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id="toc-Performance_and_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Influence_of_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Influence of temperature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Degradation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacturing_of_PV_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacturing_of_PV_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Manufacturing of PV systems </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manufacturing_of_PV_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Manufacturing of PV systems subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Manufacturing_of_PV_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Environmental_costs_of_manufacture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_costs_of_manufacture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Environmental costs of manufacture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_costs_of_manufacture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-EPBT_improvements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#EPBT_improvements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 EPBT improvements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-EPBT_improvements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_from_first_generation_PV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_from_first_generation_PV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Effects from first generation PV </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_from_first_generation_PV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_from_second_generation_PV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_from_second_generation_PV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Impact from second generation PV </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_from_second_generation_PV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_from_third_generation_PV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_from_third_generation_PV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Effects from third generation PV </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_from_third_generation_PV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Economics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Economics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hardware_costs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hardware_costs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Hardware costs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hardware_costs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Levelised_cost_of_electricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Levelised_cost_of_electricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Levelised cost of electricity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Levelised_cost_of_electricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsidies_and_financing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsidies_and_financing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Subsidies and financing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsidies_and_financing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Other </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Applications </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applications subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Photovoltaic_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photovoltaic_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Photovoltaic systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photovoltaic_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photo_sensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photo_sensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Photo sensors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photo_sensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experimental_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Experimental technology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Experimental_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Experimental technology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Experimental_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-CIGS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CIGS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 CIGS </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CIGS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Perovskite_solar_cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perovskite_solar_cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Perovskite solar cells </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perovskite_solar_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dye-Sensitized_Solar_Cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dye-Sensitized_Solar_Cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dye-Sensitized_Solar_Cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-OPV" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#OPV"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 OPV </div> </a> <ul id="toc-OPV-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermophotovoltaics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermophotovoltaics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Thermophotovoltaics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermophotovoltaics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_module_alignment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_module_alignment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Solar module alignment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_module_alignment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Efficiency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Advantages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Disadvantages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Photovoltaics</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" > 50 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovolta%C3%AFese_energie" title="Fotovoltaïese energie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fotovoltaïese energie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AD_%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="لوح ضوئي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لوح ضوئي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerx%C3%ADa_solar_fotovoltaico" title="Enerxía solar fotovoltaico – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Enerxía solar fotovoltaico" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فوتوولتاییک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فوتوولتاییک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Фотоволтаични системи – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фотоволтаични системи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_solar_fotovoltaica" title="Energia solar fotovoltaica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Energia solar fotovoltaica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovoltaika" title="Fotovoltaika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fotovoltaika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovoltaik" title="Fotovoltaik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fotovoltaik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaik" title="Photovoltaik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Photovoltaik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%89%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AC" title="Φωτοβολταϊκά – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φωτοβολταϊκά" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energ%C3%ADa_solar_fotovoltaica" title="Energía solar fotovoltaica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Energía solar fotovoltaica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovoltaiko" title="Fotovoltaiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fotovoltaiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eguzki-energia_fotovoltaiko" title="Eguzki-energia fotovoltaiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eguzki-energia fotovoltaiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="فتوولتائیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فتوولتائیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89nergie_solaire_photovolta%C3%AFque" title="Énergie solaire photovoltaïque – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Énergie solaire photovoltaïque" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerx%C3%ADa_solar_fotovoltaica" title="Enerxía solar fotovoltaica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enerxía solar fotovoltaica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%9C%EC%96%91%EA%B4%91_%EB%B0%9C%EC%A0%84" title="태양광 발전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="태양광 발전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solarna_fotonaponska_energija" title="Solarna fotonaponska energija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Solarna fotonaponska energija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovoltaiko" title="Fotovoltaiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fotovoltaiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovoltaik" title="Fotovoltaik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fotovoltaik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiVuvebane" title="IsiVuvebane – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiVuvebane" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фотовольтаика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фотовольтаика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umemenuru" title="Umemenuru – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Umemenuru" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaica" title="Photovoltaica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Photovoltaica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%C3%A1_m%C3%B3%C3%AD_f%C9%94t%C9%94%CC%81volt%C3%ADki" title="Nguyá móí fɔtɔ́voltíki – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Nguyá móí fɔtɔ́voltíki" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="പ്രകാശ വോൾട്ടതാ പരിവർത്തനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രകാശ വോൾട്ടതാ പരിവർത്തനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovoltan" title="Fotovoltan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fotovoltan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Фотовольтаик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Фотовольтаик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovolta%C3%AFsche_cel" title="Fotovoltaïsche cel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fotovoltaïsche cel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%AA%E9%99%BD%E5%85%89%E7%99%BA%E9%9B%BB" title="太陽光発電 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="太陽光発電" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotowoltaika" title="Fotowoltaika – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fotowoltaika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_solar_fotovoltaica" title="Energia solar fotovoltaica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Energia solar fotovoltaica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energie_solar%C4%83_fotovoltaic%C4%83" title="Energie solară fotovoltaică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Energie solară fotovoltaică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фотовольтаика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фотовольтаика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_solare_fotovoltaica" title="Energia solare fotovoltaica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Energia solare fotovoltaica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panelet_fotovoltaike" title="Panelet fotovoltaike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Panelet fotovoltaike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Photovoltaics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovoltika" title="Fotovoltika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fotovoltika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovoltaika" title="Fotovoltaika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fotovoltaika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solarna_fotonaponska_energija" title="Solarna fotonaponska energija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Solarna fotonaponska energija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solarna_fotonaponska_energija" title="Solarna fotonaponska energija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Solarna fotonaponska energija" 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href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotovoltaik" title="Fotovoltaik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fotovoltaik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%97%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Фотовольтаїка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фотовольтаїка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n_M%E1%BA%B7t_Tr%E1%BB%9Di" title="Điện Mặt Trời – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Điện Mặt Trời" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li 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searchaux" style="display:none">Method to produce electricity from solar radiation</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SoSie%2BSoSchiff_Ansicht.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/SoSie%2BSoSchiff_Ansicht.jpg/260px-SoSie%2BSoSchiff_Ansicht.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/SoSie%2BSoSchiff_Ansicht.jpg/390px-SoSie%2BSoSchiff_Ansicht.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/SoSie%2BSoSchiff_Ansicht.jpg/520px-SoSie%2BSoSchiff_Ansicht.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2161" data-file-height="1625" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Solar_Settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Settlement">Solar Settlement</a>, a sustainable housing community project in <a href="/wiki/Freiburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Freiburg">Freiburg</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ombri%C3%A8re_SUDI_-_Sustainable_Urban_Design_%26_Innovation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ombri%C3%A8re_SUDI_-_Sustainable_Urban_Design_%26_Innovation.jpg/260px-Ombri%C3%A8re_SUDI_-_Sustainable_Urban_Design_%26_Innovation.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ombri%C3%A8re_SUDI_-_Sustainable_Urban_Design_%26_Innovation.jpg/390px-Ombri%C3%A8re_SUDI_-_Sustainable_Urban_Design_%26_Innovation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ombri%C3%A8re_SUDI_-_Sustainable_Urban_Design_%26_Innovation.jpg/520px-Ombri%C3%A8re_SUDI_-_Sustainable_Urban_Design_%26_Innovation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3232" data-file-height="2532" /></a><figcaption>Charging station in France that provides energy for electric cars using solar energy</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ROSSA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/ROSSA.jpg/260px-ROSSA.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/ROSSA.jpg/390px-ROSSA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/ROSSA.jpg/520px-ROSSA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3060" data-file-height="2032" /></a><figcaption>Solar panels on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></figcaption></figure>Photovoltaics (PV) is the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> into <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> using <a href="/wiki/Semiconducting_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconducting material">semiconducting materials</a> that exhibit the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a>, a phenomenon studied in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">photochemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>. The photovoltaic effect is commercially used for electricity generation and as <a href="/wiki/Photosensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosensors">photosensors</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic system</a> employs <a href="/wiki/Solar_module" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar module">solar modules</a>, each comprising a number of <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>, which generate electrical power. PV installations may be ground-mounted, rooftop-mounted, wall-mounted or floating. The mount may be fixed or use a <a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">solar tracker</a> to follow the sun across the sky. Photovoltaic technology helps to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigate climate change</a> because it emits much less <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide</a> than <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>. Solar PV has specific advantages as an energy source: once installed, its operation does not generate any pollution or any <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas emissions</a>; it shows scalability in respect of power needs and silicon has large availability in the Earth's crust, although other materials required in PV system manufacture such as silver may constrain further growth in the technology. Other major constraints identified include competition for land use.<a href="#cite_note-Mayumi2017-1">[1]</a> The use of PV as a main source requires <a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">energy storage</a> systems or global distribution by <a href="/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">high-voltage direct current</a> power lines causing additional costs, and also has a number of other specific disadvantages such as variable power generation which have to be balanced. Production and installation does cause some pollution and <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas emissions</a>, though only a fraction of the emissions caused by <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">fossil fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Photovoltaic systems have long been used in specialized applications as stand-alone installations and <a href="/wiki/Grid-connected_PV_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid-connected PV system">grid-connected PV systems</a> have been in use since the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-reconsidering-3">[3]</a> Photovoltaic modules were first mass-produced in 2000, when the German government funded a one hundred thousand roof program.