Indefinite and bidirectional near-infrared nanocrystal photoswitching

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These photoswitchable probes, including organic fluorophores and proteins, can be prone to photodegradation and often operate in the ultraviolet or visible spectral regions. Colloidal inorganic nanoparticles6,9 can offer improved stability, but the ability to switch emission bidirectionally, particularly with near-infrared (NIR) light, has not, to our knowledge, been reported in such systems. Here, we present two-way, NIR photoswitching of avalanching nanoparticles (ANPs), showing full optical control of upconverted emission using phototriggers in the NIR-I and NIR-II spectral regions useful for subsurface imaging. Employing single-step photodarkening10–13 and photobrightening12,14–16, we demonstrate indefinite photoswitching of individual nanoparticles (more than 1,000 cycles over 7 h) in ambient or aqueous conditions without measurable photodegradation. Critical steps of the photoswitching mechanism are elucidated by modelling and by measuring the photon avalanche properties of single ANPs in both bright and dark states. Unlimited, reversible photoswitching of ANPs enables indefinitely rewritable two-dimensional and three-dimensional multilevel optical patterning of ANPs, as well as optical nanoscopy with sub-Å localization superresolution that allows us to distinguish individual ANPs within tightly packed clusters. 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data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Changhwan-Lee-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Changhwan-Lee-Aff1" data-author-search="Lee, Changhwan">Changhwan Lee</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0009-0002-7703-528X"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0009-0002-7703-528X</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Emma_Z_-Xu-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Emma_Z_-Xu-Aff1" data-author-search="Xu, Emma Z.">Emma Z. Xu</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6718-9547"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-6718-9547</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Kevin_W__C_-Kwock-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Kevin_W__C_-Kwock-Aff2" data-author-search="Kwock, Kevin W. C.">Kevin W. C. Kwock</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Ayelet-Teitelboim-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Ayelet-Teitelboim-Aff3" data-author-search="Teitelboim, Ayelet">Ayelet Teitelboim</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Yawei-Liu-Aff3-Aff4" data-author-popup="auth-Yawei-Liu-Aff3-Aff4" data-author-search="Liu, Yawei">Yawei Liu</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5032-3631"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-5032-3631</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff3">3</a>,<a href="#Aff4">4</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Hye_Sun-Park-Aff5" data-author-popup="auth-Hye_Sun-Park-Aff5" data-author-search="Park, Hye Sun">Hye Sun Park</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3275-1437"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-3275-1437</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff5">5</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Benedikt-Ursprung-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Benedikt-Ursprung-Aff1" data-author-search="Ursprung, Benedikt">Benedikt Ursprung</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Mark_E_-Ziffer-Aff6" data-author-popup="auth-Mark_E_-Ziffer-Aff6" data-author-search="Ziffer, Mark E.">Mark E. Ziffer</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff6">6</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Yuzuka-Karube-Aff7" data-author-popup="auth-Yuzuka-Karube-Aff7" data-author-search="Karube, Yuzuka">Yuzuka Karube</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff7">7</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Natalie-Fardian_Melamed-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Natalie-Fardian_Melamed-Aff1" data-author-search="Fardian-Melamed, Natalie">Natalie Fardian-Melamed</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5623-7176"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-5623-7176</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Cassio_C__S_-Pedroso-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Cassio_C__S_-Pedroso-Aff3" data-author-search="Pedroso, Cassio C. S.">Cassio C. S. Pedroso</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Jongwoo-Kim-Aff8" data-author-popup="auth-Jongwoo-Kim-Aff8" data-author-search="Kim, Jongwoo">Jongwoo Kim</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7419-021X"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-7419-021X</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff8">8</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Stefanie_D_-Pritzl-Aff9-Aff10" data-author-popup="auth-Stefanie_D_-Pritzl-Aff9-Aff10" data-author-search="Pritzl, Stefanie D.">Stefanie D. Pritzl</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8649-9225"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-8649-9225</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff9">9</a>,<a href="#Aff10">10</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Sang_Hwan-Nam-Aff8" data-author-popup="auth-Sang_Hwan-Nam-Aff8" data-author-search="Nam, Sang Hwan">Sang Hwan Nam</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8365-5760"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-8365-5760</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff8">8</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Theobald-Lohmueller-Aff9" data-author-popup="auth-Theobald-Lohmueller-Aff9" data-author-search="Lohmueller, Theobald">Theobald