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<span>Classifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_land_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_land_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Relationship to land plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_land_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Turfs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turfs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Turfs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turfs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Physiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbiotic_algae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbiotic_algae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Symbiotic algae</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Symbiotic_algae-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Symbiotic algae subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Symbiotic_algae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lichens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lichens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Lichens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lichens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coral_reefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coral_reefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Coral reefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coral_reefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sea_sponges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sea_sponges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Sea sponges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sea_sponges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Life cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Numbers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Distribution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_associations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_associations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Cultural associations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_associations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Cultivation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultivation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cultivation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cultivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seaweed_farming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seaweed_farming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Seaweed farming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seaweed_farming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioreactors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioreactors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Bioreactors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioreactors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Agar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alginates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alginates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Alginates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alginates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_source" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_source"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Energy source</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_source-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fertilizer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fertilizer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Fertilizer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fertilizer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.5</span> <span>Nutrition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollution_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollution_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.6</span> <span>Pollution control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollution_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polymers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polymers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.7</span> <span>Polymers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polymers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioremediation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioremediation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.8</span> <span>Bioremediation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioremediation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pigments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pigments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.9</span> <span>Pigments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pigments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stabilizing_substances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stabilizing_substances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.10</span> <span>Stabilizing substances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stabilizing_substances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.1</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2</span> <span>Regional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Britain_and_Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain_and_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.1</span> <span>Britain and Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain_and_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.2</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.3</span> <span>New Zealand</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.4</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arctic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arctic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.5</span> <span>Arctic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arctic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greenland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.6</span> <span>Greenland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Faroe_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Faroe_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.7</span> <span>Faroe Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Faroe_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canary_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canary_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.8</span> <span>Canary Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canary_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morocco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morocco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.9</span> <span>Morocco</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morocco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.10</span> <span>South Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17.2.11</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Algae</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 121 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-121" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">121 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alg" title="Alg – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Alg" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%8B%E1%89%85%E1%88%8B%E1%88%9A" title="ዋቅላሚ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዋቅላሚ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8" title="طحالب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طحالب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algas" title="Algas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Algas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alg%C3%A2" title="Algâ – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Algâ" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87" title="শেলাই – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="শেলাই" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yg%C3%A1u" title="Ygáu – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ygáu" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yosunlar" title="Yosunlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yosunlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="یوسون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یوسون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2" title="শৈবাল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="শৈবাল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%B3-l%C5%ABi" title="Chó-lūi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chó-lūi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AB%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%8B%D2%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ылымыҡтар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ылымыҡтар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%96" title="Водарасці – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Водарасці" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%96" title="Водарасьці – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Водарасьці" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Водорасли – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Водорасли" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8D" title="ཆུ་བལ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཆུ་བལ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezhin" title="Bezhin – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Bezhin" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%C4%83" title="Нальă – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Нальă" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98asy" title="Řasy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Řasy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alger" title="Alger – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Alger" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetikad" title="Vetikad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vetikad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%B7" title="Φύκη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φύκη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8C%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Ведьбарсей – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Ведьбарсей" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algo" title="Algo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Algo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%A8%DA%A9" title="جلبک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جلبک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae" title="Algae – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Algae" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algue" title="Algue – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Algue" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algey" title="Algey – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Algey" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%B2" title="લીલ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="લીલ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EB%A5%98_(%EC%88%98%EC%83%9D_%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC)" title="조류 (수생 생물) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="조류 (수생 생물)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ջրիմուռներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջրիմուռներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2" title="शैवाल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शैवाल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algo" title="Algo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Algo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C4%A1iu%C4%A1miutaq_nauriaq" title="Taġiuġmiutaq nauriaq – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Taġiuġmiutaq nauriaq" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Iñupiatun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82%C3%A6" title="Донзайтæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Донзайтæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%B6rungar" title="Þörungar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þörungar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA" title="אצות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אצות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B2" title="ಶೈವಲ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶೈವಲ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9B%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="წყალმცენარეები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="წყალმცენარეები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%80" title="Балдыр – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Балдыр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algi" title="Algi – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Algi" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwani" title="Mwani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mwani" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alg" title="Alg – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Alg" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alg" title="Alg – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Alg" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Балырлар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Балырлар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%C4%BC%C4%A3es" title="Aļģes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Aļģes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumbliai" title="Dumbliai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dumbliai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Алги – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Алги" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alg%C3%B4ma" title="Algôma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Algôma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%97" title="ആൽഗ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആൽഗ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2" title="शैवाल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="शैवाल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%9C%EA%AF%92%EA%AF%A5" title="ꯑꯜꯒꯥ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯜꯒꯥ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AD%E1%80%95%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ရေညှိပင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရေညှိပင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algen" title="Algen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Algen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%8A" title="लेऊ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="लेऊ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE" title="न्हा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="न्हा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E9%A1%9E" title="藻類 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="藻類" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algen" title="Algen – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Algen" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algar" title="Algar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Algar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saaphaphuu" title="Saaphaphuu – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Saaphaphuu" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suvo%CA%BBtlar" title="Suvoʻtlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Suvoʻtlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%AC" title="ਜਿਲਬ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜਿਲਬ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="الجی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الجی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8%DA%93%DB%8D" title="اوبړۍ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اوبړۍ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glony" title="Glony – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Glony" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laqu" title="Laqu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Laqu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Водоросли – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Водоросли" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Салахайдар – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Салахайдар" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2" title="ᱥᱮᱭᱟᱞᱚᱢ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱮᱭᱟᱞᱚᱢ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae" title="Algae – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Algae" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80lica" title="Àlica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Àlica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%87%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%93" title="ඇල්ගී – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඇල්ගී" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae" title="Algae – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Algae" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A" title="الجي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="الجي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riasa_(vodn%C3%BD_organizmus)" title="Riasa (vodný organizmus) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Riasa (vodný organizmus)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%DB%95%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%95" title="قەوزە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="قەوزە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Алге – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Алге" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alge" title="Alge – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Alge" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev%C3%A4" title="Levä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Levä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alger" title="Alger – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Alger" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE" title="அல்கா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அல்கா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D2%AF%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BD%D3%99%D1%80" title="Суүсемнәр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Суүсемнәр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B6%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81" title="శైవలాలు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="శైవలాలు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2" title="สาหร่าย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สาหร่าย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_yosunlar%C4%B1" title="Su yosunları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Su yosunları" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D1%82%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Вубуртчин – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Вубуртчин" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96" title="Водорості – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Водорості" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="کائی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کائی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E1%BA%A3o" title="Tảo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tảo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ale_(plante)" title="Ale (plante) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Ale (plante)" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alga" title="Alga – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Alga" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E7%B1%BB" title="藻类 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="藻类" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%97%BB" title="藻 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="藻" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" 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page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span>For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Algae_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Algae (disambiguation)">Algae (disambiguation)</a>.