<a href="#cite_note-Solar_Power_for_the_World:_What_You_Wanted_to_Know_about_Photovoltaics-4">[4]</a> Decreasing costs has allowed PV to grow as an energy source. This has been partially driven by massive Chinese government investment in developing solar production capacity since 2000, and achieving <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a>. Improvements in manufacturing technology and efficiency have also led to decreasing costs.<a href="#cite_note-our-world-in-data-pv-2020-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shubbak2019-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a> and financial incentives, such as preferential <a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">feed-in tariffs</a> for solar-generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Panel prices dropped by a factor of 4 between 2004 and 2011. Module prices dropped by about 90% over the 2010s. In 2022, worldwide installed PV capacity increased to more than 1 <a href="/wiki/Terawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Terawatt">terawatt</a> (TW) covering nearly two percent of global <a href="/wiki/Electric_energy_consumption" title="Electric energy consumption">electricity demand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fraunhofer-pv-report-2020-p4-8">[8]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind powers</a>, PV is the third <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> source in terms of global capacity. In 2022, the <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> expected a growth by over 1 TW from 2022 to 2027.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> In some instances, PV has offered the cheapest source of electrical power in regions with a high solar potential, with a bid for pricing as low as 0.015 US$/<a href="/wiki/KWh" class="mw-redirect" title="KWh">kWh</a> in <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In 2023, the <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> stated in its <a href="/wiki/World_Energy_Outlook" title="World Energy Outlook">World Energy Outlook</a> that '[f]or projects with low cost financing that tap high quality resources, solar PV is now the cheapest source of electricity in history.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The term "photovoltaic" comes from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> φῶς (phōs) meaning "light", and from "volt", the unit of electromotive force, the <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a>, which in turn comes from the last name of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian people">Italian</a> physicist <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>, inventor of the battery (<a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">electrochemical cell</a>). The term "photovoltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> In 1989, the German Research Ministry initiated the first ever program to finance PV roofs (2200 roofs). A program led by Walter Sandtner in Bonn, Germany.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In 1994, Japan followed in their footsteps and conducted a similar program with 539 residential PV systems installed.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Since, many countries have continued to produce and finance PV systems in an exponential speed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Solar_cells">Solar cells</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Solar cells">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solar_cell.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Solar_cell.png/260px-Solar_cell.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Solar_cell.png 1.5x" data-file-width="341" data-file-height="305" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cells">Solar cells</a> generate <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> directly from <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_PVOUT_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photovoltaic power potential map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/World_PVOUT_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png/260px-World_PVOUT_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/World_PVOUT_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png/390px-World_PVOUT_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/World_PVOUT_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png/520px-World_PVOUT_Solar-resource-map_GlobalSolarAtlas_World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png 2x" data-file-width="1889" data-file-height="1122" /></a><figcaption>Photovoltaic power potential map estimates, how many kWh of electricity can be produced from a 1 kWp free-standing c-Si modules, optimally inclined towards the Equator. The resulting long-term average is calculated based on weather data of at least 10 recent years.</figcaption></figure> Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating <a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">electric power</a> by using <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a> to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons by the <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">photovoltaic effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sunlight which can be used to power equipment or to <a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">recharge batteries</a>. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to power orbiting <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a>, but today the majority of <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_module" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic module">photovoltaic modules</a> are used for grid-connected systems for power generation. In this case an <a href="/wiki/Inverter_(electrical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverter (electrical)">inverter</a> is required to convert the <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a> to <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">AC</a>. There is also a smaller market for stand alone systems for remote dwellings, <a href="/wiki/Electric_boat" title="Electric boat">boats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Recreational_vehicle" title="Recreational vehicle">recreational vehicles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electric_car" title="Electric car">electric cars</a>, roadside emergency telephones, <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cathodic_protection" title="Cathodic protection">cathodic protection</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipelines</a>. Photovoltaic power generation employs <a href="/wiki/Solar_modules" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar modules">solar modules</a> composed of a number of <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a> containing a semiconductor material.<a href="#cite_note-jac-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Copper_in_renewable_energy#Photovoltaic_system_configurations" title="Copper in renewable energy">Copper solar cables</a> connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields. Because of the growing demand for <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> sources, the manufacturing of solar cells and <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic arrays</a> has advanced considerably in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-German_PV_market-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-renewableenergyaccess.com-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-technologyreview.com-20">[20]</a> Cells require protection from the environment and are usually packaged tightly in solar modules. Photovoltaic module power is measured under standard test conditions (STC) in "Wp" (<a href="/wiki/Watt-peak" class="mw-redirect" title="Watt-peak">watts peak</a>).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The actual <a href="/wiki/Panel_generation_factor" title="Panel generation factor">power output at a particular place</a> may be less than or greater than this rated value, depending on geographical location, time of day, weather conditions, and other factors.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Solar photovoltaic array <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factors</a> are typically under 25% when not coupled with storage, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_cell_efficiencies">Solar cell efficiencies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Solar cell efficiencies">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency" title="Solar-cell efficiency">Solar-cell efficiency</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar-cell_efficiency&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png/538px-NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png" decoding="async" width="538" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png/807px-NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png/1076px-NREL_PV_Cell_Record_Efficiency_Chart.png 2x" data-file-width="4919" data-file-height="2457" /></a><figcaption>Reported timeline of research <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> energy conversion efficiencies since 1976 (<a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory</a>)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency" title="Solar-cell efficiency">Solar-cell efficiency</a> is the portion of energy in the form of sunlight that can be converted via <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaics</a> into electricity by the <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a>. The efficiency of the solar cells used in a <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">photovoltaic system</a>, in combination with latitude and climate, determines the annual energy output of the system. For example, a solar panel with 20% efficiency and an area of 1 m2 will produce 200 kWh/yr at Standard Test Conditions if exposed to the Standard Test Condition solar irradiance value of 1000 W/m2 for 2.74 hours a day. Usually solar panels are exposed to sunlight for longer than this in a given day, but the solar irradiance is less than 1000 W/m2 for most of the day. A solar panel can produce more when the Sun is high in Earth's sky and will produce less in cloudy conditions or when the Sun is low in the sky; usually the Sun is lower in the sky in the winter. Two location dependant factors that affect solar PV yield are the dispersion and intensity of solar radiation. These two variables can vary greatly between each country.<a href="#cite_note-Solar-cell_efficiency_:0-24">[24]</a> The global regions that have high radiation levels throughout the year are the middle east, Northern Chile, Australia, China, and Southwestern USA.<a href="#cite_note-Solar-cell_efficiency_:0-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In a high-yield solar area like central Colorado, which receives annual <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">insolation</a> of 2000 kWh/m2/year,<a href="#cite_note-Solar-cell_efficiency_nrel.gov-26">[26]</a> a panel can be expected to produce 400 <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt-hour" title="Kilowatt-hour">kWh</a> of energy per year. However, in Michigan, which receives only 1400 kWh/m2/year,<a href="#cite_note-Solar-cell_efficiency_nrel.gov-26">[26]</a> annual energy yield will drop to 280 kWh for the same panel. At more northerly European latitudes, yields are significantly lower: 175 kWh annual energy yield in southern England under the same conditions.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solartce3.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Solartce3.gif/220px-Solartce3.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Solartce3.gif/330px-Solartce3.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Solartce3.gif/440px-Solartce3.gif 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of charge collection by solar cells. Light transmits through transparent conducting electrode creating <a href="/wiki/Electron-hole_pair" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron-hole pair">electron hole pairs</a>, which are collected by both the electrodes. The absorption and collection efficiencies of a solar cell depend on the design of transparent conductors and active layer thickness.<a href="#cite_note-Solar-cell_efficiency_kumar2017-28">[28]</a></figcaption></figure> Several factors affect a cell's conversion efficiency, including its <a href="/wiki/Reflectance" title="Reflectance">reflectance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_efficiency_limit" title="Thermodynamic efficiency limit">thermodynamic efficiency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#Charge_carrier_separation" title="Theory of solar cells">charge carrier separation</a> efficiency, charge carrier collection efficiency and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conduction" title="Thermal conduction">conduction</a> efficiency values.<a href="#cite_note-Solar-cell_efficiency_Energy_Efficiency_and_Renewable_Energy-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Solar-cell_efficiency_kumar2017-28">[28]</a> Because these parameters can be difficult to measure directly, other parameters are measured instead, including <a href="/wiki/Quantum_efficiency" title="Quantum efficiency">quantum efficiency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_voltage" title="Open-circuit voltage">open-circuit voltage</a> (VOC) ratio, and <a href="#Fill_factor">§ Fill factor</a>. Reflectance losses are accounted for by the quantum efficiency value, as they affect "external quantum efficiency". Recombination losses are accounted for by the quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor values. Resistive losses are predominantly accounted for by the fill factor value, but also contribute to the quantum efficiency and VOC ratio values. As of 2024, the world record for solar cell efficiency is 47.6%, set in May 2022 by Fraunhofer ISE, with a III-V four-junction concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) cell.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> This beat the previous record of 47.1%, set in 2019 by <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">multi-junction</a> <a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">concentrator</a> solar cells developed at <a href="/wiki/National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory" title="National Renewable Energy Laboratory">National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)</a>, Golden, Colorado, USA,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> which was set in lab conditions, under extremely concentrated light. The record in real-world conditions is held by NREL, who developed triple junction cells with a tested efficiency of 39.5%.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Performance_and_degradation">Performance and degradation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Performance and degradation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg/220px-Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg/330px-Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg/440px-Variability_of_Solar_Energy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>This chart illustrates the effect of clouds on solar energy production.</figcaption></figure> Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a> of 1,000 <a href="/wiki/W/m2" class="mw-redirect" title="W/m2">W/m2</a>, solar <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Airmass" class="mw-redirect" title="Airmass">AM</a> 1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The actual voltage and current output of the module changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the module operates. Performance varies depending on geographic location, time of day, the day of the year, amount of <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">solar irradiance</a>, direction and tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading, <a href="/wiki/Soiling_(solar_energy)" title="Soiling (solar energy)">soiling</a>, state of charge, and temperature. Performance of a module or panel can be measured at different time intervals with a DC clamp meter or shunt and logged, graphed, or charted with a chart recorder or data logger. For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules oriented in the same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent broken or shaded panels and optimize output. These bypass diodes are usually placed along groups of solar cells to create a continuous flow.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">W</a>), <a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_voltage" title="Open-circuit voltage">open-circuit voltage</a> (VOC), <a href="/wiki/Short-circuit_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Short-circuit current">short-circuit current</a> (ISC, measured in <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amperes</a>), maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power (<a href="/wiki/Watt-peak" class="mw-redirect" title="Watt-peak">watt-peak</a>, Wp), and module efficiency (%). <a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_voltage" title="Open-circuit voltage">Open-circuit voltage</a> or VOC is the maximum voltage the module can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> VOC can be measured with a <a href="/wiki/Voltmeter" title="Voltmeter">voltmeter</a> directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable. The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately 1 by 2 metres (3 ft × 7 ft), will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 600 W, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_temperature">Influence of temperature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Influence of temperature">edit</a>]</div> The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) module depends on the environmental conditions, mainly on the global incident irradiance G in the plane of the module. However, the temperature T of the p–n junction also influences the main electrical parameters: the short circuit current ISC, the open circuit voltage VOC and the maximum power Pmax. In general, it is known that VOC shows a significant inverse correlation with T, while for ISC this correlation is direct, but weaker, so that this increase does not compensate for the decrease in VOC. As a consequence, Pmax decreases when T increases. This correlation between the power output of a solar cell and the working temperature of its junction depends on the semiconductor material, and is due to the influence of T on the concentration, lifetime, and mobility of the intrinsic carriers, i.e., electrons and gaps. inside the photovoltaic cell. Temperature sensitivity is usually described by temperature coefficients, each of which expresses the derivative of the parameter to which it refers with respect to the junction temperature. The values of these parameters, which can be found in any data sheet of the photovoltaic module, are the following: <ul><li>β: VOC variation coefficient with respect to T, given by ∂VOC/∂T.