Lohmueller</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff9">9</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Jonathan_S_-Owen-Aff7" data-author-popup="auth-Jonathan_S_-Owen-Aff7" data-author-search="Owen, Jonathan S.">Jonathan S. Owen</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5502-3267"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-5502-3267</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff7">7</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Peter-Ercius-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Peter-Ercius-Aff3" data-author-search="Ercius, Peter">Peter Ercius</a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6762-9976"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-6762-9976</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Yung_Doug-Suh-Aff8-Aff11-Aff12-Aff13" data-author-popup="auth-Yung_Doug-Suh-Aff8-Aff11-Aff12-Aff13" data-author-search="Suh, Yung Doug" data-corresp-id="c1">Yung Doug Suh<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2352-693X"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-2352-693X</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff8">8</a>,<a href="#Aff11">11</a>,<a href="#Aff12">12</a>,<a href="#Aff13">13</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Bruce_E_-Cohen-Aff3-Aff14" data-author-popup="auth-Bruce_E_-Cohen-Aff3-Aff14" data-author-search="Cohen, Bruce E." data-corresp-id="c2">Bruce E. 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James Schuck<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9244-2671"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0001-9244-2671</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg><span>Show authors</span></button> <p class="c-article-info-details" data-container-section="info"> <a data-test="journal-link" href="/" data-track="click" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link"><i data-test="journal-title">Nature</i></a> <b data-test="journal-volume"><span class="u-visually-hidden">volume</span> 618</b>, <span class="u-visually-hidden">pages </span>951–958 (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2023</span>)<a href="#citeas" class="c-article-info-details__cite-as u-hide-print" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </p> <div class="c-article-metrics-bar__wrapper u-clear-both"> <ul class="c-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class=" c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">12k <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="citation-count"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">40 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Citations</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="altmetric-score"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__count">84 <span class="c-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="c-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="c-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Metrics <span class="u-visually-hidden">details</span></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="u-js-hide" data-component="article-subject-links"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Subjects</h3> <ul class="c-article-subject-list"> <li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/energy-transfer" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Energy transfer</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/nanoparticles" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Nanoparticles</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/nanoscale-materials" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Nanoscale materials</a></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><a href="/subjects/sensors-and-probes" data-track="click" data-track-action="view subject" data-track-label="link">Sensors and probes</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Materials whose luminescence can be switched by optical stimulation drive technologies ranging from superresolution imaging<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Moerner, W. E. Single‐molecule spectroscopy, imaging, and photocontrol: foundations for super‐resolution microscopy (Nobel lecture). Angew. Chem. Int. Edn 54, 8067–8093 (2015)." href="#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e902">1</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Keller, J., Schönle, A. & Hell, S. W. Efficient fluorescence inhibition patterns for RESOLFT microscopy. Opt. Express 15, 3361–3371 (2007)." href="#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e902_1">2</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Heilemann, M. et al. Subdiffraction‐resolution fluorescence imaging with conventional fluorescent probes. Angew. Chem. Int. Edn 47, 6172–6176 (2008)." href="#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e902_2">3</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="Dempsey, G. T., Vaughan, J. C., Chen, K. H., Bates, M. & Zhuang, X. Evaluation of fluorophores for optimal performance in localization-based super-resolution imaging. Nat. Methods 8, 1027 (2011)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e905">4</a></sup>, nanophotonics<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Hou, L. et al. Optically switchable organic light-emitting transistors. Nat. Nanotechnol. 14, 347–353 (2019)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e909">5</a></sup>, and optical data storage<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Gu, M., Zhang, Q. & Lamon, S. Nanomaterials for optical data storage. Nat. Rev. Mater. 