum">Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum</a>, a.k.a. Colonia Ulpia Noviomagus, (modern <a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a>) <br /> C) <a href="/wiki/Ulpia_Noviomagus_Batavorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum">Batavorum</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Nijmegen" title="Nijmegen">Nijmegen</a>) <br /> D) <a href="/wiki/Colonia_Ulpia_Trajana" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonia Ulpia Trajana">Colonia Ulpia Trajana</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Xanten" title="Xanten">Xanten</a>, Germany) <br /> E) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Coriovallum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coriovallum (page does not exist)">Coriovallum</a> (in modern <a href="/wiki/Heerlen" title="Heerlen">Heerlen</a>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Settlements_or_posts_(circles_on_the_map)"><span id="Settlements_or_posts_.28circles_on_the_map.29"></span>Settlements or posts (circles on the map)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Settlements or posts (circles on the map)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>F) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nigrum_Pullum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nigrum Pullum (page does not exist)">Nigrum Pullum</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Zwammerdam" title="Zwammerdam">Zwammerdam</a>) <br /> G) settlement of an unknown name on the <a href="/wiki/Leidsche_Rijn" title="Leidsche Rijn">Leidsche Rijn</a> <br /> H) Haltna (modern <a href="/wiki/Houten" title="Houten">Houten</a>) <br /> I) settlement of an unknown name (modern <a href="/wiki/Ermelo,_Netherlands" title="Ermelo, Netherlands">Ermelo</a>) <br /> J) settlement of an unknown name (modern <a href="/wiki/Tiel" title="Tiel">Tiel</a>) <br /> K) Roman temples (modern <a href="/wiki/Elst,_Overbetuwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Elst, Overbetuwe">Elst, Overbetuwe</a>) <br /> L) Temple possibly devoted to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hercules_Magusannus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hercules Magusannus (page does not exist)">Hercules Magusannus</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Kessel,_North_Brabant" title="Kessel, North Brabant">Kessel, North Brabant</a>) <br /> M) Temple (at an area called "<span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">De lithse Ham</i></span>" near Maren-Kessel, now part of <a href="/wiki/Oss" title="Oss">Oss</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> N) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ceuclum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ceuclum (page does not exist)">Ceuclum</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Cuijk" title="Cuijk">Cuijk</a>) <br /> O) Roman era tombs 2 km south of town center (modern <a href="/wiki/Esch,_Netherlands" title="Esch, Netherlands">Esch</a>) <br /> P) <a href="/wiki/Trajectum_ad_Mosam" class="mw-redirect" title="Trajectum ad Mosam">Trajectum ad Mosam</a>, also known as Mosae Trajectum, (modern <a href="/wiki/Maastricht" title="Maastricht">Maastricht</a>)<br /> Not marked on the map: a possible fort in modern <a href="/wiki/Venlo" title="Venlo">Venlo</a> and a settlement called <a href="/wiki/Catualium" class="mw-redirect" title="Catualium">Catualium</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> near modern <a href="/wiki/Roermond" title="Roermond">Roermond</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Franks">Franks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Franks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Frankischetalen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Frankischetalen.png/220px-Frankischetalen.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Frankischetalen.png/330px-Frankischetalen.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Frankischetalen.png/440px-Frankischetalen.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Map showing roughly the distribution of <a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a> (in green) and <a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_Franks" title="Ripuarian Franks">Ripuarian Franks</a> (in red) at the end of the Roman period.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 3rd century the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, a warrior Germanic tribe, started to appear in the Netherlands. Their attacks happened in a time period with a catastrophic sea invasion of the area. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Another change was irreversible. During transgression phases, the sea is more aggressive than under normal circumstances. The third century saw the beginning of an era of increased violence from the sea. The canal between Lake Flevo and the Wadden Sea widened and the mud-flats of the north become wetlands. The Frisians and Chauci increased the height of the terps (the mounds on the alluvial plain on which they lived) but in vain. It seems that their country was largely depopulated, and the Frisians disappear from our sources. (It is unlikely that the inhabitants of modern Friesland are related to the ancient Frisians.).....The cause of this devastation (in Frisian lands) is easy to find: raids of a new Germanic tribe, the Franks.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Modern scholars of the <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a> are in agreement that the Frankish identity emerged at the first half of the 3rd century out of various earlier, smaller <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> groups, including the <a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicambri" title="Sicambri">Sicambri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bructeri" title="Bructeri">Bructeri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chatti" title="Chatti">Chatti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chattuarii" title="Chattuarii">Chattuarii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ampsivarii" title="Ampsivarii">Ampsivarii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tencteri" title="Tencteri">Tencteri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ubii" title="Ubii">Ubii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Batavians" class="mw-redirect" title="Batavians">Batavi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tungri" title="Tungri">Tungri</a>, who inhabited the lower and middle Rhine valley between the <a href="/wiki/Zuyderzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuyderzee">Zuyderzee</a> and the river <a href="/wiki/Lahn" title="Lahn">Lahn</a> and extended eastwards as far as the <a href="/wiki/Weser" title="Weser">Weser</a>, but were the most densely settled around the <a href="/wiki/IJssel" title="IJssel">IJssel</a> and between the <a href="/wiki/Lippe_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Lippe River">Lippe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sieg_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Sieg River">Sieg</a>. The Frankish confederation probably began to coalesce in the 210s.