</li> <li>α: Coefficient of variation of ISC with respect to T, given by ∂ISC/∂T.</li> <li>δ: Coefficient of variation of Pmax with respect to T, given by ∂Pmax/∂T.</li></ul> Techniques for estimating these coefficients from experimental data can be found in the literature.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degradation">Degradation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Degradation">edit</a>]</div> The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a>, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the U.S. market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Potential-induced_degradation" title="Potential-induced degradation">Potential-induced degradation</a> (also called PID) is a potential-induced performance degradation in crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray currents.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> This effect may cause power loss of up to 30%.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The largest challenge for photovoltaic technology is the purchase price per watt of electricity produced. Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about the process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby making the panel more efficient in converting photons to retrievable electrons.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> (p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order to create donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and conductor bands.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In doing so, the addition of boron impurity allows the activation energy to decrease twenty-fold from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential difference (EB) is so low, the boron is able to thermally ionize at room temperatures. This allows for free energy carriers in the conduction and valence bands thereby allowing greater conversion of photons to electrons. The power output of a photovoltaic (PV) device decreases over time. This decrease is due to its exposure to solar radiation as well as other external conditions. The degradation index, which is defined as the annual percentage of output power loss, is a key factor in determining the long-term production of a photovoltaic plant. To estimate this degradation, the percentage of decrease associated with each of the electrical parameters. The individual degradation of a photovoltaic module can significantly influence the performance of a complete string. Furthermore, not all modules in the same installation decrease their performance at exactly the same rate. Given a set of modules exposed to long-term outdoor conditions, the individual degradation of the main electrical parameters and the increase in their dispersion must be considered. As each module tends to degrade differently, the behavior of the modules will be increasingly different over time, negatively affecting the overall performance of the plant. There are several studies dealing with the power degradation analysis of modules based on different photovoltaic technologies available in the literature. According to a recent study,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> the degradation of crystalline silicon modules is very regular, oscillating between 0.8% and 1.0% per year. On the other hand, if we analyze the performance of thin-film photovoltaic modules, an initial period of strong degradation is observed (which can last several months and up to two years), followed by a later stage in which the degradation stabilizes, being then comparable to that of crystalline silicon.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Strong seasonal variations are also observed in such thin-film technologies because the influence of the solar spectrum is much greater. For example, for modules of amorphous silicon, micromorphic silicon or cadmium telluride, we are talking about annual degradation rates for the first years of between 3% and 4%.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> However, other technologies, such as CIGS, show much lower degradation rates, even in those early years. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacturing_of_PV_systems">Manufacturing of PV systems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Manufacturing of PV systems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaics_companies" title="List of photovoltaics companies">List of photovoltaics companies</a></div> Overall the manufacturing process of creating solar photovoltaics is simple in that it does not require the culmination of many complex or moving parts. Because of the solid-state nature of PV systems, they often have relatively long lifetimes, anywhere from 10 to 30 years. To increase the electrical output of a PV system, the manufacturer must simply add more photovoltaic components. Because of this, economies of scale are important for manufacturers as costs decrease with increasing output.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> While there are many types of PV systems known to be effective, crystalline silicon PV accounted for around 90% of the worldwide production of PV in 2013. Manufacturing silicon PV systems has several steps. First, polysilicon is processed from mined quartz until it is very pure (semi-conductor grade). This is melted down when small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, a group III element, are added to make a p-type semiconductor rich in electron holes. Typically using a seed crystal, an ingot of this solution is grown from the liquid polycrystalline. The ingot may also be cast in a mold. Wafers of this semiconductor material are cut from the bulk material with wire saws, and then go through surface etching before being cleaned. Next, the wafers are placed into a phosphorus vapor deposition furnace which lays a very thin layer of phosphorus, a group V element, which creates an n-type semiconducting surface. To reduce energy losses, an anti-reflective coating is added to the surface, along with electrical contacts. After finishing the cell, cells are connected via electrical circuit according to the specific application and prepared for shipping and installation.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_costs_of_manufacture">Environmental costs of manufacture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Environmental costs of manufacture">edit</a>]</div> Solar photovoltaic power is not entirely "clean energy": production produces greenhouse gas emissions, materials used to build the cells are potentially unsustainable and will run out eventually, the technology uses toxic substances which cause pollution, and there are no viable technologies for recycling solar waste.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Data required to investigate their impact are sometimes affected by a rather large amount of uncertainty. The values of human labor and water consumption, for example, are not precisely assessed due to the lack of systematic and accurate analyses in the scientific literature.<a href="#cite_note-Mayumi2017-1">[1]</a> One difficulty in determining effects due to PV is to determine if the wastes are released to the air, water, or soil during the manufacturing phase.<a href="#cite_note-:4-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment" title="Life-cycle assessment">Life-cycle assessments</a>, which look at all different environment effects ranging from <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">global warming potential</a>, pollution, water depletion and others, are unavailable for PV. Instead, studies have tried to estimate the impact and potential impact of various types of PV, but these estimates are usually restricted to simply assessing <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment#Cradle-to-gate" title="Life-cycle assessment">energy costs of the manufacture and/or transport</a>, because these are new technologies and the total environmental impact of their components and disposal methods are unknown, even for commercially available <a href="/wiki/First_generation_solar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="First generation solar cell">first generation solar cells</a>, let alone experimental prototypes with no commercial viability.<a href="#cite_note-:2-53">[53]</a> Thus, estimates of the environmental impact of PV have focused on carbon dioxide equivalents per kWh or energy pay-back time (EPBT). The EPBT describes the timespan a PV system needs to operate in order to generate the same amount of energy that was used for its manufacture.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia2009-54">[54]</a> Another study includes transport energy costs in the EPBT.<a href="#cite_note-fraunhofer-pv-report-2020-p36-55">[55]</a> The EPBT has also been defined completely differently as "the time needed to compensate for the total renewable- and non-renewable primary energy required during the life cycle of a PV system" in another study, which also included installation costs.<a href="#cite_note-:0-56">[56]</a> This energy amortization, given in years, is also referred to as break-even energy <a href="/wiki/Payback_period" title="Payback period">payback time</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Galarraga-57">[57]</a> The lower the EPBT, the lower the environmental cost of <a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</a>. The EPBT depends vastly on the location where the PV system is installed (e.g. the amount of sunlight available and the efficiency of the electrical grid)<a href="#cite_note-fraunhofer-pv-report-2020-p36-55">[55]</a> and on the type of system, namely the system's components.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia2009-54">[54]</a> A 2015 review of EPBT estimates of first and second-generation PV suggested that there was greater variation in embedded energy than in efficiency of the cells implying that it was mainly the embedded energy that needs to reduce to have a greater reduction in EPBT.<a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a> In general, the most important component of solar panels, which accounts for much of the energy use and greenhouse gas emissions, is the refining of the polysilicon.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia2009-54">[54]</a> As to how much percentage of the EPBT this silicon depends on the type of system. A fully autarkic system requires additional components ('Balance of System', the <a href="/wiki/Power_inverter" title="Power inverter">power inverters</a>, storage, etc.) which significantly increase the energy cost of manufacture, but in a simple rooftop system, some 90% of the energy cost is from silicon, with the remainder coming from the inverters and module frame.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia2009-54">[54]</a> In an analysis by Alsema et al. from 1998, the energy payback time was higher than 10 years for the former system in 1997, while for a standard rooftop system the EPBT was calculated as between 3.5 and 8 years.<a href="#cite_note-Columbia2009-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The EPBT relates closely to the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Net_energy_gain" title="Net energy gain">net energy gain</a> (NEG) and <a href="/wiki/Energy_returned_on_energy_invested" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy returned on energy invested">energy returned on energy invested</a> (EROI). They are both used in <a href="/wiki/Energy_economics" title="Energy economics">energy economics</a> and refer to the difference between the energy expended to harvest an energy source and the amount of energy gained from that harvest. The NEG and EROI also take the operating lifetime of a PV system into account and a working life of 25 to 30 years is typically assumed. From these metrics, the <a href="/wiki/Energy_returned_on_energy_invested#Relationship_to_net_energy_gain" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy returned on energy invested">Energy payback Time</a> can be derived by calculation.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="EPBT_improvements">EPBT improvements</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: EPBT improvements">edit</a>]</div> PV systems using crystalline silicon, by far the majority of the systems in practical use, have such a high EPBT because silicon is <a href="/wiki/Silicon#Production" title="Silicon">produced</a> by the reduction of high-grade <a href="/wiki/Quartz_sand" class="mw-redirect" title="Quartz sand">quartz sand</a> in <a href="/wiki/Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric furnaces</a>. This coke-fired <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> process occurs at high temperatures of more than 1000 °C and is very energy intensive, using about 11 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per produced kilogram of silicon.<a href="#cite_note-si-production-62">[62]</a> The energy requirements of this process makes the energy cost per unit of silicon produced relatively inelastic, which means that the production process itself will not become more efficient in the future. Nonetheless, the energy payback time has shortened significantly over the last years, as crystalline silicon cells became ever more efficient in converting sunlight, while the thickness of the wafer material was constantly reduced and therefore required less silicon for its manufacture. Within the last ten years, the amount of silicon used for solar cells declined from 16 to 6 grams per <a href="/wiki/Watt-peak" class="mw-redirect" title="Watt-peak">watt-peak</a>. In the same period, the thickness of a c-Si wafer was reduced from 300 μm, or <a href="/wiki/Microns" class="mw-redirect" title="Microns">microns</a>, to about 160–190 μm. The <a href="/wiki/Wire_saw" title="Wire saw">sawing techniques</a> that slice crystalline silicon ingots into wafers have also improved by reducing the kerf loss and making it easier to recycle the silicon sawdust.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Key parameters for material and energy efficiency </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Parameter</th> <th>Mono-Si</th> <th>CdTe </th></tr> <tr> <td>Cell efficiency</td> <td>16.5%</td> <td>15.6% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Derate cell to module efficiency</td> <td>8.5%</td> <td>13.9% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Module efficiency</td> <td>15.1%</td> <td>13.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Wafer thickness / layer thickness</td> <td>190 μm</td> <td>4.0 μm </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kerf loss</td> <td>190 μm</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Silver per cell</td> <td>9.6 g/m2</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Glass thickness</td> <td>4.0 mm</td> <td>3.5 mm </td></tr> <tr> <td>Operational lifetime</td> <td>30 years</td> <td>30 years </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; text-align: left; padding: 6px 2px 4px 4px;">Source: <a href="/wiki/IEA-PVPS" class="mw-redirect" title="IEA-PVPS">IEA-PVPS</a>, Life Cycle Assessment, March 2015<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effects_from_first_generation_PV">Effects from first generation PV</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Effects from first generation PV">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">Crystalline silicon</a> modules are the most extensively studied PV type in terms of LCA since they are the most commonly used. <a href="/wiki/Mono-crystalline_silicon_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Mono-crystalline silicon cell">Mono-crystalline silicon</a> photovoltaic systems (mono-si) have an average efficiency of 14.0%.<a href="#cite_note-:5-66">[66]</a> The cells tend to follow a structure of front electrode, anti-reflection film, n-layer, p-layer, and back electrode, with the sun hitting the front electrode. EPBT ranges from 1.7 to 2.7 years.<a href="#cite_note-:6-67">[67]</a> The cradle to gate of CO2-eq/kWh ranges from 37.3 to 72.2 grams when installed in Southern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-:7-68">[68]</a> Techniques to produce <a href="/wiki/Multi-crystalline_silicon" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-crystalline silicon">multi-crystalline silicon</a> (multi-si) photovoltaic cells are simpler and cheaper than mono-si, however tend to make less efficient cells, an average of 13.2%.<a href="#cite_note-:5-66">[66]</a> EPBT ranges from 1.5 to 2.6 years.<a href="#cite_note-:6-67">[67]</a> The cradle to gate of CO2-eq/kWh ranges from 28.5 to 69 grams when installed in Southern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-:7-68">[68]</a> Assuming that the following countries had a high-quality grid infrastructure as in Europe, in 2020 it was calculated it would take 1.28 years in <a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a>, Canada, for a <a href="/wiki/Rooftop_photovoltaic_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooftop photovoltaic power station">rooftop photovoltaic system</a> to produce the same amount of energy as required to manufacture the silicon in the modules in it (excluding the silver, glass, mounts and other components), 0.97 years in <a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, and 0.4 years in <a href="/wiki/Jaipur" title="Jaipur">Jaipur</a>, India. Outside of Europe, where net grid efficiencies are lower, it would take longer. This '<a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon#Energy_payback_time" title="Crystalline silicon">energy payback time</a>' can be seen as the portion of time during the useful lifetime of the module in which the energy production is polluting. At best, this means that a 30-year old panel has produced clean energy for 97% of its lifetime, or that the silicon in the modules in a solar panel produce 97% less greenhouse gas emissions than a coal-fired plant for the same amount of energy (assuming and ignoring many things).<a href="#cite_note-fraunhofer-pv-report-2020-p36-55">[55]</a> Some studies have looked beyond EPBT and GWP to other environmental effects. In one such study, conventional energy mix in Greece was compared to multi-si PV and found a 95% overall reduction in effects including carcinogens, eco-toxicity, acidification, eutrophication, and eleven others.