</span> <span>"Alga" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Alga_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Alga (disambiguation)">Alga (disambiguation)</a>.</span></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota biota-infobox"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" class="section-header" style="background:rgb(245,215,255);">Algae<div style="font-weight:normal;font-size:smaller;">An informal term for a diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotes</div><div><small>Temporal range: <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">Mesoproterozoic–present</span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gibson-2018_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson-2018-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; font-size:small; position:relative; z-index:0;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(153,192,141); left:220.50773980251px; width:15.703916975018px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,197,202); left:236.21165677753px; width:10.175705559083px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(242,249,29); left:246.38736233661px; width:3.6126376633897px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(154,217,221); left:220.50773980251px; width:29.492260197491px;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic"><span style="color:black;">Pha.</span></a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,67,112); left:113.15766426554px; width:49.263240864406px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,180,98); left:162.42090512995px; width:32.84216057627px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(254,179,66); left:195.26306570622px; width:25.244674096293px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,53,99); left:113.15766426554px; width:107.35007553697px;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><span style="color:black;">Proterozoic</span></a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(218,3,127); left:29.355417861756px; width:23.591618680621px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(244,68,159); left:52.947036542377px; width:21.894773717514px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(247,104,169); left:74.841810259891px; width:21.894773717514px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(249,155,193); left:96.736583977405px; width:16.421080288135px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,4,127); left:29.355417861756px; width:83.802246403783px;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color:black;">Archean</span></a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:12px; top:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:29.355417861756px;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(174,2,126); left:0px; width:29.355417861756px;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean"><span style="color:white;">Had.</span></a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:249px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:250px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:162.42090512995px; width:87.579094870055px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:162.42090512995px; width:87.579094870055px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:163.42090512995px; width:85.579094870055px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div></span></small></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="image-section"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:NSW_seabed_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG/220px-NSW_seabed_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG/330px-NSW_seabed_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NSW_seabed_1.JPG/440px-NSW_seabed_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="image-section">A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="image-section"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg/220px-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg/330px-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg/440px-%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1650" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="image-section">A variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="section-header" style="min-width:15em;text-align:center;background:rgb(245,215,255);"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a><span class="plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Eukaryota" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="section-header" style="background:rgb(245,215,255);">Groups included </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="section-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a>/<a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesostigmatophyceae" title="Mesostigmatophyceae">Mesostigmatophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorokybophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorokybophyceae">Chlorokybophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a> (red algae)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorarachniophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorarachniophytes">Chlorarachniophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenid" title="Euglenid">Euglenids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterokont" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterokont">Heterokonts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacillariophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillariophyceae">Bacillariophyceae</a> (Diatoms)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axodine" title="Axodine">Axodines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolidomonas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolidomonas">Bolidomonas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustigmatophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Eustigmatophyceae">Eustigmatophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaeophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaeophyceae">Phaeophyceae</a> (brown algae)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysophyceae">Chrysophyceae</a> (golden algae)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphidophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Raphidophyceae">Raphidophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synurophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Synurophyceae">Synurophyceae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthophyceae">Xanthophyceae</a> (yellow-green algae)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptophyta">Cryptophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellata" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinoflagellata">Dinoflagellata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Haptophyta">Haptophyta</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="section-header" style="background:rgb(245,215,255);">Typically excluded </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="section-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> (blue-green algae)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophyta">Embryophyta</a> (land plants)</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227369696">.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox{text-align:left;width:200px;font-size:100%}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td:not(.image-section){padding:2px 10px}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox th.section-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.section-content{text-align:left;padding:0 0.25em}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.list-section{text-align:left;padding:0 0.25em}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.taxon-section{text-align:left;padding:0 0.25em}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.image-section{text-align:center;font-size:88%}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox table.taxonomy{margin:0 auto;text-align:left;background:transparent;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox table.taxonomy tr{vertical-align:top}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox table.taxonomy td{padding:1px}</style> <p><b>Algae</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">AL</span>-ghee</i></a>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: </span><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">AL</span>-jee</i></a>;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <abbr title="singular form">sg.</abbr>: <b>alga</b> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">AL</span>-gə</i></a>) is an informal term for any <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> of a large and diverse group of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> from multiple distinct <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a>. Such organisms range from <a href="/wiki/Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">unicellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Chlorella" title="Chlorella">Chlorella</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Prototheca" title="Prototheca">Prototheca</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">macroalgae</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Macrocystis_pyrifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocystis pyrifera">giant kelp</a>, a large <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown alga</a> which may grow up to 50 metres (160 ft) in length. Most algae are aquatic organisms and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as <a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">stomata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a> that are found in <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">land plants</a>. The largest and most complex marine algae are called <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a>. In contrast, the most complex freshwater forms are the <i><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">division</a> of <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> which includes, for example, <i><a href="/wiki/Spirogyra" title="Spirogyra">Spirogyra</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Stonewort" class="mw-redirect" title="Stonewort">stoneworts</a>. Algae that are carried passively by water are <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>. </p><p>Algae constitute a <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a> group<sup id="cite_ref-Nabors-2004_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nabors-2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since they do not include a <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestor">common ancestor</a>, and although their <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>-bearing <a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">plastids</a> seem to have a single origin (from <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Keeling-2004_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keeling-2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are a prominent examples of algae that have primary <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> derived from <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiont</a> cyanobacteria. <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatoms</a> and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a>, which they acquired via <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual</a> cell division to complex forms of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> via <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Algae lack the various structures that characterize <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> (which evolved from freshwater green algae), such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) and <a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">rhizoids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">bryophytes</a> ( <a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">non-vascular plants</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylemic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloemic</a> <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Tracheophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheophyte">tracheophytes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a>). Most algae are <a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophic</a>, although some are <a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">mixotrophic</a>, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by <a href="/wiki/Osmotrophy" title="Osmotrophy">osmotrophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myzocytosis" title="Myzocytosis">myzotrophy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagotrophy</a>. Some unicellular species of green algae, many <a href="/wiki/Golden_algae" title="Golden algae">golden algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euglenid" title="Euglenid">euglenids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>, and other algae have become <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophs</a> (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes <a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a>, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the <a href="/wiki/Apicomplexans" class="mw-redirect" title="Apicomplexans">apicomplexans</a>, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed chlorophyllic plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Byproduct" class="mw-redirect" title="Byproduct">byproduct</a> of splitting <a href="/wiki/Water_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Water molecule">water molecules</a>, unlike other organisms that conduct <a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">anoxygenic photosynthesis</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria" title="Purple sulfur bacteria">purple</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">green sulfur bacteria</a>. Fossilized filamentous algae from the <a href="/wiki/Vindhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Vindhya">Vindhya</a> basin have been dated to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of the wide range of algae types, they have increasingly different industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">seaweed farming</a> practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> food cultures. More modern <a href="/wiki/Algaculture" title="Algaculture">algaculture</a> applications extend the <a href="/wiki/Edible_seaweed" title="Edible seaweed">food traditions</a> for other applications, including cattle feed, using algae for <a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediation</a> or pollution control, transforming sunlight into <a href="/wiki/Algae_fuel" title="Algae fuel">algae fuels</a> or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review found that these applications of algae could play an important role in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigate climate change</a> while providing lucrative value-added products for global economies.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_study">Etymology and study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology and study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The singular <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alga</i></span> is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">algēre</i></span>, 'be cold',<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alliga</i></span>, 'binding, entwining'.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> word for 'seaweed' was <span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">φῦκος</span></span> (<span title="Greek-language text"><i lang="el-Latn">phŷkos</i></span>), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">fūcus</i></span>, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a> <span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">פוך</span></span> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><i lang="he-Latn">pūk</i></span>), 'paint' (if not that word itself), a <a href="/wiki/Kohl_(cosmetics)" title="Kohl (cosmetics)">cosmetic eye-shadow</a> used by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a> and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study of algae is most commonly called <a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">phycology</a> (from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <i> phykos</i> 'seaweed'); the term <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/algology" class="extiw" title="wikt:algology">algology</a> is falling out of use.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classifications">Classifications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg/220px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg/330px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg/440px-Gephyrocapsa_oceanica_color.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>False-color <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_micrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning electron micrograph">scanning electron micrograph</a> of the unicellular <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophore</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Gephyrocapsa" title="Gephyrocapsa">Gephyrocapsa</a> oceanica</i></figcaption></figure> <p>One definition of algae is that they "have <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> as their primary <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_pigment" title="Photosynthetic pigment">photosynthetic pigment</a> and lack a sterile covering of cells around their <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">reproductive cells</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the colorless <i>Prototheca</i> under <i><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></i> are all devoid of any chlorophyll. Although <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> are often referred to as "blue-green algae", most authorities exclude all <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>, including cyanobacteria, from the definition of algae.