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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Mfecane_in_the_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Mfecane_in_the_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The Mfecane in the East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Mfecane_in_the_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Mfecane_in_the_Interior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Mfecane_in_the_Interior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The Mfecane in the Interior</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Mfecane_in_the_Interior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences_for_Nguni_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences_for_Nguni_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Consequences for Nguni societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences_for_Nguni_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences_for_the_Sotho-Tswana_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences_for_the_Sotho-Tswana_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Consequences for the Sotho-Tswana peoples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences_for_the_Sotho-Tswana_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further resources</span> </div> </a> <ul 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Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9" title="مفياكانة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مفياكانة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfekaneo" title="Mfekaneo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mfekaneo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%81%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="مفکانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مفکانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD" title="Мфикейн – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мфикейн" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfekan%C4%97" title="Mfekanė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mfekanė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfekane" title="Mfekane – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mfekane" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Мфекане – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мфекане" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difaqane" title="Difaqane – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Difaqane" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-Mfecane" title="I-Mfecane – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="I-Mfecane" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>SiSwati</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Мфекане – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мфекане" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfecane" title="Mfecane – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mfecane" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Мфекане – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мфекане" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q865081#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Mfecane" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Mfecane" rel="discussion" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1815–1840 period of civil conflict in southern Africa</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this article is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Mfecane" title="Talk:Mfecane">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Departure_of_the_Fingoes-1840.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Departure_of_the_Fingoes-1840.jpg/220px-Departure_of_the_Fingoes-1840.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Departure_of_the_Fingoes-1840.jpg/330px-Departure_of_the_Fingoes-1840.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Departure_of_the_Fingoes-1840.jpg/440px-Departure_of_the_Fingoes-1840.jpg 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="445" /></a><figcaption>An early painting of the first migration of the <a href="/wiki/Fengu_people" title="Fengu people">Fengu</a>, one of the affected peoples of the Mfecane</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Mfecane</b>, also known by the <a href="/wiki/Sotho_language" title="Sotho language">Sesotho</a> names <b>Difaqane</b> or <b>Lifaqane</b> (all meaning "crushing," "scattering," "forced dispersal," or "forced migration"),<sup id="cite_ref-General_South_African_History_Timeline:_1800s_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-General_South_African_History_Timeline:_1800s-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a historical period of heightened military conflict and migration associated with state formation and expansion in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>. The exact range of dates that comprise the Mfecane varies between sources. At its broadest, the period lasted from the late eighteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century, but scholars often focus on an intensive period from the 1810s to the 1840s.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditional estimates for the death toll range from 1 million to 2 million;<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wright1988_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wright1988-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, these numbers are controversial, and some recent scholars revise the mortality figure significantly downwards and attribute the root causes to complex political, economic, and environmental developments.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mfecane is significant in that it saw the formation of new states, institutions, and ethnic identities in southeastern Africa. </p><p>The Mfecane's <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> itself is also historically significant, with different versions having been employed to serve a range of political purposes since its inception as a historical concept.<sup id="cite_ref-Epprecht_114_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epprecht_114-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The label first emerged in the 1830s and blamed the disruption on the actions of King <a href="/wiki/Shaka" title="Shaka">Shaka</a>, who was alleged to have waged near-genocidal wars that depopulated the land and sparked a chain reaction of violence as fleeing groups sought to conquer new lands.<sup id="cite_ref-Epprecht_114_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Epprecht_114-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the latter half of the 20th century, this interpretation has fallen out of favour among scholars due to a lack of historical evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mfecane resulted from the complex interplay of pre-existing trends of political centralization with the effects of international trade, environmental instability, and European colonization. State formation and expansion had already been intensifying in Southeastern African as of at least the late 1700s, but these processes were greatly accelerated after the international ivory trade opened.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trade allowed leaders to amass unprecedented amounts of wealth, which they could then use to cultivate greater political power. Wealth and power became mutually reinforcing, as wealth enabled leaders to develop state instruments of control and expropriation, which they used to extract further wealth through taxation and military action.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The consequence of this cycle was an increasing political and wealth disparity within and between polities, particularly in concern to productive land and food stores.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political centralization became problematic in the early 1800s when deep drought (aggravated by the atmospheric effects of volcanic eruptions in 1809 and 1815)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> struck Southeastern Africa. Whereas previous droughts hadn't caused serious famine, the unequal distribution of land and food stores lessened the ability of average people to meet their needs.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though far less susceptible to famine, leaders faced threats to their power as (taxable) agricultural production dropped and ivory became scarcer due to overhunting.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Faced with the challenges of fighting famine and maintaining wealth flows, leaders were incentivized to turn to raiding and conquest. Conquest protected conquering peoples against famine by providing immediate access to the conquered peoples' livestock and grain stores and, in the long term, by securing arable land and the people (particularly women) to farm it at greater intensities than before.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here another self-reinforcing cycle set in as famine and warfare promoted insecurity and militarism, which promoted political centralization and more warfare as strong leaders expanded their authority by offering a desperately-needed escape from famine to loyal followers.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second stage of turmoil from the 1820s to the 1830s was driven in large part by slave and cattle raiding by <a href="/wiki/Griqua_people" title="Griqua people">Griqua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basters" title="Basters">Basters</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe" title="Khoekhoe">Khoekhoe</a>-European groups armed and mounted by European settlers, who benefitted from trading their plunder.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increasing economic pull of the international slave trade also incentivized greater warfare and disruption between polities close to international ports such as <a href="/wiki/Maputo_Bay" title="Maputo Bay">Delagoa Bay</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Mfecane_in_the_East">The Mfecane in the East</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The Mfecane in the East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mfecane began in eastern Southern Africa with increasing competition and political consolidation as chiefdoms vied for control over trade routes and grazing land. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Delagoa_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Delagoa Bay">Delagoa Bay</a> and its international port saw increasing regional conflict in the mid-to-late 1700s. The local <a href="/wiki/Tembe_people_(Tsonga)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tembe people (Tsonga)">Tembe</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mabhudu-Tembe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mabhudu-Tembe (page does not exist)">Mabhudu-Tembe</a> competed for control, absorbing or expelling some of their neighbouring polities. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Dlamini" title="House of Dlamini">abakwaDlamini</a>, who would later form the <a href="/wiki/Swazi_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Swazi Kingdom">Swazi Kingdom</a>, were one such group put to flight by the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mid-to-late 1700s also saw the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Nxumalo" title="Nxumalo">Nxumalo</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nyambose&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nyambose (page does not exist)">Nyambose</a> chiefdoms between the <a href="/wiki/Pongola_River" title="Pongola River">Phongolo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tugela_River" title="Tugela River">Thukela</a> rivers, which would eventually become the <a href="/wiki/Ndwandwe" title="Ndwandwe">Ndwandwe Paramountcy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mthethwa_Clan" title="Mthethwa Clan">Mthethwa Paramountcy</a> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the borders of their spheres of influence were the <a href="/wiki/Hlubi_people" title="Hlubi people">amaHlubi</a> of the upper <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mzinyathi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mzinyathi (page does not exist)">Mzinyathi</a>, the abakwaDlamini north of the Phongolo, and the <a href="/wiki/Qwabe" title="Qwabe">abakwaQwabe</a> of the lower Thukela. The latter's rise displaced elements of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=AbakwaCele&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AbakwaCele (page does not exist)">abakwaCele</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=AmaThuli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AmaThuli (page does not exist)">amaThuli</a> further south. The amaThuli managed to secure a sizable chiefdom between the lower <a href="/wiki/Umgeni_River" title="Umgeni River">Mngeni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umkomazi_River" title="Umkomazi River">Mkhomazi</a> Rivers, which displaced local groups across the <a href="/wiki/Umzimkulu_River" title="Umzimkulu River">Mzimkhulu River</a>. This in turn contributed to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Mpondo_people" title="Mpondo people">Mpondo</a> Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1810s saw the continued expansion of the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa Paramountcies, as well as the Portuguese Delagoa Bay slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ndwandwe Paramountcy came to blows with the Mthethwa in the late 1810s, ultimately defeating and slaying their leader <a href="/wiki/Dingiswayo" title="Dingiswayo">Dingiswayo kaJobe</a>. The Mthethwa promptly collapsed as its subjects reasserted independence. The Ndwandwe king <a href="/wiki/Zwide_kaLanga" title="Zwide kaLanga">Zwide kaLanga</a> went to war with one of these breakaway polities, the <a href="/wiki/Zulu_people" title="Zulu people">amaZulu</a> of <a href="/wiki/Shaka" title="Shaka">Shaka kaSenzangakhona</a>. Their raids and counterraids proved costly and indecisive, contributing to the breakup of the Ndandwe Paramountcy. Groups broke away under <a href="/wiki/Soshangane" title="Soshangane">Soshangane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zwangendaba_Jele" title="Zwangendaba Jele">Zwangendaba</a> who settled their followers in the Delagoa Bay region, while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Msane&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Msane (page does not exist)">Msane</a> did the same in what is now eastern <a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a>. King Zwide, now in a position of weakness, withdrew to his territories north of the Phongolo to rebuild. <a href="/wiki/Shaka" title="Shaka">Shaka</a> took advantage of the power vacuum to expand the <a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu state</a> to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mkhuze_River&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mkhuze River (page does not exist)">Mkhuze River</a>. The 1810s also saw the expansion of British colonial rule in southeastern southern Africa, with <a href="/wiki/Xhosa_people" title="Xhosa people">Xhosa</a> polities displaced northwards by the Fourth and Fifth <a href="/wiki/Xhosa_Wars" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, between the Mzimkhulu and <a href="/wiki/Mzimvubu_River" title="Mzimvubu River">Mzimvubu</a> Rivers, some groups fleeing the upheavals further north joined <a href="/wiki/Faku_kaNgqungqushe" title="Faku kaNgqungqushe">Faku kaNgqungqushe</a>'s Mpondo Kingdom, while most others instead vied for dominance just outside of its reach. </p><p>By the 1820s, Shoshangane's <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Empire" title="Gaza Empire">Gaza Kingdom</a> and Shaka's <a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu kingdom</a> had established themselves (alongside the remains of the Ndwandwe Paramountcy) as the major players in the Northeast of Southern Africa. After relocating once again to the <a href="/wiki/Komati_River" title="Komati River">Nkomati River</a> region, Zwide' Ndwandwe successfully raided and recruited their way back to prominence. By the time of his death in 1825 the Ndwandwe had muscled into the interior, possibly sundering the <a href="/wiki/Pedi_people" title="Pedi people">Pedi</a> Kingdom and certainly dominating the region between the <a href="/wiki/Olifants_River_(Limpopo)" title="Olifants River (Limpopo)">Olifants</a> and Phongolo Rivers.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Msane, Zwangendaba, and the followers of Nxaba, for their part, were displaced farther north. The Gaza Kingdom expanded to the northeast, heavily raiding small <a href="/wiki/Tsonga_people" title="Tsonga people">Tsonga</a> polities. Slave trading expanded at Delagoa Bay, and the Portuguese worked to expand their regional sphere of influence.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1826, the expansion of the Ndwandwe Paramountcy under <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sikhunyana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sikhunyana (page does not exist)">Sikhunyana</a> began to threaten the Zulu Kingdom's borders. In response, Shaka marched his army (and allied British traders) to the Izindololwane Hills and put Sikhunyana to flight. Their victory was so total that the Ndwandwe state collapsed shortly thereafter, with some constituent polities fleeing south or joining the Zulu, the Gaza Kingdom, or <a href="/wiki/Mzilikazi" title="Mzilikazi">Mzilikazi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ndebele_people" title="Northern Ndebele people">Matabele/Ndebele</a> Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collapse of the Ndwandwe allowed <a href="/wiki/Sekwati" title="Sekwati">Sekwati</a> to rebuild the sundered Pedi Kingdom around a fortified hilltop base near the <a href="/wiki/Steelpoort_River" title="Steelpoort River">Steelpoort River</a>. From this stronghold, he soon gathered a large following by offering protection to refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1827, Shoshangane relocated the Gaza Kingdom from the lower <a href="/wiki/Nkomati_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Nkomati River">Nkomati</a> to the lower <a href="/wiki/Limpopo_River" title="Limpopo River">Limpopo River</a> area. The Gaza defeated a Zulu army in 1828 and developed economic and political ties with the Portuguese.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May of 1828, Shaka launched a successful cattle raid against the <a href="/wiki/Bomvana" title="Bomvana">Bomvana</a> and the Mpondo Kingdom, following up with another raid north of Delagoa Bay before the first expeditionary force had returned home. Sensing political weakness, his brothers <a href="/wiki/Dingane" title="Dingane">Dingane</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mhlangana" title="Mhlangana">Mhlangana</a> assassinated him in September. Dingane subsequently purged Mhlangana and other political rivals, establishing himself as the new Zulu king. These chaotic events prompted the secession of a segment of the subject abakwaQwabe nation, though they were dispersed in late 1829 by a Mpondo attack south of the Mzimkhulu.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the late 1820s the power struggles between the Mzimkhulu and Mzimvubu Rivers had produced two victors: the Mpondo Kingdom and the <a href="/wiki/Bhaca_people" title="Bhaca people">Bhaca</a> Chiefdom. Several weaker polities again relocated, with some moving north, others moving south, and yet others to the Zulu Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1828 saw a further advance of colonial power as a combined British-Boer force marched far beyond the colonial borders and destroyed <a href="/wiki/Matiwane" title="Matiwane">Matiwane</a>'s amaNgwane at Mbholompo.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Benefitting from the fall of the Ndwandwe and Shaka, <a href="/wiki/Sobhuza_I" title="Sobhuza I">Sobhuza's</a> <a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Swazi Kingdom</a> expanded from the core of modern Eswatini to the <a href="/wiki/Sabie_River" title="Sabie River">Sabie River</a> by the early 1830s.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an 1833 trade dispute, Zulu forces briefly captured Delagoa Bay and executed the Portuguese governor.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an attempt to solidify their control over inland trade, the Portuguese launched a failed attack on the Gaza Kingdom in 1834, leaving Gaza dominant over Delagoa Bay and the territories to its north. By the late 1830s, the Kingdom's sphere of influence reached as far as the <a href="/wiki/Zambezi" title="Zambezi">Zambezi River</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1836, the Swazi Kingdom weathered a joint attack by Zulu forces and British adventurers.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometime in the late 1830s the Swazi launched a raid against the Pedi Kingdom, which repelled them.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Mfecane_in_the_Interior">The Mfecane in the Interior</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The Mfecane in the Interior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mfecane began in the interior regions of Central Southern Africa in the late 18th century with the displacement of <a href="/wiki/Khoekhoe" title="Khoekhoe">Khoekhoe</a> and <a href="/wiki/San_people" title="San people">San</a> peoples by slave and cattle raiders from the expanding <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch Cape Colony</a>. Arriving in the middle and lower <a href="/wiki/Orange_River" title="Orange River">Orange River</a> regions, they competed with local <a href="/wiki/Tswana_people" title="Tswana people">Batwsana</a>, beginning a period of social breakdown and recombination. Bolstered in number by escaped slaves, bandits, and people of all ethnicities from the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a>, some of these peoples would eventually become the <a href="/wiki/Korana_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Korana people">Korana</a>. Their power increased as trade with and raids upon colonists provided guns and horses, and by the 1780s they began raiding northwards against Tswana polities.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 1780s to the turn of the century, the southern Tswana chiefdoms underwent fragmentations and consolidations as raids and counter-raids proliferated. The powerful <a href="/wiki/Bahurutse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahurutse">Bahurutshe</a> Chiefdom of the upper <a href="/wiki/Marico_River" title="Marico River">Marico River</a> region had their control of the lucrative trade with the Cape Colony eroded by the <a href="/wiki/Bangwaketse" title="Bangwaketse">Bangwaketse</a> to the northwest, the <a href="/wiki/Batlhaping_tribe" title="Batlhaping tribe">Batlhaping</a> to the southwest, and the emerging <a href="/wiki/Pedi_people" title="Pedi people">Pedi</a> Kingdom to the east.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter, helmed by the Maroteng clan, also came into conflict with the amaNdzundza Ndebele, Masemola, Magakala, Bamphahlele, and <a href="/wiki/Lobedu_people" title="Lobedu people">Balobedu</a> polities.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the region of the modern north and central <a href="/wiki/Free_State_(province)" title="Free State (province)">Free State</a> was increasingly coming under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Bataung" class="mw-redirect" title="Bataung">Bataung</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 1790s, expansion by the Cape Colony to the lower Orange River region displaced the mixed-race <a href="/wiki/Griqua_people" title="Griqua people">Griqua peoples</a> to the confluence of the <a href="/wiki/Vaal_River" title="Vaal River">Vaal</a> and Orange River. There, they absorbed some of their San and Korana neighbors as <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">clients</a>. The Griqua, like other ethnic groups, were not politically unified and differed in their livelihood strategies, which ranged from raiding to agriculture to controlling trade between Batswana and the Cape Colony.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the turn of the century <a href="/wiki/AmaXhosa" class="mw-redirect" title="AmaXhosa">amaXhosa</a> groups also began arriving in the middle Orange River region, fleeing instability along the eastern Cape Colony frontier. There they absorbed Korana, San, and others and engaged in extensive raiding along the Orange and lower Vaal rivers. This proved particularly damaging to the trade activities of their Batlhaping victims.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1810s, <a href="/wiki/Boers" title="Boers">Boer</a> expansion brought increasing destabilization to the middle Orange River region, not least in that it increased the flow of firearms. The Caledon Valley was now sustaining raids by Boer, Griqua, and Korana parties.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 1820s the instability spread north of the Orange River.