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Impact_from_second_generation_PV">Impact from second generation PV</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Impact from second generation PV">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">Cadmium telluride</a> (CdTe) is one of the fastest-growing <a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">thin film based solar cells</a> which are collectively known as second-generation devices. This new thin-film device also shares similar performance restrictions (<a href="/wiki/Shockley%E2%80%93Queisser_limit" title="Shockley–Queisser limit">Shockley-Queisser efficiency limit</a>) as conventional Si devices but promises to lower the cost of each device by both reducing material and energy consumption during manufacturing. The global market share of CdTe was 4.7% in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-:4-52">[52]</a> This technology's highest power conversion efficiency is 21%.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The cell structure includes glass substrate (around 2 mm), transparent conductor layer, CdS buffer layer (50–150 nm), CdTe absorber and a metal contact layer. CdTe PV systems require less energy input in their production than other commercial PV systems per unit electricity production. The average CO2-eq/kWh is around 18 grams (cradle to gate). CdTe has the fastest EPBT of all commercial PV technologies, which varies between 0.3 and 1.2 years.<a href="#cite_note-:8-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effects_from_third_generation_PV">Effects from third generation PV</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Effects from third generation PV">edit</a>]</div> Third-generation PVs are designed to combine the advantages of both the first and second generation devices and they do not have <a href="/wiki/Shockley-Queisser_limit" class="mw-redirect" title="Shockley-Queisser limit">Shockley-Queisser limit</a>, a theoretical limit for first and second generation PV cells. The thickness of a third generation device is less than 1 μm.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Two new promising thin film technologies are <a href="/wiki/Copper_zinc_tin_sulfide" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper zinc tin sulfide">copper zinc tin sulfide</a> (Cu2ZnSnS4 or CZTS),<a href="#cite_note-:2-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zinc_phosphide" title="Zinc phosphide">zinc phosphide</a> (Zn3P2)<a href="#cite_note-:2-53">[53]</a> and single-walled carbon nano-tubes (SWCNT).<a href="#cite_note-Celik,_I._2017-73">[73]</a> These thin films are currently only produced in the lab but may be commercialized in the future. The manufacturing of CZTS and (Zn3P2) processes are expected to be similar to those of current thin film technologies of CIGS and CdTe, respectively. While the absorber layer of SWCNT PV is expected to be synthesized with CoMoCAT method.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> by Contrary to established thin films such as CIGS and CdTe, CZTS, Zn3P2, and SWCNT PVs are made from earth abundant, nontoxic materials and have the potential to produce more electricity annually than the current worldwide consumption.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> While CZTS and Zn3P2 offer good promise for these reasons, the specific environmental implications of their commercial production are not yet known. Global warming potential of CZTS and Zn3P2 were found 38 and 30 grams CO2-eq/kWh while their corresponding EPBT were found 1.85 and 0.78 years, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-:2-53">[53]</a> Overall, CdTe and Zn3P2 have similar environmental effects but can slightly outperform CIGS and CZTS.<a href="#cite_note-:2-53">[53]</a> A study on environmental impacts of SWCNT PVs by Celik et al., including an existing 1% efficient device and a theoretical 28% efficient device, found that, compared to monocrystalline Si, the environmental impacts from 1% SWCNT was ~18 times higher due mainly to the short lifetime of three years.<a href="#cite_note-Celik,_I._2017-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Economics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system#Costs_and_economy" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic system § Costs and economy</a></div> <table style="float: right; margin: auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_n8j5dc9cnw10huezeq7qmkzib17gmfn"></map><img usemap="#timeline_n8j5dc9cnw10huezeq7qmkzib17gmfn" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/n8j5dc9cnw10huezeq7qmkzib17gmfn.png" /></div> Source: Apricus<a href="#cite_note-Apricus-77">[77]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> There have been major changes in the underlying costs, industry structure and market prices of solar photovoltaics technology, over the years, and gaining a coherent picture of the shifts occurring across the industry value chain globally is a challenge. This is due to: "the rapidity of cost and price changes, the complexity of the PV supply chain, which involves a large number of manufacturing processes, the balance of system (BOS) and installation costs associated with complete PV systems, the choice of different distribution channels, and differences between regional markets within which PV is being deployed". Further complexities result from the many different policy support initiatives that have been put in place to facilitate photovoltaics commercialisation in various countries.<a href="#cite_note-reconsidering-3">[3]</a> Renewable energy technologies have generally gotten cheaper since their invention.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-SilverLining-80">[80]</a> Renewable energy systems have become cheaper to build than fossil fuel power plants across much of the world, thanks to advances in wind and solar energy technology, in particular.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hardware_costs">Hardware costs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hardware costs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg/220px-1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg/330px-1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg/440px-1975_%E2%80%93_Price_of_solar_panels_as_a_function_of_cumulative_installed_capacity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Swanson%27s_law" title="Swanson's law">Swanson's law</a>–stating that solar module prices have dropped about 20% for each doubling of installed capacity—defines the "<a href="/wiki/Experience_curve_effects" title="Experience curve effects">learning rate</a>" of solar photovoltaics.<a href="#cite_note-OWID_PanelCostAndCapacity_2021-82">[82]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1977 crystalline silicon solar cell prices were at $76.67/W.<a href="#cite_note-Econ1-83">[83]</a> Although wholesale module prices remained flat at around $3.50 to $4.00/W in the early 2000s due to high demand in Germany and Spain afforded by generous subsidies and shortage of polysilicon, demand crashed with the abrupt ending of Spanish subsidies after the market crash of 2008, and the price dropped rapidly to $2.00/W. Manufacturers were able to maintain a positive operating margin despite a 50% drop in income due to innovation and reductions in costs. In late 2011, factory-gate prices for crystalline-silicon photovoltaic modules suddenly dropped below the $1.00/W mark, taking many in the industry by surprise, and has caused a number of solar manufacturing companies to go bankrupt throughout the world. The $1.00/W cost is often regarded in the PV industry as marking the achievement of <a href="/wiki/Grid_parity" title="Grid parity">grid parity</a> for PV, but most experts do not believe this price point is sustainable. Technological advancements, manufacturing process improvements, and industry re-structuring, may mean that further price reductions are possible.<a href="#cite_note-reconsidering-3">[3]</a> The average retail price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from $3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over the course of 2011.<a href="#cite_note-natint-84">[84]</a> In 2013 wholesale prices had fallen to $0.74/W.<a href="#cite_note-Econ1-83">[83]</a> This has been cited as evidence supporting '<a href="/wiki/Swanson%27s_law" title="Swanson's law">Swanson's law</a>', an observation similar to the famous <a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Moore's Law">Moore's Law</a>, which claims that solar cell prices fall 20% for every doubling of industry capacity.<a href="#cite_note-Econ1-83">[83]</a> The Fraunhofer Institute defines the 'learning rate' as the drop in prices as the cumulative production doubles, some 25% between 1980 and 2010. Although the prices for modules have dropped quickly, current inverter prices have dropped at a much lower rate, and in 2019 constitute over 61% of the cost per kWp, from a quarter in the early 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-fraunhofer-pv-report-2020-p36-55">[55]</a> Note that the prices mentioned above are for bare modules, another way of looking at module prices is to include installation costs. In the US, according to the Solar Energy Industries Association, the price of installed rooftop PV modules for homeowners fell from $9.00/W in 2006 to $5.46/W in 2011. Including the prices paid by industrial installations, the national installed price drops to $3.45/W. This is markedly higher than elsewhere in the world, in Germany homeowner rooftop installations averaged at $2.24/W. The cost differences are thought to be primarily based on the higher regulatory burden and lack of a national solar policy in the US.<a href="#cite_note-wells2012-85">[85]</a> By the end of 2012 Chinese manufacturers had production costs of $0.50/W in the cheapest modules.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> In some markets distributors of these modules can earn a considerable margin, buying at factory-gate price and selling at the highest price the market can support ('value-based pricing').<a href="#cite_note-reconsidering-3">[3]</a> In California PV reached grid parity in 2011, which is usually defined as PV production costs at or below retail electricity prices (though often still above the power station prices for coal or gas-fired generation without their distribution and other costs).<a href="#cite_note-Alafita2014-87">[87]</a> Grid parity had been reached in 19 markets in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-bloomberg-leibreich-2014-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> By 2024, massive increases of production of solar panels in China had caused module prices to drop to as low as $0.11/W, an over 90 percent reduction from 2011 prices.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Levelised_cost_of_electricity">Levelised cost of electricity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Levelised cost of electricity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AWM-Munich-ETFE-Cushions-Photovoltaic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/AWM-Munich-ETFE-Cushions-Photovoltaic.jpg/260px-AWM-Munich-ETFE-Cushions-Photovoltaic.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/AWM-Munich-ETFE-Cushions-Photovoltaic.jpg/390px-AWM-Munich-ETFE-Cushions-Photovoltaic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/AWM-Munich-ETFE-Cushions-Photovoltaic.jpg/520px-AWM-Munich-ETFE-Cushions-Photovoltaic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4072" data-file-height="2715" /></a><figcaption>AWM Munich <a href="/wiki/ETFE" title="ETFE">ETFE</a> Cushions-Photovoltaics</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Levelised_cost_of_electricity" class="mw-redirect" title="Levelised cost of electricity">levelised cost of electricity</a> (LCOE) is the cost per kWh based on the costs distributed over the project lifetime, and is thought to be a better metric for calculating viability than price per wattage. LCOEs vary dramatically depending on the location.<a href="#cite_note-reconsidering-3">[3]</a> The LCOE can be considered the minimum price customers will have to pay the utility company in order for it to break even on the investment in a new power station.<a href="#cite_note-our-world-in-data-pv-2020-5">[5]</a> Grid parity is roughly achieved when the LCOE falls to a similar price as conventional local grid prices, although in actuality the calculations are not directly comparable.<a href="#cite_note-Branker-91">[91]</a> Large industrial PV installations had reached grid parity in California in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-SilverLining-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-Branker-91">[91]</a> Grid parity for rooftop systems was still believed to be much farther away at this time.<a href="#cite_note-Branker-91">[91]</a> Many LCOE calculations are not thought to be accurate, and a large amount of assumptions are required.<a href="#cite_note-reconsidering-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Branker-91">[91]</a> Module prices may drop further, and the LCOE for solar may correspondingly drop in the future.<a href="#cite_note-invest2011-92">[92]</a> Because energy demands rise and fall over the course of the day, and solar power is limited by the fact that the sun sets, solar power companies must also factor in the additional costs of supplying a more stable alternative energy supplies to the grid in order to stabilize the system, or storing the energy somehow (current battery technology cannot store enough power). These costs are not factored into LCOE calculations, nor are special subsidies or premiums that may make buying solar power more attractive.<a href="#cite_note-our-world-in-data-pv-2020-5">[5]</a> The unreliability and temporal variation in generation of solar and wind power is a major problem. Too much of these volatile power sources can cause instability of the entire grid.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> As of 2017 power-purchase agreement prices for solar farms below $0.05/kWh are common in the United States, and the lowest bids in some Persian Gulf countries were about $0.03/kWh.<a href="#cite_note-Haegel_2017-94">[94]</a> The goal of the United States Department of Energy is to achieve a levelised cost of energy for solar PV of $0.03/kWh for utility companies.<a href="#cite_note-Adeh2019-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsidies_and_financing">Subsidies and financing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Subsidies and financing">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Financial_incentives_for_photovoltaics" title="Financial incentives for photovoltaics">Financial incentives for photovoltaics</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">feed-in tariffs</a> (FITs), have often been offered to electricity consumers to install and operate solar-electric generating systems, and in some countries such subsidies are the only way photovoltaics can remain economically profitable. In Germany FIT subsidies are generally around €0.13 above the normal retail price of a kWh (€0.05).<a href="#cite_note-TROMMSDORFF-96">[96]</a> PV FITs have been crucial for the adoption of the industry, and are available to consumers in over 50 countries as of 2011. Germany and Spain have been the most important countries regarding offering subsidies for PV, and the policies of these countries have driven demand in the past.<a href="#cite_note-reconsidering-3">[3]</a> Some US solar cell manufacturing companies have repeatedly complained that the dropping prices of PV module costs have been achieved due to subsidies by the government of China, and the dumping of these products below fair market prices. US manufacturers generally recommend high tariffs on foreign supplies to allow them remain profitable. In response to these concerns, the Obama administration began to levy tariffs on US consumers of these products in 2012 to raise prices for domestic manufacturers.<a href="#cite_note-reconsidering-3">[3]</a> The USA, however, also subsidies the industry, offering consumers a 30% federal tax credit to purchase modules. In Hawaii federal and state subsidies chop off up to two thirds of the installation costs.<a href="#cite_note-wells2012-85">[85]</a> Some environmentalists have promoted the idea that government incentives should be used in order to expand the PV manufacturing industry to reduce costs of PV-generated electricity much more rapidly to a level where it is able to compete with fossil fuels in a free market. This is based on the theory that when the manufacturing capacity doubles, <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a> will cause the prices of the solar products to halve.<a href="#cite_note-our-world-in-data-pv-2020-5">[5]</a> In many countries there is access to capital is lacking to develop PV projects. To solve this problem, <a href="/wiki/Securitization" title="Securitization">securitization</a> has been proposed to accelerate development of solar photovoltaic projects.<a href="#cite_note-Alafita2014-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/SolarCity" title="SolarCity">SolarCity</a> offered the first U.S. <a href="/wiki/Asset-backed_security" title="Asset-backed security">asset-backed security</a> in the solar industry in 2013.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other">edit</a>]</div> Photovoltaic power is also generated during a time of day that is close to peak demand (precedes it) in electricity systems with high use of air conditioning. Since large-scale PV operation requires back-up in the form of spinning reserves, its marginal cost of generation in the middle of the day is typically lowest, but not zero, when PV is generating electricity. This can be seen in Figure 1 of this paper:.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> For residential properties with private PV facilities networked to the grid, the owner may be able earn extra money when the time of generation is included, as electricity is worth more during the day than at night.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> One journalist theorised in 2012 that if the energy bills of Americans were forced upwards by imposing an extra tax of $50/ton on carbon dioxide emissions from coal-fired power, this could have allowed solar PV to appear more cost-competitive to consumers in most locations.