1, 16070 (2016)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e913">6</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Dhomkar, S., Henshaw, J., Jayakumar, H. & Meriles, C. A. Long-term data storage in diamond. Sci. Adv. 2, e1600911 (2016)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e916">7</a></sup>, to targeted pharmacology, optogenetics, and chemical reactivity<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Velema, W. A., Szymanski, W. & Feringa, B. L. Photopharmacology: beyond proof of principle. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136, 2178–2191 (2014)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e920">8</a></sup>. These photoswitchable probes, including organic fluorophores and proteins, can be prone to photodegradation and often operate in the ultraviolet or visible spectral regions. Colloidal inorganic nanoparticles<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Gu, M., Zhang, Q. & Lamon, S. Nanomaterials for optical data storage. Nat. Rev. Mater. 1, 16070 (2016)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e924">6</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Molnár, G., Rat, S., Salmon, L., Nicolazzi, W. & Bousseksou, A. Spin crossover nanomaterials: from fundamental concepts to devices. Adv. Mater. 30, 1703862 (2018)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e927">9</a></sup> can offer improved stability, but the ability to switch emission bidirectionally, particularly with near-infrared (NIR) light, has not, to our knowledge, been reported in such systems. Here, we present two-way, NIR photoswitching of avalanching nanoparticles (ANPs), showing full optical control of upconverted emission using phototriggers in the NIR-I and NIR-II spectral regions useful for subsurface imaging. Employing single-step photodarkening<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Barber, P., Paschotta, R., Tropper, A. & Hanna, D. Infrared-induced photodarkening in Tm-doped fluoride fibers. Opt. Lett. 20, 2195–2197 (1995)." href="#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e932">10</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Laperle, P., Chandonnet, A. & Vallée, R. Photoinduced absorption in thulium-doped ZBLAN fibers. Opt. Lett. 20, 2484–2486 (1995)." href="#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e932_1">11</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Booth, I. J., Archambault, J.-L. & Ventrudo, B. F. Photodegradation of near-infrared-pumped Tm 3+-doped ZBLAN fiber upconversion lasers. Opt. Lett. 21, 348–350 (1996)." href="#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e932_2">12</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Sun, T., Su, X., Zhang, Y., Zhang, H. & Zheng, Y. Progress and summary of photodarkening in rare earth doped fiber. Appl. Sci. 11, 10386 (2021)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e935">13</a></sup> and photobrightening<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Booth, I. J., Archambault, J.-L. & Ventrudo, B. F. Photodegradation of near-infrared-pumped Tm 3+-doped ZBLAN fiber upconversion lasers. Opt. Lett. 21, 348–350 (1996)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e939">12</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Qin, G. et al. Photodegradation and photocuring in the operation of a blue upconversion fiber laser. J. App. Phys 97, 126108 (2005)." href="#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e942">14</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Hu, Y. et al. X-ray-excited super-long green persistent luminescence from Tb3+ monodoped β-NaYF4. J. Phys. Chem. C 124, 24940–24948 (2020)." href="#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e942_1">15</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Ou, X. et al. High-resolution X-ray luminescence extension imaging. Nature 590, 410–415 (2021)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e945">16</a></sup>, we demonstrate indefinite photoswitching of individual nanoparticles (more than 1,000 cycles over 7 h) in ambient or aqueous conditions without measurable photodegradation. Critical steps of the photoswitching mechanism are elucidated by modelling and by measuring the photon avalanche properties of single ANPs in both bright and dark states. Unlimited, reversible photoswitching of ANPs enables indefinitely rewritable two-dimensional and three-dimensional multilevel optical patterning of ANPs, as well as optical nanoscopy with sub-Å localization superresolution that allows us to distinguish individual ANPs within tightly packed clusters.</p></div></div></section> <noscript> <div class="c-nature-box c-nature-box--side " data-component="entitlement-box"> <div class="js-access-button"> <a href="https://wayf.springernature.com?redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41586-023-06076-7" class="c-article__button" data-test="ra21"> <svg class="u-icon" width="18" height="18" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use href="#icon-institution"></use></svg> <span class="c-article__button-text">Access through your institution</span> </a> </div> <div class="js-buy-button"> <a href="#access-options" class="c-article__button c-article__button--inverted" data-test="ra21"> <span>Buy or subscribe</span> </a> </div> </div> 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class="u-display-none"> <div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1: Photoswitchable PA nanoparticles.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig1_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig1_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="186" height="312"></picture></div></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2: Consistent photoswitching of single ANPs.