<sup id="cite_ref-Previté-Orton_151_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Previté-Orton_151-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Franks eventually were divided into two groups: the <a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_Franks" title="Ripuarian Franks">Ripuarian Franks</a> (Latin: Ripuari), who were the Franks that lived along the middle-Rhine River during the Roman Era, and the <a href="/wiki/Salians" class="mw-redirect" title="Salians">Salians</a>, who probably originated in the <a href="/wiki/Salland" title="Salland">Salland</a> in Overijssel, before pressure from the Saxons then forced them to move into the empire in the 4th century and became the <a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a>. </p><p>Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies (<i><a href="/wiki/Laeti" title="Laeti">laeti</a></i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Dediticii" title="Dediticii">dediticii</a></i>). In 288 the emperor <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a> defeated the <a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Salian Franks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a> and other Germans living along the Rhine and moved them to <a href="/wiki/Germania_inferior" class="mw-redirect" title="Germania inferior">Germania inferior</a> to provide manpower and prevent the settlement of other Germanic tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-W5051_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-W5051-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BCE7_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCE7-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 292 <a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius</a> defeated the Franks who had settled at the mouth of the Rhine. These were moved to the nearby region of <a href="/wiki/Toxandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxandria">Toxandria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. Around 310, the Franks had the region of the <a href="/wiki/Scheldt" title="Scheldt">Scheldt</a> river (present day west Flanders and southwest Netherlands) under control, and were raiding the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">Channel</a>, disrupting transportation to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britain</a>. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared as pirates along the shores at least until the time of <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian the Apostate</a> (358), when Salian Franks were granted to settle as <i><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">foederati</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Toxandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxandria">Toxandria</a>, according to Ammianus Marcellinus.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the beginning of the 5th century, the Franks became the most important ethnic group in the region, just before the end of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">History of the Netherlands</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The exact location of the shifting coastline in Roman times is unknown.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Much of this article is derived from the Dutch Wikipedia article called <i>Romeinen in Nederland</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-livius.org-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-livius.org_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-livius.org_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jona Lendering, "Conquest and Defeat", "Germania Inferior", <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm#Conquest">https://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm#Conquest</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCocceianus1917" class="citation book cs1">Cocceianus, Cassius Dio (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wa5fAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA365"><i>Dio's Roman History</i></a>. W. Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-434-99083-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-434-99083-2"><bdi>978-0-434-99083-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dio%27s+Roman+History&rft.pub=W.+Heinemann&rft.date=1917&rft.isbn=978-0-434-99083-2&rft.aulast=Cocceianus&rft.aufirst=Cassius+Dio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwa5fAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetherlands+in+the+Roman+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrane2007" class="citation cs2">Grane, Thomas (2007), "From Gallienus to Probus - Three decades of turmoil and recovery", <i>The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia–a Northern Connection! (PhD thesis)</i>, Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen, p. 109</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Gallienus+to+Probus+-+Three+decades+of+turmoil+and+recovery&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+and+Southern+Scandinavia%E2%80%93a+Northern+Connection%21+%28PhD+thesis%29&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=University+of+Copenhagen&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Grane&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetherlands+in+the+Roman+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lendering-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lendering_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lendering, Jona, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm">"Germania Inferior"</a>, Livius.org. Retrieved 6 October 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0001:book=4:chapter=10&highlight=batavi">Caes. Gal. 4.10</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cornelius Tacitus, <i>Germany and its Tribes</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D29">1.29</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nico Roymans, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qfpKN-oMaWoC">Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power. The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire</a></i>. Amsterdam Archaeological Studies 10. Amsterdam, 2004. Chapter 4. Also see page 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book=4:chapter=29">Plin. Nat. 4.29</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/ba-bd/batavians/revolt01.html">Jona Lendering, "The Batavian Revolt"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Historiae</i> by Tacitus, 1st century AD. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ru.nl/ahc/vg/html/vg000232.htm">Translation into Dutch by the Radboud Universiteit, Nijmegen</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051103053952/http://www.ru.nl/ahc/vg/html/vg000232.htm">Archived</a> 2005-11-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Previté-Orton-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Previté-Orton_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Previté-Orton, Charles, <i>The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History</i>, vol. I, pp. 51–52, 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omroepbrabant.nl/?news/56926822/Romeinse+vondsten+in+de+Lithse+Ham.aspx">"Omroep Brabant"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Omroep+Brabant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.omroepbrabant.nl%2F%3Fnews%2F56926822%2FRomeinse%2Bvondsten%2Bin%2Bde%2BLithse%2BHam.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetherlands+in+the+Roman+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/place/catualium-heel/">"Catualium (Heel) - Livius"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catualium+%28Heel%29+-+Livius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Farticles%2Fplace%2Fcatualium-heel%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetherlands+in+the+Roman+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jona Lendering: Germania inferior (Livius.org)]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Previté-Orton_151-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Previté-Orton_151_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCharles_William_Previté-Orton" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Previt%C3%A9-Orton" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles William Previté-Orton">Charles William Previté-Orton</a>. <i>The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, vol. I</i>. p. 151.