<a href="#cite_note-natint-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Growth">Growth</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Growth">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">Growth of photovoltaics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg/260px-PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg/390px-PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg/520px-PV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>Worldwide growth of photovoltaics on a semi-log plot since 1992</figcaption></figure> Solar photovoltaics formed the largest body of research among the seven sustainable energy types examined in a global <a href="/wiki/Bibliometric" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliometric">bibliometric</a> study, with the annual scientific output growing from 9,094 publications in 2011 to 14,447 publications in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-Straza_&_Schneegans_2021-101">[101]</a> Likewise, the application of solar photovoltaics is growing rapidly and the worldwide installed capacity reached one terawatt in April 2022.<a href="#cite_note-IEA-PVPS-2016-102">[102]</a> The total power output of the world's PV capacity in a calendar year is now beyond 500 TWh of electricity. This represents 2% of worldwide electricity demand. More than 100 <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">countries</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Brazil" title="Solar power in Brazil">Brazil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">India</a>, use solar PV.<a href="#cite_note-iea-pvps-snapshot-1992-2014-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-ren21-2011-104">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">China</a> is followed by the <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Japan</a>, while installations in <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Germany</a>, once the world's largest producer, have been slowing down. Honduras generated the highest percentage of its energy from solar in 2019, 14.8%.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> As of 2019, Vietnam has the highest installed capacity in Southeast Asia, about 4.5 GW.<a href="#cite_note-:11-106">[106]</a> The annualized installation rate of about 90 W per capita per annum places Vietnam among world leaders.<a href="#cite_note-:11-106">[106]</a> Generous Feed-in tariff (FIT) and government supporting policies such as tax exemptions were the key to enable Vietnam's solar PV boom. Underlying drivers include the government's desire to enhance energy self-sufficiency and the public's demand for local environmental quality.<a href="#cite_note-:11-106">[106]</a> A key barrier is limited transmission grid capacity.<a href="#cite_note-:11-106">[106]</a> China has the world's largest solar power capacity, with 390 GW of installed capacity in 2022 compared with about 200 GW in the European Union, according to International Energy Agency data.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Other countries with the world's largest solar power capacities include the United States, Japan and Germany. <table style="max-width: 600px; margin: 1px auto;"> <caption>Top 20 PV countries in 2022 (MW) </caption> <tbody><tr style="background-color: none;"> <td align="center"> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right; margin: 18px auto 1px auto;"> <caption>Installed and total solar power capacity in 2022 (MW)<a href="#cite_note-iea-pvps-snapshot-2020-108">[108]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th style="background-color:#cfb">#</th> <th style="background-color:#cfb">Nation</th> <th style="background-color:#cfb" data-sort-type="number">Total capacity</th> <th style="background-color:#cfb" data-sort-type="number">Added capacity </th></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">China</a></td> <td>393,000</td> <td>86,100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><img alt="United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">United States</a></td> <td>113,000</td> <td>17,800 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Japan</a></td> <td>78,800</td> <td>4,600 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Germany</a></td> <td>66,600</td> <td>8,100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/India" title="India"><img alt="India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">India</a></td> <td>63,100</td> <td>13,500 </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Australia_%28converted%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="640" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Australia" title="Solar power in Australia">Australia</a></td> <td>26,800</td> <td>7,700 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Italy</a></td> <td>25,100</td> <td>2,400 </td></tr> <tr> <td>8</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil"><img alt="Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Brazil" title="Solar power in Brazil">Brazil</a></td> <td>24,100</td> <td>9,900 </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea"><img alt="South Korea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_South_Korea" title="Solar power in South Korea">South Korea</a></td> <td>21,000</td> <td>2,800 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain" title="Solar power in Spain">Spain</a></td> <td>20,500</td> <td>4,600 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands"><img alt="Netherlands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Netherlands" title="Solar power in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td> <td>19,100</td> <td>4,200 </td></tr> <tr> <td>12</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam"><img alt="Vietnam" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/23px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/35px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/45px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></td> <td>18,500</td> <td>1,800 </td></tr> <tr> <td>13</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/France" title="France"><img alt="France" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_France" title="Solar power in France">France</a></td> <td>17,400</td> <td>2,700 </td></tr> <tr> <td>14</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td>14,400</td> <td>720 </td></tr> <tr> <td>15</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Poland" title="Solar power in Poland">Poland</a></td> <td>11,200</td> <td>4,900 </td></tr> <tr> <td>16</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Taiwan" title="Solar power in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></td> <td>9,700</td> <td>2,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>17</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Turkey" title="Solar power in Turkey">Turkey</a></td> <td>9,400</td> <td>1,600 </td></tr> <tr> <td>18</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico"><img alt="Mexico" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Mexico" title="Solar power in Mexico">Mexico</a></td> <td>9,000</td> <td>2,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>19</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine"><img alt="Ukraine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Ukraine" title="Solar power in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></td> <td>8,100</td> <td>0 </td></tr> <tr> <td>20</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Belgium" title="Solar power in Belgium">Belgium</a></td> <td>6,900</td> <td>310 </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="font-size: 85%; padding: 5px 0 0 20px;"> Data: <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency#Promotion_of_renewable_energy_–_Photovoltaic_Power_Systems_Programme" title="International Energy Agency">IEA-PVPS</a> Snapshot of Global PV Markets 2023 report, April 2023<a href="#cite_note-iea-pvps-snapshot-2020-108">[108]</a> Also see <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">Solar power by country</a> for a complete and continuously updated list </td></tr></tbody></table> In 2017, it was thought probable that by 2030 global PV installed capacities could be between 3,000 and 10,000 GW.<a href="#cite_note-Haegel_2017-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a> in 2010 claimed that 1,845 GW of PV systems worldwide could be generating approximately 2,646 TWh/year of electricity by 2030, and by 2050 over 20% of all electricity could be provided by PV.<a href="#cite_note-epia-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Applications_of_photovoltaics" title="Applications of photovoltaics">Applications of photovoltaics</a></div> There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics covering every technological domain under the sun. From the fields of the agricultural industry as a power source for irrigation to its usage in remote health care facilities to refrigerate medical supplies. Other applications include power generation at various scales and attempts to integrate them into homes and public infrastructure. PV modules are used in photovoltaic systems and include a large variety of electrical devices. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photovoltaic_systems">Photovoltaic systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Photovoltaic systems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic system</a></div> A photovoltaic system, or solar PV system is a power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and directly convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, as well as mounting, cabling and other electrical accessories. PV systems range from small, <a href="/wiki/Rooftop_photovoltaic_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooftop photovoltaic power station">roof-top mounted</a> or <a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics" title="Building-integrated photovoltaics">building-integrated</a> systems with capacities from a few to several tens of <a href="/wiki/Kilowatts" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatts">kilowatts</a>, to large utility-scale <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">power stations</a> of hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Megawatts" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatts">megawatts</a>. Nowadays, most PV systems are <a href="/wiki/Grid-connected_photovoltaic_power_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid-connected photovoltaic power system">grid-connected</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Stand-alone_power_system" title="Stand-alone power system">stand-alone</a> systems only account for a small portion of the market. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photo_sensors">Photo sensors</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Photo sensors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photodetectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Photodetectors">Photodetectors</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Photosensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosensors">Photosensors</a> are <a href="/wiki/Sensors" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensors">sensors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> A photo detector has a <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junction</a> that converts light photons into current. The absorbed photons make <a href="/wiki/Electron%E2%80%93hole_pair" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron–hole pair">electron–hole pairs</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Depletion_region" title="Depletion region">depletion region</a>. <a href="/wiki/Photodiode" title="Photodiode">Photodiodes</a> and photo transistors are a few examples of photo detectors. <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cells</a> convert some of the light energy absorbed into electrical energy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_technology">Experimental technology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Experimental technology">edit</a>]</div> Crystalline silicon photovoltaics are only one type of PV, and while they represent the majority of solar cells produced currently there are many new and promising technologies that have the potential to be scaled up to meet future energy needs. As of 2018, crystalline silicon cell technology serves as the basis for several PV module types, including monocrystalline, multicrystalline, mono PERC, and bifacial.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Another newer technology, thin-film PV, are manufactured by depositing semiconducting layers of <a href="/wiki/Perovskite" title="Perovskite">perovskite</a>, a mineral with semiconductor properties, on a substrate in vacuum. The substrate is often glass or stainless-steel, and these semiconducting layers are made of many types of materials including <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride" title="Cadmium telluride">cadmium telluride</a> (CdTe), <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_diselenide" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium diselenide">copper indium diselenide</a> (CIS), <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_diselenide" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium gallium diselenide">copper indium gallium diselenide</a> (CIGS), and amorphous silicon (a-Si). After being deposited onto the substrate the semiconducting layers are separated and connected by electrical circuit by laser scribing.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Perovskite solar cells are a very efficient solar energy converter and have excellent optoelectronic properties for photovoltaic purposes, but their upscaling from lab-sized cells to large-area modules is still under research.<a href="#cite_note-Matteocci2019-114">[114]</a> Thin-film photovoltaic materials may possibly become attractive in the future, because of the reduced materials requirements and cost to manufacture modules consisting of thin-films as compared to silicon-based wafers.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In 2019 university labs at Oxford, Stanford and elsewhere reported perovskite solar cells with efficiencies of 20-25%.<a href="#cite_note-NREL-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CIGS">CIGS</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: CIGS">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide" title="Copper indium gallium selenide">Copper indium gallium selenide</a></div> Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a thin film solar cell based on the copper indium diselenide (CIS) family of chalcopyrite <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a>. CIS and CIGS are often used interchangeably within the CIS/CIGS community. The cell structure includes soda lime glass as the substrate, Mo layer as the back contact, CIS/CIGS as the absorber layer, cadmium sulfide (CdS) or Zn (S,OH)x as the buffer layer, and ZnO:Al as the front contact.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> CIGS is approximately 1/100th the thickness of conventional silicon solar cell technologies. Materials necessary for assembly are readily available, and are less costly per watt of solar cell. CIGS based solar devices resist performance degradation over time and are highly stable in the field. Reported global warming potential impacts of CIGS ranges 20.5–58.8 grams CO2-eq/kWh of electricity generated for different <a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar irradiation">solar irradiation</a> (1,700 to 2,200 kWh/m2/y) and power conversion efficiency (7.8 – 9.12%).<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> EPBT ranges from 0.2 to 1.4 years,<a href="#cite_note-:8-71">[71]</a> while harmonized value of EPBT was found 1.393 years.<a href="#cite_note-:3-58">[58]</a> Toxicity is an issue within the buffer layer of CIGS modules because it contains cadmium and gallium.<a href="#cite_note-:2-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> CIS modules do not contain any heavy metals. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perovskite_solar_cells">Perovskite solar cells</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Perovskite solar cells">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">Perovskite solar cell</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perovskite_solar_cell&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Perovskite_solar_cell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Perovskite_solar_cell.jpg/220px-Perovskite_solar_cell.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Perovskite_solar_cell.jpg/330px-Perovskite_solar_cell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Perovskite_solar_cell.jpg/440px-Perovskite_solar_cell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2686" data-file-height="2265" /></a><figcaption>A perovskite solar cell</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">perovskite solar cell</a> (PSC) is a type of <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> that includes a <a href="/wiki/Perovskite_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Perovskite structure">perovskite-structured</a> compound, most commonly a hybrid organic–inorganic <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tin_based_perovskite_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin based perovskite solar cells">tin halide-based material</a> as the light-harvesting active layer.<a href="#cite_note-Perovskite_solar_cell_kamat-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Perovskite materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Methylammonium_lead_halide" title="Methylammonium lead halide">methylammonium lead halides</a> and all-inorganic cesium lead halide, are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture. <a href="/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency" title="Solar-cell efficiency">Solar-cell efficiencies</a> of laboratory-scale devices using these materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009<a href="#cite_note-Perovskite_solar_cell_ReferenceA-122">[122]</a> to 25.7% in 2021 in single-junction architectures,<a href="#cite_note-Perovskite_solar_cell_NREL_chart-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Perovskite_solar_cell_single-junction_record_2021-124">[124]</a> and, in silicon-based tandem cells, to 29.8%,<a href="#cite_note-Perovskite_solar_cell_NREL_chart-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Perovskite_solar_cell_Si_tandem_record-125">[125]</a> exceeding the maximum efficiency achieved in single-junction silicon solar cells. Perovskite solar cells have therefore been the fastest-advancing solar technology as of 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Perovskite_solar_cell_kamat-120">[120]</a> With the potential of achieving even higher efficiencies and very low production costs, perovskite solar cells have become commercially attractive. Core problems and research subjects include their short- and long-term stability.