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Your current IP address is 8.222.208.146. </p> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>Even while globally blocked, you will <i>usually</i> still be able to edit pages on <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="m:">Meta-Wiki</a>. </p> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/No_open_proxies" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/No open proxies">No open proxies</a> global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Steward_requests/Global" class="extiw" title="m:Steward requests/Global">post a request for review on Meta-Wiki</a>. 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The use of writing prefigures various social and psychological consequences associated with [[literacy]] and literary culture. Each historical invention of writing emerged from systems of [[proto-writing]] that used [[ideographic]] and [[mnemonic]] symbols but were not capable of fully recording spoken language. ''True writing'', where the content of linguistic [[utterance]]s can be accurately reconstructed by later readers, is a later development. As proto-writing is not capable of fully reflecting the grammar and lexicon used in languages, it is often difficult or impossible to deduce what the author intended to communicate. The earliest uses of writing were to document agricultural transactions and contracts in ancient [[Sumer]], but it was soon used in the areas of finance, religion, government, and law. Writing allowed the spread of these social modalities and their associated knowledge, and ultimately the further centralization of political power.{{sfnp|Goody|1986|p={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} == Terminology == {{Main|Writing system}} Writing systems typically satisfy three criteria. Firstly, the writing must have some purpose or meaning to it, and a point must be communicated by the text. Secondly, writing systems make use of specific symbols which may be recorded on some [[writing medium]]. Thirdly, the symbols used in writing generally correspond to elements of spoken language.{{sfnp|Fischer|2003|pp=15–16}} In general, systems of [[symbolic communication]] like signage, painting, maps, and mathematics are distinguished from writing systems, which require knowledge of an associated spoken language to read a text. The norms of writing generally evolve more slowly than those of speech; as a result, linguistic features are frequently preserved in the written form of a language after they cease to appear in the corresponding spoken language.{{sfnp|Fischer|2003|p=8}} == Emergence == {{See also|List of languages by first written account}} {{stack | [[File:Cities of Sumer (en).svg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Sumer]], located in southern [[Mesopotamia]], is believed to be where [[written language]] was first invented.]] | [[File:Tableta con trillo.png|thumb|upright=0.8|The [[Kish tablet]], bearing what is possibly the earliest known writing{{snd}}Sumer ({{circa|3500&nbsp;BCE}}), from the [[Ashmolean Museum]]]] }} Before the 20th century, most scholarly theories of the origins of writing involved some form of [[Monogenesis (linguistics)|monogenesis]],{{sfnmp|1a1=Olson|1a2=Torrance|1y=2009|1p=59|2a1=Condorelli|2y=2022|2p=19}} the assumption that writing had been invented only once as [[cuneiform]] in ancient [[Sumer]], and spread across the world from there via [[cultural diffusion]].{{sfnp|Olson|Torrance|2009|p=59}} According to these theories, writing was such a particular technology that exposure through activities like trade was a much more likely means of acquisition than independent reinvention. Specifically, many theories were dependent on a literal account of the [[Book of Genesis]], including the emphases it placed on [[Mesopotamia]].{{sfnp|Daniels|1996|p=24}} Over time, greater awareness of the systems of pre-Columbian [[Mesoamerica]] conclusively established that writing had been independently invented multiple times. Four independent inventions of writing are most commonly recognized{{sfnp|Condorelli|2022|p=19}}—in Mesopotamia ({{circa|3400–3100&nbsp;BCE}}), Egypt ({{circa|3250&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}),{{sfnp|Regulski|2016}}{{sfnp|Wengrow|2011|pp=99–103}}{{sfnp|Olson|Torrance|2009|p=59}} China (before {{circa|1250&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}),{{sfnp|Boltz|1994|p=31}} and Mesoamerica (before {{circa|1&nbsp;CE|lk=no}}).{{sfnp|Fagan|Beck|Michaels|Scarre|1996|p=762}} Sumerian cuneiform and [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] are considered the earliest true writing systems, both having gradually evolved from proto-writing between 3400 and 3100&nbsp;BCE. The [[Proto-Elamite script]] is also believed to have been in use during this period.{{sfnp|Walker|1989|pp=7-9}} Regarding Egyptian hieroglyphs,{{sfnp|Regulski|2016}}{{sfnp|Baines|2004}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dreyer |first=Günter |title=Umm el-Qaab I. Das prädynastische Königsgrab U-j und seine frühen Schriftzeugnisse |publisher=Philip von Zabern |year=1998 |isbn=978-3-8053-2486-1 |location=Mainz |language=de |trans-title=Umm el-Qaab I. The predynastic royal tomb U-j and its early written evidence}}</ref> scholars point to very early differences with Sumerian cuneiform "in structure and style" as to why the two systems "(must) have developed independently," and if any "stimulus diffusion" of writing did occur, it only served to transmit the bare idea of writing between cultures.{{sfnp|Regulski|2016}}{{sfnp|Woods|2010|pp=15–25}} Due to the lack of direct evidence for the transfer of writing, "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt."{{sfnp|Krebs|Krebs|2003|p=91}} During the 1990s, symbols originally inscribed between 3400 and 3200&nbsp;BCE were discovered at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], which shed some doubt on the previous notion that the Mesopotamian sign system predated the Egyptian one.<ref name="Mitchell1999" /> However, scholars have noted that the attestation at Abydos is singular and sudden, while the gradual evolution of the Mesopotamian system is lengthy and well-documented, with its predecessor token system used in agriculture and accounting attested as early as 8000&nbsp;BCE.{{sfnmp|Schmandt-Besserat|1992a|1p=7|Condorelli|2022|2p=21}} As there is no evidence of contact between the Chinese [[Shang dynasty]] ({{circa|1600|1050&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}) and the literate civilizations of the Near East,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Keightley |first=David N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4-vdP2aZWhUC&pg=PA415 |title=The Origins of Chinese Civilization |last2=Barnard |first2=Noel |publisher=University of California Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-520-04229-2 |pages=415–416 |via=Google Books}}</ref> and the methods of [[logographic]] and [[phonetic]] representation in [[Chinese characters]] are distinct from those used in cuneiform and hieroglyphs, [[written Chinese]] is considered to be an independent development.{{sfnp|Condorelli|2022|p=19}} === Proto-writing === {{Main|Proto-writing}} {{mim |perrow=2/1|total_width=280|align=right|caption_align=center | header = [[Accounting token]]s | image1 = Accountancy clay envelope Louvre Sb1932.jpg | caption1 = Clay [[Bulla (seal)|bulla]] and tokens{{snd}}[[Susa]] {{nwr|(4000–3100 BCE)}} | image2 = Numerical tablet Khafaje OIM A21310.jpg | caption2 = [[History of ancient numeral systems#Proto-cuneiform|Numerical tablet]]{{snd}}[[Khafajah]], Uruk V {{nwr|(3500–3350 BCE)}} | image3 = Pre-cuneiform tags, Sumer.jpg | caption3 = Pre-cuneiform tags depicting a goat or sheep alongside a numeral, likely "10"{{snd}}[[Al-Hasakah]] (3300–3100&nbsp;BCE)<ref>{{Cite object |title=Cast; tablet |id=C.206 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_C-206 |museum=[[British Museum]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=C. B. F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPHj37r09EMC&pg=PA9 |title=Cuneiform |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-520-06115-6 |page=9 |via=Google Books}}</ref> }} [[File:河南舞阳贾湖遗址-刻符龟甲-裴李岗文化-河南博物院.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Turtle plastron inscribed with an eye-like symbol{{snd}}[[Jiahu]], China {{nwr|({{circa|6000&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}})}}]] During the [[Early Bronze Age]] (3300–2100&nbsp;BCE), the first writing systems evolved from systems of ''[[proto-writing]]'', which used [[ideographic]] and [[mnemonic]] symbols to communicate information, but did not record human language directly. Proto-writing is attested as early as the 7th millennium&nbsp;BCE, with well-known examples including: * The [[Jiahu symbols]] carved into tortoise shells, found in 24 [[Neolithic]] graves excavated at [[Jiahu]] in northern China and dated to the 7th millennium&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=12 June 2003 |title=Archaeologists Rewrite History |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Jun/66806.htm |url-status=live |journal=China Daily |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026123513/http://www.china.org.cn/english/2003/Jun/66806.htm |archive-date=26 October 2018 |access-date=21 August 2006}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2024}} The majority of the signs uncovered were inscribed individually or in small groups on different shells.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pilcher |first=Helen R. |date=30 April 2003 |title=Earliest Handwriting Found? Chinese Relics Hint at Neolithic Rituals |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/news030428-7 |quote=Symbols carved into tortoise shells more than 8,000 years ago ...