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1822 <a href="/wiki/Hlubi_people" title="Hlubi people">AmaHlubi</a> under the command of <a href="/wiki/Mpangazitha_(Pakalita)" title="Mpangazitha (Pakalita)">Mpangazita</a> crossed the <a href="/wiki/Drakensberg" title="Drakensberg">Drakensberg</a> mountains and attacked <a href="/wiki/Mmanthatisi" title="Mmanthatisi">Queen MmaNthatisi's</a> <a href="/wiki/Tl%C3%B4kwa_people" title="Tlôkwa people">Batlôkwa people</a>. Put to flight, MmaNthatisi's followers survived off of pillage before resettling west of the <a href="/wiki/Caledon_River" title="Caledon River">Caledon River</a> in 1824. The <a href="/wiki/Sotho_people" title="Sotho people">Sotho</a> polities of this area sometimes held conflictual relations with these Batlôkwa newcomers, and they began coalescing in 1824 under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Moshoeshoe_I" title="Moshoeshoe I">Moshoeshoe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Separately, facing violence and starvation, <a href="/wiki/Sebetwane" title="Sebetwane">Sebetwane</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Royal_Bafokeng_Nation" title="Royal Bafokeng Nation">BaFokeng</a>, Tsooane's MaPhuting, and Nkarahanye's BaHlakoana fled their homes. The three joined forces in 1823 to take the <a href="/wiki/Batlhaping_tribe" title="Batlhaping tribe">BaThlaping</a> town of <a href="/wiki/Dithakong" title="Dithakong">Dithakong</a>, whose access to water kept it rich in grain and cattle despite the overall drought.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The BaThlaping repelled the invasion on 24 June with the aid of a mounted force of Griqua, inflicting heavy casualties and killing Tsooane and Nkarahanye.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1825, Mpangazita's followers dispersed after he was killed in a war against <a href="/wiki/Matiwane" title="Matiwane">Matiwane</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Nguni_people" title="Nguni people">amaNgwane</a>. The amaNgwane proceeded to control much of the Caledon River environs, raiding and displacing Sotho and Tswana neighbors.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mid-1820s saw Sebetwane dominate the upper <a href="/wiki/Molopo_River" title="Molopo River">Molopo</a> region and Moletsane's Bataung people heavily raid the Vaal River. The eastern interior, however, was coming under the domination of Mzilikazi's Ndebele Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His forces raided the <a href="/wiki/Venda_people" title="Venda people">Venda</a> Kingdom to the north, the Maroteng, <a href="/wiki/Ndzundza_language" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Ndzundza language">amaNdzundza</a>, and Balodebu to the northeast, the <a href="/wiki/Bangwaketse" title="Bangwaketse">Bangwaketse</a> to the far west, and Matiwane's nation in the Caledon Valley. Sebetwane and Moletsane's nations, for their part, were outright put to flight.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1827 and 1828 Matiwane's amaNgwane launched a failed attack on Moshoeshoe and, after suffering a major raid (likely perpetrated by the Ndebele), relocated to <a href="/wiki/AbaThembu" class="mw-redirect" title="AbaThembu">abaThembu</a> territory in 1828, where they were destroyed by British, Boer, <a href="/wiki/Gcaleka" class="mw-redirect" title="Gcaleka">amaGcaleka</a>, <a href="/wiki/AmaMpondomise" title="AmaMpondomise">amaMpondo</a>, and abaThembu forces.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Matiwane was repelled, Moshoeshoe's forces successfully raided the abaThembu in 1829, greatly enriching his kingdom and allowing it to recruit large numbers of followers from returning refugees.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the south of Moshoeshoe's territory, small San polities eked out independent livelihoods, while others joined <a href="/wiki/Morosi" title="Morosi">Morosi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Phuthi_people" title="Phuthi people">Phuthi</a> polity to raid abaThembu, Cape Colonists, and others. Notably, San groups developed new styles of <a href="/wiki/Rock_art" title="Rock art">rock art</a> during this period of change.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also between 1827 and 1828, Mzilikazi's Ndebele relocated to the <a href="/wiki/Magaliesberg" title="Magaliesberg">Magaliesberg</a> mountains, where he subjugated the Bahurutshe, <a href="/wiki/Bakwena" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakwena">Bakwena</a>, and Bakgatla and regularly raided the Bangwaketse and southern Batswana peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A multi-ethnic force under the Kora leader Jan Bloem sought to profit from the Ndebele's wealth with a mid-1828 raid, which proved only a partial success as his Kora and Griqua parties were destroyed before they could escape. By 1830, the Ndebele had extended their political influence over the western Tswana polities. Mzilikazi suffered another major raid from the Griqua leader Berend Berends in 1831, but again managed to decimate the loot-laden attackers. In 1832 it was the Zulu Kingdom's turn to raid the Ndebele, but for the most part they were successfully repelled.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mzilikazi relocated after the Zulu attack, settling in the Bahurutshe's upper Marico territory. The Bahurutshe response was divided, with some submitting to Ndebele rule and others relocating to Bathlaping and Griqua territory. In 1834 Jan Bloem launched a second raid against the Ndebele, which ended similarly to his first attack. Mzilikazi responded by maintaining the southern reaches of his domain as an unpopulated buffer zone.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences_for_Nguni_societies">Consequences for Nguni societies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Consequences for Nguni societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg/400px-Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg/600px-Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg/800px-Shaka%27s_Empire_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2031" data-file-height="1741" /></a><figcaption>This map illustrates the rise of the Zulu Empire under Shaka (1816–1828) in present-day <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. The rise of the Zulu Empire <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#aa4400; color:white;"> </span> under Shaka forced other chiefdoms and clans to flee across a wide area of southern Africa. Clans fleeing the Zulu war zone <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffb380; color:black;"> </span> included the <a href="/wiki/Soshangane" title="Soshangane">Soshangane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zwangendaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Zwangendaba">Zwangendaba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ndebele_people_(Zimbabwe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)">Ndebele</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hlubi_people" title="Hlubi people">Hlubi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swazi_people" title="Swazi people">Ngwane</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mfengu" class="mw-redirect" title="Mfengu">Mfengu</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;"> </span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Around 1821, the Zulu general <a href="/wiki/Mzilikazi" title="Mzilikazi">Mzilikazi</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Khumalo_clan" title="Khumalo clan">Khumalo clan</a> defied Shaka, and set up his own kingdom. He quickly made many enemies: not only the Zulu king, but also the <a href="/wiki/Boer" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer">Boers</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Griqua_people" title="Griqua people">Griqua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tswana_people" title="Tswana people">Tswana</a>. Defeats in several clashes convinced Mzilikazi to move north towards Swaziland. Going north and then inland westward along the watershed between the <a href="/wiki/Vaal_River" title="Vaal River">Vaal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Limpopo_River" title="Limpopo River">Limpopo</a> rivers, Mzilikazi and his followers, the AmaNdebele, (called Matebele in English) established a <a href="/wiki/Ndebele_people_(Zimbabwe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)">Ndebele</a> state northwest of the city of <a href="/wiki/Pretoria" title="Pretoria">Pretoria</a>. </p><p>During this period, the Matebele left a trail of destruction in their wake.<sup id="cite_ref-Becker1979_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker1979-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1837 to 1838, the arrival of Boer settlers and the subsequent battles of Vegtkop and Mosega, drove the Matebele north of the Limpopo. They settled in the area now known as <a href="/wiki/Matabeleland" title="Matabeleland">Matabeleland</a>, in present-day southern <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>. Mzilikazi set up his new capital in <a href="/wiki/Bulawayo" title="Bulawayo">Bulawayo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The AmaNdebele drove the <a href="/wiki/Shona_people" title="Shona people">MaShona</a> of the region northward and forced them to pay tribute. This caused resentment that has continued to the current day in modern Zimbabwe. </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mhlatuze_River" title="Battle of Mhlatuze River">Battle of Mhlatuze River</a> in 1818, the Ndwandwe were defeated by a Zulu force under the direct command of Shaka. <a href="/wiki/Soshangane" title="Soshangane">Soshangane</a>, one of Zwide's generals, fled to <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> with the remainder of the Ndwandwe. There, they established the <a href="/wiki/Gaza_Empire" title="Gaza Empire">Gaza kingdom</a>. They oppressed the <a href="/wiki/Tsonga_people" title="Tsonga people">Tsonga</a> people living there, some of whom fled over the <a href="/wiki/Lebombo_Mountains" title="Lebombo Mountains">Lebombo Mountains</a> into the Northern Transvaal. In 1833, Soshangane invaded various Portuguese settlements, and was initially successful. But a combination of internal disputes and war against the <a href="/wiki/Swazi_people" title="Swazi people">Swazi</a> caused the downfall of the Gaza kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Swazi_people" title="Swazi people">Ngwane</a> people lived in present-day <a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a> (Swaziland), where they had settled in the southwest. They warred periodically with the Ndwandwe. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Zwangendaba" class="mw-redirect" title="Zwangendaba">Zwangendaba</a>, a commander of the Ndwandwe army, fled north with Soshangane after his defeat in 1819. Zwangendaba's followers were henceforth called <a href="/wiki/Ngoni_people" title="Ngoni people">Ngoni</a>. Continuing north of the <a href="/wiki/Zambezi_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Zambezi River">Zambezi River</a>, they formed a state in the region between lakes <a href="/wiki/Lake_Malawi" title="Lake Malawi">Malawi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tanganyika" title="Lake Tanganyika">Tanganyika</a>. <a href="/wiki/Maseko" title="Maseko">Maseko</a>, who led another part of the Ngoni people, founded another state to the east of Zwangendaba's kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To the east, refugee clans and tribes from the Mfecane fled to the lands of the Xhosa people. Some of them such as the amaNgwane were driven back by force and defeated. Those who were accepted were obliged to be tributary to the Xhosas and lived under their protection. They were assimilated into the Xhosa cultural way of life, becoming part of the Xhosa people. After years of oppression by the Xhosas, they later formed an alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences_for_the_Sotho-Tswana_peoples">Consequences for the Sotho-Tswana peoples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consequences for the Sotho-Tswana peoples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Southern Tswana populations had experienced an increase in conflict as early as the 1780s. There was significant population growth in the region which lead to more competition for resources. There was an increasing amount of trade with the Cape colony and the Portuguese; this had the consequence of separate chiefdoms becoming more eager to conquer land for themselves in order to control trade routes. Dutch settlers from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> encroaching upon the Khoikhoi and San into regions where Tswana people live resulted in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Korana_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Korana people">Korana</a> who started to launch raids on other communities by the 1780s. The fact that many of them had access to firearms and horses likely exacerbated the devastation caused by their raiders. Xhosa who were escaping the already violent region of the Eastern Cape often launched their own raids as well. All of these events led to making the region progressively more unstable. Missionary interference, internal politics, and raids by Dutch settlers also impacted the region. By the start of the 19th century, the most powerful Tswana chiefdom, the Bahurutse, were increasingly being challenged by the Bangwaketse.