<sup id="cite_ref-Nabors-2004_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nabors-2004-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The algae contain <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>. However, the exact origin of the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">Phylogeny</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">plastid</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy: </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucophytes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Rhodophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophytes">Rhodophytes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">Cryptophytes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Haptophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Haptophytes">Haptophytes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"><i>with rhodoplasts</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Euglenophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Euglenophyte">Euglenophytes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Chlorarachniophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorarachniophytes">Chlorarachniophytes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorophyte">Chlorophytes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Charophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Charophyte">Charophytes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Embryophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophytes">Land plants (Embryophyta)</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"><i>with chloroplasts</i> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Supergroup affiliation</th> <th>Members</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">Endosymbiont</a></th> <th>Summary </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Primoplantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Primoplantae">Primoplantae</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li></ul> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> </td> <td>These algae have "primary" <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of red algae have <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophylls</a> <i>a</i> and <i>c</i> (often), and <a href="/wiki/Phycobilin" title="Phycobilin">phycobilins</a>, while those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> without phycobilins. Land plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, thus the <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a> is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes the Chlorophyta, the <a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a>, and land plants are grouped together as the <a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorarachniophyte" title="Chlorarachniophyte">Chlorarachniophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenid" title="Euglenid">Euglenids</a></li></ul> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">Green algae</a> </td> <td> <p>These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae. </p><p><b>Chlorarachniophytes</b>, which belong to the phylum <a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a>, contain a small <a href="/wiki/Nucleomorph" title="Nucleomorph">nucleomorph</a>, which is a <a href="/wiki/Relict" title="Relict">relict</a> of the algae's <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a>. </p><p><b>Euglenids</b>, which belong to the phylum <a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a>, live primarily in fresh water and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. The endosymbiotic green algae may have been acquired through <a href="/wiki/Myzocytosis" title="Myzocytosis">myzocytosis</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>(Another group with green algae endosymbionts is the dinoflagellate genus <b><a href="/wiki/Lepidodinium" title="Lepidodinium">Lepidodinium</a></b>, which has replaced its original endosymbiont of red algal origin with one of green algal origin. A nucleomorph is present, and the host genome still have several red algal genes acquired through endosymbiotic gene transfer. Also the euglenid and chlorarachniophyte genome contain genes of apparent red algal ancestry)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Halvaria" title="Halvaria">Halvaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hacrobia" title="Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heterokont" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterokont">Heterokonts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Haptophyta">Haptophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">Cryptomonads</a></li></ul> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">Red algae</a> </td> <td> <p>These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>, and phycobilins. The shape can vary; they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral, or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship there.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first three of these groups (<a href="/wiki/Chromista" title="Chromista">Chromista</a>), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a <a href="/wiki/Nucleomorph" title="Nucleomorph">nucleomorph</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">cryptomonads</a>, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the <a href="/wiki/Heterokont" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterokont">heterokonts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haptophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Haptophyta">Haptophyta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">cryptomonads</a> are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but considerable diversity exists in chloroplasts within the group, and a number of endosymbiotic events apparently occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Keeling-2004_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keeling-2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexa</a>, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids called <a href="/wiki/Apicoplast" title="Apicoplast">apicoplasts</a>, which are not photosynthetic, but appear to have a common origin with <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellate</a> chloroplasts.<sup id="cite_ref-Keeling-2004_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keeling-2004-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_(Titelblatt).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png/170px-Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png/255px-Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png/340px-Gmelin_-_Historia_Fucorum_%28Titelblatt%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="1462" /></a><figcaption>Title page of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Gottlieb_Gmelin" title="Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin">Gmelin</a>'s <i>Historia Fucorum</i>, dated 1768</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/Species_Plantarum" title="Species Plantarum">Species Plantarum</a></i> (1753),<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the starting point for modern <a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">botanical nomenclature</a>, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" title="10th edition of Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i>, Linnaeus described the genera <i><a href="/wiki/Volvox" title="Volvox">Volvox</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Corallina" title="Corallina">Corallina</a></i>, and a species of <i><a href="/wiki/Acetabularia" title="Acetabularia">Acetabularia</a></i> (as <i><a href="/wiki/Madrepora" title="Madrepora">Madrepora</a></i>), among the animals. </p><p>In 1768, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Gottlieb_Gmelin" title="Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin">Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin</a> (1744–1774) published the <i>Historia Fucorum</i>, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine biology</a> to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harvey" title="William Henry Harvey">W. H. Harvey</a> (1811–1866) and <a href="/wiki/Lamouroux" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamouroux">Lamouroux</a> (1813)<sup id="cite_ref-Medlin-1997_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medlin-1997-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Otto_Friedrich_M%C3%BCller" title="Otto Friedrich Müller">O. F. Müller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg" title="Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg">Ehrenberg</a>) studying the <a href="/wiki/Infusoria" title="Infusoria">Infusoria</a> (microscopic organisms). Unlike <a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">macroalgae</a>, which were clearly viewed as plants, <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a> were frequently considered animals because they are often motile.<sup id="cite_ref-Medlin-1997_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Medlin-1997-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753),<sup id="cite_ref-Ragan-2010_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ragan-2010-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> de Jussieu (1789),<sup id="cite_ref-de_Jussieu-1789_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de_Jussieu-1789-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lamouroux (1813), Harvey (1836), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864),<sup id="cite_ref-Ragan-2010_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ragan-2010-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in further classifications, the "algae" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group.<sup id="cite_ref-Khan-2020b_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khan-2020b-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: <a href="/wiki/Cyanophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanophyte">cyanophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhodophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyte">rhodophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chrysophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysophyte">chrysophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xanthophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Xanthophyte">xanthophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">bacillariophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phaeophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaeophyte">phaeophytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate#History" title="Dinoflagellate">pyrrhophytes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">cryptophytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dinophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinophyte">dinophytes</a>), <a href="/wiki/Euglenophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Euglenophyte">euglenophytes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorophyte">chlorophytes</a>. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Bolidophyceae" title="Bolidophyceae">Bolidophyceae</a>), and others were splintered from older groups: <a href="/wiki/Charophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Charophyte">charophytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">glaucophytes</a> (from chlorophytes), many <a href="/wiki/Heterokontophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterokontophyte">heterokontophytes</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Synurophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Synurophyceae">synurophytes</a> from chrysophytes, or <a href="/wiki/Eustigmatophyte" title="Eustigmatophyte">eustigmatophytes</a> from xanthophytes), <a href="/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">haptophytes</a> (from chrysophytes), and <a href="/wiki/Chlorarachniophyte" title="Chlorarachniophyte">chlorarachniophytes</a> (from xanthophytes).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a>, later also abandoned in favour of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a>. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoans</a> in the past still have duplicated classifications (see <a href="/wiki/Ambiregnal_protist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambiregnal protist">ambiregnal protists</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae <i><a href="/wiki/Prototheca" title="Prototheca">Prototheca</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Helicosporidium" title="Helicosporidium">Helicosporidium</a></i>, parasites of metazoans, or <i><a href="/wiki/Cephaleuros" title="Cephaleuros">Cephaleuros</a></i>, parasites of plants) were originally classified as <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sporozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporozoan">sporozoans</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protistans</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">incertae sedis</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while others (e.g., the green algae <i><a href="/wiki/Phyllosiphon" title="Phyllosiphon">Phyllosiphon</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Rhodochytrium" title="Rhodochytrium">Rhodochytrium</a></i>, parasites of plants, or the red algae <i><a href="/wiki/Pterocladiophila" title="Pterocladiophila">Pterocladiophila</a></i> and <i>Gelidiocolax mammillatus</i>, parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates <i><a href="/wiki/Oodinium" title="Oodinium">Oodinium</a></i>, parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., <i><a href="/wiki/Chlorochytrium" title="Chlorochytrium">Chlorochytrium</a></i>), but later were seen as <a href="/wiki/Endophytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endophytic">endophytic</a> algae.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., <i><a href="/wiki/Beggiatoa" title="Beggiatoa">Beggiatoa</a></i>) were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the <a href="/wiki/Apicomplexan" class="mw-redirect" title="Apicomplexan">apicomplexans</a> are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Algae are <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a> thus their origin cannot be traced back to single hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestor">common ancestor</a>. It is thought that they came into existence when photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Coccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccus">coccoid</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> got <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytized</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">unicellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophic">heterotrophic</a> eukaryote (a <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protist</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Reyes-Prieto-2007_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reyes-Prieto-2007-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> giving rise to double-membranous primary <a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">plastids</a>. Such <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenic</a> events (primary symbiogenesis) are believed to have occurred more than 1.5 billion years ago during the <a href="/wiki/Calymmian" title="Calymmian">Calymmian</a> <a href="/wiki/Period_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Period (geology)">period</a>, early in <a href="/wiki/Boring_Billion" title="Boring Billion">Boring Billion</a>, but it is difficult to track the key events because of so much time gap.<sup id="cite_ref-Khan-2020a_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khan-2020a-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Primary symbiogenesis gave rise to three <a href="/wiki/Division_(taxonomy)" title="Division (taxonomy)">divisions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastid" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeplastid">archaeplastids</a>, namely the <a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>), <a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a> ("grey algae"), whose plastids further spread into other protist lineages through eukaryote-eukaryote <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a>, engulfments and subsequent endosymbioses (secondary and tertiary symbiogenesis).<sup id="cite_ref-Khan-2020a_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khan-2020a-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process of serial cell "capture" and "enslavement" explains the diversity of photosynthetic eukaryotes.<sup id="cite_ref-Reyes-Prieto-2007_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reyes-Prieto-2007-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent <a href="/wiki/Genomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomic">genomic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phylogenomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogenomic">phylogenomic</a> approaches have significantly clarified plastid <a href="/wiki/Genome_evolution" title="Genome evolution">genome evolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal movement</a> of <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiont</a> <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a> to the "host" <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclear</a> <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>, and plastid spread throughout the eukaryotic <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biology)" title="Tree of life (biology)">tree of life</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Reyes-Prieto-2007_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reyes-Prieto-2007-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_to_land_plants">Relationship to land plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relationship to land plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fossils of isolated <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> suggest <a href="/wiki/Land_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Land plant">land plants</a> may have been around as long as 475 <a href="/wiki/Million_years_ago" title="Million years ago">million years ago</a> (mya) during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Cambrian">Late Cambrian</a>/<a href="/wiki/Early_Ordovician" title="Early Ordovician">Early Ordovician</a> period,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(motility)" title="Sessility (motility)">sessile</a> shallow <a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">freshwater</a> <a href="/wiki/Charophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Charophyte">charophyte</a> algae much like <i><a href="/wiki/Chara_(alga)" title="Chara (alga)">Chara</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kenrick-1997_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenrick-1997-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which likely got stranded ashore when <a href="/wiki/Riverine" class="mw-redirect" title="Riverine">riverine</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lacustrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Lacustrine">lacustrine</a> <a href="/wiki/Water_level" title="Water level">water levels</a> dropped during <a href="/wiki/Dry_season" title="Dry season">dry seasons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Raven-2001_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raven-2001-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These charophyte algae probably already developed filamentous <a href="/wiki/Thalli" class="mw-redirect" title="Thalli">thalli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Holdfast_(biology)" title="Holdfast (biology)">holdfasts</a> that superficially resembled <a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">plant stems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a>, and probably had an isomorphic <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>. They perhaps evolved some 850 mya<sup id="cite_ref-Knauth-2009_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knauth-2009-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and might even be as early as 1 <a href="/wiki/Gya" class="mw-redirect" title="Gya">Gya</a> during the late phase of the <a href="/wiki/Boring_Billion" title="Boring Billion">Boring Billion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Strother-2011_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strother-2011-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg/170px-Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg/255px-Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg/340px-Kelp-forest-Monterey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1455" data-file-height="2301" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">kelp forest</a> exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus</figcaption></figure> <p>A range of algal <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphologies</a> is exhibited, and <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergence</a> of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular <a href="/wiki/Thallus" title="Thallus">thalli</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">reds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">browns</a>, and some <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">chlorophytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Xiao-2004_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xiao-2004-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the <a href="/wiki/Florideophyceae" title="Florideophyceae">florideophyte</a> reds, various browns, and the charophytes.