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig2_HTML.png?as=webp"><img src="//media.springernature.com/m312/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig2_HTML.png" alt="" loading="lazy" width="312" height="184"></picture></div></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3: ANP photobrightening and photodarkening.</b></figcaption><div 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data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#MOESM1">Supplementary Information</a>. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#Sec17">Source data</a> are provided with this paper.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Code availability"><div class="c-article-section" id="code-availability-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="code-availability">Code availability</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="code-availability-content"> <p>The code for modelling the PA behaviour using the differential rate equations described in the <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#MOESM1">Supplementary Information</a> is freely available at <a href="https://github.com/nawhgnahc/Photon_Avalanche_DRE_calculation.git">https://github.com/nawhgnahc/Photon_Avalanche_DRE_calculation.git</a>.</p> </div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Moerner, W. 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J. Kaufman at Columbia University for her technical support and S. Kim at KRICT for performing the SEM imaging. P.J.S., Y.D.S., S.H.N. and C.L. acknowledge support from the Global Research Laboratory (GRL) Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT (no. 2016911815) and KRICT (KK2361-10). Work at the Molecular Foundry was supported by the Office of Science, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, of the US Department of Energy (DOE) under contract no. DE-AC02-05CH11231. C.L., P.J.S., B.E.C. and E.M.C. thank the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) Enhanced Night Vision in Eyeglass Form (ENVision) program (no. HR00112220006) for supporting the infrared spectroscopic investigations. Infrared emitter lifetime measurements were supported by the National Science Foundation under grant no. DMR-2019444. E.Z.X. acknowledges support from the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program. K.W.C.K. acknowledges support from the DOE NNSA Laboratory Residency Graduate Fellowship program (no. DE-NA0003960). P.J.S. also acknowledges support from Programmable Quantum Materials, an Energy Frontier Research Center funded by the US DOE, Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences (BES), under award DE-SC0019443. Work at UNIST (Y.D.S.) was supported by IBS-R019-D1 and 2022 UNIST Research Fund (1.220108.01). We acknowledge seed funding support from Columbia University’s Research Initiatives in Science & Engineering competition, started in 2004 to trigger high-risk, high-reward and innovative collaborations in the basic sciences, engineering and medicine: <a href="http://www.columbia.edu/rise">www.columbia.edu/rise</a>. This research used resources of the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, a DOE Office of Science User Facility supported by the Office of Science of the US Department of Energy under contract DE-AC02-05CH11231. We thank Gatan Inc. as well as P. Denes, A. Minor, J. Ciston, C. Ophus, J. Joseph and I. Johnson who contributed to the development of the 4D Camera. N.F.M. acknowledges support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement no. 893439, the Fulbright Scholarship Program, the Zuckerman-CHE STEM Leadership Program and the ISEF Foundation. B.U. acknowledges support by the National Science Foundation under grant no. CHE-2203510. S.D.P. and T.L. acknowledge funding by the German Research Foundation (DFG) through the Collaborative Research Center 1032, Project no. 201269156, A8.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Changhwan Lee, Emma Z. Xu, Benedikt Ursprung, Natalie Fardian-Melamed & P. James Schuck</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Kevin W. C. Kwock</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Ayelet Teitelboim, Yawei Liu, Cassio C. S. Pedroso, Peter Ercius, Bruce E. Cohen & Emory M. Chan</p></li><li id="Aff4"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Yawei Liu</p></li><li id="Aff5"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Research Center for Bioconvergence Analysis, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Cheongju, South Korea</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Hye Sun Park</p></li><li id="Aff6"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Physics, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Mark E. Ziffer</p></li><li id="Aff7"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Yuzuka Karube & Jonathan S. Owen</p></li><li id="Aff8"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Laboratory for Advanced Molecular Probing (LAMP), Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Daejeon, South Korea</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Jongwoo Kim, Sang Hwan Nam & Yung Doug Suh</p></li><li id="Aff9"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Chair for Photonics and Optoelectronics, Nano-Institute Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München, Munich, Germany</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Stefanie D. Pritzl & Theobald Lohmueller</p></li><li id="Aff10"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Physics and Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Stefanie D. Pritzl</p></li><li