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dye-Sensitized_Solar_Cells">Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell" title="Dye-sensitized solar cell">Dye-sensitized solar cells</a> (DSCs) are a novel thin film solar cell. These solar cells operate under ambient light better than other photovoltaic technologies. They work with light being absorbed in a sensitizing dye between two charge transport materials. Dye surrounds TiO2 <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a> which are in a sintered network.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> TiO2 acts as conduction band in an n-type semiconductor; the scaffold for adorned dye molecules and transports elections during excitation. For TiO2 DSC technology, sample preparation at high temperatures is very effective because higher temperatures produce more suitable textural properties. Another example of DSCs is the copper complex with Cu (II/I) as a redox shuttle with TMBY (4,4',6,6'-tetramethyl-2,2'bipyridine). DSCs show great performance with artificial and indoor light. From a range of 200 lux to 2,000 lux, these cells operate at conditions of a maximum efficiency of 29.7%.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> However, there have been issues with DSCs, many of which come from the liquid electrolyte. The solvent is hazardous, and will permeate most plastics. Because it is liquid, it is unstable to temperature variation, leading to freezing in cold temperatures and expansion in warm temperatures causing failure.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Another disadvantage is that the solar cell is not ideal for large scale application because of its low efficiency. Some of the benefits for DSC is that it can be used in a variety of light levels (including cloudy conditions), it has a low production cost, and it does not degrade under sunlight, giving it a longer lifetime then other types of thin film solar cells. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="OPV">OPV</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: OPV">edit</a>]</div> Other possible future PV technologies include organic, dye-sensitized and quantum-dot photovoltaics.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) fall into the thin-film category of manufacturing, and typically operate around the 12% efficiency range which is lower than the 12–21% typically seen by silicon-based PVs. Because organic photovoltaics require very high purity and are relatively reactive they must be encapsulated which vastly increases the cost of manufacturing and means that they are not feasible for large scale-up. Dye-sensitized PVs are similar in efficiency to OPVs but are significantly easier to manufacture. However, these dye-sensitized photovoltaics present storage problems because the liquid electrolyte is toxic and can potentially permeate the plastics used in the cell. Quantum dot solar cells are solution-processed, meaning they are potentially scalable, but currently they peak at 12% efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-Matteocci2019-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">Organic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymer_solar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer solar cell">polymer photovoltaic</a> (OPV) are a relatively new area of research. The tradition OPV cell structure layers consist of a semi-transparent electrode, electron blocking layer, tunnel junction, holes blocking layer, electrode, with the sun hitting the transparent electrode. OPV replaces silver with carbon as an electrode material lowering manufacturing cost and making them more environmentally friendly.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> OPV are flexible, low weight, and work well with roll-to roll manufacturing for mass production.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> OPV uses "only abundant elements coupled to an extremely low embodied energy through very low processing temperatures using only ambient processing conditions on simple printing equipment enabling energy pay-back times".<a href="#cite_note-:1-133">[133]</a> Current efficiencies range 1–6.5%,<a href="#cite_note-:0-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> however theoretical analyses show promise beyond 10% efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-:1-133">[133]</a> Many different configurations of OPV exist using different materials for each layer. OPV technology rivals existing PV technologies in terms of EPBT even if they currently present a shorter operational lifetime. A 2013 study analyzed 12 different configurations all with 2% efficiency, the EPBT ranged from 0.29 to 0.52 years for 1 m2 of PV.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> The average CO2-eq/kWh for OPV is 54.922 grams.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermophotovoltaics">Thermophotovoltaics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Thermophotovoltaics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic_energy_conversion" title="Thermophotovoltaic energy conversion">Thermophotovoltaic energy conversion</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermophotovoltaic_energy_conversion&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic_energy_conversion" title="Thermophotovoltaic energy conversion">Thermophotovoltaic</a> (TPV) energy conversion is a direct conversion process from heat to <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> via <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>. A basic thermophotovoltaic system consists of a hot object emitting <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal radiation</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic">photovoltaic</a> cell similar to a <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</a> but tuned to the <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a> being emitted from the hot object.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> As TPV systems generally work at lower temperatures than solar cells, their efficiencies tend to be low. Offsetting this through the use of multi-junction cells based on non-silicon materials is common, but generally very expensive. This currently limits TPV to niche roles like <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">spacecraft</a> power and <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> collection from larger systems like <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbines</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_module_alignment">Solar module alignment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Solar module alignment">edit</a>]</div> A number of solar modules may also be mounted vertically above each other in a tower, if the <a href="/wiki/Zenith_distance" class="mw-redirect" title="Zenith distance">zenith distance</a> of the Sun is greater than zero, and the tower can be turned horizontally as a whole and each module additionally around a horizontal axis. In such a tower the modules can follow the Sun exactly. Such a device may be described as a <a href="/wiki/Turntable_ladder#Turntable_ladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Turntable ladder">ladder</a> mounted on a turnable disk. Each step of that ladder is the middle axis of a rectangular solar panel. In case the zenith distance of the Sun reaches zero, the "ladder" may be rotated to the north or the south to avoid a solar module producing a shadow on a lower one. Instead of an exactly vertical tower one can choose a tower with an axis directed to the <a href="/wiki/Polar_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar star">polar star</a>, meaning that it is parallel to the rotation axis of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. In this case the angle between the axis and the Sun is always larger than 66 degrees. During a day it is only necessary to turn the panels around this axis to follow the Sun. Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing)<a href="#cite_note-huliq.com-138">[138]</a> or built into the roof or walls of a building (<a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics" title="Building-integrated photovoltaics">building-integrated photovoltaics</a>). Where land may be limited, PV can be deployed as <a href="/wiki/Floating_solar" title="Floating solar">floating solar</a>. In 2008 the Far Niente Winery pioneered the world's first "floatovoltaic" system by installing 994 photovoltaic solar panels onto 130 pontoons and floating them on the winery's irrigation pond.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> A benefit of the set up is that the panels are kept at a lower temperature than they would be on land, leading to a higher efficiency of solar energy conversion. The floating panels also reduce the amount of water lost through evaporation and inhibit the growth of algae.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">Concentrator photovoltaics</a> is a technology that contrary to conventional flat-plate PV systems uses lenses and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, but highly efficient, <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-junction">multi-junction</a> solar cells. These systems sometimes use <a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">solar trackers</a> and a cooling system to increase their efficiency. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efficiency">Efficiency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Efficiency">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png/330px-Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png/495px-Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png/660px-Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png 2x" data-file-width="3217" data-file-height="1638" /></a><figcaption>Best research-cell efficiencies</figcaption></figure> In 2019, the world record for solar cell efficiency at 47.1% was achieved by using <a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">multi-junction</a> <a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">concentrator</a> solar cells, developed at National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Colorado, US.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The highest efficiencies achieved without concentration include a material by <a href="/wiki/Sharp_Corporation" title="Sharp Corporation">Sharp Corporation</a> at 35.8% using a proprietary triple-junction manufacturing technology in 2009,<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> and Boeing Spectrolab (40.7% also using a triple-layer design). There is an ongoing effort to increase the conversion efficiency of PV cells and modules, primarily for competitive advantage. In order to increase the efficiency of solar cells, it is important to choose a semiconductor material with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">band gap</a> that matches the solar spectrum. This will enhance the electrical and optical properties. Improving the method of charge collection is also useful for increasing the efficiency. There are several groups of materials that are being developed. Ultrahigh-efficiency devices (η>30%)<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> are made by using GaAs and GaInP2 semiconductors with multijunction tandem cells. High-quality, single-crystal silicon materials are used to achieve high-efficiency, low cost cells (η>20%). Recent developments in organic photovoltaic cells (OPVs) have made significant advancements in power conversion efficiency from 3% to over 15% since their introduction in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> To date, the highest reported power conversion efficiency ranges 6.7–8.94% for small molecule, 8.4–10.6% for polymer OPVs, and 7–21% for perovskite OPVs.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> OPVs are expected to play a major role in the PV market. Recent improvements have increased the efficiency and lowered cost, while remaining environmentally-benign and renewable. Several companies have begun embedding <a href="/wiki/Power_optimizer" title="Power optimizer">power optimizers</a> into PV modules called <a href="/wiki/Smart_module" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart module">smart modules</a>. These modules perform <a href="/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking" title="Maximum power point tracking">maximum power point tracking</a> (MPPT) for each module individually, measure performance data for monitoring, and provide additional safety features. Such modules can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to decrease.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> One of the major causes for the decreased performance of cells is overheating. The efficiency of a solar cell declines by about 0.5% for every 1 degree Celsius increase in temperature. This means that a 100 degree increase in surface temperature could decrease the efficiency of a solar cell by about half. Self-cooling solar cells are one solution to this problem. Rather than using energy to cool the surface, pyramid and cone shapes can be formed from <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a>, and attached to the surface of a solar panel. Doing so allows visible light to reach the <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>, but reflects <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> rays (which carry heat).<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Advantages">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><dl><dt>Pollution and energy in production</dt></dl></li></ul> The 122 <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(power)#petawatt_(1015_watts)" title="Orders of magnitude (power)">PW</a> of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is plentiful—almost 10,000 times more than the 13 TW equivalent of average power consumed in 2005 by humans.<a href="#cite_note-Smil-150">[150]</a> This abundance leads to the suggestion that it will not be long before solar energy will become the world's primary energy source.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Additionally, solar radiation has the highest power density (global mean of 170 W/m2) among renewable energies.<a href="#cite_note-Smil-150">[150]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Solar power is pollution-free during use, which enables it to cut down on pollution when it is substituted for other energy sources. For example, <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a> estimated that 52,000 people per year die prematurely in the U.S. from coal-fired power plant pollution<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> and all but one of these deaths could be prevented from using PV to replace coal.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Production end-wastes and emissions are manageable using existing pollution controls. End-of-use recycling technologies are under development<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> and policies are being produced that encourage recycling from producers.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> PV installations could ideally operate for 100 years or even more<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> with little maintenance or intervention after their initial set-up, so after the initial <a href="/wiki/Capital_cost" title="Capital cost">capital cost</a> of building any solar power plant, <a href="/wiki/Operating_cost" title="Operating cost">operating costs</a> are extremely low compared to existing power technologies. Grid-connected solar electricity can be used locally thus reducing transmission/distribution losses (transmission losses in the US were approximately 7.2% in 1995).<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <ul><li><dl><dt>Solar cell research investment</dt></dl></li></ul> Compared to fossil and nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested in the development of solar cells, so there is considerable room for improvement. Nevertheless, experimental <a href="/wiki/High_efficiency_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="High efficiency solar cells">high efficiency solar cells</a> already have efficiencies of over 40% in case of concentrating photovoltaic cells<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> and efficiencies are rapidly rising while mass-production costs are rapidly falling.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <ul><li><dl><dt>Housing subsidies</dt></dl></li></ul> In some states of the United States, much of the investment in a home-mounted system may be lost if the homeowner moves and the buyer puts less value on the system than the seller. The city of <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a> developed an innovative financing method to remove this limitation, by adding a tax assessment that is transferred with the home to pay for the solar panels.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Now known as <a href="/wiki/PACE_financing" title="PACE financing">PACE</a>, Property Assessed Clean Energy, 30 U.S. states have duplicated this solution.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Disadvantages">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Impact on electricity network</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Renewables_need_flexible_backup_not_baseload.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Renewables_need_flexible_backup_not_baseload.png/220px-Renewables_need_flexible_backup_not_baseload.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Renewables_need_flexible_backup_not_baseload.png/330px-Renewables_need_flexible_backup_not_baseload.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Renewables_need_flexible_backup_not_baseload.png/440px-Renewables_need_flexible_backup_not_baseload.png 2x" data-file-width="4168" data-file-height="3201" /></a><figcaption>Grids with high penetration of renewable energy sources generally need more flexible generation rather than baseload generation.</figcaption></figure> For behind-the-meter rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes two-way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid, allowing for <a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">net metering</a>. However, electricity networks traditionally are not designed to deal with two-way energy transfer, which may introduce technical issues. An over-voltage issue may come out as the electricity flows from these PV households back to the network.