<sup id="cite_ref-Xiao-2004_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xiao-2004-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the <a href="/wiki/Horsetail" class="mw-redirect" title="Horsetail">horsetails</a> occur at the nodes.<sup id="cite_ref-Xiao-2004_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xiao-2004-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Conceptacle" title="Conceptacle">Conceptacles</a> are another <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a> trait; they appear in the <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hildenbrandiales" title="Hildenbrandiales">Hildenbrandiales</a>, as well as the browns.<sup id="cite_ref-Xiao-2004_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xiao-2004-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the simpler algae are unicellular <a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">flagellates</a> or <a href="/wiki/Amoeboid" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoeboid">amoeboids</a>, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">lifecycle</a> of a species, are </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">Colonial</a>: small, regular groups of motile cells</li> <li>Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in <a href="/wiki/Mucilage" title="Mucilage">mucilage</a></li> <li>Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls</li> <li>Palmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage</li> <li>Filamentous: a string of connected nonmotile cells, sometimes branching</li> <li>Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues</li></ul> <p>In three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—some of which may reach 50 m in length (<a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelps</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—the red algae,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the green algae.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see <a href="/wiki/Charales" title="Charales">Charales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a>), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">Embryophytes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turfs">Turfs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Turfs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick, carpet-like beds of seaweed that retain <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> and compete with foundation species like <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">corals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Kelp" title="Kelp forest">kelps</a>, and they are usually less than 15 cm tall. Such a turf may consist of one or more species, and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listed:<sup id="cite_ref-Connell-2014_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Connell-2014-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Algae that form aggregations that have been described as turfs include diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, phaeophytes and rhodophytes. Turfs are often composed of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales, but monospecific turfs are frequently reported.<sup id="cite_ref-Connell-2014_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Connell-2014-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Turfs can be morphologically highly variable over geographic scales and even within species on local scales and can be difficult to identify in terms of the constituent species.<sup id="cite_ref-Connell-2014_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Connell-2014-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Turfs have been defined as short algae, but this has been used to describe height ranges from less than 0.5 cm to more than 10 cm. In some regions, the descriptions approached heights which might be described as canopies (20 to 30 cm).<sup id="cite_ref-Connell-2014_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Connell-2014-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology">Physiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Physiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many algae, particularly species of the <a href="/wiki/Characeae" title="Characeae">Characeae</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, <a href="/wiki/Osmoregulation" title="Osmoregulation">osmoregulation</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Turgor_regulation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Turgor regulation (page does not exist)">turgor regulation</a>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="how is turgor regulation distinct from osmoregulation (June 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Salt_tolerance" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt tolerance">salt tolerance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasmic_streaming" title="Cytoplasmic streaming">cytoplasmic streaming</a>, and the generation of <a href="/wiki/Action_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Action potentials">action potentials</a>. <a href="/wiki/Plant_hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant hormones">Plant hormones</a> are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbiotic_algae">Symbiotic algae</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Symbiotic algae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some species of algae form <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic relationships</a> with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lichens">Lichens</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Lichens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichen</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_(stevefe).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg/220px-Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg/330px-Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg/440px-Lichens_near_Clogher_Head_%28stevefe%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2047" data-file-height="1581" /></a><figcaption>Rock lichens in Ireland</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichens</a> are defined by the <a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Lichenology" title="International Association for Lichenology">International Association for Lichenology</a> to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Symbiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiont">symbiont</a> resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the <a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a> with a few from the <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a>. In nature, they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One or more<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Trentepohlia_(alga)" title="Trentepohlia (alga)">Trentepohlia</a> is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (<i><a href="/wiki/Aerophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerophyte">aerophytes</a></i>) growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coral_reefs">Coral reefs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Coral reefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Coral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_Reef.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coral_Reef.jpg/220px-Coral_Reef.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coral_Reef.jpg/330px-Coral_Reef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Coral_Reef.jpg/440px-Coral_Reef.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3593" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Floridian coral reef</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a> are accumulated from the <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> exoskeletons of <a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine invertebrate">marine invertebrates</a> of the order <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">Scleractinia</a> (stony <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>). These animals <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolize</a> sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including <a href="/wiki/Secretion" title="Secretion">secretion</a> of the exoskeleton, with water and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a> in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals (<a href="/wiki/Hermatypic_coral" title="Hermatypic coral">hermatypic corals</a>) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></i> to be in a healthy condition.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loss of <i>Symbiodinium</i> from the host is known as <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a>, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sea_sponges">Sea sponges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sea sponges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sea_sponge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea sponge">Sea sponge</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">Endosymbiontic</a> green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (<i><a href="/wiki/Halichondria_panicea" title="Halichondria panicea">Halichondria panicea</a></i>). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_cycle">Life cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Life cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Conceptacle" title="Conceptacle">Conceptacle</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">Rhodophyta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heterokont" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterokont">Heterokontophyta</a>, the three main algal <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">divisions</a>, have life cycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are <a href="/wiki/Ploidy" title="Ploidy">diploid</a>, a sexual phase where the cells are <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a>, followed by fusion of the male and female <a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, a key stage of the sexual cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numbers">Numbers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Numbers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg/220px-Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg/330px-Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg/440px-Taiwan_2009_East_Coast_ShihTiPing_Giant_Stone_Steps_Algae_FRD_6581.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3908" data-file-height="2741" /></a><figcaption>Algae on coastal rocks at <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E6%A2%AF%E5%9D%AA" class="extiw" title="zh:石梯坪">Shihtiping</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium</i> (located in the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="National Museum of Natural History">National Museum of Natural History</a>) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown).<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> the <i>UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report</i> estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ..." </p><p>Regional and group estimates have been made, as well: </p> <ul><li>5,000–5,500 species of red algae worldwide</li> <li>"some 1,300 in Australian Seas"<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in <a href="/wiki/List_of_seaweeds_of_South_Africa_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="List of seaweeds of South Africa (disambiguation)">List of seaweeds of South Africa</a>. These exclude <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and crustose corallines.</li> <li>669 marine species from California (US)<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton. </p><p>The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Distribution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of <a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">phytogeography</a> in the mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Round-1981_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Round-1981-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> analogously to the dispersal of <a href="/wiki/Cryptogam" title="Cryptogam">cryptogamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> by <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>. Spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Round-1981_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Round-1981-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether a spore is to grow into an adult organism depends on the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands. </p><p>The spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers.<sup id="cite_ref-Round-1981_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Round-1981-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them.<sup id="cite_ref-Round-1981_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Round-1981-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "<a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> algae" or "<a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> algae". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulva_reticulata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ulva reticulata (page does not exist)">Ulva reticulata</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=U._fasciata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="U. fasciata (page does not exist)">U. fasciata</a></i> travelled from the mainland to <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> in this manner. </p><p>Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clathromorphum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clathromorphum (page does not exist)">Clathromorphum</a></i> is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/220px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/330px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg/440px-Phytoplankton_Lake_Chuzenji.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Phytoplankton, <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ch%C5%ABzenji" title="Lake Chūzenji">Lake Chūzenji</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on <a href="/wiki/Snow_algae" title="Snow algae">snow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ice_algae" title="Ice algae">ice</a>. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under 100 m (330 ft) deep; however, some such as <i><a href="/wiki/Navicula" title="Navicula">Navicula</a> pennata</i> have been recorded to a depth of 360 m (1,180 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A type of algae, <i>Ancylonema nordenskioeldii</i>, was found in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> in areas known as the 'Dark Zone', which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same algae was found in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Alps" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Alps">Italian Alps</a>, after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (<a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>) provide the food base for most marine <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chains</a>. In very high densities (<a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a>), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or <a href="/wiki/Asphyxiate" class="mw-redirect" title="Asphyxiate">asphyxiate</a> other life forms. </p><p>Algae can be used as <a href="/wiki/Indicator_organism" title="Indicator organism">indicator organisms</a> to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Omar-2010_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omar-2010-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants.<sup id="cite_ref-Omar-2010_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omar-2010-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.<sup id="cite_ref-Omar-2010_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Omar-2010-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">aquatic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">planktonic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">benthic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">marine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">lentic</a>, <a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">lotic</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_plant" title="Terrestrial plant">terrestrial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">aerial</a> (subaerial),<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lithophyte" title="Lithophyte">lithophytic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halophyte" title="Halophyte">halophytic</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Euryhaline" title="Euryhaline">euryhaline</a>), <a href="/wiki/Psammon" title="Psammon">psammon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">thermophilic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychrophile" title="Psychrophile">cryophilic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epibiont" title="Epibiont">epibiont</a> (<a href="/wiki/Epiphyte" title="Epiphyte">epiphytic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epizoic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epizoic">epizoic</a>), <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiont</a> (<a href="/wiki/Endophytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endophytic">endophytic</a>, endozoic), <a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcifilic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">lichenic</a> (phycobiont).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_associations">Cultural associations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cultural associations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">classical Chinese</a>, the word <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%97%BB" class="extiw" title="wikt:藻">藻</a></span></span> is used both for "algae" and (in the modest tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">imperial scholars</a>) for "literary talent". The third island in <a href="/wiki/Kunming_Lake" title="Kunming Lake">Kunming Lake</a> beside the <a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Summer Palace</a> in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao (藻鑒堂島), which thus simultaneously means "Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall" and "Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultivation">Cultivation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cultivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Algaculture" title="Algaculture">Algaculture</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algaculture&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seaweed_farm_uroa_zanzibar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Seaweed_farm_uroa_zanzibar.jpg/220px-Seaweed_farm_uroa_zanzibar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Seaweed_farm_uroa_zanzibar.jpg/330px-Seaweed_farm_uroa_zanzibar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Seaweed_farm_uroa_zanzibar.jpg/440px-Seaweed_farm_uroa_zanzibar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3753" data-file-height="2310" /></a><figcaption>A seaweed farm in <a href="/wiki/Uroa" title="Uroa">Uroa</a>, Zanzibar</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Algoculture_au_kibboutz_Ketura.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Algoculture_au_kibboutz_Ketura.JPG/220px-Algoculture_au_kibboutz_Ketura.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Algoculture_au_kibboutz_Ketura.JPG/330px-Algoculture_au_kibboutz_Ketura.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Algoculture_au_kibboutz_Ketura.JPG/440px-Algoculture_au_kibboutz_Ketura.