id="Aff11"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Chemistry, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Yung Doug Suh</p></li><li id="Aff12"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">School of Energy and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, South Korea</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Yung Doug Suh</p></li><li id="Aff13"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Center for Multidimensional Carbon Materials (CMCM), Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Ulsan, South Korea</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Yung Doug Suh</p></li><li id="Aff14"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Division of Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Bruce E. Cohen</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Changhwan-Lee-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Changhwan Lee</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=Changhwan%20Lee" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Changhwan%20Lee" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Changhwan%20Lee%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Emma_Z_-Xu-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Emma Z. 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James Schuck</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?author=P.%20James%20Schuck" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=P.%20James%20Schuck" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22P.%20James%20Schuck%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="contributions">Contributions</h3><p>P.J.S., C.L., E.M.C., B.E.C. and Y.D.S. conceived of the study. Experimental measurements and associated analyses were conducted by C.L., E.Z.X., K.W.C.K., B.U., M.E.Z., Y.K., N.F.M., C.C.S.P., H.S.P., J.K., S.H.N., S.D.P., T.L., J.S.O., P.E. and E.M.C. Advanced nanoparticle synthesis and characterization was performed by Y.L., A.T., C.C.S.P., H.S.P., B.E.C. and E.M.C. Theoretical modelling and simulations of PA photophysics were carried out by C.L. and E.M.C. All authors contributed to the preparation of the manuscript.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding authors</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:ydsuh@unist.ac.kr">Yung Doug Suh</a>, <a id="corresp-c2" href="mailto:becohen@lbl.gov">Bruce E. Cohen</a>, <a id="corresp-c3" href="mailto:emchan@lbl.gov">Emory M. Chan</a> or <a id="corresp-c4" href="mailto:p.j.schuck@columbia.edu">P. James Schuck</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar2">Competing interests</h3> <p>The authors declare no competing interests.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Peer review"><div class="c-article-section" id="peer-review-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="peer-review">Peer review</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="peer-review-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar1">Peer review information</h3> <p><i>Nature</i> thanks Andries Meijerink and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="supplementary material anchor" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#MOESM2">Peer reviewer reports</a> are available.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Additional information"><div class="c-article-section" id="additional-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="additional-information">Additional information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="additional-information-content"><p><b>Publisher’s note</b> Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Extended data figures and tables"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec15-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec15">Extended data figures and tables</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec15-content"><div data-test="supplementary-info"><div id="figshareContainer" class="c-article-figshare-container" data-test="figshare-container"></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig6"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 1 photodarkening and photoblink" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/6" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig6_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 1 Photodarkening and photoblinking in single ANPs.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>(<b>a</b>) Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and (<b>b</b>) confocal scanning images of a single and a cluster of 4 ANPs (NaYF<sub>4</sub>: 8% Tm<sup>3+</sup>@NaY<sub>0.8</sub>Gd<sub>0.2</sub>F<sub>4</sub>, 10 nm core/4 nm shell). Scale bars are 250 nm. Magnified AFM images of the ANPs are shown in the top left (single) and bottom right (4 singles) panels in <b>a</b>. Colour bar in <b>b</b>: normalized luminescence intensity. Luminescence and excitation intensity I<sub>ex</sub> time-traces of the single (<b>c</b>) and four-ANP cluster (<b>d</b>) in <b>a</b> under 1,064 nm excitation at increasing intensities. I<sub>th</sub>, ANP avalanching threshold intensity. <b>e</b>, Time trace showing blinking luminescence from a single 8% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 17/6 nm core/shell nanocrystal at I<sub>ex</sub> = 164 kW cm<sup>−2</sup>.</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig7"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 2 photodarkening in anp ensembl" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/7" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig7_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 2 Photodarkening in ANP ensembles.