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Moshoeshoe_I" title="Moshoeshoe I">Moshoeshoe I</a> gathered the mountain clans together in an alliance against the Zulus. Fortifying the easily defended hills and expanding his reach with cavalry raids, he fought against his enemies with some success, despite not adopting the Zulu tactics, as many clans had done. The territory of Moshoeshoe I became the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Lesotho" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tswana were pillaged by two large invading forces set on the move by the Mfecane. <a href="/wiki/Sebitwane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebitwane">Sebitwane</a> gathered the <a href="/wiki/Makololo" class="mw-redirect" title="Makololo">Kololo</a> ethnic groups near modern Lesotho and wandered north across what is now <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, plundering and killing many of the Tswana people in the way. They also took large numbers of captives north with them,<sup id="cite_ref-Segolodi_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Segolodi-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> finally settling north of the Zambezi River in <a href="/wiki/Barotseland" title="Barotseland">Barotseland</a>, where they conquered the <a href="/wiki/Lozi_people" title="Lozi people">Lozi people</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tlou1985_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tlou1985-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next force was the <a href="/wiki/Mzilikazi" title="Mzilikazi">Mzilikazi</a> and the Matebele who moved across Tswana territory in 1837. Both of these invading forces continued to travel north across Tswana territory without establishing any sort of state.<sup id="cite_ref-Tlou1985_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tlou1985-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to these major kingdoms, a number of smaller groups also moved north into Tswana territory, where they met with defeat and ultimately vanished from history.<sup id="cite_ref-Segolodi_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Segolodi-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among those involved in these invasions were European adventurers such as <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Isaacs" title="Nathaniel Isaacs">Nathaniel Isaacs</a> (who was later accused of slave trading).<sup id="cite_ref-Natalia_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Natalia-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1988, <a href="/wiki/Rhodes_University" title="Rhodes University">Rhodes University</a> professor <a href="/wiki/Julian_Cobbing" title="Julian Cobbing">Julian Cobbing</a> advanced a different hypothesis on the rise of the Zulu state; he contended the accounts of the Mfecane were a self-serving, constructed product of <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>-era politicians and historians. According to Cobbing, apartheid-era historians had mischaracterised the Mfecane as a period of internally induced Black-on-Black destruction. Instead, Cobbing argued that the roots of the conflicts lay in the labour needs of Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slave traders</a> operating out of Delagoa Bay, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Mozambique" title="Portuguese Mozambique">Mozambique</a> and European settlers in the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a>. The resulting pressures led to <a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">forced displacement</a>, famine, and war in the interior, allowing waves of <a href="/wiki/Afrikaners" title="Afrikaners">Afrikaner</a> settlers to colonise large swaths of the region.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cobbing's views were echoed by historian Dan Wylie, who argued that colonial-era white writers such as Isaacs had exaggerated the brutality of the Mfecane to justify European colonialism.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cobbing's hypothesis generated an immense volume of polemics among historians; the discussions were termed the "Cobbing Controversy". While historians had already embarked upon new approaches to the study of the Mfecane in the 1970s and 1980s, Cobbing's paper was the first major source that overtly defied the hegemonic "Zulu-centric" explanation at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 211, 212">: 211, 212 </span></sup> This was followed by fierce discourse in the early 1990s prompted by Cobbing's hypothesis. Many agree that Cobbing's analysis offered several key breakthroughs and insights into the nature of early Zulu society.<sup id="cite_ref-Etherington2004_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etherington2004-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The historian Elizabeth Eldredge challenged Cobbing's thesis on the grounds that there is scant evidence of the resumption of the Portuguese slave trade out of Delagoa Bay before 1823, a finding that undermines Cobbing's thesis that Shaka's early military activities were a response to <a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">slave raids</a>. Moreover, Eldredge argues that the <a href="/wiki/Griqua_people" title="Griqua people">Griqua</a> and other groups (rather than European missionaries as asserted by Cobbing) were primarily responsible for the slave raids coming from the Cape. Eldredge also asserts that Cobbing downplays the importance of the <a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">ivory trade</a> in Delagoa Bay, and the extent to which African groups and leaders sought to establish more centralised and complex state formations to control ivory routes and the wealth associated with the trade. She suggests these pressures created internal movements, as well as reactions against European activity, that drove the state formations and concomitant violence and displacement.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She still agreed with Cobbing's overall sentiment in that the Zulu-centric explanation for the Mfecane is not reliable.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 2000s, a new historical consensus had emerged,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> recognizing the Mfecane to be not simply a series of events resulting from the founding of the Zulu Kingdom but rather a multitude of factors caused before and after <a href="/wiki/Shaka" title="Shaka">Shaka Zulu</a> came into power.<sup id="cite_ref-Etherington2004_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etherington2004-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 211, 212">: 211, 212 </span></sup> </p><p>The debate and controversy within Southern African historiography over the Mfecane has been compared to similar debates about the <a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a> of the seventeenth century in northeastern <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, due to the alleged similarity of the narratives of indigenous "self-vanishing" that were propagated by apologists for European colonialism about the Mfecane and the Beaver Wars.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-General_South_African_History_Timeline:_1800s-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-General_South_African_History_Timeline:_1800s_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190421164229/https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/1800s">"General South African History Timeline: 1800s"</a>. South African History Online. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/1800s">the original</a> on 21 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=General+South+African+History+Timeline%3A+1800s&rft.pub=South+African+History+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sahistory.org.za%2Farticle%2F1800s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpprecht1994" class="citation journal cs1">Epprecht, Marc (June 1994). "The Mfecane as Teaching Aid: History, Politics, and Pedagogy in Southern Africa". <i>Journal of Historical Sociology</i>. <b>7</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">113–</span>130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-6443.1994.tb00164.x">10.1111/j.1467-6443.1994.tb00164.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Historical+Sociology&rft.atitle=The+Mfecane+as+Teaching+Aid%3A+History%2C+Politics%2C+and+Pedagogy+in+Southern+Africa&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E113-%3C%2Fspan%3E130&rft.date=1994-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-6443.1994.tb00164.x&rft.aulast=Epprecht&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson2007" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C"><i>Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power</i></a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42518-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42518-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carnage+and+Culture%3A+Landmark+Battles+in+the+Rise+to+Western+Power&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42518-8&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXGr16-CxpH8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter1969" class="citation book cs1">Walter, Eugene Victor (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/terrorresistance0000walt"><i>Terror and resistance: a study of political violence, with case studies of some primitive African communities</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terror+and+resistance%3A+a+study+of+political+violence%2C+with+case+studies+of+some+primitive+African+communities&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=Eugene+Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fterrorresistance0000walt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright1988-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wright1988_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrightCobbing1988" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, John; Cobbing, Julian (12 September 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/handle/10539/10263">"The Mfecane: Beginning the inquest"</a>. <i>Wits Institutional Repository African Studies Institute – Seminar Papers</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191224055507/http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/handle/10539/10263">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Sources+of+Conflict+in+Southern+Africa%2C+c.+1800%E2%80%9330%3A+The+%27Mfecane%27+Reconsidered&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.date=1992&rft.issn=0021-8537&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153554467%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F182273%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700031832&rft.aulast=Eldredge&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F182273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Epprecht_114-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Epprecht_114_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epprecht_114_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpprecht1994" class="citation journal cs1">Epprecht, Marc (June 1994). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Political+Mythology+and+the+Making+of+Natal%27s+Mfecane&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=286&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10539%2F10253&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F485525%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F485525&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F485525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEtherington2004" class="citation journal cs1">Etherington, Norman (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40233902">"A False Emptiness: How Historians May Have Been Misled by Early Nineteenth Century Maps of South-Eastern Africa"</a>. <i>Imago Mundi</i>. <b>56</b> (1): 68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0308569032000172969">10.1080/0308569032000172969</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40233902">40233902</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128461624">128461624</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Imago+Mundi&rft.atitle=A+False+Emptiness%3A+How+Historians+May+Have+Been+Misled+by+Early+Nineteenth+Century+Maps+of+South-Eastern+Africa&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=68&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128461624%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40233902%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0308569032000172969&rft.aulast=Etherington&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40233902&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1989" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, John (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/485525">"Political Mythology and the Making of Natal's Mfecane"</a>. <i>Canadian Journal of African Studies</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 286. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F485525">10.2307/485525</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10539%2F10253">10539/10253</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/485525">485525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Political+Mythology+and+the+Making+of+Natal%27s+Mfecane&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=286&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10539%2F10253&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F485525%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F485525&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F485525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpprecht1994" class="citation journal cs1">Epprecht, Marc (June 1994). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Political+Mythology+and+the+Making+of+Natal%27s+Mfecane&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=287&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10539%2F10253&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F485525%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F485525&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F485525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa," 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa," 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEldredge1992" class="citation journal cs1">Eldredge, Elizabeth A. 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href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153554467">153554467</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Sources+of+Conflict+in+Southern+Africa%2C+c.+1800%E2%80%9330%3A+The+%27Mfecane%27+Reconsidered&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E30-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.date=1992&rft.issn=0021-8537&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153554467%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F182273%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700031832&rft.aulast=Eldredge&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F182273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarstangColemanTherrell2014" class="citation journal cs1">Garstang, Michael; Coleman, Anthony; Therrell, Matthew (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2Fsajs.2014%2F20130239">"Climate and the mfecane"</a>. <i>South African Journal of Science</i>. <b>110</b> (<span class="nowrap">5–</span>6): 110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2Fsajs.2014%2F20130239">10.1590/sajs.2014/20130239</a></span> – via EBSCOhost.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+African+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=Climate+and+the+mfecane&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.pages=110&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2Fsajs.2014%2F20130239&rft.aulast=Garstang&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Coleman%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Therrell%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1590%252Fsajs.2014%252F20130239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa," 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa," 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa," 15–16, 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa," 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 224–225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 225–226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 231.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 247–248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2010" class="citation book cs1">Wright, John (2010). "Turbulent Times: Political Transformation in the North and East, 1760s–1830s". In Hamilton, Carolyn; Mbenga, Bernard; Ross, Robert (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of South Africa</i>. Vol. I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">214–</span>215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51794-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51794-2"><bdi>978-0-521-51794-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Turbulent+Times%3A+Political+Transformation+in+the+North+and+East%2C+1760s%E2%80%931830s&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+South+Africa&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E214-%3C%2Fspan%3E215&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51794-2&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 215–216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa," 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa," 22, 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eldredge, "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa," 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 243–245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 246–247.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 240, 243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright, "Turbulent Times," 240–241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Becker1979-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Becker1979_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker,_Peter1979" class="citation book cs1">Becker, Peter (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8h6KPwAACAAJ"><i>Path of Blood: The Rise and Conquests of Mzilikazi, Founder of the Matebele ethnic group of Southern Africa</i></a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-004978-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-004978-7"><bdi>978-0-14-004978-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Path+of+Blood%3A+The+Rise+and+Conquests+of+Mzilikazi%2C+Founder+of+the+Matebele+ethnic+group+of+Southern+Africa&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-14-004978-7&rft.au=Becker%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8h6KPwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2010" class="citation book cs1">Wright, John (2010). "Turbulent Times: Political Transformations in the North and East, 1760–1830s". In Carolyn Hamilton; Bernard K. Mbenga; Robert Ross (eds.). <i>The Cambridge History of South Africa</i>. Vol. I. Cambridge: University Press. pp. 249, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521517942.006">10.1017/CHOL9780521517942.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139056083" title="Special:BookSources/9781139056083"><bdi>9781139056083</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Turbulent+Times%3A+Political+Transformations+in+the+North+and+East%2C+1760%E2%80%931830s&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+South+Africa&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=249%2C+212%2C+213%2C+215%2C+216%2C+217&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521517942.006&rft.isbn=9781139056083&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Segolodi-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Segolodi_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Segolodi_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegolodi,_Moanaphuti1940" class="citation web cs1">Segolodi, Moanaphuti (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/12170767">"Ditso Tsa Batawana"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ditso+Tsa+Batawana&rft.date=1940&rft.au=Segolodi%2C+Moanaphuti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F12170767&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tlou1985-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tlou1985_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tlou1985_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTlou,_Thomas1985" class="citation book cs1">Tlou, Thomas (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-d3pXwAACAAJ"><i>A History of Ngamiland, 1750 to 1906: The Formation of an African State</i></a>. Macmillan Botswana. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780333396353" title="Special:BookSources/9780333396353"><bdi>9780333396353</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ngamiland%2C+1750+to+1906%3A+The+Formation+of+an+African+State&rft.pub=Macmillan+Botswana&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=9780333396353&rft.au=Tlou%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-d3pXwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Natalia-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Natalia_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerrman,_Louis1974" class="citation journal cs1">Herrman, Louis (December 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.natalia.org.za/Files/4/Natalia%20v04%20article%20p19-21%20C.pdf">"Nathaniel Isaacs"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Natalia</i> (4). Pietermartizburg: The Natal Society Foundation: <span class="nowrap">19–</span>22. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308110023/http://www.natalia.org.za/Files/4/Natalia%20v04%20article%20p19-21%20C.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 8 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natalia&rft.atitle=Nathaniel+Isaacs&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=1974-12&rft.au=Herrman%2C+Louis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.natalia.org.za%2FFiles%2F4%2FNatalia%2520v04%2520article%2520p19-21%2520C.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobbing1988" class="citation journal cs1">Cobbing, Julian (1988). "The Mfecane as Alibi: Thoughts on Dithakong and Mbolompo". <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>29</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">487–</span>519. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021853700030590">10.1017/s0021853700030590</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+Mfecane+as+Alibi%3A+Thoughts+on+Dithakong+and+Mbolompo&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E487-%3C%2Fspan%3E519&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0021853700030590&rft.aulast=Cobbing&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRory_Carroll2006" class="citation news cs1">Rory Carroll (22 May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/may/22/rorycarroll.mainsection">"Shaka Zulu's brutality was exaggerated, says new book"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407230904/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/may/22/rorycarroll.mainsection">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Shaka+Zulu%27s+brutality+was+exaggerated%2C+says+new+book&rft.date=2006-05-22&rft.au=Rory+Carroll&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2006%2Fmay%2F22%2Frorycarroll.mainsection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Etherington2004-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Etherington2004_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Etherington2004_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEtherington2004" class="citation journal cs1">Etherington, Norman (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research-repository.uwa.edu.au/en/publications/a-tempest-in-a-teapot--nineteenthcentury-contests-for-land-in-south-africas-caledon-valley-and-the-invention-of-the-mfecane(1ec5b37a-fd2e-4935-a8d7-3b13b0f9b8a5).html">"A Tempest in a Teapot? Nineteenth-Century Contests For Land in South Africa's Caledon Valley and the Invention of the Mfecane"</a>. <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>45</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">203–</span>219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853703008624">10.1017/S0021853703008624</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8537">0021-8537</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162838180">162838180</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=A+Tempest+in+a+Teapot%3F+Nineteenth-Century+Contests+For+Land+in+South+Africa%27s+Caledon+Valley+and+the+Invention+of+the+Mfecane&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E203-%3C%2Fspan%3E219&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162838180%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0021-8537&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853703008624&rft.aulast=Etherington&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearch-repository.uwa.edu.au%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Fa-tempest-in-a-teapot--nineteenthcentury-contests-for-land-in-south-africas-caledon-valley-and-the-invention-of-the-mfecane%281ec5b37a-fd2e-4935-a8d7-3b13b0f9b8a5%29.