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> There are solutions to manage the over-voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control equipment at electricity distributor level, re-conductor the electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and costs related to these solutions. High generation during the middle of the day reduces the net generation demand, but higher peak net demand as the sun goes down can require rapid ramping of utility generating stations, producing a load profile called the <a href="/wiki/Duck_curve" title="Duck curve">duck curve</a>. <ul><li>Implications for electricity bill management and energy investment</li></ul> There is no silver bullet in electricity or energy demand and bill management, because customers (sites) have different specific situations, e.g. different comfort/convenience needs, different electricity tariffs, or different usage patterns. Electricity tariff may have a few elements, such as daily access and metering charge, energy charge (based on kWh, MWh) or peak demand charge (e.g. a price for the highest 30min energy consumption in a month). PV is a promising option for reducing energy charges when electricity prices are reasonably high and continuously increasing, such as in Australia and Germany. However, for sites with peak demand charge in place, PV may be less attractive if peak demands mostly occur in the late afternoon to early evening, for example in residential communities. Overall, energy investment is largely an economic decision and it is better to make investment decisions based on systematic evaluation of options in operational improvement, energy efficiency, onsite generation and energy storage.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Photovoltaics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a>.</div></div> </div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid 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0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Overly_detailed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-overly_detailed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, 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Please help by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_forking#Article_spinoffs:_.22Summary_style.22_meta-articles_and_summary_sections" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Content forking">spinning off</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Handling_trivia#Recommendations_for_handling_trivia" title="Wikipedia:Handling trivia">relocating</a> any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">Wikipedia's inclusion policy</a>. (September 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrivoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrivoltaic">Agrivoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Solar_Energy_Society" title="American Solar Energy Society">American Solar Energy Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomalous_photovoltaic_effect" title="Anomalous photovoltaic effect">Anomalous photovoltaic effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_in_renewable_energy#Solar_photovoltaic_power_generation" title="Copper in renewable energy">Copper in renewable energy § Solar photovoltaic power generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">Energy demand management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromotive_force#Solar_cell" title="Electromotive force">Electromotive force § Solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaics_companies" title="List of photovoltaics companies">List of photovoltaics companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemical_cell" title="Photoelectrochemical cell">Photoelectrochemical cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_efficiency#Quantum_efficiency_of_solar_cells" title="Quantum efficiency">Quantum efficiency § Quantum efficiency of solar cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_fabric" title="Solar cell fabric">Solar cell fabric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_module_quality_assurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar module quality assurance">Solar module quality assurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_photovoltaic_monitoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar photovoltaic monitoring">Solar photovoltaic monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">Solar power by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">Solar thermal energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of solar cell">Theory of solar cell</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mayumi2017-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mayumi2017_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mayumi2017_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription 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Energy Policy. 38 (11): 7041–7047. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010EnPol..38.7041M">2010EnPol..38.7041M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enpol.2010.07.023">10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.023</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+Policy&rft.atitle=Producer+Responsibility+and+Recycling+Solar+Photovoltaic+Modules&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=7041-7047&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.enpol.2010.07.023&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010EnPol..38.7041M&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=N.C.&rft.au=Pearce%2C+J.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fhal-02120502%2Ffile%2FProducer_Responsibility_and_Recycling_So.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotovoltaics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hienergypeople.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-solar-energy/">Advantages and disadvantages of solar energy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131226071416/http://www.hienergypeople.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-solar-energy/">Archived</a> 26 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Retrieved on 3 June 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602054309/http://www.cityofberkeley.info/ContentDisplay.aspx?id=26580">"Berkeley FIRST Solar Financing – City of Berkeley, CA"</a>. cityofberkeley.info. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cityofberkeley.info/ContentDisplay.aspx?id=26580">the original</a> on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cityofberkeley.info&rft.atitle=Berkeley+FIRST+Solar+Financing+%E2%80%93+City+of+Berkeley%2C+CA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cityofberkeley.info%2FContentDisplay.aspx%3Fid%3D26580&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotovoltaics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsireusa.org/solar/solarpolicyguide/?id=26">DSIRE Solar Portal</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309110618/http://www.dsireusa.org/solar/solarpolicyguide/?id=26">Archived</a> 9 March 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Dsireusa.org (4 April 2011). Retrieved on 3 June 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerLiuAminWagner2018" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Wendy; Liu, Aaron; Amin, Zakaria; Wagner, Andreas (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu10041224">"Power Quality and Rooftop-Photovoltaic Households: An Examination of Measured Data at Point of Customer Connection"</a>. Sustainability. 10 (4): 1224. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu10041224">10.3390/su10041224</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sustainability&rft.atitle=Power+Quality+and+Rooftop-Photovoltaic+Households%3A+An+Examination+of+Measured+Data+at+Point+of+Customer+Connection&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1224&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fsu10041224&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft.au=Liu%2C+Aaron&rft.au=Amin%2C+Zakaria&rft.au=Wagner%2C+Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fsu10041224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotovoltaics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> L. Liu, W. Miller, and G. Ledwich. (2017) Solutions for reducing facilities electricity costs. Australian Ageing Agenda. 39-40. Available: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.australianageingagenda.com.au/2017/10/27/solutions-reducing-facility-electricity-costs/">https://www.australianageingagenda.com.au/2017/10/27/solutions-reducing-facility-electricity-costs/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190520033459/https://www.australianageingagenda.com.au/2017/10/27/solutions-reducing-facility-electricity-costs/">Archived</a> 20 May 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerLiuAminGray2018" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Wendy; Liu, Lei Aaron; Amin, Zakaria; Gray, Matthew (2018). "Involving occupants in net-zero-energy solar housing retrofits: An Australian sub-tropical case study". Solar Energy. 159: 390–404. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018SoEn..159..390M">2018SoEn..159..390M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.solener.2017.10.008">10.1016/j.solener.2017.10.008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Solar+Energy&rft.atitle=Involving+occupants+in+net-zero-energy+solar+housing+retrofits%3A+An+Australian+sub-tropical+case+study&rft.volume=159&rft.pages=390-404&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.solener.2017.10.008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018SoEn..159..390M&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft.au=Liu%2C+Lei+Aaron&rft.au=Amin%2C+Zakaria&rft.au=Gray%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotovoltaics" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Photovoltaics&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Photovoltaics <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Photovoltaics">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Photovoltaics&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photovoltaics" title="Template talk:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photovoltaics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photovoltaics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Photovoltaics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">Photoelectric effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">Solar irradiance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_constant" title="Solar constant">Solar constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Solar cell efficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_efficiency#Quantum_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cell efficiency">Quantum efficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_power_(photovoltaic)" title="Nominal power (photovoltaic)">Nominal power (Watt-peak)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cell" title="Thin-film solar cell">Thin-film solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-junction_solar_cell" title="Multi-junction solar cell">Multi-junction solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-generation_photovoltaic_cell" title="Third-generation photovoltaic cell">Third-generation photovoltaic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell_research" title="Solar cell research">Solar cell research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermophotovoltaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermophotovoltaic">Thermophotovoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_efficiency_limit" title="Thermodynamic efficiency limit">Thermodynamic efficiency limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun-free_photovoltaics" title="Sun-free photovoltaics">Sun-free photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarizing_organic_photovoltaics" title="Polarizing organic photovoltaics">Polarizing organic photovoltaics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_materials" title="List of semiconductor materials">List of semiconductor materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystalline_silicon" title="Crystalline silicon">Crystalline silicon (c-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycrystalline_silicon" title="Polycrystalline silicon">Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocrystalline_silicon" title="Monocrystalline silicon">Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride" title="Cadmium telluride">Cadmium telluride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide" title="Copper indium gallium selenide">Copper indium gallium selenide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silicon" title="Amorphous silicon">Amorphous silicon (a-Si)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_photovoltaics" title="Growth of photovoltaics">Growth of photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_cells" title="Timeline of solar cells">Timeline of solar cells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanocrystal_solar_cell" title="Nanocrystal solar cell">Nanocrystal solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">Organic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_dot_solar_cell" title="Quantum dot solar cell">Quantum dot solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_solar_cell" title="Hybrid solar cell">Hybrid solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmonic_solar_cell" title="Plasmonic solar cell">Plasmonic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes_in_photovoltaics" title="Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics">Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell" title="Dye-sensitized solar cell">Dye-sensitized solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_telluride_photovoltaics" title="Cadmium telluride photovoltaics">Cadmium telluride photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_indium_gallium_selenide_solar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells">Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_solar_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Printed solar panel">Printed solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perovskite_solar_cell" title="Perovskite solar cell">Perovskite solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterojunction_solar_cell" title="Heterojunction solar cell">Heterojunction solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">Solar panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_system" title="Balance of system">Balance of system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charge_controller" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar charge controller">Solar charge controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_inverter" title="Solar inverter">Solar inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_mounting_system" title="Photovoltaic mounting system">Photovoltaic mounting system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">Solar tracker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_shingles" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar shingles">Solar shingles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_mirror#Photovoltaic_augmentation" title="Solar mirror">Solar mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronverter" title="Synchronverter">Synchronverter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">System concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_power_point_tracking" title="Maximum power point tracking">Maximum power point tracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_factor_(solar_cell)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fill factor (solar cell)">Fill factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_photovoltaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentrated photovoltaics">Concentrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_thermal_hybrid_solar_collector" title="Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector">Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-based solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system_performance" title="Photovoltaic system performance">PV system performance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar-powered_products" title="List of solar-powered products">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Appliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_refrigerator" title="Solar-powered refrigerator">Solar-powered refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#Photovoltaic_(PV)_solar_cooling" title="Solar air conditioning">Solar air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lamp" title="Solar lamp">Solar lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_charger" title="Solar charger">Solar charger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_pump" title="Solar-powered pump">Solar-powered pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_watch" title="Solar-powered watch">Solar-powered watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Tuki" title="Solar Tuki">Solar Tuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_keyboard" title="Photovoltaic keyboard">Photovoltaic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_road_stud" title="Solar road stud">Solar road stud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_calculator" title="Solar-powered calculator">Solar-powered calculator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_radio" title="Solar-powered radio">Solar-powered radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_flashlight" title="Solar-powered flashlight">Solar-powered flashlight</a></li> <li>Solar-powered fan</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_street_light" title="Solar street light">Solar street light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_traffic_light" title="Solar traffic light">Solar traffic light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Land transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car" title="Solar car">Solar car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_roadway" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar roadway">Solar roadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_golf_cart" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar golf cart">Solar golf cart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Quiet_Achiever" title="The Quiet Achiever">The Quiet Achiever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Air transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Solar_Riser" title="Mauro Solar Riser">Mauro Solar Riser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">Solar panels on spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-Powered_Aircraft_Developments_Solar_One" title="Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One">Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossamer_Penguin" class="mw-redirect" title="Gossamer