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p><b>a</b>, Time dependence of 800 nm emission intensity at various 1064-nm excitation intensities, for 4% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 14.3/3.7 nm core/shell Tm<sup>3+</sup> nanoparticle ensemble films. UCNPs with Tm<sup>3+</sup> doping ≤4% do not show avalanching behaviour<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Lee, C. et al. Giant nonlinear optical responses from photon-avalanching nanoparticles. Nature 589, 230–235 (2021)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e2633">20</a></sup>, and photodarkening here. <b>b</b>, Time dependence of emission intensity at various 1,064-nm excitation intensity for 8% 10.2/4.0 nm core/shell Tm<sup>3+</sup> ANP ensemble films.</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig8"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 3 determination of photodarkeni" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/8" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig8_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 3 Determination of photodarkening intensity <i>I</i><sub>PD</sub> as a function of ANP composition.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p><b>a</b>–<b>g</b>, Each plot shows the ratio between 800 nm emission intensities (<i>I</i><sub>emi</sub>) at <i>t</i> = 0 and after 120 s of continuous 1,064 nm exposure versus excitation intensity. These data allow us to define a photodarkening threshold intensity (<i>I</i><sub>PD</sub>) as the 1,064 nm pump intensity where emission at <i>t</i> = 120 s decreases below the initial value. Error bars are standard deviations of four data points measured at the same spot within 0.4 s. <b>h</b>, Photodarkening threshold versus pre-darkened photon avalanche threshold for various ANP compositions. Symbol definitions are the same as in <b>a</b>–<b>g</b>. Error bars are standard deviations derived from the curve fitting of the power-dependent photodarkening analysis shown in <b>a</b>–<b>g</b>.</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig9"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 4 pa threshold shift along with" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/9" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig9_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 4 PA threshold shift along with decrease of the <sup>3</sup>F<sub>4</sub> lifetime.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p><b>a</b>, Measurement (light and dark green circles) and differential rate equation model fitting (green dashed lines) of 800-nm emission intensity versus 1,064-nm excitation intensity of a single 17.3/5.6 nm 8% Tm<sup>3+</sup> (17 nm core with 5.6 nm shells) ANP before and after photodarkening. Error bars are standard deviations derived from four separate measurements on the same single ANP. <b>b</b>, Time-resolved photoluminescence of IR emission from the Tm<sup>3+ 3</sup>F<sub>4</sub> → <sup>3</sup>H<sub>6</sub> transition in an ensemble film of 8% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 17.3/5.6 nm core/shell ANPs under 1064 nm excitation before (<i>top</i>) and after (<i>bottom</i>) photodarkening. The black dashed lines are fits of exponential functions to the data. Emission wavelengths >1,750 nm were selected with a long-pass filter and collected using a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector (SNSPD; Single Quantum EOS 6). A single exponential decay is observed in the non-photodarkened ANPs (top panel). The lifetime curve from the photodarkened region (bottom panel) includes contributions from non-photodarkened ANPs within the film, resulting in a biexponential decay. The biexponential decay analysis suggests approximately two thirds of the ANPs are photodarkened in the measureed region, and the photodarkend ANPs have a <sup>3</sup>F<sub>4</sub> lifetime that is 5.2 times shorter, consistent with the rate equation analysis and fits in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#Fig3">3a</a>.</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig10"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 5 photobrightening recovery per" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/10" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig10_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 5 Photobrightening recovery percentage of various ANP ensemble film samples.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p><b>a</b>, Photobrightening recovery of darkened ANP films as a function of irradiation wavelength. The Tm<sup>3+</sup> contents for green, red, blue, and purple markers are 8%, 20%, 30%, and 100%. Excitation (1,064 nm) and photobrightening intensities are 54 kW cm<sup>−2</sup> and 277.87 kW cm<sup>−2</sup>, respectively, for green triangles (10.2/4 nm), red triangles (10.4/2.7), blue triangles (13.0/2.1 nm), and purple triangles (15.8/4.2 nm). Excitation (1,064 nm) and photobrightening intensities are 33 kW cm<sup>−2</sup> and 167 kW cm<sup>−2</sup>, respectively, for green circles (17.3/5.6 nm), green squares (26.6/4.0 nm), and red circles (17.5/2.7 nm). Exposure times for photodarkening and photobrightening are 1.2 and 1.3 s, respectively. Error bars are standard deviations of data points measured at the four different spots in the same ensemble sample. The photobrightening laser power at the sample is set to 1 mW. Photobrightening recoveries as a function of ANP core size at 420 nm (<b>b</b>), Tm<sup>3+</sup> concentration at 710 nm (<b>c</b>), shell thickness at 420 nm (<b>d</b>), and core size at 710 nm (<b>e</b>).