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEldredge,_Elizabeth1995" class="citation book cs1">Eldredge, Elizabeth (1995). "Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa c. 1800–1830: the 'Mfecane' Reconsidered". In Hamilton, Carolyn (ed.). <i>The Mfecane Aftermath: Reconstructive Debates in Southern African History</i>. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">122–</span>161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86814-252-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86814-252-1"><bdi>978-1-86814-252-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sources+of+Conflict+in+Southern+Africa+c.+1800%E2%80%931830%3A+the+%27Mfecane%27+Reconsidered&rft.btitle=The+Mfecane+Aftermath%3A+Reconstructive+Debates+in+Southern+African+History&rft.place=Pietermaritzburg&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E122-%3C%2Fspan%3E161&rft.pub=University+of+Natal+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-86814-252-1&rft.au=Eldredge%2C+Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEldredge2014" class="citation book cs1">Eldredge, Elizabeth (2014). <i>The Creation of the Zulu Kingdom, 1815–1828</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creation+of+the+Zulu+Kingdom%2C+1815%E2%80%931828&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Eldredge&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowd2022" class="citation journal cs1">Dowd, Gregory Evans (July 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/861441/summary">"Indigenous Self-Vanishing? Relating the North American 'Iroquois Wars' and the Southern African Mfecane"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_William_and_Mary_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="The William and Mary Quarterly">The William and Mary Quarterly</a></i>. <b>79</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">393–</span>424. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fwmq.2022.0030">10.1353/wmq.2022.0030</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Indigenous+Self-Vanishing%3F+Relating+the+North+American+%27Iroquois+Wars%27+and+the+Southern+African+Mfecane&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E393-%3C%2Fspan%3E424&rft.date=2022-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fwmq.2022.0030&rft.aulast=Dowd&rft.aufirst=Gregory+Evans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F861441%2Fsummary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2009" class="citation cs2">Wright, John (2009), Mbenga, Bernard K.; Hamilton, Carolyn; Ross, Robert (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-south-africa/turbulent-times-political-transformations-in-the-north-and-east-1760s1830s/E5E3A1699B2081CB36B7A4EAA604F5CD">"Turbulent Times: Political Transformations in the North and East, 1760s–1830s"</a>, <i>The Cambridge History of South Africa: Volume 1: From Early Times to 1885</i>, Cambridge History of South Africa, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">211–</span>252, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51794-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51794-2"><bdi>978-0-521-51794-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 November</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+South+Africa%3A+Volume+1%3A+From+Early+Times+to+1885&rft.atitle=Turbulent+Times%3A+Political+Transformations+in+the+North+and+East%2C+1760s%E2%80%931830s&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E211-%3C%2Fspan%3E252&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51794-2&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fcambridge-history-of-south-africa%2Fturbulent-times-political-transformations-in-the-north-and-east-1760s1830s%2FE5E3A1699B2081CB36B7A4EAA604F5CD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMfecane" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_resources">Further resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mfecane&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>J. D. Omer-Cooper, <i>The Zulu Aftermath: A Nineteenth-Century Revolution in Bantu Africa</i>, Longmans, 1978: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-64531-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-64531-X">0-582-64531-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Etherington" title="Norman Etherington">Norman Etherington</a>, <i>The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815–1854</i>, Longman, 2001: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-31567-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-31567-0">0-582-31567-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolyn_Hamilton_(historian)" title="Carolyn Hamilton (historian)">Carolyn Hamilton</a>, <i>The Mfecane Aftermath: Reconstructive Debates in Southern African History</i>, Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1995: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86814-252-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-86814-252-3">1-86814-252-3</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Template:Political history of South Africa"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Template talk:Political history of South Africa"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_history_of_South_Africa" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political history of South Africa"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_history_of_South_Africa288" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Political history of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mapungubwe" title="Kingdom of Mapungubwe">Kingdom of Mapungubwe</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1075</span>–<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1220</span>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Cape_Colony" title="Dutch Cape Colony">Dutch Cape Colony</a> (1652–1806)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mthethwa_Paramountcy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mthethwa Paramountcy">Mthethwa Paramountcy</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1780</span>–1817)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ndwandwe" title="Ndwandwe">Ndwandwe Kingdom</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1780</span>–1819)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cape_Colony" title="Cape Colony">Cape Colony</a> (1795–1910)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zulu_Kingdom" title="Zulu Kingdom">Zulu Kingdom</a> (1816–1897)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Republic" title="Natalia Republic">Natalia Republic</a> (1839–1843)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Natal" title="Colony of Natal">Natal Colony</a> (1843–1910)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Orange_Free_State" title="Orange Free State">Orange Free State</a> (1854–1902)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Republic" title="South African Republic">South African Republic</a> (1856–1902)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Griqualand_East" title="Griqualand East">Griqualand East</a> (1861–1879)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Griqualand_West" title="Griqualand West">Griqualand West</a> (1870–1873)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/State_of_Goshen" title="State of Goshen">Goshen</a> (1882–1883)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Stellaland" title="Stellaland">Stellaland</a> (1882–1885)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nieuwe_Republiek" title="Nieuwe Republiek">Nieuwe Republiek</a> (1884–1888)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Upingtonia" title="Upingtonia">Upingtonia</a> (1885–1887)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Klein_Vrystaat" title="Klein Vrystaat">Klein Vrystaat</a> (1886–1891)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Orange_River_Colony" title="Orange River Colony">Orange River Colony</a> (1902–1910)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Colony" title="Transvaal Colony">Transvaal Colony</a> (1902–1910)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a> (1910–1961)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Transkei" title="Transkei">Transkei</a> (1976–1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bophuthatswana" title="Bophuthatswana">Bophuthatswana</a> (1977–1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Venda" title="Venda">Venda</a> (1979–1994)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ciskei" title="Ciskei">Ciskei</a> (1981–1994)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_South_Africa" title="Early history of South Africa">Pre-colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu migrations</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salt_River" title="Battle of Salt River">Battle of Salt River</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1652%E2%80%931815)" title="History of South Africa (1652–1815)">1652–1815</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cape_Colony_before_1806#First_settlement" title="History of the Cape Colony before 1806">Dutch settlement</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Huguenots_in_South_Africa" title="Huguenots in South Africa">French Huguenot settlement</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khoikhoi%E2%80%93Dutch_Wars" title="Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars">Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Xhosa_Wars" title="Xhosa Wars">Xhosa Wars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Muizenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Muizenberg">Battle of Muizenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blaauwberg" title="Battle of Blaauwberg">Battle of Blaauwberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1814" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814">Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1815%E2%80%931910)" title="History of South Africa (1815–1910)">1815–1910</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mfecane</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1820_Settlers" title="1820 Settlers">1820 Settlers</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Great_Trek" title="Great Trek">Great Trek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Boer_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer Republics">Boer Republics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Transvaal_Civil_War" title="Transvaal Civil War">Transvaal Civil War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mineral_Revolution" title="Mineral Revolution">Mineral Revolution</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Witwatersrand_Gold_Rush" title="Witwatersrand Gold Rush">Witwatersrand Gold Rush</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Wars_(1879%E2%80%931915)" title="South African Wars (1879–1915)">South African Wars</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_Act_1909" title="South Africa Act 1909">South Africa Act 1909</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Convention_(South_Africa)" title="National Convention (South Africa)">National Convention</a>)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1910%E2%80%9348)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Africa (1910–48)">1910–1948</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa_campaign" title="South West Africa campaign">South West Africa campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maritz_rebellion" title="Maritz rebellion">Maritz rebellion</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rand_Rebellion" title="Rand Rebellion">Rand Rebellion</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_South_Africa" title="Great Depression in South Africa">Great Depression</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1946_African_Mine_Workers%27_Union_strike" title="1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike">1946 African Mine Workers' Union strike</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustans</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1948_South_African_general_election" title="1948 South African general election">1948 general election</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Apartheid_legislation" title="Apartheid legislation">Apartheid legislation</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Pass_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Pass laws">Pass laws</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Internal_resistance_to_apartheid" title="Internal resistance to apartheid">Internal resistance</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coloured-vote_constitutional_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Coloured-vote constitutional crisis">Coloured-vote constitutional crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Defiance_Campaign" title="Defiance Campaign">Defiance