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Cambridge+Medieval+History%2C+vol.+I&rft.pages=151&rft.au=Charles+William+Previt%C3%A9-Orton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetherlands+in+the+Roman+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-W5051-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-W5051_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams, 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BCE7-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BCE7_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnes, <i>Constantine and Eusebius</i>, 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoworth1884">Howorth 1884</a>, pp. 215–216</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPrevité-Orton" class="citation book cs1">Previté-Orton. <i>The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, vol. I</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">51–</span>52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Cambridge+Medieval+History%2C+vol.+I&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.au=Previt%C3%A9-Orton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetherlands+in+the+Roman+era" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoworth1884" class="citation journal cs1">Howorth, Henry H. (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1449556">"XVII. The Ethnology of Germany (Part VI). The Varini, Varangians and Franks. Section II"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Anthropological_Institute" title="Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute">Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute</a></i>. <b>13</b>. Trübner & Co.: <span class="nowrap">213–</span>239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2841727">10.2307/2841727</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2841727">2841727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Anthropological+Institute&rft.atitle=XVII.+The+Ethnology+of+Germany+%28Part+VI%29.+The+Varini%2C+Varangians+and+Franks.+Section+II&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E213-%3C%2Fspan%3E239&rft.date=1884&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2841727&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2841727%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Howorth&rft.aufirst=Henry+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1449556&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetherlands+in+the+Roman+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bernard Colebrander, MUST (edd.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K7RtK8T11sAC"><i>Limes Atlas</i></a>, (Uitgeverij 010, 2005 Rotterdam)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVeen2023" class="citation book cs1">Veen, Christel (2023). <i>Roman period statuettes in the Netherlands and beyond: representation and ritual use in context</i>. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789463729383" title="Special:BookSources/9789463729383"><bdi>9789463729383</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+period+statuettes+in+the+Netherlands+and+beyond%3A+representation+and+ritual+use+in+context&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Amsterdam+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9789463729383&rft.aulast=Veen&rft.aufirst=Christel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANetherlands+in+the+Roman+era" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/ExcerptaRomana">Excerpta Romana. De bronnen der Romeinse Geschiedenis van Nederland</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/germinf.html">Germania inferior</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/fa-fn/fectio/fectio.html">Fectio Fort</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Netherlands_articles505" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Netherlands_topics" title="Template:Netherlands topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Netherlands_topics" title="Template talk:Netherlands topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Netherlands_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Netherlands topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Netherlands_articles505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Part of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Netherlands">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">Roman Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisii" title="Frisii">Frisii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamavi" title="Chamavi">Chamavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Batavi_(Germanic_tribe)" title="Batavi (Germanic tribe)">Batavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cananefates" title="Cananefates">Cananefates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisians" title="Frisians">Frisians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salian_Franks" title="Salian Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorestad" title="Dorestad">Dorestad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Utrecht" title="Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht">Utrecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_urban_centers_in_the_Low_Countries" class="mw-redirect" title="History of urban centers in the Low Countries">Development urban centers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Kingdom" title="Frisian Kingdom">Frisian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Lorraine">Lower Lorraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">Flanders</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Holland" title="County of Holland">Holland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frisian_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Frisian Freedom">Frisian Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Brabant" title="Duchy of Brabant">Brabant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guelders" class="mw-redirect" title="Guelders">Guelders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Netherlands" title="Habsburg Netherlands">Habsburg Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeen_Provinces" title="Seventeen Provinces">Seventeen Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Revolution" title="Batavian Revolution">Batavian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Holland" title="Kingdom of Holland">Kingdom of Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(Netherlands)" title="Incorporation (Netherlands)">Incorporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_Principality_of_the_United_Netherlands" title="Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands">Principality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="United Kingdom of the Netherlands">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_in_World_War_II" title="Netherlands in World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_the_Netherlands" title="German invasion of the Netherlands">Nazi invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_Day_(Netherlands)" title="Liberation Day (Netherlands)">Dutch Liberation Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_Indonesian_Independence" title="Proclamation of Indonesian Independence">Proclamation of Indonesian Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charter_for_the_Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands">Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_Netherlands" title="Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands">Same-sex marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Netherlands" title="Geography of the Netherlands">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of birds of the Netherlands">Birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_the_Netherlands_by_province" title="List of