</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig11"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 6 anp photodarkening with 450 n" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/11" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig11_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 6 ANP photodarkening with 450 nm excitation.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p><b>a</b>, Potential mechanistic pathways for photodarkening in ANPs under 450 nm excitation. <b>b</b>, Photobrightening recovery of darkened 20% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 10.4/2.7 nm core diameter/shell thickness ANP films as a function of irradiation wavelength from 440 nm to 480 nm. The photobrightening laser power at the sample is set to 1 mW for all wavelengths. <b>c</b>, Emission spectra from an ensemble film of 20% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 10.4/2.7 nm core diameter/shell thickness ANPs before photodarkening (<i>top</i>), during 450 nm exposure (<i>middle</i>), and after photodarkening with 450 nm exposure (<i>bottom</i>). 1,064 nm illumination is used for pumping the luminescence in the left and right panels. The 1,064 nm intensity is 75 kW cm<sup>−2</sup>, and the 450 nm excitation intensity is 222 kW cm<sup>−2</sup>. The emission intensities in <b>b</b> are normalized to the maximum intensity in the left panel. <b>d</b>, UV emission spectra of 20% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 10.4/2.7 nm core diameter/shell thickness ANPs under blue excitation with a wavelength range from 440 nm to 480 nm. The excitation powers are 1 mW. The emission intensities in <b>c</b> are normalized to the maximum intensity in the panel obtained under 450 nm excitation. The 345 nm and 365 nm emission peaks are attributed to the excited-state transitions from the <sup>1</sup>I<sub>6</sub> state to the <sup>3</sup>F<sub>4</sub> state and the <sup>1</sup>D<sub>2</sub> state to the <sup>3</sup>H<sub>6</sub> state, respectively.</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig12"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 7 photodarkening and photobrigh" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/12" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig12_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 7 Photodarkening and photobrightening mechanisms and fast photobrightening with sub-20-ms exposure.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p><b>a</b>, Ultraviolet emission spectra of 8% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 17.3/5.6 nm ANP ensembles at 1,064-nm excitation intensities above photodarkening threshold intensity (<i>I</i><sub>PD</sub>). Spectra are normalized to the 365 nm peak. The 345 nm and 365 nm emission peaks are attributed to the excited-state transitions from <sup>1</sup>I<sub>6</sub> to <sup>3</sup>F<sub>4</sub> and <sup>1</sup>D<sub>2</sub> to <sup>3</sup>H<sub>6</sub>, respectively. <b>b</b>, Potential mechanistic pathways for photodarkening and photobrightening in ANPs via charge transfer from the host material, resulting in Tm<sup>2+</sup> as an intermediate. CB: conduction band, VB: valence band, <i>W</i><sub><i>2</i></sub>: <sup>3</sup>F<sub>4</sub> relaxation rate. Hole traps in addition to electron traps can be produced through the charge transfer process, which can both potentially quench the <sup>3</sup>F<sub>4</sub> excited state in Tm ions. <b>c</b>, Recovery was accomplished with external heating only (5 min equilibration at each temperature), rather than by photobrightening. Before and after heating, 20% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 10.4/2.7 nm films were photodarkened and probed with 1064 nm intensities of 320 kW cm-2 and 64 kW cm-2, respectively. Percentage recovery is defined as the ratio of the recovered luminescence intensity after temperature increase to the reduced luminescence intensity after initial photodarkening. Error bars are standard deviations of data points measured at the four different spots in the same film. <b>d</b>, Photodarkened regions of a film of 20% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 10.4/2.7 nm core/shell ANPs were exposed to a 700 nm photobrightening beam for short exposure times, and the luminescence recovery was measured as a function of exposure time. The 1064 nm pumping and photodarkening intensities are 51 kW cm<sup>−2</sup> and 252 kW cm<sup>−2</sup>, respectively. 700 nm photobrightening excitation intensity is 240 kW cm<sup>−2</sup>. The photodarkening exposure time is 188 ms. Error bars are standard deviations of data points measured at the four different spots in the same ensemble sample.</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig13"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 8 indefinite photoswitching of " href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/13" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig13_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 8 Indefinite photoswitching of a single aqueous ANP.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p><b>a</b>, Time-resolved luminescence and excitation intensities for a single 8% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 17.3/5.6 nm aqueous ANP<sup><a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Pedroso, C. C. et al. Immunotargeting of nanocrystals by SpyCatcher conjugation of engineered antibodies. ACS Nano 15, 18374–18384 (2021)." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d82418612e3002">48</a></sup> in water . A 1,064 nm pump intensity of 16.7 kW cm<sup>−2</sup> is continuously applied, which excites detectable emission in the on state but not in the off state. Irradiation conditions for photodarkening (turning off) are 75.5 kW cm<sup>−2</sup> at 1,064 nm and 5 s; and for recovery (turning on) are 164.0 kW cm<sup>−2</sup> at 700 nm for 10 s. <b>b</b>, A probability histogram of the average emission intensity while turning on for 1,520 irradiation cycles. <b>c</b>, Trace of emission from the single aqueous ANP for the first 60 and last 35 irradiation cycles.