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2520" data-file-height="1576" /></a><figcaption>Algaculture in <a href="/wiki/Ketura,_Israel" title="Ketura, Israel">Kibbutz Ketura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Algaculture" title="Algaculture">Algaculture</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> involving the farming of species of algae.<sup id="cite_ref-Algaculture_:1_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Algaculture_:1-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a> (also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microphytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microphytes">microphytes</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Planktonic_algae" class="mw-redirect" title="Planktonic algae">planktonic algae</a>). <a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">Macroalgae</a>, commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweed</a>, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation (this may change, however, with the advent of newer seaweed cultivators, which are basically <a href="/wiki/Algae_scrubber" title="Algae scrubber">algae scrubbers</a> using upflowing air bubbles in small containers).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Commercial and industrial algae cultivation has numerous uses, including production of <a href="/wiki/Nutraceutical" title="Nutraceutical">nutraceuticals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-3 fatty acids">omega-3 fatty acids</a> (as algal oil)<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or natural food <a href="/wiki/Colorants" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorants">colorants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dyes" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyes">dyes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioplastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioplastics">bioplastics</a>, chemical feedstock (raw material), protein-rich animal/<a href="/wiki/Commercial_fish_feed" title="Commercial fish feed">aquaculture</a> feed, <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceuticals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceuticals">pharmaceuticals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Algal_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Algal fuel">algal fuel</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.1007/s43615-021-00084-3-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can also be used as a means of <a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">pollution control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">natural</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration#Seaweed_farming_and_algae" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Global production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from 13.5 million tonnes in 1995, to just over 30 million tonnes in 2016 and 37.8 million tonnes in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-Algaculture_:12_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Algaculture_:12-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Algaculture_:0_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Algaculture_:0-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This increase was the result of production expansions led by China, followed by Malaysia, the Philippines, the United Republic of Tanzania, the Russian Federation.<sup id="cite_ref-Algaculture_:12_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Algaculture_:12-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Cultured microalgae already contribute to a wide range of sectors in the emerging <a href="/wiki/Bioeconomy" title="Bioeconomy">bioeconomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research suggests there are large potentials and benefits of algaculture for the development of a future <a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">healthy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_food_system" title="Sustainable food system">sustainable food system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.5670/oceanog.2022.213-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seaweed_farming">Seaweed farming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Seaweed farming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">Seaweed farming</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seaweed_farming&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eucheuma_farming,_Philippines_(5211726476).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg/300px-Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg/450px-Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg/600px-Eucheuma_farming%2C_Philippines_%285211726476%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="884" /></a><figcaption>Underwater <i><a href="/wiki/Eucheuma" title="Eucheuma">Eucheuma</a></i> farming in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan,_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A seaweed farmer stands in shallow water, gathering edible seaweed that has grown on a rope" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg/300px-Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg/450px-Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg/600px-Seaweed_farming_-Nusa_Lembongan%2C_Bali-16Aug2009_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4640" data-file-height="3093" /></a><figcaption>A seaweed farmer in <a href="/wiki/Nusa_Lembongan" title="Nusa Lembongan">Nusa Lembongan</a> (Indonesia) gathers edible seaweed that has grown on a rope.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Seaweed_farming" title="Seaweed farming">Seaweed farming</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a> farming is the practice of <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">cultivating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harvest" title="Harvest">harvesting</a> <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweed</a>. In its simplest form farmers gather from natural beds, while at the other extreme farmers fully control the crop's <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a>. </p><p>The seven most cultivated <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a> are <i><a href="/wiki/Eucheuma" title="Eucheuma">Eucheuma</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/wiki/Kappaphycus_alvarezii" title="Kappaphycus alvarezii">Kappaphycus alvarezii</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gracilaria" title="Gracilaria">Gracilaria</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharina_japonica" title="Saccharina japonica">Saccharina japonica</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Undaria_pinnatifida" class="mw-redirect" title="Undaria pinnatifida">Undaria pinnatifida</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Pyropia" title="Pyropia">Pyropia</a></i> spp., and <i><a href="/wiki/Sargassum_fusiforme" class="mw-redirect" title="Sargassum fusiforme">Sargassum fusiforme</a></i>. <i>Eucheuma</i> and <i>K. alvarezii</i> are attractive for <a href="/wiki/Carrageenan" title="Carrageenan">carrageenan</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Gelling_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelling agent">gelling agent</a>); <i>Gracilaria</i> is farmed for <a href="/wiki/Agar" title="Agar">agar</a>; the rest are eaten after limited processing.<sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:3-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seaweeds are different from <a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">mangroves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seagrasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Seagrasses">seagrasses</a>, as they are photosynthetic algal organisms<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are non-flowering.<sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:3_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:3-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The largest seaweed-producing countries as of 2022 are <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (58.62%) and <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> (28.6%); followed by <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> (5.09%) and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> (4.19%). Other notable producers include <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> (1.6%), <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> (1.15%), <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> (0.53%), <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, 0.5%), and <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> (0.3%).<sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_Zhang2022_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_Zhang2022-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_Buschmann_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_Buschmann-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seaweed farming has frequently been developed to improve economic conditions and to reduce fishing pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_ask_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_ask-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) reported that world production in 2019 was over 35 million tonnes. North America produced some 23,000 tonnes of wet seaweed. Alaska, Maine, France, and Norway each more than doubled their seaweed production since 2018<i>.</i> As of 2019, seaweed represented 30% of marine <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:4_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:4-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Seaweed farming is a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon negative</a> crop, with a high potential for <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:0_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:0-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:1_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:1-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The IPCC <a href="/wiki/Special_Report_on_the_Ocean_and_Cryosphere_in_a_Changing_Climate" title="Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate">Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate</a> recommends "further research attention" as a mitigation tactic.<sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:2_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:2-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="World Wildlife Fund">World Wildlife Fund</a>, Oceans 2050, and <a href="/wiki/The_Nature_Conservancy" title="The Nature Conservancy">The Nature Conservancy</a> publicly support expanded seaweed cultivation.<sup id="cite_ref-Seaweed_farming_:4_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seaweed_farming_:4-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioreactors">Bioreactors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bioreactors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Algae_bioreactor" title="Algae bioreactor">Algae bioreactor</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algae_bioreactor&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg/280px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg/420px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg/560px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_7604_Microalgae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1827" data-file-height="1198" /></a><figcaption>A close up of microalgae – <i>Pavlova</i> sp.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Algae_bioreactor" title="Algae bioreactor">algae bioreactor</a> is used for cultivating <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">micro</a> or <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">macroalgae</a>. Algae may be cultivated for the purposes of <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> production (as in a <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_cultivator" title="Seaweed cultivator">seaweed cultivator</a>), <a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">wastewater treatment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">CO<sub>2</sub> fixation</a>, or aquarium/pond filtration in the form of an <a href="/wiki/Algae_scrubber" title="Algae scrubber">algae scrubber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algae bioreactors vary widely in design, falling broadly into two categories: open reactors and enclosed reactors. Open reactors are exposed to the atmosphere while enclosed reactors, also commonly called <a href="/wiki/Photobioreactor" title="Photobioreactor">photobioreactors</a>, are isolated to varying extents from the atmosphere. Specifically, algae bioreactors can be used to produce fuels such as <a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">biodiesel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bioethanol" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioethanol">bioethanol</a>, to generate animal feed, or to reduce pollutants such as <a href="/wiki/NOx" title="NOx">NO<sub>x</sub></a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> in flue </p> gases of power plants. Fundamentally, this kind of bioreactor is based on the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthese" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthese">photosynthetic</a> reaction, which is performed by the <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>-containing algae itself using dissolved carbon dioxide and sunlight. The carbon dioxide is dispersed into the reactor fluid to make it accessible to the algae. The bioreactor has to be made out of transparent material.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Algae_Harvester.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algae_Harvester.jpg/220px-Algae_Harvester.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algae_Harvester.jpg/330px-Algae_Harvester.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Algae_Harvester.jpg/440px-Algae_Harvester.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Harvesting algae</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agar">Agar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Agar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Agar" title="Agar">Agar</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Gelatin" title="Gelatin">gelatinous</a> substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alginates">Alginates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Alginates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alginic_acid" title="Alginic acid">Alginic acid</a>, or alginate, is extracted from <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Biocompatibility" title="Biocompatibility">biocompatible medium</a> for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular cuisine">Molecular cuisine</a> is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours. </p><p>Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of <i><a href="/wiki/Macrocystis" title="Macrocystis">Macrocystis</a></i> are harvested annually in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> for <a href="/wiki/Alginic_acid" title="Alginic acid">alginate</a> extraction and <a href="/wiki/Abalone" title="Abalone">abalone</a> feed.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_source">Energy source</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Energy source"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Algae_fuel" title="Algae fuel">Algae fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_hydrogen_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological hydrogen production">Biological hydrogen production</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biohydrogen" title="Biohydrogen">Biohydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodiesel" title="Biodiesel">Biodiesel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">Ethanol fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butanol_fuel" title="Butanol fuel">Butanol fuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_Liquefaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal Liquefaction">Hydrothermal Liquefaction</a></div> <p>To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise,<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fertilizer">Fertilizer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Fertilizer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Seaweed_fertiliser" title="Seaweed fertiliser">Seaweed fertiliser</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inisheer_landscape.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/220px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/330px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Inisheer_landscape.jpg/440px-Inisheer_landscape.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Seaweed-fertilized gardens on <a href="/wiki/Inisheer" title="Inisheer">Inisheer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; <a href="/wiki/George_Owen_of_Henllys" title="George Owen of Henllys">George Owen of Henllys</a> writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.</p></blockquote> <p>Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_conditioner" title="Soil conditioner">soil conditioners</a>, and livestock feed.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. <a href="/wiki/Algaculture" title="Algaculture">Algaculture</a> on a large scale is an important type of <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> in some places. <a href="/wiki/Maerl" title="Maerl">Maerl</a> is commonly used as a soil conditioner. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrition">Nutrition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Nutrition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Edible_seaweed" title="Edible seaweed">Edible seaweed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algae_powder" class="mw-redirect" title="Algae powder">Algae powder</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dulse.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Dulse.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Dulse, a type of edible seaweed</figcaption></figure> <p>Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia, leading some to label them as <a href="/wiki/Superfood" title="Superfood">superfoods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They provide many vitamins including: A, <a href="/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">B<sub>1</sub></a>, <a href="/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">B<sub>2</sub></a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B6" title="Vitamin B6">B<sub>6</sub></a>, <a href="/wiki/Niacin_(nutrient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (nutrient)">niacin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">C</a>, and are rich in <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, iron, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as <a href="/wiki/Spirulina_(dietary_supplement)" title="Spirulina (dietary supplement)">spirulina</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Chlorella" title="Chlorella">Chlorella</a></i> and the vitamin-C supplement from <i><a href="/wiki/Dunaliella" title="Dunaliella">Dunaliella</a></i>, high in <a href="/wiki/Beta-carotene" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-carotene">beta-carotene</a>. </p><p>Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including <i><a href="/wiki/Fat_choy_(vegetable)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fat choy (vegetable)">fat choy</a></i>, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species such as <i><a href="/wiki/Nori" title="Nori">nori</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Aonori" class="mw-redirect" title="Aonori">aonori</a></i>;<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ireland, <a href="/wiki/Dulse" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulse">dulse</a>; <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cochayuyo" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochayuyo">cochayuyo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Porphyra_umbilicalis" title="Porphyra umbilicalis">Laver</a> is used to make <a href="/wiki/Laverbread" title="Laverbread">laverbread</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, where it is known as <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">bara lawr</i></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_laver" title="Green laver">green laver</a> is used to make <span title="Korean-language text"><i lang="ko-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Gim_(Korean_food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gim (Korean food)">gim</a></i></span>. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, in Hawaii and by the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sea_lettuce" title="Sea lettuce">Sea lettuce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alaria_esculenta" title="Alaria esculenta">badderlocks</a> are salad ingredients in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, Ireland, <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>. Algae is being considered a potential solution for world hunger problem.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two popular forms of algae are used in cuisine: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chlorella" title="Chlorella">Chlorella</a></i>: This form of alga is found in freshwater and contains <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> pigments in its <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplast</a>. It is high in <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B2" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin B2">vitamin B2</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">Omega-3 fatty acids</a>.</li></ul> <p>Furthermore, it contains all nine of the essential <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> the body does not produce on its own<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Spirulina_(genus)" title="Spirulina (genus)">Spirulina</a></i>: Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium (a <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryote</a> or a "blue-green alga")</li></ul> <p>The oils from some algae have high levels of <a href="/wiki/Unsaturated_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsaturated fatty acid">unsaturated fatty acids</a>. For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Parietochloris_incisa" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietochloris incisa">Parietochloris incisa</a></i> is high in <a href="/wiki/Arachidonic_acid" title="Arachidonic acid">arachidonic acid</a>, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some varieties of algae favored by <a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">vegetarianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">veganism</a> contain the long-chain, essential <a href="/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">omega-3 fatty acids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">docosahexaenoic acid</a> (DHA) and <a href="/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid" title="Eicosapentaenoic acid">eicosapentaenoic acid</a> (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</a> and are passed up the food chain.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as <a href="/wiki/Flaxseed_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Flaxseed oil">flaxseed oil</a>, which only contains the short-chain <a href="/wiki/Alpha-linolenic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-linolenic acid">alpha-linolenic acid</a> (ALA). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution_control">Pollution control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pollution control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Sewage can be treated with algae,<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed.</li> <li>Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer.</li> <li>Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an <a href="/wiki/Algae_scrubber" title="Algae scrubber">algae scrubber</a>, also known as an algae turf scrubber.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Research_Service" title="Agricultural Research Service">Agricultural Research Service</a> scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Manure_effluents&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manure effluents (page does not exist)">manure effluents</a> using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an <a href="/wiki/Algal_turf_scrubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Algal turf scrubber">algal turf scrubber</a> (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polymers">Polymers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Polymers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in surf boards.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bioremediation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The alga <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stichococcus_bacillaris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stichococcus bacillaris (page does not exist)">Stichococcus bacillaris</a></i> has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; <a href="/wiki/Biodegradation" title="Biodegradation">biodegrading</a> the synthetic substance.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pigments">Pigments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Pigments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The natural <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigments</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophylls</a>) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dyes</a> and coloring agents.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly <a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">high-performance liquid chromatography</a>, can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stabilizing_substances">Stabilizing substances</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Stabilizing substances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Carrageenan" title="Carrageenan">Carrageenan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chondrus_crispus" title="Chondrus crispus">Chondrus crispus</a></div> <p>Carrageenan, from the red alga <i>Chondrus crispus</i>, is used as a stabilizer in milk products. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Algae_bladder_4290.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Algae bladder"><img alt="Algae bladder" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Algae_bladder_4290.jpg/200px-Algae_bladder_4290.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Algae_bladder_4290.jpg/300px-Algae_bladder_4290.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Algae_bladder_4290.jpg/400px-Algae_bladder_4290.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Algae bladder</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Algae_Graphic.svg/28px-Algae_Graphic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Algae_Graphic.svg/43px-Algae_Graphic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Algae_Graphic.svg/57px-Algae_Graphic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="202" data-file-height="199" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Algae" title="Portal:Algae">Algae portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AlgaeBase" title="AlgaeBase">AlgaeBase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AlgaePARC" title="AlgaePARC">AlgaePARC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marimo" title="Marimo">Marimo</a></i> algae</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiofuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbiofuels">Microbiofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microphyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Microphyte">Microphyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobioreactor" title="Photobioreactor">Photobioreactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycotechnology" title="Phycotechnology">Phycotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxoid" title="Toxoid">Toxoid</a> – anatoxin</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFButterfield2000" class="citation journal cs1">Butterfield, N. 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(2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/3/386">"<i>Bangiomorpha pubescens</i> n. gen., n. sp.: Implications for the evolution of sex, multicellularity, and the Mesoproterozoic/Neoproterozoic radiation of eukaryotes"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_(journal)" title="Paleobiology (journal)">Paleobiology</a></i>. <b>26</b> (3): 386–404. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Pbio...26..386B">2000Pbio...26..386B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1666%2F0094-8373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0386:BPNGNS>2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0094-8373">0094-8373</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36648568">36648568</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070307035241/http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/3/386">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleobiology&rft.atitle=Bangiomorpha+pubescens+n.+gen.%2C+n.+sp.%3A+Implications+for+the+evolution+of+sex%2C+multicellularity%2C+and+the+Mesoproterozoic%2FNeoproterozoic+radiation+of+eukaryotes&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=386-404&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1666%2F0094-8373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36648568%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0094-8373&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Pbio...26..386B&rft.aulast=Butterfield&rft.aufirst=N.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpaleobiol.geoscienceworld.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F26%2F3%2F386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson-2018-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gibson-2018_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT.M._Gibson2018" class="citation journal cs1">T.M. Gibson (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/46/2/135/524864/Precise-age-of-Bangiomorpha-pubescens-dates-the">"Precise age of Bangiomorpha pubescens dates the origin of eukaryotic photosynthesis"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Geology_(journal)" title="Geology (journal)">Geology</a></i>. <b>46</b> (2): 135–138. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Geo....46..135G">2018Geo....46..135G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG39829.1">10.1130/G39829.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Precise+age+of+Bangiomorpha+pubescens+dates+the+origin+of+eukaryotic+photosynthesis&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=135-138&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FG39829.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Geo....46..135G&rft.au=T.M.+Gibson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.geoscienceworld.org%2Fgsa%2Fgeology%2Farticle%2F46%2F2%2F135%2F524864%2FPrecise-age-of-Bangiomorpha-pubescens-dates-the&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/algae">"ALGAE | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ALGAE+%26%23124%3B+English+meaning+-+Cambridge+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Falgae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nabors-2004-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nabors-2004_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nabors-2004_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNabors2004" class="citation book cs1">Nabors, Murray W. (2004). <i>Introduction to Botany</i>. 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(1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC413949">"Meiosis in protists: Some structural and physiological aspects of meiosis in algae, fungi, and protozoa"</a>. <i>Bacteriol Rev</i>. <b>40</b> (1): 190–240. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.40.1.190-240.1976">10.1128/MMBR.40.1.190-240.1976</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC413949">413949</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/773364">773364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bacteriol+Rev&rft.atitle=Meiosis+in+protists%3A+Some+structural+and+physiological+aspects+of+meiosis+in+algae%2C+fungi%2C+and+protozoa&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=190-240&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC413949%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F773364&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.40.1.190-240.1976&rft.aulast=Heywood&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Magee%2C+P.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC413949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://botany.si.edu/projects/algae/herbarium.htm">"Algae Herbarium"</a>. 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Guiry">Guiry, Michael D.</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263561612">"How Many Species of Algae Are There?"</a>. <i>Journal of Phycology</i>. <b>48</b> (5): 1057–1063. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012JPcgy..48.1057G">2012JPcgy..48.1057G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1529-8817.2012.01222.x">10.1111/j.1529-8817.2012.01222.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27011267">27011267</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30911529">30911529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Phycology&rft.atitle=How+Many+Species+of+Algae+Are+There%3F&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1057-1063&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1529-8817.2012.01222.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30911529%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27011267&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012JPcgy..48.1057G&rft.aulast=Guiry&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F263561612&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Round-1981-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Round-1981_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Round-1981_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Round-1981_79-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Round-1981_79-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRound1981" class="citation book cs1">Round, F. 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(2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9892066">"Developing algae as a sustainable food source"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Nutrition</i>. <b>9</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnut.2022.1029841">10.3389/fnut.2022.1029841</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2296-861X">2296-861X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9892066">9892066</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36742010">36742010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Developing+algae+as+a+sustainable+food+source&rft.volume=9&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9892066%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2296-861X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36742010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnut.2022.1029841&rft.aulast=Diaz&rft.aufirst=Crisandra+J.&rft.au=Douglas%2C+Kai+J.&rft.au=Kang%2C+Kalisa&rft.au=Kolarik%2C+Ashlynn+L.&rft.au=Malinovski%2C+Rodeon&rft.au=Torres-Tiji%2C+Yasin&rft.au=Molino%2C+Jo%C3%A3o+V.&rft.au=Badary%2C+Amr&rft.au=Mayfield%2C+Stephen+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9892066&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Algaculture_:12-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Algaculture_:12_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Algaculture_:12_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd0683en"><i>The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2024</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Energy.gov&rft.atitle=World%27s+First+Algae+Surfboard+Makes+Waves+in+San+Diego&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.energy.gov%2Feere%2Fbioenergy%2Farticles%2Fworld-s-first-algae-surfboard-makes-waves-san-diego&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCappitelliSorlini2008" class="citation journal cs1">Cappitelli, Francesca; Sorlini, Claudia (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2227722">"Microorganisms Attack Synthetic Polymers in Items Representing Our Cultural Heritage"</a>. <i>Applied and Environmental Microbiology</i>. <b>74</b> (3): 564–569. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ApEnM..74..564C">2008ApEnM..74..564C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.01768-07">10.1128/AEM.01768-07</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2227722">2227722</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18065627">18065627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+and+Environmental+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Microorganisms+Attack+Synthetic+Polymers+in+Items+Representing+Our+Cultural+Heritage&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=564-569&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2227722%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18065627&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAEM.01768-07&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008ApEnM..74..564C&rft.aulast=Cappitelli&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft.au=Sorlini%2C+Claudia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2227722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAradSpharim1998" class="citation book cs1">Arad, Shoshana; Spharim, Ishai (1998). "Production of Valuable Products from Microalgae: An Emerging Agroindustry". In Altman, Arie (ed.). <i>Agricultural Biotechnology</i>. Books in Soils, Plants, and the Environment. Vol. 61. CRC Press. p. 638. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-9439-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-9439-2"><bdi>978-0-8247-9439-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Production+of+Valuable+Products+from+Microalgae%3A+An+Emerging+Agroindustry&rft.btitle=Agricultural+Biotechnology&rft.series=Books+in+Soils%2C+Plants%2C+and+the+Environment&rft.pages=638&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8247-9439-2&rft.aulast=Arad&rft.aufirst=Shoshana&rft.au=Spharim%2C+Ishai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRathbunDoyleWaterhouse1994" class="citation journal cs1">Rathbun, C.; Doyle, A.; Waterhouse, T. (June 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064738/http://bats.bios.edu/methods/chapter13.pdf">"Measurement of Algal Chlorophylls and Carotenoids by HPLC"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Joint Global Ocean Flux Study Protocols</i>. <b>13</b>: 91–96. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bats.bios.edu/methods/chapter13.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Joint+Global+Ocean+Flux+Study+Protocols&rft.atitle=Measurement+of+Algal+Chlorophylls+and+Carotenoids+by+HPLC&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=91-96&rft.date=1994-06&rft.aulast=Rathbun&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Doyle%2C+A.&rft.au=Waterhouse%2C+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbats.bios.edu%2Fmethods%2Fchapter13.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLatasaBidigare1998" class="citation journal cs1">Latasa, M.; Bidigare, R. (1998). "A comparison of phytoplankton populations of the Arabian Sea during the Spring Intermonsoon and Southwest Monsoon of 1995 as described by HPLC-analyzed pigments". <i>Deep-Sea Research Part II</i>. <b>45</b> (10–11): 2133–2170. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998DSRII..45.2133L">1998DSRII..45.2133L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0967-0645%2898%2900066-6">10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00066-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deep-Sea+Research+Part+II&rft.atitle=A+comparison+of+phytoplankton+populations+of+the+Arabian+Sea+during+the+Spring+Intermonsoon+and+Southwest+Monsoon+of+1995+as+described+by+HPLC-analyzed+pigments&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=10%E2%80%9311&rft.pages=2133-2170&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0967-0645%2898%2900066-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998DSRII..45.2133L&rft.aulast=Latasa&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Bidigare%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman1950" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, V.J. (1950). <i>Seaweeds and their Uses</i>. London: Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-15740-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-15740-0"><bdi>978-0-412-15740-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+and+their+Uses&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Methuen&rft.date=1950&rft.isbn=978-0-412-15740-0&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=V.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFritsch1945" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Fritsch, F. E. (1945) [1935]. <i>The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae</i>. Vol. I & II. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+and+Reproduction+of+the+Algae&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1945&rft.aulast=Fritsch&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_den_HoekMannJahns1995" class="citation book cs1">van den Hoek, C.; Mann, D. G.; Jahns, H. M. (1995). <i>Algae: An Introduction to Phycology</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algae%3A+An+Introduction+to+Phycology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=van+den+Hoek&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Mann%2C+D.+G.&rft.au=Jahns%2C+H.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKassinger2020" class="citation book cs1">Kassinger, Ruth (2020). <i>Slime: How Algae Created Us, Plague Us, and Just Might Save Us</i>. Mariner.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slime%3A+How+Algae+Created+Us%2C+Plague+Us%2C+and+Just+Might+Save+Us&rft.pub=Mariner&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Kassinger&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLembiWaaland1988" class="citation book cs1">Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J.R. (1988). <i>Algae and Human Affairs</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0"><bdi>978-0-521-32115-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algae+and+Human+Affairs&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32115-0&rft.aulast=Lembi&rft.aufirst=C.+A.&rft.au=Waaland%2C+J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMumfordMiura1988" class="citation book cs1">Mumford, T. F.; Miura, A. (1988). "<i>Porphyra</i> as food: cultivation and economic". In Lembi, C. A.; Waaland, J. R. (eds.). <i>Algae and Human Affairs</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 87–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32115-0"><bdi>978-0-521-32115-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Porphyra+as+food%3A+cultivation+and+economic&rft.btitle=Algae+and+Human+Affairs&rft.pages=87-117&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-521-32115-0&rft.aulast=Mumford&rft.aufirst=T.+F.&rft.au=Miura%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRound1981" class="citation book cs1">Round, F. E. (1981). <i>The Ecology of Algae</i>. London: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22583-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22583-0"><bdi>978-0-521-22583-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ecology+of+Algae&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22583-0&rft.aulast=Round&rft.aufirst=F.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1938" class="citation book cs1">Smith, G. M. (1938). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cryptogamicbotan031880mbp"><i>Cryptogamic Botany</i></a>. Vol. I. New York: McGraw-Hill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cryptogamic+Botany&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=G.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcryptogamicbotan031880mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsk1990" class="citation book cs1">Ask, E.I (1990). <i>Cottonii and Spinosum Cultivation Handbook</i>. FMC BioPolymer Corporation.Philippines.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cottonii+and+Spinosum+Cultivation+Handbook&rft.pub=FMC+BioPolymer+Corporation.Philippines&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Ask&rft.aufirst=E.I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional">Regional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Regional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Britain_and_Ireland">Britain and Ireland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Britain and Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrodieBurrowsChamberlainChristensen1977–2003" class="citation book cs1">Brodie, Juliet; Burrows, Elsie M.; Chamberlain, Yvonne M.; Christensen, Tyge; Dixon, Peter Stanley; Fletcher, R. L.; Hommersand, Max H.; Irvine, Linda M.; Maggs, Christine A. (1977–2003). <i>Seaweeds of the British Isles: A Collaborative Project of the British Phycological Society and the British Museum (Natural History)</i>. London / Andover: British Museum of Natural History, HMSO / Intercept. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-565-00781-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-565-00781-2"><bdi>978-0-565-00781-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+of+the+British+Isles%3A+A+Collaborative+Project+of+the+British+Phycological+Society+and+the+British+Museum+%28Natural+History%29&rft.place=London+%2F+Andover&rft.pub=British+Museum+of+Natural+History%2C+HMSO+%2F+Intercept&rft.date=1977%2F2003&rft.isbn=978-0-565-00781-2&rft.aulast=Brodie&rft.aufirst=Juliet&rft.au=Burrows%2C+Elsie+M.&rft.au=Chamberlain%2C+Yvonne+M.&rft.au=Christensen%2C+Tyge&rft.au=Dixon%2C+Peter+Stanley&rft.au=Fletcher%2C+R.+L.&rft.au=Hommersand%2C+Max+H.&rft.au=Irvine%2C+Linda+M.&rft.au=Maggs%2C+Christine+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCullinane1973" class="citation book cs1">Cullinane, John P. (1973). <i>Phycology of the South Coast of Ireland</i>. Cork: Cork University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phycology+of+the+South+Coast+of+Ireland&rft.place=Cork&rft.pub=Cork+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Cullinane&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardyAspinall1988" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, F. G.; Aspinall, R. J. (1988). <i>An Atlas of the Seaweeds of Northumberland and Durham</i>. The Hancock Museum, University Newcastle upon Tyne: Northumberland Biological Records Centre. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9509680-5-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9509680-5-6"><bdi>978-0-9509680-5-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Atlas+of+the+Seaweeds+of+Northumberland+and+Durham&rft.place=The+Hancock+Museum%2C+University+Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pub=Northumberland+Biological+Records+Centre&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-9509680-5-6&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=F.+G.&rft.au=Aspinall%2C+R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardyGuiryArnold2006" class="citation book cs1">Hardy, F. G.; <a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry" title="Michael D. Guiry">Guiry, Michael D.</a>; Arnold, Henry R. (2006). <i>A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland</i> (Revised ed.). London: British Phycological Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-906166-35-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-906166-35-3"><bdi>978-3-906166-35-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Check-list+and+Atlas+of+the+Seaweeds+of+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=British+Phycological+Society&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-906166-35-3&rft.aulast=Hardy&rft.aufirst=F.+G.&rft.au=Guiry%2C+Michael+D.&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Henry+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnWhittonBrook2002" class="citation book cs1">John, D. M.; Whitton, B. A.; Brook, J. A. (2002). <i>The Freshwater Algal Flora of the British Isles</i>. Cambridge / New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77051-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77051-4"><bdi>978-0-521-77051-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Freshwater+Algal+Flora+of+the+British+Isles&rft.place=Cambridge+%2F+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77051-4&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=D.+M.&rft.au=Whitton%2C+B.+A.&rft.au=Brook%2C+J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnightParke1931" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Margery; Parke, Mary W. (1931). <i>Manx Algae: An Algal Survey of the South End of the Isle of Man</i>. Liverpool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants & Animals. Vol. XXX. Liverpool: University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manx+Algae%3A+An+Algal+Survey+of+the+South+End+of+the+Isle+of+Man&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.series=Liverpool+Marine+Biology+Committee+Memoirs+on+Typical+British+Marine+Plants+%26+Animals&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Margery&rft.au=Parke%2C+Mary+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorton1994" class="citation book cs1">Morton, Osborne (1994). <i>Marine Algae of Northern Ireland</i>. Belfast: Ulster Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-900761-28-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-900761-28-7"><bdi>978-0-900761-28-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+of+Northern+Ireland&rft.place=Belfast&rft.pub=Ulster+Museum&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-900761-28-7&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Osborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorton2003" class="citation journal cs1">Morton, Osborne (1 December 2003). "The Marine Macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland". <i>Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society</i>. <b>27</b>: 3–164.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Irish+Biogeographical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Marine+Macroalgae+of+County+Donegal%2C+Ireland&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=3-164&rft.date=2003-12-01&rft.aulast=Morton&rft.aufirst=Osborne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuisman2000" class="citation book cs1">Huisman, J. M. (2000). <i>Marine Plants of Australia</i>. University of Western Australia Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-876268-33-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-876268-33-6"><bdi>978-1-876268-33-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Plants+of+Australia&rft.pub=University+of+Western+Australia+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-876268-33-6&rft.aulast=Huisman&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Zealand">New Zealand</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: New Zealand"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapmanLindauerAikenDromgoole1970" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, Valentine Jackson; Lindauer, VW; Aiken, M.; Dromgoole, F. I. (1970) [1900, 1956, 1961, 1969]. <i>The Marine algae of New Zealand</i>. London / Lehre, Germany: Linnean Society of London / Cramer.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marine+algae+of+New+Zealand&rft.place=London+%2F+Lehre%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Linnean+Society+of+London+%2F+Cramer&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Valentine+Jackson&rft.au=Lindauer%2C+VW&rft.au=Aiken%2C+M.&rft.au=Dromgoole%2C+F.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCabioc'hFloc'hLe_ToquinBoudouresque1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cabioc'h, Jacqueline; Floc'h, Jean-Yves; Le Toquin, Alain; Boudouresque, Charles-François; Meinesz, Alexandre; Verlaque, Marc (1992). <i>Guide des algues des mers d'Europe: Manche/Atlantique-Méditerranée</i> (in French). Lausanne, Suisse: Delachaux et Niestlé. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-603-00848-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-603-00848-5"><bdi>978-2-603-00848-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+des+algues+des+mers+d%27Europe%3A+Manche%2FAtlantique-M%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9e&rft.place=Lausanne%2C+Suisse&rft.pub=Delachaux+et+Niestl%C3%A9&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-2-603-00848-5&rft.aulast=Cabioc%27h&rft.aufirst=Jacqueline&rft.au=Floc%27h%2C+Jean-Yves&rft.au=Le+Toquin%2C+Alain&rft.au=Boudouresque%2C+Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Meinesz%2C+Alexandre&rft.au=Verlaque%2C+Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGayral1966" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gayral, Paulette (1966). <i>Les Algues de côtes françaises (manche et atlantique), notions fondamentales sur l'écologie, la biologie et la systématique des algues marines</i> (in French). Paris: Doin, Deren et Cie.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+Algues+de+c%C3%B4tes+fran%C3%A7aises+%28manche+et+atlantique%29%2C+notions+fondamentales+sur+l%27%C3%A9cologie%2C+la+biologie+et+la+syst%C3%A9matique+des+algues+marines&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Doin%2C+Deren+et+Cie&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Gayral&rft.aufirst=Paulette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuiryBlunden1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry" title="Michael D. Guiry">Guiry, Michael. D.</a>; Blunden, G. (1991). <i>Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92947-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92947-5"><bdi>978-0-471-92947-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweed+Resources+in+Europe%3A+Uses+and+Potential&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-471-92947-5&rft.aulast=Guiry&rft.aufirst=Michael.+D.&rft.au=Blunden%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMíguez_Rodríguez1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Míguez Rodríguez, Luís (1998). <i>Algas mariñas de Galicia: Bioloxía, gastronomía, industria</i> (in Galician). Vigo: Edicións Xerais de Galicia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-8302-263-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-8302-263-4"><bdi>978-84-8302-263-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algas+mari%C3%B1as+de+Galicia%3A+Biolox%C3%ADa%2C+gastronom%C3%ADa%2C+industria&rft.place=Vigo&rft.pub=Edici%C3%B3ns+Xerais+de+Galicia&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-84-8302-263-4&rft.aulast=M%C3%ADguez+Rodr%C3%ADguez&rft.aufirst=Lu%C3%ADs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOtero2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Otero, J. (2002). <i>Guía das macroalgas de Galicia</i> (in Galician). A Coruña: Baía Edicións. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-89803-22-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-89803-22-0"><bdi>978-84-89803-22-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gu%C3%ADa+das+macroalgas+de+Galicia&rft.place=A+Coru%C3%B1a&rft.pub=Ba%C3%ADa+Edici%C3%B3ns&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-84-89803-22-0&rft.aulast=Otero&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBárbaraCremades1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bárbara, I.; Cremades, J. (1993). <i>Guía de las algas del litoral gallego</i> (in Spanish). A Coruña: Concello da Coruña – Casa das Ciencias.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gu%C3%ADa+de+las+algas+del+litoral+gallego&rft.place=A+Coru%C3%B1a&rft.pub=Concello+da+Coru%C3%B1a+%E2%80%93+Casa+das+Ciencias&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=B%C3%A1rbara&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Cremades%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Arctic">Arctic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Arctic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKjellman1883" class="citation book cs1">Kjellman, Frans Reinhold (1883). <i>The algae of the Arctic Sea: A survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general characters and the development of the flora</i>. Vol. 20. Stockholm: Kungl. Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar. pp. 1–350.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+algae+of+the+Arctic+Sea%3A+A+survey+of+the+species%2C+together+with+an+exposition+of+the+general+characters+and+the+development+of+the+flora&rft.place=Stockholm&rft.pages=1-350&rft.pub=Kungl.+Svenska+vetenskapsakademiens+handlingar&rft.date=1883&rft.aulast=Kjellman&rft.aufirst=Frans+Reinhold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greenland">Greenland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Greenland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLund1959" class="citation book cs1">Lund, Søren Jensen (1959). <i>The Marine Algae of East Greenland</i>. Kövenhavn: C.A. Reitzel. 9584734.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marine+Algae+of+East+Greenland&rft.place=K%C3%B6venhavn&rft.pub=C.A.+Reitzel&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lund&rft.aufirst=S%C3%B8ren+Jensen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Faroe_Islands">Faroe Islands</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Faroe Islands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBørgesen1970" class="citation book cs1">Børgesen, Frederik (1970) [1903]. "Marine Algae". In Warming, Eugene (ed.). <i>Botany of the Faröes Based Upon Danish Investigations, Part II</i>. Copenhagen: Det nordiske Forlag. pp. 339–532.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Marine+Algae&rft.btitle=Botany+of+the+Far%C3%B6es+Based+Upon+Danish+Investigations%2C+Part+II&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pages=339-532&rft.pub=Det+nordiske+Forlag&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=B%C3%B8rgesen&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canary_Islands">Canary Islands</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Canary Islands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBørgesen1936" class="citation book cs1">Børgesen, Frederik (1936) [1925, 1926, 1927, 1929, 1930]. <i>Marine Algae from the Canary Islands</i>. Copenhagen: Bianco Lunos.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+from+the+Canary+Islands&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.pub=Bianco+Lunos&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=B%C3%B8rgesen&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Morocco">Morocco</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Morocco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGayral1958" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gayral, Paulette (1958). <i>Algues de la côte atlantique marocaine</i> (in French). Casablanca: Rabat [Société des sciences naturelles et physiques du Maroc].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Algues+de+la+c%C3%B4te+atlantique+marocaine&rft.place=Casablanca&rft.pub=Rabat+%5BSoci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+des+sciences+naturelles+et+physiques+du+Maroc%5D&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Gayral&rft.aufirst=Paulette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStegengaBoltonAnderson1997" class="citation book cs1">Stegenga, H.; Bolton, J. J.; Anderson, R. J. (1997). <i>Seaweeds of the South African West Coast</i>. Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7992-1793-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7992-1793-3"><bdi>978-0-7992-1793-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seaweeds+of+the+South+African+West+Coast&rft.pub=Bolus+Herbarium%2C+University+of+Cape+Town&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7992-1793-3&rft.aulast=Stegenga&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Bolton%2C+J.