&nbsp;unearthed at a mass-burial site at Jiahu in the Henan Province of western China}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=X. |last2=Harbottle |first2=G. |last3=Zhang |first3=J. |last4=Wang |first4=C. |year=2003 |title=The Earliest Writing? Sign Use in the Seventh Millennium BCE at Jiahu, Henan Province, China |journal=Antiquity |volume=77 |issue=295 |pages=31–44 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00061329 |s2cid=162602307}}</ref> Most archaeologists consider the Jiahu symbols as not directly linked to the emergence of true writing.{{sfnp|Houston|2004|pp=245–246}} * The [[Vinča symbols]] found on artifacts of the [[Vinča culture]] of central and southeastern Europe, dating to the 6th–5th millennia&nbsp;BCE.{{sfnp|Haarmann|2002|loc=ch. 10: 5300–3200 BC}} * The [[Indus script]] attested in short inscriptions between 2600 and 2000&nbsp;BCE.{{sfnp|Sproat|2010|p=110}} Other examples of proto-writing include [[quipu]], a system of knotted cords used as mnemonic devices within the [[Inca Empire]] (15th century&nbsp;CE).{{sfnp|Coulmas|2002|p=20}} === Recording history === {{Main|Recorded history|Ancient literature}} The origins of writing are more generally attributed to the start of the [[Late Neolithic|pottery-phase of the Neolithic]], when clay tokens were used to record specific amounts of livestock or commodities. These tokens were initially impressed on the surface of [[History of ancient numeral systems#Clay token|round clay envelopes]] and then stored in them. The tokens were then progressively replaced by flat tablets, on which signs were recorded with a stylus. Actual writing is first recorded in [[Uruk]] (modern Iraq), at the end of the 4th millennium&nbsp;BCE, and soon after in various parts of the Near East.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hallo |first=William W. |title=The Ancient Near East |last2=Simpson |first2=William Kelly |publisher=Harcourt, Brace & Jovanovich |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-15-502755-8 |location=New York |page=25 |quote=Beginning in the pottery-phase of the Neolithic, clay tokens are widely attested as a system of counting and identifying specific amounts of specified livestock or commodities. The tokens, enclosed in clay envelopes after being impressed on their rounded surface, were gradually replaced by impressions on flat or plano-convex tablets, and these in turn by more or less conventionalized pictures of the tokens incised on the clay with a reed stylus. That final step completed the transition to full writing, and with it the consequent ability to record contemporary events for posterity}}</ref> An ancient Sumerian poem gives the first known story of the invention of writing: {{blockquote|Because the messenger's mouth was heavy and he couldn't repeat (the message), the Lord of Kulaba patted some clay and put words on it, like a tablet. Until then, there had been no putting words on clay.|''[[Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta]]'' ({{circa|1800&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}){{sfnp|Daniels|1996|p=45}}{{sfnp|Boudreau|2004|p=71}}}} The emergence of writing in a given area is usually followed by several centuries of fragmentary [[inscription]]s. Historians mark the "historicity" of a culture by the presence of coherent texts written by the culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shotwell |first=James Thomson |title=An Introduction to the History of History: Records of Civilization, Sources and Studies |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1922 |location=New York}}</ref> Scholars have disagreed concerning when prehistory becomes history and when proto-writing became true writing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smail |first=Daniel Lord |title=On Deep History and the Brain: An Ahmanson Foundation Book in the Humanities |publisher=University of California Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-520-25812-9 |location=Berkeley}}</ref> == Bronze Age == === Cuneiform === {{Main|Cuneiform}} [[File:P1150884 Louvre Uruk III tablette écriture précunéiforme AO19936 rwk.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Tablet with proto-cuneiform pictographs{{snd}}[[Uruk period|Uruk III]] (late 4th millennium&nbsp;BCE)]] Sumerian writing evolved from a [[History of ancient numeral systems|system of clay tokens]] used to represent commodities. By the end of the 4th millennium&nbsp;BCE, this had evolved into a method of keeping accounts, which recorded numbers using a round stylus pressed into the clay at different angles. This system was gradually augmented with [[pictographic]] marks indicating what was being counted, which were made using a sharp stylus. By the 29th century&nbsp;BCE, writing used a wedge-shaped stylus and included phonetic elements representing syllables of the [[Sumerian language]], and gradually replaced round-stylus and sharp-stylus markings during the 27th and 26th centuries&nbsp;BCE.{{sfnp|Schmandt-Besserat|1992a|pp=55–71}} Finally, cuneiform became a general-purpose writing system with logograms, syllables, and numerals. From the 26th century&nbsp;BCE, the system was adapted to write the [[Akkadian language]], and from there to others, such as [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]] and [[Hittite language|Hittite]]. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for [[Ugaritic alphabet|Ugaritic]] and [[Old Persian]]. === Egyptian hieroglyphs === {{Main|Egyptian hieroglyphs}} [[File:Design of the Abydos token glyphs dated to 3400-3200 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright|Designs on tokens bearing similarities to contemporary clay tags from [[Uruk]]<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hc1Yp0VcjoC&pg=PA24 |title=The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-first Century: The William Foxwell Albright Centennial Conference |publisher=Eisenbrauns |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-931464-96-6 |pages=24–25 |via=Google Books}}</ref>{{snd}}[[Abydos, Egypt]] (3400–3200&nbsp;BCE)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scarre |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAy4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |title=Ancient Civilizations |last2=Fagan |first2=Brian M. |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-29608-9 |page=106 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Mitchell1999" />]] [[Geoffrey Sampson]] states that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after Sumerian script, and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter",{{sfnp|Sampson|1990|p=78}} and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian Mesopotamia".<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1995 |title=Writing |encyclopedia=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |publisher=William B. Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6OJvO2jMCr8C&pg=PA1150 |last=Bromiley |first=Geoffrey W. |page=1150 |isbn=978-0-8028-3784-4 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1970 |edition=3rd |pages=43–44}}</ref>{{sfnp|Krebs|Krebs|2003|p=91}} However, more recent scholars have held that the evidence for direct influence is sparse. During the 1990s, the discovery of glyphs at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] dated between 3400 and 3200&nbsp;BCE has challenged the hypothesis that writing diffused from Mesopotamia to Egypt, pointing instead to the independent development of writing within Egypt. The Abydos glyphs, found in tomb U-J, are written on ivory and are likely labels for other goods found in the grave.{{sfnp|Baines|2007|p=118}} While sign usage in Mesopotamian tokens is attested {{circa|8000&nbsp;BCE}}, Egyptian writing appears suddenly in the late 4th millennium&nbsp;BCE.<ref name="Mitchell1999">{{Cite magazine |last=Mitchell |first=Larkin |date=March–April 1999 |title=Earliest Egyptian Glyphs |url=https://archive.archaeology.org/9903/newsbriefs/egypt.html |magazine=Archaeology |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |quote=The seal impressions, from various tombs, date even further back, to 3400 B.C. These dates challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia.}}</ref>{{sfnp|Boudreau|2004|p=71}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=James P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lF78Max-h8MC&q=recent+discoveries+indicate+writing |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-139-48635-4 |page=2 |quote=Although it was once thought that the idea of writing came to Egypt from Mesopotamia, recent discoveries indicate that writing arose first in Egypt. |via=Google Books}}</ref> [[Frank J. Yurco]] states that depictions of pharaonic iconography such as the royal crowns, Horus falcons and victory scenes were concentrated in the [[Upper Egypt]]ian [[Naqada culture|Naqada]] and [[A-Group culture|A-Group]] cultures. He further elaborates that "Egyptian writing arose in Naqadan Upper Egypt and A-Group [[Nubia]], and not in the Delta cultures, where the direct Western Asian contact was made, [which] further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument".<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1996 |title=The Origin and Development of Ancient Nile Valley Writing |encyclopedia=Egypt in Africa |publisher=[[Indianapolis Museum of Art]] |last=Yurco |first=Frank J. |editor-last=Celenko |editor-first=Theodore |pages=34–35 |isbn=0-936260-64-5}}</ref> Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar argues that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and in "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality", although he acknowledges the geographical location of Egypt made it a receptacle for many influences.