</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig14"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 9 inpalm of anps." href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/14" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig14_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 9 INPALM of ANPs.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p>Confocal scanning image (<b>a</b>) and INPALM image (<b>b)</b> (number of localizations, <i>N</i> = 43) of a single and a dimer of 8% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 26.6/3.0 nm ANPs. The diameter of the localization in <b>b</b> represents the localization accuracy of the 2D Gaussian point spread function (PSF) fit per frame. Scale bars are 125 nm.</p></div></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="supp-item" id="Fig15"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="extended data fig. 10 inpalm of anps with drift co" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7/figures/15" data-supp-info-image="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_Fig15_ESM.jpg">Extended Data Fig. 10 INPALM of ANPs with drift correction and intensity filtering.</a></h3><div class="c-article-supplementary__description" data-component="thumbnail-container"><p><b>a</b>, Wide-field image of ANPs of 8% Tm<sup>3+</sup> 26.6/3.0 nm ANPs. Scale bar is 2 µm. <b>b</b>, Frame-by-frame localizations of the ANPs marked with circles in <b>a</b> before drift correction. Only particles in the red circle (identical to the ANPs in Extended Data Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/articles/s41586-023-06076-7#Fig14">9</a>) are exposed to periodic 1,064 nm and 532 nm illumination for photoswitching. The other ANPs in the circles are in the on state while photoswitching the ANPs in the red circle and used for drift correction. Magnified frame-by-frame localizations of the ANPs marked with circles in <b>a</b> before (<b>c</b>) and after drift correction (<b>d</b>). The diameter of the localization in <b>c</b> represent the 10 times of the standard deviation of the 2D Gaussian point spread function (PSF), and that in <b>d</b> represent the standard deviation of the 2D Gaussian PSF. <b>e</b>. SEM images of ANPs in a region marked with dashed lines in <b>a</b>. Scale bar is 500 nm. <b>f</b>, Frame-by-frame localizations of the ANPs marked with a red circle in <b>a</b> before (<i>left</i>) and after (<i>right</i>) intensity filtering.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Supplementary information"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec16-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec16">Supplementary information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec16-content"><div data-test="supplementary-info"><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM1"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="supplementary information supplementary methods, f" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_MOESM1_ESM.pdf" data-supp-info-image="">Supplementary Information Supplementary Methods, Figs. 1–10, Tables 1–5, Discussions and References.</a></h3></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM2"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="peer review file" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_MOESM2_ESM.pdf" data-supp-info-image="">Peer Review File</a></h3></div></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Source data"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec17-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec17">Source data</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec17-content"><div data-test="supplementary-info"><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM3"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="source data fig. 2" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_MOESM3_ESM.xlsx" data-supp-info-image="">Source Data Fig. 2</a></h3></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM4"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="source data fig. 3" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_MOESM4_ESM.xlsx" data-supp-info-image="">Source Data Fig. 3</a></h3></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM5"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="source data fig. 4" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_MOESM5_ESM.xlsx" data-supp-info-image="">Source Data Fig. 4</a></h3></div><div class="c-article-supplementary__item" data-test="supp-item" id="MOESM6"><h3 class="c-article-supplementary__title u-h3"><a class="print-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view supplementary info" data-test="supp-info-link" data-track-label="source data fig. 5" href="https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06076-7/MediaObjects/41586_2023_6076_MOESM6_ESM.xlsx" data-supp-info-image="">Source Data Fig. 5</a></h3></div></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"><p>Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Lee, C., Xu, E.Z., Kwock, K.W.C. <i>et al.</i> Indefinite and bidirectional near-infrared nanocrystal photoswitching. <i>Nature</i> <b>618</b>, 951–958 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06076-7</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1038/s41586-023-06076-7?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Received<span 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