Penguin">Gossamer Penguin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qinetiq_Zephyr" class="mw-redirect" title="Qinetiq Zephyr">Qinetiq Zephyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Challenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar Challenger">Solar Challenger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Water transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat#Types" title="Electric boat">Solar boat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Solar vehicle racing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_car_racing" title="Solar car racing">Solar car racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_car_teams" title="List of solar car teams">List of solar car teams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_challenge_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Solar challenge (disambiguation)">Solar challenges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Solar_Challenge" title="World Solar Challenge">World Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Solar_Challenge" title="American Solar Challenge">American Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formula_Sun_Grand_Prix" title="Formula Sun Grand Prix">Formula Sun Grand Prix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Cup" title="Solar Cup">Solar Cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_Solar_Challenge" title="Frisian Solar Challenge">Frisian Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Splash" title="Solar Splash">Solar Splash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Solar_Challenge" title="South African Solar Challenge">South African Solar Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_de_Sol" title="Tour de Sol">Tour de Sol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunt-Winston_School_Solar_Car_Challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge">Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_Model_Solar_Vehicle_Challenge" title="Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge">Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">Generation systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="PV_power_station" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">PV power station</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaic_power_stations" title="List of photovoltaic power stations">List of photovoltaic power stations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Building-mounted</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rooftop_photovoltaic_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooftop photovoltaic power station">Rooftop photovoltaic power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics" title="Building-integrated photovoltaics">Building-integrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Ark" title="Solar Ark">Solar Ark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Australia" title="Solar power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Belgium" title="Solar power in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Bulgaria" title="Solar power in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Canada" title="Solar power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Chile" title="Solar power in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Solar power in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_France" title="Solar power in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Greece" title="Solar power in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Netherlands" title="Solar power in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Romania" title="Solar power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_South_Africa" title="Solar power in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain" title="Solar power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Switzerland" title="Solar power in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Thailand" title="Solar power in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">US</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em;text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_photovoltaics_companies" title="List of photovoltaics companies">PV companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_photovoltaics_production" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by photovoltaics production">List of countries by photovoltaics production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:11em;text-align: left;background-color: #eee;">Individual producers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Solar" title="First Solar">First Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanwha_Q_CELLS" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanwha Q CELLS">Hanwha Q CELLS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JA_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="JA Solar">JA Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motech_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Motech Solar">Motech Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Corporation" title="Renewable Energy Corporation">REC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_Solar" title="Sharp Solar">Sharp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Frontier" title="Solar Frontier">Solar Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solyndra" title="Solyndra">Solyndra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SUNGEN_International_Limited" title="SUNGEN International Limited">Sungen Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunpower" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunpower">Sunpower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suntech" class="mw-redirect" title="Suntech">Suntech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trina_Solar" title="Trina Solar">Trina Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yingli_Solar" class="mw-redirect" title="Yingli Solar">Yingli Solar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Photovoltaics" title="Category:Photovoltaics">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Photovoltaics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Photovoltaics">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Solar_energy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_energy" title="Template:Solar energy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Solar_energy" title="Template talk:Solar energy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Solar_energy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Solar energy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Solar_energy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar energy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_solar_energy_articles" title="Index of solar energy articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_solar_energy" title="Outline of solar energy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_solar_cells" title="Timeline of solar cells">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">The Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_irradiance" title="Solar irradiance">Solar irradiance</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Gemasolar_Thermosolar_Plant_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Gemasolar_Thermosolar_Plant_3.jpg/125px-Gemasolar_Thermosolar_Plant_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Gemasolar_Thermosolar_Plant_3.jpg/188px-Gemasolar_Thermosolar_Plant_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Gemasolar_Thermosolar_Plant_3.jpg/250px-Gemasolar_Thermosolar_Plant_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5015" data-file-height="2700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg/125px-PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg/188px-PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg/250px-PS10_solar_power_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="436" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:Planta_Solar_PS20.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Planta_Solar_PS20.jpg/125px-Planta_Solar_PS20.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Planta_Solar_PS20.jpg/188px-Planta_Solar_PS20.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Planta_Solar_PS20.jpg/250px-Planta_Solar_PS20.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4715" data-file-height="2900" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy" title="Solar thermal energy">Thermal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Passive_solar_building_design" title="Passive solar building design">Passive solar building design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning" title="Solar air conditioning">Solar air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_chimney" title="Solar chimney">Solar chimney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">Solar pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_water_heating" title="Solar water heating">Solar water heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_mass" title="Thermal mass">Thermal mass</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Photovoltaics</a> and related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">Concentrator photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_solar" title="Floating solar">Floating solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanocrystal_solar_cell" title="Nanocrystal solar cell">Nanocrystal solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_solar_cell" title="Organic solar cell">Organic solar cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_system" title="Photovoltaic system">Photovoltaic array</a> (and systems)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_effect" title="Photovoltaic effect">Photovoltaic effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">Photovoltaic module</a> (solar panel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_power_station" title="Photovoltaic power station">Photovoltaic power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">Concentrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics" title="Concentrator photovoltaics">Concentrator photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliostat" title="Heliostat">Heliostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabolic_trough" title="Parabolic trough">Parabolic trough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_tower" title="Solar power tower">Solar power tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_tracker" title="Solar tracker">Solar tracker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental and proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_chemical" title="Solar chemical">Solar chemical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">artificial photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-pumped_laser" title="Solar-pumped laser">Solar-pumped laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_updraft_tower" title="Solar updraft tower">Solar updraft tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoelectric_generator" title="Thermoelectric generator">Thermoelectric generator</a></li> <li>Space-related <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_sail" title="Magnetic sail">Magnetic sail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_thermal_rocket" title="Solar thermal rocket">Solar thermal rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">Space-based solar power</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_by_country" title="Solar power by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Armenia" title="Solar power in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Australia" title="Solar power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Austria" title="Solar power in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Belgium" title="Solar power in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Brazil" title="Solar power in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Canada" title="Solar power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Solar power in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Denmark" title="Solar power in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Germany" title="Solar power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Greece" title="Solar power in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_India" title="Solar power in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Israel" title="Solar power in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Japan" title="Solar power in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar power in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Mexico" title="Solar power in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Morocco" title="Solar power in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Myanmar" title="Solar power in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_Netherlands" title="Solar power in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_New_Zealand" title="Solar power in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Pakistan" title="Solar power in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Portugal" title="Solar power in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Romania" title="Solar power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Solar power in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Somalia" title="Solar power in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_South_Africa" title="Solar power in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Spain" title="Solar power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Thailand" title="Solar power in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Turkey" title="Solar power in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Ukraine" title="Solar power in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Solar power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_the_United_States" title="Solar power in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Yemen" title="Solar power in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Shade_Control_Act" title="Solar Shade Control Act">Solar Shade Control Act</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Distribution and uses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Storage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-change_material" title="Phase-change material">Phase-change material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy_storage" title="Thermal energy storage">Thermal energy storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_thermal_energy_storage" title="Seasonal thermal energy storage">seasonal</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adoption</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_incentives_for_photovoltaics" title="Financial incentives for photovoltaics">Financial incentives for photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">Electric aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_boat" title="Electric boat">Electric boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_balloon" title="Solar balloon">Solar balloon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_vehicle" title="Solar vehicle">Solar vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_water_heating" title="Solar water heating">Solar water heating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrivoltaics" title="Agrivoltaics">Agrivoltaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">Greenhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytunnel" title="Polytunnel">Polytunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Row_cover" title="Row cover">Row cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-powered_pump" title="Solar-powered pump">Solar-powered pump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Building</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building-integrated_photovoltaics" title="Building-integrated photovoltaics">Building-integrated photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_solar_building_design" title="Passive solar building design">Passive solar building design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lighting</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daylighting_(architecture)" title="Daylighting (architecture)">Daylighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_solar_lighting" title="Hybrid solar lighting">Hybrid solar lighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_tube" title="Light tube">Light tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_lamp" title="Solar lamp">Solar lamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Tuki" title="Solar Tuki">Solar Tuki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Process heat</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salt_evaporation_pond" title="Salt evaporation pond">Salt evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_furnace" title="Solar furnace">Solar furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_pond" title="Solar pond">Solar pond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooking</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cooker" title="Solar cooker">Solar cooker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disinfection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_solarization" title="Soil solarization">Soil solarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_water_disinfection" title="Solar water disinfection">Solar water disinfection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Desalination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_still" title="Solar still">Solar still</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water heating</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_combisystem" title="Solar combisystem">Solar combisystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_controller" title="Solar controller">Solar controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_water_heating" title="Solar water heating">Solar water heating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Photovoltaics" title="Template:Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_power_by_country" title="Template:Solar power by country">Solar power by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Solar_energy" title="Category:Solar energy">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Solar_energy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Solar energy">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox 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