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ancient Civilizations of Africa |publisher=UNESCO |year=1990 |isbn=0-85255-092-8 |editor-last=Mokhtar |editor-first=G. |edition=Abridged |series=UNESCO General History of Africa |volume=2 |location=London |pages=11–12}}</ref> Writing was of political importance to the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lipson |first=Carol S. |title=Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7914-6099-3 |editor-last=Lipson |editor-first=Carol S. |chapter=Ancient Egyptian Rhetoric: It All Comes Down to Maat |editor-last2=Binkley |editor-first2=Roberta A.}}</ref> Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train as scribes, in the service of temple, royal, and military authorities. === Early Semitic alphabets === {{Main|Proto-Sinaitic script}} {{Further|History of the alphabet}} The first alphabetic writing was developed by workers in the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to write [[Semitic languages]] {{circa|2000&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}. This script worked by giving Egyptian [[hieratic]] letters Semitic sound values. The [[Geʽez script]] native to [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]] descends from the [[Ancient South Arabian script]], which had initially been used to write early [[Geʽez]] texts.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica |publisher=Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |last=Fattovich |first=Rodolfo |editor-last=Uhlig |editor-first=Siegbert |volume=A–C |page=169 |isbn=978-3-447-04746-3 |editor2-last=Bausi |editor2-first=Alessandro}}</ref> Most alphabetic writing systems presently in use either descended from Proto-Sinaitic—usually via the [[Phoenician alphabet]]—or were directly inspired by its descendants. In Italy, about 500 years separated the early [[Old Italic scripts]] from [[Plautus]] ({{circa|750–250&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}), and in the case of the [[Germanic peoples]], the corresponding time span is again similar, from the first [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions to early texts like the ''[[Abrogans]]'' ({{circa|200–750&nbsp;CE|lk=no}}). These early [[abjad]]s remained of marginal importance for several centuries, and it is only towards the end of the Bronze Age that forms of [[Proto-Sinaitic script]] split into the [[Proto-Canaanite alphabet]] ({{circa|1400&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}), the undeciphered [[Byblos syllabary]], and the [[South Arabian alphabet]] ({{circa|1200 BCE|lk=no}}). Proto-Canaanite, which was probably influenced by the Byblos syllabary, in turn inspired the [[Ugaritic alphabet]] ({{circa|1300&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}). === Anatolian hieroglyphs === {{Main|Anatolian hieroglyphs}} Anatolian hieroglyphs are an indigenous script native to western [[Anatolia]], used to record the [[Hieroglyphic Luwian]] language. It first appeared on [[Luwian hieroglyphs|Luwian]] royal seals from the 13th century&nbsp;BCE.{{sfnp|Cammarosano|2024|p=170}} === Chinese characters === {{Main|Written Chinese|Chinese characters}} The earliest attested Chinese writing comprise the body of inscriptions on oracle bones and bronze vessels dating to the [[Late Shang]] period ({{circa|1200|1050&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}), with the earliest of these dated {{circa|1250&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}.{{sfnp|Bagley|2004|p=190}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boltz |first=William G. |title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-47030-8 |editor-last=Loewe |editor-first=Michael |editor-link=Michael Loewe |page=108 |chapter=Language and Writing |editor-last2=Shaughnessy |editor-first2=Edward L. |editor-link2=Edward L. Shaughnessy |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&q=The+Origin+and+Early+Development+of+the+Chinese+Writing+System.&pg=PA108 |via=Google Books}}</ref> === Cretan hieroglyphs === {{Main|Cretan hieroglyphs|Linear A|Linear B}} Cretan hieroglyphs are found on artifacts of [[Crete]] (2nd millennium&nbsp;BCE, MM I to MM III, overlapping with Linear A from MM IIA at the earliest). Linear B, the writing system of the [[Mycenaean Greeks]], has been deciphered while Linear A has yet to be deciphered. The sequence and the geographical spread of the three overlapping, but distinct, writing systems can be summarized as follows:{{sfnp|Olivier|1986|p=377}} {| class="wikitable" ! scope="col" | System !! scope="col" | Time span !! scope="col" | Region |- | scope="row" | [[Cretan hieroglyphs]] | {{circa|2100−1700&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} | * [[Crete]] |- | scope="row" | [[Linear A]] | {{circa|1800−1450&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} | * Crete * [[Aegean Islands]] * [[Laconia]] on the [[Greek mainland]] |- | scope="row" | [[Linear B]] | {{circa|1450−1200&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} | * [[Knossos]] on Crete * [[Pylos]], [[Mycenae]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and [[Tiryns]] on the Greek mainland |} === Mesoamerica === {{Main|Mesoamerican writing systems}} Of several symbol systems used in pre-Columbian [[Mesoamerica]], the [[Maya script]] appears to be the best developed, and has been fully deciphered. The earliest inscriptions identifiable as Maya date to the 3rd century&nbsp;BCE, and writing was in continuous use from the 1st century&nbsp;CE until shortly after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century. Maya writing used logograms complemented by a set of syllabic glyphs.{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1989|pp=50, 121–128}} == Iron Age == {{Further|History of the alphabet}} [[File:Interpretation of Queen Maya's dream.jpg|thumb|upright|The sculpture depicts a scene where three soothsayers are interpreting to King [[Suddhodana]] the dream of Queen [[Maya (mother of Buddha)|Maya]], mother of [[Gautama Buddha]]. Below them is seated a scribe recording the interpretation{{snd}}from [[Nagarjunakonda]], 2nd century&nbsp;CE]] The [[Phoenician alphabet]] is the continuation of the Proto-Canaanite alphabet into the [[Iron Age]]; it in turn gave rise to the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] and [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] alphabets. To date, most of the writing systems used throughout Afro-Eurasia descend from either Aramaic or Greek. The Greek alphabet was the first to introduce letters representing vowel sounds.{{sfnp|Millard|1986|p=396}} It and its descendant in the Latin alphabet gave rise to several European scripts in the first several centuries&nbsp;CE, including the [[runic alphabets|runic]], [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]], and [[Cyrillic]] alphabets. The Aramaic alphabet evolved into the [[Brahmic scripts]] of India, as well as the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] and [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]] abjads—with descendants spread as far as the [[Mongolian script]]. The [[South Arabian alphabet]] gave rise to the [[Ge'ez abugida]].{{sfnp|Salomon|1996|loc=Brahmi and Kharoshthi}} === Greek alphabets === {{Further|Archaic Greek alphabets}} [[File:NAMA Alphabet grec.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|Pottery inscriptions using the Early Greek alphabet{{snd}}[[National Archaeological Museum, Athens]]]] The [[history of the Greek alphabet]] began as early as the 8th century&nbsp;BCE, when the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet for their own use.{{sfnp|McCarter|1974|p=62}} The letters of the Greek alphabet generally visually correspond to those of the Phoenician alphabet, and both came to be arranged using the same [[alphabetical order]].{{sfnp|McCarter|1974|p=62}} Those adapting the Phoenician system added three letters to the end of the series, called the "supplementals". Several varieties of the Greek alphabet developed. One, known as the [[Cumae alphabet]], was used west of [[Athens]] and in southern Italy. The other variation, known as Eastern Greek, was used in present-day Turkey and by the Athenians, and eventually the rest of the world that spoke Greek adopted this variation. After first writing right to left, like the Phoenicians, the Greeks eventually chose to write from left to right. Occasionally however, the writer would start the next line where the previous line finished, so that the lines would read alternately left to right, then right to left, and so on. This is known as [[boustrophedon]] writing, which imitated the path of an ox-drawn plough, and was used until the 6th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lyons |first=Martyn |title=Books: A Living History |publisher=Getty |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-60606-083-4 |location=Los Angeles |page=24}}</ref> === Italic and Latin alphabets === [[File:Cippo perugino, con iscrizione in lingua etrusca su un atto giuridico tra le famiglie dei velthina e degli afuna, 02.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Cippus Perusinus]], [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] writing near [[Perugia]], Italy, the precursor of the [[Latin alphabet]]]] {{further|History of the Latin script}} Greek is in turn the source for all the modern scripts of Europe. The most widespread descendant of Greek is the [[Latin script]], named for the [[Latins (Italic tribe)|Latins]], a central Italian people who came to dominate Europe with the rise of Rome. Around the 5th century&nbsp;BCE, the Romans adopted writing from the [[Etruscan civilization]], who wrote in a number of Italic scripts derived from the western Greeks. Due to the cultural dominance of the Roman state, the other [[Old Italic scripts]] have not survived in any great quantity, and the Etruscan language is mostly lost. == Medieval era and modernity == After the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century, the production and transmission of literature that had previously been widespread across the Roman world became largely confined to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] empires, where the primary literary languages were [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] respectively—though other languages such as [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and [[Coptic language|Coptic]] were also important.