Campaign</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_People_(1955)" title="Congress of the People (1955)">Congress of the People</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Charter" title="Freedom Charter">Freedom Charter</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_March_(South_Africa)" title="Women's March (South Africa)">Women's March 1956</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1957_Alexandra_bus_boycott" title="1957 Alexandra bus boycott">1957 Alexandra bus boycott</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sharpeville_massacre" title="Sharpeville massacre">Sharpeville massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1960_South_African_republic_referendum" title="1960 South African republic referendum">1960 republic referendum</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_South_Africa_during_apartheid" title="Foreign relations of South Africa during apartheid">International isolation</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_1761" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1761">UN Resolution 1761</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_591" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 591">UNSC Resolution 591</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_South_Africa" title="Academic boycott of South Africa">Academic boycott</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment_from_South_Africa" title="Disinvestment from South Africa">Disinvestment</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Constructive_engagement" title="Constructive engagement">Constructive engagement</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tar_Baby_Option" class="mw-redirect" title="Tar Baby Option">Tar Baby Option</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sporting_boycott_of_South_Africa_during_the_apartheid_era" title="Sporting boycott of South Africa during the apartheid era">Sporting boycott</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Apartheid-era_South_Africa_and_the_Olympics" title="Apartheid-era South Africa and the Olympics">Olympics</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rugby_union_and_apartheid" title="Rugby union and apartheid">Rugby union</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rivonia_Trial" title="Rivonia Trial">Rivonia Trial</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Durban_Moment" title="Durban Moment">Durban Moment</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">Border War</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93South_Africa_relations#Strategic_relations" title="Israel–South Africa relations">Israeli alliance</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93South_Africa_Agreement" title="Israel–South Africa Agreement">Israel–South Africa Agreement</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mafeje_affair" title="Mafeje affair">Mafeje affair</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Soweto_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Soweto uprising">Soweto Uprising</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Project_Coast" title="Project Coast">Project Coast</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Church_Street_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Church Street bombing">Church Street bombing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1983_South_African_constitutional_referendum" title="1983 South African constitutional referendum">1983 constitutional referendum</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Langa_massacre" title="Langa massacre">Langa massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_speech" title="Rubicon speech">Rubicon speech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Vula" title="Operation Vula">Operation Vula</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dakar_Conference" title="Dakar Conference">Dakar Conference</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1987_Transkei_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Transkei coup d'état">Transkei coup d'état</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1990_Ciskei_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1990 Ciskei coup d'état">Ciskei coup d'état</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1990_Venda_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1990 Venda coup d'état">Venda coup d'état</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Third_Force_(South_Africa)" title="Third Force (South Africa)">Third Force</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Negotiations_to_end_apartheid_in_South_Africa" title="Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa">CODESA</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Kempton_Park_World_Trade_Centre" title="Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre">Storming of the Kempton Park World Trade Centre</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bisho_massacre" title="Bisho massacre">Bisho massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1992_South_African_apartheid_referendum" title="1992 South African apartheid referendum">1992 apartheid referendum</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Saint_James_Church_massacre" title="Saint James Church massacre">Saint James Church massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1994_Bophuthatswana_crisis" title="1994 Bophuthatswana crisis">Bophuthatswana crisis</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Shell_House_massacre" title="Shell House massacre">Shell House massacre</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1994%E2%80%93present)" title="History of South Africa (1994–present)">Post-<br />apartheid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1994_South_African_general_election" title="1994 South African general election">1994 general election</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Nelson_Mandela" title="Cabinet of Nelson Mandela">Government of National Unity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_and_Development_Programme" title="Reconstruction and Development Programme">Reconstruction and Development Programme</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Reconciliation_Commission_(South_Africa)" title="Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)">Truth and Reconciliation Commission</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Arms_Deal" title="South African Arms Deal">Arms Deal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Floor_crossing_(South_Africa)" title="Floor crossing (South Africa)">Floor crossing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2002_Soweto_bombings" title="2002 Soweto bombings">Soweto bombings</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/African_Renaissance" title="African Renaissance">African Renaissance</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Travelgate_(South_Africa)" title="Travelgate (South Africa)">Travelgate</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_South_Africa" title="Xenophobia in South Africa">Xenophobia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Kennedy_Road" title="Attack on Kennedy Road">Attack on Kennedy Road</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Blikkiesdorp" title="Blikkiesdorp">Blikkiesdorp</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Marikana_killings" class="mw-redirect" title="Marikana killings">Marikana massacre</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Western_Cape_2012_Farm_Workers%27_strike" title="Western Cape 2012 Farm Workers' strike">2012 Western Cape farm workers' strike</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nkandla_(homestead)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nkandla (homestead)">Nkandlagate</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Africa" title="Racism in South Africa">Racism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2014_South_African_platinum_strike" title="2014 South African platinum strike">2014 platinum strike</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Rhodes_Must_Fall" title="Rhodes Must Fall">#RhodesMustFall protests</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/FeesMustFall" title="FeesMustFall">#FeesMustFall student protests</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tshwane_riots,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Tshwane riots, 2016">Tshwane riots</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2019_service_delivery_protests" title="2019 service delivery protests">2019 service delivery protests</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2019_Johannesburg_riots" title="2019 Johannesburg riots">2019 Johannesburg riots</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_South_Africa" title="COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa">COVID-19 pandemic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2020_Phala_Phala_Robbery" title="2020 Phala Phala Robbery">2020 Phala Phala Robbery</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021_South_African_unrest" title="2021 South African unrest">2021 unrest</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lady_R_incident" title="Lady R incident"><i>Lady R</i> incident</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/African_nationalism" title="African nationalism">African nationalism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Calvinism" title="Afrikaner Calvinism">Afrikaner Calvinism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_nationalism" title="Afrikaner nationalism">Afrikaner nationalism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_South_Africa" title="Anarchism in South Africa">Anarchism</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azania" title="Azania">Azania</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Baasskap" title="Baasskap">Baasskap</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Boerehaat" title="Boerehaat">Boerehaat</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">Black Consciousness Movement</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cape_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Independence">Cape Independence</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Vow" title="Day of the Vow">Day of the Vow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greater_South_Africa" title="Greater South Africa">Greater South Africa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Honorary_whites" title="Honorary whites">Honorary whites</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Rooi_gevaar" title="Rooi gevaar">Rooi gevaar</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">Slavery</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Swart_gevaar" title="Swart gevaar">Swart gevaar</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Uitlander" title="Uitlander">Uitlander</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Volkstaat" title="Volkstaat">Volkstaat</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civic and political<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Bond" title="Afrikaner Bond">Afrikaner Bond</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Broederbond" title="Afrikaner Broederbond">Afrikaner Broederbond</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Party" title="Afrikaner Party">Afrikaner Party</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_Income_Tax_and_Usury_Party" title="Abolition of Income Tax and Usury Party">AITUP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/African_Political_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="African Political Organization">APO</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Volksfront" title="Afrikaner Volksfront">AVF</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_People%27s_Convention" title="Black People's Convention">BPC</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Sash" title="Black Sash">Black Sash</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Boerestaat_Party" title="Boerestaat Party">Boerestaat Party</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Alliance_(South_Africa)" title="Christian Democratic Alliance (South Africa)">CDA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ciskei_National_Independence_Party" title="Ciskei National Independence Party">CNIP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_Ecology_Group" title="Cape Town Ecology Group">CTEG</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Congress_of_Democrats" title="South African Congress of Democrats">COD</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Congress_Alliance" title="Congress Alliance">Congress Alliance</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_Objector_Support_Group" title="Conscientious Objector Support Group">COSG</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative Party of South Africa">CP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Left_Front" title="Democratic