cities in the Netherlands by province">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_Works" title="Delta Works">Delta Works</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of earthquakes in the Netherlands">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of extreme points of the Netherlands">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands" title="Flood control in the Netherlands">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groningen_gas_field" title="Groningen gas field">Gas field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of islands of the Netherlands">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of lakes of the Netherlands">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mammals_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of mammals of the Netherlands">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of mountains and hills in the Netherlands">Mountains and hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of regions of the Netherlands">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_Netherlands" title="List of rivers of the Netherlands">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine%E2%80%93Meuse%E2%80%93Scheldt_delta" title="Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta">Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of volcanoes in the Netherlands">Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the Netherlands">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuiderzee_Works" title="Zuiderzee Works">Zuiderzee Works</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Netherlands" title="Politics of the Netherlands">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Abortion in the Netherlands">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_Netherlands" title="Cabinet of the Netherlands">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Netherlands" title="Climate change in the Netherlands">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Netherlands" title="Constitution of the Netherlands">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Netherlands" title="Corruption in the Netherlands">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Netherlands" title="Demographics of the Netherlands">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Drug policy of the Netherlands">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_Netherlands" title="Education in the Netherlands">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_Netherlands" title="Elections in the Netherlands">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthanasia_in_the_Netherlands" title="Euthanasia in the Netherlands">Euthanasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_Netherlands" title="Healthcare in the Netherlands">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_Netherlands" title="Homelessness in the Netherlands">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Netherlands" title="Foreign relations of the Netherlands">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_Netherlands" title="Human rights in the Netherlands">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the Netherlands">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration to the Netherlands">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Netherlands" title="Law of the Netherlands">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Law enforcement in the Netherlands">Enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_firms_of_the_Netherlands" title="Law firms of the Netherlands">Law Firms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Monarchy of the Netherlands">Monarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_the_Netherlands" title="Municipalities of the Netherlands">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Netherlands" title="Provinces of the Netherlands">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_General_of_the_Netherlands" title="States General of the Netherlands">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_the_Netherlands" title="List of political parties in the Netherlands">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Netherlands" title="Prime Minister of the Netherlands">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed forces of the Netherlands">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_board_(Netherlands)" title="Water board (Netherlands)">Water boards</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Netherlands" title="Economy of the Netherlands">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AEX_index" title="AEX index">AEX index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Nederlandsche_Bank" title="De Nederlandsche Bank">Central bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_Netherlands" title="Energy in the Netherlands">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euronext" title="Euronext">Euronext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polder_model" title="Polder model">Polder model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Netherlands" title="Taxation in the Netherlands">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunications in the Netherlands">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Tourism in the Netherlands">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_Netherlands" title="Trade unions in the Netherlands">Trade unions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Transport in the Netherlands">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycling_in_the_Netherlands" title="Cycling in the Netherlands">Cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Public transport in the Netherlands">Public transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Rail transport in the Netherlands">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_transport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Road transport in the Netherlands">Road transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Netherlands" title="Culture of the Netherlands">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_Netherlands" title="Architecture of the Netherlands">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_art" title="Dutch art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_Netherlands" title="Cannabis in the Netherlands">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_Netherlands" title="Cinema of the Netherlands">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_cuisine" title="Dutch cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_wine" title="Dutch wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_customs_and_etiquette" title="Dutch customs and etiquette">Customs and etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorations_and_medals_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Decorations and medals of the Netherlands">Decorations and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Irreligion in the Netherlands">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Netherlands" title="Languages of the Netherlands">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of the Netherlands">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Netherlands" title="Music of the Netherlands">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders_of_knighthood_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orders of knighthood in the Netherlands">Orders of knighthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography_in_the_Netherlands" title="Pornography in the Netherlands">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Netherlands" title="Prostitution in the Netherlands">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_Netherlands" title="Public holidays in the Netherlands">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_the_Netherlands" title="Sport in the