{{sfnp|Condorelli|2022|pp=27–28}} The [[spread of Islam]] in the 7th century brought about the rapid establishment of [[Arabic]] as a major literary language in much of the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Arabic and Persian quickly began to overshadow Greek's role as a language of scholarship. [[Arabic script]] was adopted as the primary script of the Persian language and the [[Old Turkic language]]. This script also heavily influenced the development of the [[cursive]] scripts of Greek, the [[Slavic languages]], [[Latin]], and other languages.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} The Arabic language also served to spread the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] throughout Europe.{{cn|date=October 2024}} By the 11th century, the city of [[Córdoba, Andalusia]] in what is now southern Spain had become one of the world's foremost intellectual centers, and was the site of the largest library in Europe.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2009 |title=Cordoba |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Facts On File |location=New York |last=Campo |first=Juan Eduardo |page=168 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |last2=Melton |first2=J. Gordon}}</ref> By the 14th century, the [[Renaissance]] in Europe led to a temporary revival of the importance of Greek, and a slow revival of Latin as a significant literary language{{clarification needed|date=July 2024}}{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}. A similar though smaller emergence occurred in Eastern Europe, especially in Russia. At the same time Arabic and Persian began a slow decline in importance as the [[Islamic Golden Age]] ended. The revival of literacy development in Western Europe led to many innovations in the Latin alphabet and the diversification of the alphabet to codify the phonologies of the various languages. The nature of writing has been constantly evolving, particularly due to the development of new technologies over the centuries. The pen, [[printing press]], computer, and mobile phone are all technological developments which have altered what is written, and the medium through which the written word is produced. == Technology and materials == {{Further|Writing material}} The mediums, materials, and technologies used by literate societies for writing help determine how writing systems work, what writing is used for, and what social impact it has.{{sfnp|Piquette|Whitehouse|2013|pp=2–5}} For example, the physical durability of the materials used directly determines what historical examples of writing have survived for later analysis: while bodies of [[inscriptions]] in stone, bone, or metal are attested from each ancient literate society, much [[manuscript]] culture is attested only indirectly.<ref>{{Harvc |in1=Betrò |in2=Friedrich |in3=Michel |year=2024 |last=Friedrich |first=Michael |c=Introduction: Towards a Holistic Study of Written Artefacts in Ancient History |pp=12–13}}</ref>{{sfnp|Subačius|2023|p=305}} The common manuscript materials in Mesopotamia world were the tablet and the roll, the former probably having a [[Chaldea]]n origin, the latter an Egyptian. The tablets of the Chaldeans are small pieces of clay, somewhat crudely shaped into a form resembling a pillow, and thickly inscribed with cuneiform characters. Similar use has been seen in hollow cylinders, or prisms of six or eight sides, formed of fine [[terracotta]], sometimes glazed, on which the characters were traced with a small stylus, in some specimens so minutely as to require the aid of a magnifying glass.<ref name="McClintock1885">{{Cite book |last=McClintock |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-oXAAAAYAAJ |title=Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature: Supplement |last2=Strong |first2=J. |publisher=Harper |year=1885 |location=New York |pages=990–997 |via=Google Books}}{{better source needed|date=July 2024}}</ref> In Egypt the principal writing material was of quite a different sort. Wooden tablets are found pictured on the monuments, while [[papyrus]] was also used as early as the 4th millennium&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Morenz |first=Ludwig |title=The Oxford Handbook of Egyptian Epigraphy and Palaeography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-060465-3 |editor-last=Davies |editor-first=Vanessa |location=New York |page=465 |chapter=Palaeography between Normalization, Standardization, and Stylization versus Formal Plasticity and Openness |editor-last2=Laboury |editor-first2=Dimitri }}</ref> The papyrus reed grew chiefly in [[Lower Egypt]] and had various economic means for writing. The pith was taken out and divided by a pointed instrument into the thin pieces of which it is composed; it was then flattened by pressure, and the strips glued together, other strips being placed at right angles to them, so that a roll of any length might be manufactured. Writing seems to have become more widespread with the invention of papyrus in Egypt. That this material was in use in Egypt from a very early period is evidenced by still existing papyrus of the earliest Theban dynasties.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Egyptian Papyrus |encyclopedia=World History Encyclopedia |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Papyrus/ |last=Mark |first=Joshua J.}}{{better source needed|date=July 2024}}</ref> As the papyrus, being in great demand, and exported to all parts of the world, became very costly, other materials were often used instead of it, among which is mentioned leather, a few leather mills of an early period having been found in the tombs.<ref name="McClintock1885" /> [[Parchment]], using sheepskins left after the wool was removed for cloth, was sometimes cheaper than papyrus, which had to be imported outside Egypt. With the invention of [[wood-pulp paper]], the cost of writing material began a steady decline. Wood-pulp paper is still used today, and in recent times efforts have been made to improve bond strength of fibers. Two main areas of examination in this regard have been "dry strength of paper" and "wet web strength".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lindström |first=Tom |year=2005 |title=On the Nature of Joint Strength in paper-A Review of Dry and Wet Strength Resins Used in Paper Manufacturing. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267385974 |journal=13th Fundamental Research Symposium |volume=1 |pages=457–562 |via=ResearchGate}}{{better source needed|date=July 2024}}</ref> The former involves examination of the physical properties of the paper itself, while the latter involves using additives to improve strength. == Uses and implications == === Trade and commerce === According to [[Denise Schmandt-Besserat]], writing had its origins in the counting and cataloguing of agricultural produce, and then economic transactions involving the produce.{{sfnp|Schmandt-Besserat|1992b}} Government tax rolls followed thereafter. Written documents became essential for the accumulation and accounting of wealth by individuals, the state, and religious organizations as well as the transactions of trade, loans, inheritance, and documentation of ownership.<ref>{{Harvc|last=van de Mieroop |first=M. |year=2005 |c=The invention of interest: Sumerian loans |in1=Goetzmann |in2=Rouwenhorst|pp=17–30}}</ref> With such documentation and accounting larger accumulations of wealth became more possible, along with the power that accompanied wealth, most prominently to the benefit of royalty, the state, and religions. Contracts and loans supported the growth of long-distance international trade with accompanying networks for import and export, supporting the rise of capitalism.{{sfnp|Goody|2004|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} [[Paper money]] (initially appearing in China in the 11th century)<ref>{{Harvc|last=Glahn |first=R. |year=2005 |c=The origins of paper money in China |in1=Goetzmann |in2=Rouwenhorst|pp=65–89}}</ref> and other financial instruments relied on writing, initially in the form of letters and then evolving into specialized [[Genre studies|genres]], to explain the transactions and guarantees (from individuals, banks, or governments) of value inhering in the documents.<ref>{{Harvc|last=Pezzolo |first=L. |year=2005 |c=Bonds and government debt in Italian city-states, 1250–1650 |in1=Goetzmann |in2=Rouwenhorst|pp=145–163}}</ref> With the growth of economic activity in late Medieval and Renaissance Europe, sophisticated methods of accounting and calculating value emerged, with such calculations both carried out in writing and explained in manuals.<ref>{{Harvc|last=Goetzmann |first=William N. |year=2005 |c=Fibonacci and the financial revolution |in1=Goetzmann |in2=Rouwenhorst|pp=123–143}}</ref> The creation of corporations then proliferated documents surrounding organization, management, the distribution of shares, and [[records management]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yates |first=JoAnne |title=Control Through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-8018-4613-7 |location=Baltimore |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> Economic theory itself only began to be developed in the latter eighteenth century through the writings of such theorists as [[François Quesnay]] and [[Adam Smith]]. Even the concepts of an economy and a national economy were established through their texts and the texts of their colleagues.