+J.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_America">North America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbottHollenberg1976" class="citation book cs1">Abbott, I. A.; Hollenberg, G. J. (1976). <i>Marine Algae of California</i>. California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0867-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-0867-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-0867-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+of+California&rft.place=California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0867-8&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=I.+A.&rft.au=Hollenberg%2C+G.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreeson1982" class="citation book cs1">Greeson, Phillip E. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/annotatedkeytoid00gree"><i>An annotated key to the identification of commonly occurring and dominant genera of Algae observed in the Phytoplankton of the United States</i></a>. Washington DC: US Department of the Interior, Geological Survey<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+annotated+key+to+the+identification+of+commonly+occurring+and+dominant+genera+of+Algae+observed+in+the+Phytoplankton+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=US+Department+of+the+Interior%2C+Geological+Survey&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Greeson&rft.aufirst=Phillip+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fannotatedkeytoid00gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1969" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, William Randolph (1969) [1937, 1957, 1962]. <i>Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-04904-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-04904-2"><bdi>978-0-472-04904-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marine+Algae+of+the+Northeastern+Coast+of+North+America&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-472-04904-2&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=William+Randolph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWehrSheath2003" class="citation book cs1">Wehr, J. D.; Sheath, R. G. (2003). <i>Freshwater Algae of North America: Ecology and Classification</i>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-741550-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-741550-5"><bdi>978-0-12-741550-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freshwater+Algae+of+North+America%3A+Ecology+and+Classification&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-12-741550-5&rft.aulast=Wehr&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Sheath%2C+R.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Algae&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Algae" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Algae">Algae</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/51px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/68px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i><b><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Algae" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Algae">Algae</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuiryGuiry" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Guiry" title="Michael D. Guiry">Guiry, Michael</a>; Guiry, Wendy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.algaebase.org">"AlgaeBase"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AlgaeBase&rft.aulast=Guiry&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Guiry%2C+Wendy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.algaebase.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span> – a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=algae&event=display&Submit=Go&start=1">"Algae – Cell Centered Database"</a>. <i>CCDb.UCSD.edu</i>. San Diego: University of California.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CCDb.UCSD.edu&rft.atitle=Algae+%E2%80%93+Cell+Centered+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccdb.ucsd.edu%2Fsand%2Fmain%3Fstype%3Dlite%26keyword%3Dalgae%26event%3Ddisplay%26Submit%3DGo%26start%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonKeaferKleindinstShaughnessy2007" class="citation web cs1">Anderson, Don; Keafer, Bruce; Kleindinst, Judy; Shaughnessy, Katie; Joyce, Katherine; Fino, Danielle; Shepherd, Adam (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779">"Harmful Algae"</a>. US National Office for Harmful Algal Blooms. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081205151336/http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14779">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Harmful+Algae&rft.pub=US+National+Office+for+Harmful+Algal+Blooms&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Don&rft.au=Keafer%2C+Bruce&rft.au=Kleindinst%2C+Judy&rft.au=Shaughnessy%2C+Katie&rft.au=Joyce%2C+Katherine&rft.au=Fino%2C+Danielle&rft.au=Shepherd%2C+Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whoi.edu%2Fredtide%2Fpage.do%3Fpid%3D14779&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/scientific-resources/biodiversity/uk-biodiversity/algaevision/about-algae/index.html">"About Algae"</a>. <i>NMH.ac.uk</i>. Natural History Museum, United Kingdom.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NMH.ac.uk&rft.atitle=About+Algae&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhm.ac.uk%2Fresearch-curation%2Fscientific-resources%2Fbiodiversity%2Fuk-biodiversity%2Falgaevision%2Fabout-algae%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlgae" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Botany" title="Template:Botany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Botany" title="Template talk:Botany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Botany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Botany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Botany" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Microbiology:_Protistology:_Protists" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Protist_structures" title="Template:Protist structures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Protist_structures" title="Template talk:Protist structures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Protist_structures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Protist structures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Microbiology:_Protistology:_Protists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former<br />classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Mastigophora/Flagellates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoeba" title="Amoeba">Sarcodina/Amoeboids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testate_amoebae" title="Testate amoebae">Testate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliozoa" title="Heliozoa">Heliozoa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infusoria" title="Infusoria">Infusoria</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa#Taxonomy" title="Apicomplexa">Sporozoa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptogam" title="Cryptogam">Cryptogams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thallophyte" title="Thallophyte">Thallophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus#Fungus-like_organisms" title="Fungus">Fungus-like organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">Slime molds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomenclature_codes#Ambiregnal_protists" title="Nomenclature codes">Ambiregnal protists</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Morphology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Chloroplastida</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>": <a href="/wiki/Phycoplast" title="Phycoplast">Phycoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagellum#Types" title="Flagellum">Flagellar apparatus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucophytes</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanelle">Cyanelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">Red algae</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pit_connection" title="Pit connection">Pit connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><a href="/wiki/Hacrobia" title="Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">Cryptophyta</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mastigoneme" title="Mastigoneme">Mastigoneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplast" title="Periplast">Periplast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">Haptophyte</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coccolith" title="Coccolith">Coccolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptophyte#Characteristics" title="Haptophyte">Haptonema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold">General:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mastigoneme" title="Mastigoneme">Mastigoneme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatoms</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">Brown algae</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamina_(algae)" title="Lamina (algae)">Lamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatocyst" title="Pneumatocyst">Pneumatocyst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><a href="/wiki/Alveolate" title="Alveolate">Alveolata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold">General:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolate#Characteristics" title="Alveolate"> Alveoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichocyst" title="Trichocyst">Trichocyst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dinokaryon" title="Dinokaryon">Dinokaryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinocyst" title="Dinocyst">Dinocyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theca" title="Theca">Theca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliates</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirrus_(biology)" title="Cirrus (biology)">Cirrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macronucleus" title="Macronucleus">Macronucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronucleus" title="Micronucleus">Micronucleus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexans</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhoptry" title="Rhoptry">Rhoptry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apicoplast" title="Apicoplast">Apicoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microneme" title="Microneme">Microneme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);"><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Phytomyxea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Phytomyxea" title="Phytomyxea">Phytomyxea</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_division" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear division">Cruciform division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F0E68C;"><a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F0E68C;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Kinetoplastida" title="Kinetoplastida">Kinetoplastids</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetoplast" title="Kinetoplast">Kinetoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycosome" title="Glycosome">Glycosome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F0E68C;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Euglenid" title="Euglenid">Euglenoidea</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periplast" title="Periplast">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;"><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dictyostelids:" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Dictyostelid" title="Dictyostelid">Dictyostelids</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macrocyst" title="Macrocyst">Macrocyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorocarp" title="Sorocarp">Sorocarp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">Opisthokonta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Choanoflagellates:" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D3D3A4;"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microvillus" title="Microvillus">Collar of microvilli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisationsstufe" class="extiw" title="de:Organisationsstufe">Levels of<br />organization</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">Unicellular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Monadoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoeboid" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoeboid">Amoeboid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccoid_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Coccoid (disambiguation)">Coccoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoeboflagellate" title="Amoeboflagellate">Amoeboflagellate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">Colonial</a> <a href="/wiki/Sensu_stricto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu stricto">s.s.</a> <ul><li>Colonial flagellated</li> <li>Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid</li> <li>Sarcinoid</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coenobium_(morphology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenobium (morphology)">Coenobial</a></li></ul></li> <li>Filamentous/trichal/<a href="/wiki/Hyphal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphal">hyphal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenchymatous" class="mw-redirect" title="Parenchymatous">Parenchymatous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoparenchyma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoparenchyma">Pseudoparenchymatous</a>/plektenchymatic</li> <li>Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinucleated" class="mw-redirect" title="Multinucleated">Multinucleated</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syncytial" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncytial">Syncytial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coenocytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenocytic">Coenocytic</a> <ul><li>Siphonous</li> <li>Siphonocladous</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">Multicellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Sensu_stricto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu stricto">s.s.</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissular</a>/histonal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall#Other_cell_coverings" title="Cell wall">Cell surface<br />structures</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">Simple cell membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucilage" title="Mucilage">Mucilage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scale_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scale (anatomy)">Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorica_(biology)" title="Lorica (biology)">Lorica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">Skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Test_(biology)" title="Test (biology)">Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theca" title="Theca">Theca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplast" title="Periplast">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Locomotion</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopodia" title="Pseudopodia">Pseudopodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gliding_motility" title="Gliding motility">Gliding motility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Mitochondria</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">Hydrogenosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosome" title="Mitosome">Mitosome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Nucleus</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleomorph" title="Nucleomorph">Nucleomorph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinucleate" title="Multinucleate">Multinucleate cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_(life_cycle)" title="Plasmodium (life cycle)">Plasmodium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dikaryon" title="Dikaryon">Dikaryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterokaryon" title="Heterokaryon">Heterokaryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis in protists</a> <ul><li>Open</li> <li>Closed</li> <li>Orthomitosis</li> <li>Pleuromitosis</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis#Occurrence_in_eukaryotic_life_cycles" title="Meiosis">Meiosis in protists</a> <ul><li>Gametic</li> <li>Zygotic</li> <li>Sporic</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Other</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cyst" title="Microbial cyst">Cyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytostome" title="Cytostome">Cytostome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fimbria_(bacteriology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria (bacteriology)">Fimbriae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrusome" title="Extrusome">Extrusome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractile_vacuole" title="Contractile vacuole">Contractile vacuole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyespot_apparatus" title="Eyespot apparatus">Eyespot apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrenoid" title="Pyrenoid">Pyrenoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axostyle" title="Axostyle">Axostyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastigont_system" title="Mastigont system">Mastigont system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecology and<br />physiology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_biogeography" title="Microbial biogeography">Microbial biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lourens_Baas_Becking#Baas_Becking_hypothesis" title="Lourens Baas Becking">Baas-Becking hypothesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Development</a>/<a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilization#Fertilization_in_protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">Fertilization</a></li></ul></li> <li>Nutrition: <a href="/wiki/Autotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Autotrophy">Autotrophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phototrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototrophy">Phototrophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophy">Heterotrophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phagotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phagotrophy">Phagotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotrophy" title="Osmotrophy">Osmotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saprotrophic_nutrition" title="Saprotrophic nutrition">Saprotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotrophy">Biotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necrotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Necrotrophy">Necrotrophy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixotrophy">Mixotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxotrophy" title="Auxotrophy">Auxotrophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37868#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37868#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119530776">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00571433">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="řasy"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116889&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000050628&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007293935305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=27344">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algae&oldid=1259786784">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Algae&oldid=1259786784</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Algae" title="Category:Algae">Algae</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Endosymbiotic_events" 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