Left Front">DLF</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dominion_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Dominion Party (South Africa)">Dominion Party</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(South_Africa,_1973)" title="Democratic Party (South Africa, 1973)">DP (1973–1977)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Democratic Party (South Africa)">DP (1989–2000)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Progressive_Party_(Transkei)" title="Democratic Progressive Party (Transkei)">DPP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Movement_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Socialist Movement (South Africa)">DSM</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/End_Conscription_Campaign" title="End Conscription Campaign">ECC</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Alliance_(South_Africa)" title="Federal Alliance (South Africa)">FA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Democrats_(South_Africa)" title="Federation of Democrats (South Africa)">FD</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Genootskap_van_Regte_Afrikaners" title="Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners">Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Purified_National_Party" title="Purified National Party">GNP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Het_Volk_(political_party)" title="Het Volk (political party)">Het Volk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Herenigde_Nasionale_Party" title="Herenigde Nasionale Party">HNP (Herenigde)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Herstigte_Nasionale_Party" title="Herstigte Nasionale Party">HNP (Herstigte)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Democratic_Alternatives_in_South_Africa" title="Institute for Democratic Alternatives in South Africa">IDASA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Independent_Democrats" title="Independent Democrats">ID</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Independent_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Independent Party (South Africa)">IP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_Socialist_League" title="International Socialist League">ISL</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jeugkrag" title="Jeugkrag">Jeugkrag</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Johannesburg_Reform_Committee" title="Johannesburg Reform Committee">Johannesburg Reform Committee</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Labour Party (South Africa)">Labour Party (1910–1958)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(South_Africa,_1969)" title="Labour Party (South Africa, 1969)">Labour Party (1969–1994)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_South_Africa" title="Liberal Party of South Africa">Liberal Party (1953–1968)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Action_(South_Africa)" title="National Action (South Africa)">NA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Conservative_Party_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Conservative Party (South Africa)">NCP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Natal_Indian_Congress" title="Natal Indian Congress">Natal Indian Congress</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_Labour_Party_(South_Africa)" title="New Labour Party (South Africa)">NLP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="New National Party (South Africa)">NNP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Party_(South_Africa)" title="National Party (South Africa)">NP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Party_(South_Africa,_1981)" title="National People's Party (South Africa, 1981)">NPP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_Republic_Party_(South_Africa)" title="New Republic Party (South Africa)">NRP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_South_African_Students" title="National Union of South African Students">NUSAS</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Occupy_South_Africa" title="Occupy South Africa">Occupy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Orangia_Unie" title="Orangia Unie">Orangia Unie</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vereniging_van_Oranjewerkers" title="Vereniging van Oranjewerkers">Oranjewerkers</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Orde_Boerevolk" title="Orde Boerevolk">Orde Boerevolk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Progressive_ANC_Voters_Network" title="Progressive ANC Voters Network">PAVN</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Federal_Party" title="Progressive Federal Party">PFP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(Cape_Colony)" title="Progressive Party (Cape Colony)">Progressive Party (Cape Colony)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Progressive Party (South Africa)">Progressive Party</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Reform_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Progressive Reform Party (South Africa)">PRP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Radio_Freedom" title="Radio Freedom">Radio Freedom</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Reform_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Reform Party (South Africa)">Reform Party</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Business_Party" title="South African Business Party">SABP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Democratic_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Democratic Convention">SADECO</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Indian_Congress" title="South African Indian Congress">SAIC</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Students%27_Organisation" title="South African Students' Organisation">SASO</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Youth_Congress" title="South African Youth Congress">SAYCO</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Youth_Revolutionary_Council" title="South African Youth Revolutionary Council">SAYRCO</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Party_(Cape_Colony)" title="South African Party (Cape Colony)">South African Party (Cape Colony)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Party" title="South African Party">South African Party (1911–1934)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Party_(Republic_of_South_Africa)" title="South African Party (Republic of South Africa)">South African Party (1977–1980)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Transkei_National_Independence_Party" title="Transkei National Independence Party">TNIP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Torch_Commando" title="Torch Commando">Torch Commando</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Union_Federal_Party" title="Union Federal Party">UFP</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Party_(South_Africa)" title="United Party (South Africa)">United Party</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Unionist_Party_(South_Africa)" title="Unionist Party (South Africa)">Unionist Party</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Party_of_Venda" title="National Party of Venda">National Party of Venda</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Volksparty" title="Volksparty">Volksparty</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Workers_Party_of_South_Africa" title="Workers Party of South Africa">Workers Party</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Workers_Organisation_for_Socialist_Action" title="Workers Organisation for Socialist Action">WOSA</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade unions and<br />social movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Privatisation_Forum" title="Anti-Privatisation Forum">APF</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Consciousness_Movement" title="Black Consciousness Movement">BCM</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Black_Trade_Union_of_Transnet_Workers" title="Black Trade Union of Transnet Workers">BLATU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Non-European_Trade_Unions" title="Council of Non-European Trade Unions">CNETU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cape_Town_Stevedoring_Workers_Union" title="Cape Town Stevedoring Workers Union">CTSWU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Canning_Workers%27_Union" title="Food and Canning Workers' Union">FCWU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Non-European_Trade_Unions" title="Federation of Non-European Trade Unions">FNETU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_South_African_Trade_Unions" title="Federation of South African Trade Unions">FOSATU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_Commercial_Workers%27_Union" title="Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union">ICU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World_(South_Africa)" title="Industrial Workers of the World (South Africa)">IWW</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Musicians_Union_of_South_Africa" title="Musicians Union of South Africa">MUSA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Non-European_Unity_Movement" title="Non-European Unity Movement">NEUM</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_Railway_and_Harbour_Servants" title="National Union of Railway and Harbour Servants">NURHS</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Performing_Arts_Workers%27_Equity" title="Performing Arts Workers' Equity">PAWE</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Agricultural_Plantation_and_Allied_Workers_Union" title="South African Agricultural Plantation and Allied Workers Union">SAAPAWU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Congress_of_Trade_Unions" title="South African Congress of Trade Unions">SACTU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Industrial_Federation" title="South African Industrial Federation">SAIF</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Railways_and_Harbours_Union" title="South African Railways and Harbours Union">SARHU</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Trades_Union_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="South African Trades Union Council">SATUC</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Die_Spoorbund" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Spoorbund">Die Spoorbund</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Front_(South_Africa)" title="United Democratic Front (South Africa)">UDF</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Umkosi_Wezintaba" title="Umkosi Wezintaba">Umkosi Wezintaba</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Paramilitary and<br />terrorist organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azanian_People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="Azanian People's Liberation Army">APLA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/African_Resistance_Movement" title="African Resistance Movement">ARM</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_Weerstandsbeweging" title="Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging">AWB</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Blanke_Bevrydingsbeweging" title="Blanke Bevrydingsbeweging">BBB</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Boeremag" title="Boeremag">Boeremag</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_Gentile_National_Socialist_Movement" title="South African Gentile National Socialist Movement">Greyshirts</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Umkhonto_we_Sizwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Umkhonto we Sizwe">MK</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ossewabrandwag" title="Ossewabrandwag">Ossewabrandwag</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Orde_van_die_Dood" title="Orde van die Dood">Orde van die Dood</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/People_Against_Gangsterism_and_Drugs" title="People Against Gangsterism and Drugs">PAGAD</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_National_Front" title="South African National Front">SANF</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Histories of<br />political parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_African_National_Congress" title="History of the African National Congress">African National Congress</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Alliance_(South_Africa)" title="History of the Democratic Alliance (South Africa)">Democratic Alliance</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Pan_Africanist_Congress_of_Azania" title="History of the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania">Pan Africanist Congress of Azania</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" 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