{{sfn|Smart|2008}} Since then economics has developed as a field with many authors contributing texts to the professional literature, and governments collecting data, instituting policies and creating institutions to manage and advance their economies. [[Deirdre McCloskey]] has examined the rhetorical strategies and discursive construction of modern economic theory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McCloskey |first=Deirdre N. |title=The Rhetoric of Economics |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-299-10380-4 |location=Madison |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McCloskey |first=Deirdre N. |title=The Writing of Economics |publisher=Macmillan |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-02-379520-6 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McCloskey |first=Deirdre N. |title=If You're So Smart: The Narrative of Economic Expertise |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-55670-3 |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> Graham Smart has examined in depth how the Bank of Canada uses writing to cooperatively produce policies based on economic data and then to communicate strategically with relevant publics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smart |first=Graham |title=Writing the Economy: Activity, Genre And Technology in the World of Banking |publisher=Equinox |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84553-066-2 |location=London |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> === Law, governance, and journalism === Private legal documents for the sale of land appeared in Mesopotamia in the early 3rd millennium&nbsp;BCE, not long after the initial appearance of cuneiform writing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ellickson |first=Robert |last2=Thorland |first2=Charles |year=1995 |title=Ancient Land Law: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israel |journal=Chicago-Kent Law Review |volume=71 |pages=328–331 |hdl=20.500.13051/3557}}</ref> The first written legal codes followed shortly thereafter {{circa|2100&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} with the most well known being the Code of Hammurabi, inscribed on stone stelae throughout Babylon.{{circa|1750&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=VerSteeg |first=Russ |title=Early Mesopotamian Law |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-89089-977-9 |location=Durham, NC |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> While ancient Egypt did not have codified laws, legal decrees and private contracts did appear in the Old Kingdom {{circa|2150&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}. The Torah—comprising the first five books of the [[Hebrew Bible]]—codified the laws of Ancient Israel. Many other codes were to follow in Greece and Rome, with Roman law to serve as a model for church canon law and secular law throughout much of Europe during later periods.{{sfnp|Tiersma|2008|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Meyer|2004|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} In China, the earliest indications of written codifications of law or books of punishments are inscriptions on bronze vessels in 536&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bodde |first=Derk |title=Law in Imperial China: Exemplified by 190 Ch'ing Dynasty Cases, With Historical, Social, and Juridical Commentaries |last2=Morris |first2=Clarence |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-674-73319-0 |doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674733213 |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> The earliest extant full set of laws dates back to the [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] and [[Han dynasty|Han]] dynasties, which set out a full system of social control and governance, with criminal procedures and accountability for both government officials and citizens. These laws required complex reporting and documenting procedures to facilitate hierarchical supervision from the village up to the imperial center.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barbieri-Low |first=Anthony J. |title=Law, state, and society in early imperial China: a study with critical edition and translation of the legal texts from Zhangjiashan tomb no. 247 |last2=Yates |first2=Robin D. S. |publisher=Brill |year=2015 |isbn=978-90-04-29283-3 |series=Sinica Leidensia |volume=126 |location=Leiden |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> While [[common law]] developed in a mostly oral environment in England after the Roman period, with the return of the church and the [[Norman conquest]], customary law began to be inscribed as were precedents of the courts; however, many elements remained oral, with documents only memorializing public oaths, wills, land transfers, court judgments, and ceremonies. During the late medieval period, however, documents gained authority for agreements, transactions, and laws.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tiersma |first=Peter M. |title=Legal Language |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-226-80302-9 |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> Writing has been central to expanding many of the core functions of governance through law, regulation, taxation, and documentary surveillance of citizens; all dependent on growth of bureaucracy which elaborates and administers rules and policies and maintains records. These developments which rely on writing increase the power and extent of states.{{sfnp|Goody|1986|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} At the same time writing has increased the ability of citizens to become informed about the operations of the state, to become more organized in expressing needs and concerns, to identify with regions and states, and to form constituencies with particular views and interests; the [[history of journalism]] is closely linked to citizen information, regional and national identity, and expression of interests. These changes have greatly influenced the nature of states, increasing the visibility of people and their views no matter what the form of governance is. Extensive bureaucracies arose in the ancient Near East{{sfnp|Goody|1986|pp=89–92}} and China{{sfnp|Connery|1998|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} which relied on a literate class of scribes and bureaucrats. In the Ancient Near East this was carried out through the formation of scribal schools,{{sfnp|Radner|Robson|2011|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} while in China this led to a series of written [[imperial examinations]] based on classic texts which in effect regulated education over millennia.<ref name="Lee2000" /> Literacy remained associated with rise in the government bureaucracy, and printing as it emerged was tightly controlled by the government, with vernacular texts only emerging later and then being limited in their range up through the early twentieth century and the fall of the Ching dynasty.<ref name="HKCUP1998" /> In ancient Greece and Rome, class distinctions of citizen and slave, wealthy and poor limited education and participation. In Medieval and early modern Europe church dominance of education, both before and for a time after the reformation, expressed the importance of religion in the control of the state and state bureaucracies.{{sfnp|Stock|1987|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} In Europe and its colonies in the Americas, the introduction of the printing press and decreasing cost of paper and printing allowed for greater access of ordinary citizens to gain information about the government and conditions in other regions within the jurisdictions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chartier |first=Roger |title=The Order of Books: Readers, Authors, and Libraries in Europe Between the Fourteenth and Eighteenth Centuries |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8047-2266-7 |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> The [[Reformation]] with an emphasis on individual reading of sacred texts, eventually increased the spread of literacy beyond the governing classes and opened the door to wider knowledge and criticism of government actions. Divisions in English society during the 16th century, the [[English Civil War]] of the 17th century, and the increased role of parliament that followed, along with the splitting of political religious control<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hill |first=Christopher |title=The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution |publisher=Viking |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-670-78975-7 |location=New York |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}}}</ref> were accompanied by [[pamphlet wars]]. [[History of newspaper publishing|Newspaper publishing]] and [[History of journalism|journalism]], having origins in commercial information, soon was to offer political information and was instrumental to the formation of a public sphere.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Habermas |first=Jürgen |author-link=Jürgen Habermas |title=The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere |publisher=MIT Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-262-58108-0 |location=Cambridge, MA |pages=187–189 |translator-last=Burger |translator-first=T. |orig-date=1991 |translator-last2=Lawrence |translator-first2=F.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=Benedict Richard O'Gorman |author-link=Benedict Anderson |title=Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism |title-link=Imagined Communities |publisher=[[Verso Books|Verso]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-86091-059-6 |edition=Rev. |location=London |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> Newspapers were instrumental in the sharing of information, fostering discussion, and forming political identities in the [[American Revolution]], and then the new nation. The circulation of newspapers also created urban, regional, and state identification in the latter nineteenth century and after. A focus on national news that followed telegraphy and the emergence of newspapers with national circulation along with scripted national radio and television news broadcasts also created horizons of attention through the 20th century, with both benefits and costs.