Netherlands">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of the Netherlands">Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelmus" title="Wilhelmus">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Netherlands" title="Coat of arms of the Netherlands">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Netherlands" title="Flag of the Netherlands">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic_Lion" title="Dutch Republic Lion">Lion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_the_Low_Countries" title="Terminology of the Low Countries">Terminology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Netherlands" title="Outline of the Netherlands">Outline</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Netherlands" title="Category:Netherlands">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Netherlands" title="Portal:Netherlands">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact136" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact" title="Template:Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact" title="Template talk:Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation and contact"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Territories_with_limited_Roman_Empire_occupation_and_contact136" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories with limited <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> occupation and contact</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupied<br />partially or temporarily</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in Arabia">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_influence_in_Caucasian_Albania" title="Roman influence in Caucasian Albania">Caucasian Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Roman Armenia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Byzantine Armenia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria_(Roman_province)" title="Assyria (Roman province)">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Crimea" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Crimea">Roman Crimea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherson_(theme)" title="Cherson (theme)">Cherson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Persia" title="Romans in Persia">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Nubian_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Nubian relations">Sudan</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_SPQR_banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/100px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/150px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/200px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="229" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contacts &<br />explorations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands_in_pre-colonial_times#Historical_background" title="Canary Islands in pre-colonial times">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Roman_relations" title="Sino-Roman relations">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo%E2%80%93Roman_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo–Roman relations">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Roman_relations" title="Hiberno-Roman relations">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romans_in_Poland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Romans in Poland (page does not exist)">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic-Roman_contacts" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic-Roman contacts">Scandinavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romans_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Romans in Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nero%27s_exploration_of_the_Nile_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Nero's exploration of the Nile river">Equatorial Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders of the Roman Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&oldid=1276826878">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&oldid=1276826878</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era" title="Category:Netherlands in the Roman era">Netherlands in the Roman era</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman_frontiers" title="Category:Roman frontiers">Roman frontiers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman_fortifications_in_Germania_Inferior" title="Category:Roman fortifications in Germania Inferior">Roman fortifications in Germania Inferior</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_with_empty_Wikidata_description" title="Category:Short description with empty Wikidata description">Short description with empty Wikidata description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Dutch-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Dutch-language text">Articles containing Dutch-language text</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 February 2025, at 00:10<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://www.wikimedia.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia.svg" width="25" height="25" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" lang="en" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Netherlands in the Roman era</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>5 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c6f46dcf-l9k6n","wgBackendResponseTime":169,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.499","walltime":"0.679","ppvisitednodes":{"value":2264,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":86464,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":13394,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":14,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":28,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":60294,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 566.091 1 -total"," 21.55% 121.976 2 Template:Reflist"," 21.43% 121.308 1 Template:History_of_the_Netherlands"," 20.84% 117.990 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 19.16% 108.449 1 Template:Netherlands_topics"," 18.46% 104.502 1 Template:Country_topics"," 14.00% 79.259 1 Template:Lang"," 12.27% 69.439 4 Template:Cite_book"," 9.56% 54.130 1 Template:Short_description"," 6.57% 37.187 1 Template:Excerpt"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.318","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23592037,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFCharles_William_Previté-Orton\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCocceianus1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrane2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoworth1884\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrevité-Orton\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeen2023\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 2,\n [\"Cn\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"History of the Netherlands\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Netherlands topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Territories with limited Roman Empire occupation \u0026 presence\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c6f46dcf-xxr9n","timestamp":"20250330031728","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Netherlands in the Roman era","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Netherlands_in_the_Roman_era","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2272797","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2272797","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2011-03-19T10:20:05Z","dateModified":"2025-02-21T00:10:48Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b6\/Joannes_van_Deutecum_-_Leo_Belgicus_1650_-_published_by_Claes_Jansz_Visscher_Amsterdam.jpg"}</script> </body> </html>