{{sfnp|Starr|2004|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} == Literary culture == Much of what is considered [[knowledge]] is inscribed in written text and is the result of communal processes of production, sharing, and evaluation among social groups and institutions bound together with the aim of producing and disseminating knowledge-bearing texts; the contemporary world identifies such social groups as disciplines and their products as disciplinary literatures. The invention of writing facilitated the sharing, comparing, criticizing, and evaluating of texts, resulting in knowledge becoming a more communal property across wider geographic and temporal domains. [[Religious text]]s formed the common knowledge of scriptural religions, and knowledge of those sacred scriptures became the focus of institutions of religious belief, interpretation, and schooling.{{sfnp|Bazerman|2004|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} Scholars have disagreed concerning when written record-keeping became more like literature, but the oldest surviving literary texts date from a full millennium after the invention of writing. The earliest literary author known by name is [[Enheduanna]], who is credited as the author of a number of works of Sumerian literature, including ''Exaltation of Inanna'', in the [[Sumerian language]] during the 24th century&nbsp;BCE.{{sfnp|Lipson|Binkley|2012}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salami |first=Minna |title=Sensuous Knowledge: A Black Feminist Approach For Everyone |publisher=Amistad |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-06-287706-2 |chapter=Of Liberation}}</ref> The next earliest named author is [[Ptahhotep]], who is credited with authoring ''[[The Maxims of Ptahhotep]]'', an instructional book for young men in [[Old Egyptian language|Egyptian]] composed in the 23rd century&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1SRnjwEACAAJ |title=The Teachings of Ptahhotep: The Oldest Book in the World |publisher=Martino Fine |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-61427-930-3 |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}} |via=Google Books}}</ref> The ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' is a notable early poem, but it can also be seen as a political glorification of the historical King [[Gilgamesh]] of Sumer whose natural and supernatural accomplishments are recounted. The identification of sacred [[religious text]]s codified distinct belief systems, and became the basis of the modern concept of religion.{{sfnp|Goody|1986|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} The reproduction and spread of these texts became associated with these scriptural religions and their spread, and thus were central to proselytizing.{{sfnp|Goody|1986|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} These sacred books created obligations of believers to read, or to follow the teachings of priests charged with the reading, interpretation and application of these texts. Well-known examples of such scriptures are the Torah, the Bible, Quran, Vedas, Bhagavad Gita, and Sutras, but there are far more religious texts through the histories of different religions with many still in current use. These texts, because of their spread, tended to foster generalized guides for moral and ethical behavior, at least for all members of the religious community, but often these guidelines were considered applicable to all humans, as in the [[Ten Commandments]]. === Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and Mesoamerica === In Mesopotamia and Egypt, scribes became important for roles beyond the initiating roles in the economy, governance and law. They became the producers and stewards of astronomy and calendars, divination, and literary culture. Schools developed in tablet houses, which also archived repositories of knowledge.{{sfnp|Radner|Robson|2011}} In ancient India, the Brahman caste became stewards of texts that aggregated and codified oral knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Perrett |first=Roy W. |year=1999 |title=History, Time, and Knowledge in Ancient India |journal=History and Theory |volume=38 |pages=307–321 |doi=10.1111/0018-2656.00094 |number=3}}</ref> Those texts then became the authoritative basis for a continuing tradition of oral education. A case in point is the work of [[Pāṇini]] the linguist, who analyzed and codified knowledge of [[Sanskrit]] syntax, prosody, and grammar. Mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were also subjects of classic Indian learning and were codified in classic texts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mookerji |first=Radha Kumud |title=Ancient Indian education: brahmanical and Buddhist |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-208-0423-4 |location=Delhi |orig-date=1951 |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> Less is known about Mayan, Aztec, and other Mesoamerican learning because of the destruction of texts by the [[conquistador]]s, but it is known that scribes were revered, elite children attended schools, and the study of astronomy, map making, historical chronicles, and genealogy flourished.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boone |first=Elizabeth Hill |title=Stories in Red and Black |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-292-70876-1 |location=Austin |page=26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Berdan |first=Frances F. |title=The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-534-62728-7 |location=Belmont, CA |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> === China === In China, after the [[Qin dynasty]] attempted to remove all traces of the competing [[Confucian]] tradition, the [[Han dynasty]] made [[philological]] knowledge the qualification for the government bureaucracy, so as to restore knowledge that was in danger of vanishing. The [[imperial examination]] system for the civil service functioned for two millennia, and consisted of a written exam based on knowledge of classical texts. To support students obtaining government positions through the written examination, schools focused on those same texts and the associated philological knowledge.<ref name="Lee2000">{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Thomas H. C. |title=Education in Traditional China: A History |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-90-04-10363-4 |series=Handbook of Oriental Studies |volume=13 |location=Leiden |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> These texts covered philosophical, religious, legal, astronomical, hydrological, mathematical, military, and medical knowledge.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bodde |first=Derk |title=Chinese Thought, Society, and Science: The Intellectual and Social Background of Science and Technology in Pre-Modern China |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8248-1334-5 |location=Honolulu |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> [[History of printing|Printing]] as it emerged largely served the knowledge needs of the bureaucracy and the monastery, with substantial vernacular printing only emerging around the 15th century.<ref name="HKCUP1998">{{Cite book |publisher=Hong Kong City University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-962-937-032-9 |editor-last=Luo |editor-first=Shubao |editor-mask=Luo Shubao (罗树宝); |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}} |language=zh |script-title=zh:中国古代印刷史图册 |trans-title=An Illustrated History of Printing in Ancient China |editor-last2=Chan |editor-first2=Sin-Wai |editor-mask2=Chan Sin-Wai (陈善伟)}}</ref> === Ancient Greece and Rome === While [[Socrates]] thought writing an inferior means of transmission of learning (recounted in the [[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]), we know of his works through [[Plato]]'s written accounts of his dialogues. Havelock also connects the philosophical work of Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle with literacy, as it enabled the development of critical thinking via the analysis of permanent texts written both by the author and their peers.{{sfnp|Havelock|1963|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Havelock|1978|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Havelock|1981|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} [[Aristotle]] wrote treatises and lectures which were the core of education at the [[Lyceum (classical)|Lyceum]], along with the may volumes collected in the Lyceum's library. The [[Stoics]] and [[Epicureans]] also wrote and taught during the same period in Athens, although we now have only fragments of their works. Greek writers were the founding writers of many other fields of knowledge. [[Herodotus]] and [[Thucydides]] writing during the 5th century&nbsp;BCE in Athens are considered the founders of history, transforming genealogy and mythic accounts into systematic investigations of events. Thucydides developed a more critical, neutral history through the examination of documents, transcription of speeches, and interviews. [[Hippocrates]] during the same period authored several major works of medicine codifying and advancing the knowledge of this field. In the 2nd century&nbsp;CE, the Greek physician [[Galen]] went to Rome where he wrote numerous works that dominated European medicine through the Renaissance. Hellenized writers in Egypt also produced compendia of knowledge using the resources of the [[Library of Alexandria|great library at Alexandria]], such as ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'', which remains a standard reference work in geometry. [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Almagest]], an astronomy treatise, was used throughout the Middle Ages. Roman scholars continued the practice of writing compendia of knowledge, including [[Varro]], [[Pliny the Elder]], and [[Strabo]]. While much of Roman accomplishment was in material culture of construction, [[Vitruvius]] documented much of the contemporary practice to influence design until today. Agriculture also became an important area for manuals, such as [[Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus Palladius|Palladius]]' compendium. Numerous manuals of rhetoric and rhetorical education that were to influence future generations also appeared, such as the anonymous ''{{lang|la|[[Rhetorica ad Herennium]]}}'', [[Cicero]]'s ''{{lang|la|[[De Oratore]]}}'' and [[Quintilian]]'s ''{{lang|la|[[Institutio Oratoria]]}}''. === Islamic world === With the fall of Rome, the Middle East became the crossroads for learning, with knowledge bearing texts from the West and East meeting in Constantinople, [[Damascus]], and then Baghdad. The [[House of Wisdom]]) with a large library was founded, where Greek works of medicine, philosophy, mathematics and astronomy were translated into Arabic, along with Indian works on mathematics and therapeutics.{{sfnp|Makdisi|1981}} To these texts, philosophers such as [[Al-Kindi]] and [[Avicenna]] and astronomers such as [[Al-Farghani]] made new contributions. [[Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] authored the first work on algebra, drawing on both Greek and Indian resources. The centrality of the [[Quran]] in Islam also led to growth of [[Arabic linguistics]].{{sfnp|Versteegh|1995}} From Baghdad, knowledge and texts were to flow back to South Asia and down through Africa, with a large collection of books and an educational center around the [[Sankore Madrasah|Sankhore Mosque]] in [[Timbuktu]], the seat of the [[Songhai Empire]]. During this period the deposed Abbasid Caliphate moved its seat of power and learning to [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], now in Spain, where they founded a major library which reintroduced many of the classic texts back into Europe along with texts of Arab learning. === Early universities in Europe === The reintroduction of classical texts into Europe through the library and intercultural intellectual culture in Córdoba, including works of Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy and Galen, along with Arabic texts such as by Avicenna and Al-Kharazami created a need for interpretation, lectures, and scholarship to make those works more accessible to scholars in monasteries and urban centers. During the twelfth century universities emerged from these clusters of scholars in Italy at [[University of Bologna|Bologna]]; in Spain at [[University of Salamanca|Salamanca]], in France at [[University of Paris|Paris]] and in England at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]].{{sfnp|Ridder-Symoens|1991a|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} By 1500, there were at least sixty universities throughout Europe{{sfnp|Verger|1991|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} enrolling at least 750,000 students.{{sfnp|Schwinges|1991}} Each of the four faculties—liberal arts, [[theology]], law, and medicine—was oriented around the transmission of classical texts, rather than the production of fresh knowledge beyond lectures and commentaries. This form of [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] education continued well into the 17th century in some locations and disciplines.{{sfnp|Verger|1991|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Leff|1991|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}{{sfnp|North|1991|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Garcia|1991|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Siraisi|1991|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} === Printing in Europe === [[Johannes Gutenberg]]'s European introduction of the moveable type [[printing press]] {{circa|1450|lk=no}} created new opportunities for the production and widespread distribution of books, fostering much new writing, with particular consequences for the development of knowledge, as documented by [[Elizabeth Eisenstein]].{{sfnp|Eisenstein|1979|p={{pn|date=November 2024}}}} The production and distribution of knowledge was no longer tied to monasteries or universities with their libraries and collections of scribal copies. In the ensuing centuries a politically and increasingly religiously divided Europe, no single authority was able to censor or control the production of books. While universities remained attached to disseminating traditional texts, publishing houses became the new centers of knowledge production, and publishing houses in different jurisdictions led to a diversity of ideas becoming available as books moved across borders and scholars came to see themselves as citizens of the [[Republic of Letters]].{{sfnp|Bazerman|Rogers|2008|pp=190–191}} The comparison of multiple editions of traditional texts led to improved textual scholarship.{{sfnp|Grafton|1991|page={{pn|date=November 2024}}}} The ability to share and compare results from many regions and enlist more people into the production of science soon led to the development of early modern science.{{sfnp|Eisenstein|1979|page={{pn|date=November 2024}}}} Books of medicine began to incorporate observations from contemporary surgery and dissections, including printed plates providing graphic displays, to improve knowledge of anatomy.{{sfnp|Pedersen|1996|page={{pn|date=November 2024}}}} With many copies of traditional books and new books appearing, debates arose over the value of each in what became known as the "battle of the books".{{sfnp|Jones|1965|page={{pn|date=November 2024}}}} Maps and discoveries of exploration and colonization also were recorded in books and governmental records,{{sfnp|Ruegg|1996|pp=3–4}} often with the purpose of economic exploitation as in the [[General Archive of the Indies]] in Seville but also to satisfy curiosity about the world.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The origins of museums: the cabinet of curiosities in sixteenth and seventeenth-century Europe |publisher=Clarendon |year=1985 |isbn=0-19-952108-5 |editor-last=Impey |editor-first=O. |location=Oxford |page={{pn|date=November 2024}} |editor-last2=MacGregor |editor-first2=A.}}</ref> Printing also made possible the invention and development of scientific journals, with the {{lang|fr|[[Journal des sçavans]]}} appearing in France and the [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] in England, both in 1665.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Steinberg |first=S. H. |author-link=S. H. Steinberg |title=Five Hundred Years of Printing |publisher=Dover |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-486-81445-2 |location=Mineola, NY |page=168 |orig-date=1955}}</ref> Over the years, these journals proliferated and became the basis of disciplines and disciplinary literature.{{sfnp|Kronick|1976|page={{pn|date=November 2024}}}} Genres reporting experiments and other scientific observations and theories developed over the ensuing centuries to produce modern practices of disciplinary publication with the extensive [[Intertextuality|intertexts]] which represent the collective pursuits of disciplinary knowledge. The availability of scientific and disciplinary books and journals also facilitated the development of modern practices of scientific reference and [[citation]]. These developments from the impact of printing on the growth of knowledge contributed to the [[Scientific Revolution]], [[science in the Renaissance]] and during the [[science in the Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. === Modern academia === In the 18th century, dissident Scottish and English dissident universities began offering practical instruction in rhetoric and writing to enable non-elite students to influence contemporary events. Only in the 19th century did the universities in some countries begin making place for the writing of new knowledge, turning them in the ensuing years from primarily disseminating knowledge through the reading of classical texts to becoming institutions devoted to both reading and writing. The creation of research seminars and the associated seminar papers in history and philology in German universities were a significant starting point for the reform of the university.{{sfnp|Kruse|2006|pp=331–334}} Professorships in philology, history, economy, theology, psychology, sociology, mathematics and the sciences were to emerge over the century, and the German model of disciplinary research university was to influence the organization of universities in England and the United States, with another model developing in France. Both emphasized production of new knowledge by faculty and acquisition thereof by students. In elite British universities, writing instruction was supported by the [[tutorial system]] with weekly writing by students for their tutors, while in the [[Teaching writing in the United States|United States regular courses in writing]] were often required starting in the late 19th century, with [[writing across the curriculum]] becoming an increasing focus, particularly towards the end of the 20th century. == Psychological implications == [[Walter J. Ong]], [[Jack Goody]], and [[Eric A. Havelock]] were among the earliest to systematically argue for the psychological and intellectual consequences of literacy. Ong argued that the introduction of writing changed the form of human consciousness from sensing the immediacy of the spoken word to the critical distance and systematization of words, which could be graphically displayed and ordered,{{sfnp|Ong|1977}}{{sfnp|Ong|1982}} such as in the works of [[Petrus Ramus]].{{sfnp|Ong|2004}} Havelock attributed the emergence of Greek philosophic thought to the use of the written word which allowed the comparison of beliefs and belief systems and the critical examination of concepts.{{sfnp|Havelock|1963}}{{sfnp|Havelock|1981}} Jack Goody argued that written language fostered such practices as [[categorization]], making lists, following formulas, developing recipes and prescriptions, and ultimately making and recording experiments. These practices changed the intellectual and psychological orientation of those who engaged with them.{{sfnp|Goody|1975|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Goody|1977|page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}} While recognizing the possibilities of all these psychological and intellectual changes that accompanied these literate practices, [[Sylvia Scribner]] and [[Michael Cole (psychologist)|Michael Cole]] argued that these changes did not come universally or automatically with literacy, but rather were dependent on the social uses made of literacy in their local contexts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scribner |first=Sylvia |author-link=Sylvia Scribner |title=The Psychology of Literacy |last2=Cole |first2=Michael |author-link2=Michael Cole (psychologist) |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-674-72114-2 |location=Cambridge, MA |page={{page needed|date=August 2024}}}}</ref> They carried out field observation and experiments among the [[Vai people]] of West Africa, for whom the psychological impacts of literacy vary due to the three different contexts in which locals learn to read and write the [[Vai language]], English, and Arabic—practical skills, secular education, and religious education, respectively. European literacy was associated with European-style schooling, and fostered among other things syllogistic reasoning and logical problem solving. Arabic literacy was associated with the religious training of [[madrasa]]s and fostered, among other things, heightened rote memory. Literacy in the written forms of Vai associated with daily practices of making requests and explaining tasks, increased anticipation of audience knowledge and needs along with rebus solving (as the written language used rebus-like icons). == See also == * [[History of numbers]] * [[History of art]] * [[List of writing systems]] * [[History of newspaper publishing]] * [[History of knowledge]] * [[History of science]] == References == {{Reflist}} === Works cited === {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite book |last=Baines |first=John |author-link=John Baines (Egyptologist) |title=Visual and Written Culture in Ancient Egypt |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-815250-7 |page=118}} * {{Cite book |last=Bagley |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Bagley |title=The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83861-0 |editor-last=Houston |editor-first=Stephen |editor-link=Stephen D. 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Boltz |title=The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System |publisher=[[American Oriental Society]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-940490-78-9 |location=New Haven, CT}} * {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jsWL_XJt-dMC |title=The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-83861-0 |editor-last=Boudreau |editor-first=Vincent |via=Google Books}} ** {{Harvc |last=Baines |first=John |author-link=John Baines (Egyptologist) |chapter=The earliest Egyptian writing: Development, context, purpose |pages=150–189 |in=Boudreau |year=2004}} * {{Cite book |last=Bazerman |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Bazerman |title=What Writing Does and How It Does It |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum |year=2004 |isbn=0-8058-3805-8 |editor-last=Bazerman |editor-first=Charles |location=Mahwah, NJ |pages=309–339 |chapter=Speech Acts, Genres, and Activity Systems: How Texts Organize Activity and People |editor-last2=Prior |editor-first2=Paul A.}} * {{Cite book |title=Handbook of Research on Writing |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8058-4870-0 |editor-last=Bazerman |editor-first=Charles |editor-mask=3 |chapter=Writing, Text, and the Law}} ** {{Harvc |last=Bazerman |first=Charles |last2=Rogers |first2=Paul |year=2008 |in=Bazerman |c=Writing and Secular Knowledge Outside Modern European Institutions |pages=138–189 |author-mask=3}} ** {{Harvc |last=Smart |first=Graham |year=2008 |in=Bazerman |c=Writing and the Social Formation of Economy |pages=123–135}} ** {{Harvc |last=Tiersma |first=Peter |year=2008 |in=Bazerman |c=Writing, Text, and the Law |pages=156–170}} * {{Cite book |last=Condorelli |first=Marco |title=Introducing Historical Orthography |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-00-910073-1}} * {{Cite book |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Orthography |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-108-48731-3 |editor-last=Condorelli |editor-first=Marco |editor-mask=3 |series=Cambridge handbooks in language and linguistics |editor-last2=Rutkowska |editor-first2=Hanna}} ** {{Harvc |last=Subačius |first=Giedrius |year=2023 |in1=Condorelli |in2=Rutkowska |c=Materiality of Writing |pages=305–324}} * {{Cite book |last=Connery |first=Christopher Leigh |title=The Empire of the Text: Writing and Authority in Early Imperial China |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8476-8738-1 |location=Lanham, MD}} * {{Cite book |title=The Routledge Handbook of the English Writing System |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-315-67000-3 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Vivian |location=London |editor-last2=Ryan |editor-first2=Des}} * {{Cite book |last=Coulmas |first=Florian |author-link=Florian Coulmas |title=Writing Systems: An Introduction to Their Linguistic Analysis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-78217-3}} * {{Cite book |last=Daniels |first=Peter T. |author-link=Peter T. 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B. F. |url=https://archive.org/details/Walker.C.ReadingThePastCuneiform |title=Cuneiform: Reading The Past |publisher=British Museum |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-7141-8059-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Woods |first=Christopher |title=Visible Language: Inventions of Writing in the Ancient Middle East and Beyond |publisher=[[University of Chicago]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-885923-76-9 |editor-last=Woods |editor-first=Christopher |series=Oriental Institute Museum Publications |volume=32 |pages=15–25 |chapter=Visible language: the earliest writing systems |editor-last2=Teeter |editor-first2=Emily |editor-last3=Emberling |editor-first3=Geoff}} {{Refend}} == Further reading == {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Ferrara |first=Silvia |title=The Greatest invention: a history of the world in nine mysterious scripts |publisher=Farrar, Straus & Giroux |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-374-60162-1 |location=New York |translator-last=Portnowitz |translator-first=Todd |orig-date=2019}} * {{Cite book |last=Lambert |first=J. L. F. |title=Termcraft: The Emergence of Terminology Science from the Vin ANS and Sumerians to Aristotle |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4602-1665-1}} * {{Cite book |title=The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders |publisher=Brill |year=2012 |isbn=978-90-04-21545-0 |editor-last=Voogt |editor-first=Alexander J. de |location=Leiden |editor-last2=Quack |editor-first2=Joachim Friedrich}} * {{Cite book |last=Powell |first=Barry B. |title=Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-6256-2 |location=Chichester}} * {{Cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Joel |title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language |publisher=New York University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8147-3654-8}} * {{Cite book |last=Glassner |first=Jean-Jacques |title=The Invention of Cuneiform: Writing in Sumer |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8018-7389-8 |location=Baltimore |translator-last=Bahrani |translator-first=Zainab |translator-last2=Van de Mieroop |translator-first2=Marc |translator-link=Zainab Bahrani}} * {{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Andrew |title=The Story of Writing |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-500-28156-7 |location=London |orig-date=1995}} * {{Cite book |last=Nissen |first=Hans Jörg |title=Archaic bookkeeping: early writing and techniques of economic administration in the ancient Near East |last2=Damerow |first2=Peter |last3=Englund |first3=Robert K. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-226-58659-5}} * {{Cite book |last=Saggs |first=Henry W. F. |title=Civilization before Greece and Rome |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-300-05031-8 |location=New Haven, CT}} * {{Cite book |last=Norman |first=Jerry |author-link=Jerry Norman (sinologist) |title=Chinese |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-521-29653-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Diringer |first=David |author-link=David Diringer |title=Writing |publisher=Praeger |year=1962 |location=New York |oclc=308353}} {{Refend}} == External links == * [https://www.worldswritingsystems.org/ The World's Writing Systems]{{snd}}all 294 known writing systems, each with a typographic reference glyph and Unicode status * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/mayacode/ Cracking the Maya Code]{{snd}}[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]], [[Public Broadcasting Service]] {{Writing}} {{Writing systems}} {{List of writing systems}} {{World history}} {{Authority control}} {{Portal bar|Writing|History}} [[Category:History of writing| ]] [[Category:History by topic]] 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