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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Orogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Orogens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orogenic_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orogenic_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Orogenic cycle</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Orogenic_cycle-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Orogenic cycle subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Orogenic_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Continental_rifting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continental_rifting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Continental rifting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continental_rifting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seafloor_spreading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seafloor_spreading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Seafloor spreading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seafloor_spreading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Subduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mountain_building" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mountain_building"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Mountain building</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mountain_building-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Closure_of_the_ocean_basin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Closure_of_the_ocean_basin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Closure of the ocean basin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Closure_of_the_ocean_basin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continental_collision_and_orogeny" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continental_collision_and_orogeny"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Continental collision and orogeny</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continental_collision_and_orogeny-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Erosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Erosion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_the_concept" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_the_concept"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History of the concept</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_the_concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Orogeny</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84" title="تكون الجبال – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تكون الجبال" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orox%C3%A9nesis" title="Oroxénesis – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Oroxénesis" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%8D-san_%C5%ABn-t%C5%8Dng" title="Chō-san ūn-tōng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chō-san ūn-tōng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Орогенеза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Орогенеза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogeneza" title="Orogeneza – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Orogeneza" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orog%C3%A8nesi" title="Orogènesi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Orogènesi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogeneze" title="Orogeneze – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Orogeneze" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebirgsbildung" title="Gebirgsbildung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gebirgsbildung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenees" title="Orogenees – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Orogenees" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Ορογένεση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ορογένεση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orog%C3%A9nesis" title="Orogénesis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Orogénesis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenezo" title="Orogenezo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Orogenezo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenia" title="Orogenia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Orogenia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="کوه‌زایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کوه‌زایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogen%C3%A8se" title="Orogenèse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Orogenèse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orox%C3%A9nese" title="Oroxénese – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Oroxénese" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%82%B0_%EC%9A%B4%EB%8F%99" title="조산 운동 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="조산 운동" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D5%A1%D5%AC%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ծալքավորություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ծալքավորություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8" title="पर्वतन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पर्वतन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogen" title="Orogen – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Orogen" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogeni" title="Orogeni – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orogeni" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenesi" title="Orogenesi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Orogenesi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%96%D7%94" title="אורוגנזה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אורוגנזה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ოროგენი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოროგენი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Орогенез – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Орогенез" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owojen%C3%A8z" title="Owojenèz – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Owojenèz" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orojen%C3%AE" title="Orojenî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Orojenî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Ороген – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ороген" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalnodara" title="Kalnodara – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kalnodara" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenese" title="Orogenese – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Orogenese" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegys%C3%A9gk%C3%A9pz%C5%91d%C3%A9s" title="Hegységképződés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hegységképződés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Орогенеза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Орогенеза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gebergtevorming" title="Gebergtevorming – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gebergtevorming" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%A0%E5%B1%B1%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="造山運動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="造山運動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fjellkjedefolding" title="Fjellkjedefolding – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fjellkjedefolding" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenese" title="Orogenese – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Orogenese" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogen%C3%A8si" title="Orogenèsi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Orogenèsi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenez" title="Orogenez – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Orogenez" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogeneza" title="Orogeneza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Orogeneza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orog%C3%A9nese" title="Orogénese – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Orogénese" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenez%C4%83" title="Orogeneză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Orogeneză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Orogeny" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogen%C3%A9za" title="Orogenéza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Orogenéza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogeneza" title="Orogeneza – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Orogeneza" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Орогенеза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Орогенеза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogeneza" title="Orogeneza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Orogeneza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orog%C3%A9ni" title="Orogéni – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Orogéni" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenia" title="Orogenia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Orogenia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orogenes" title="Orogenes – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Orogenes" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="மலை பிறப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மலை பிறப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B2" title="การก่อเทือกเขา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การก่อเทือกเขา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" 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noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">The formation of mountain ranges</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_geologic_provinces.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/World_geologic_provinces.jpg/400px-World_geologic_provinces.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/World_geologic_provinces.jpg/600px-World_geologic_provinces.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/World_geologic_provinces.jpg/800px-World_geologic_provinces.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="637" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Geologic_province" title="Geologic province">Geologic provinces</a> of the world (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">USGS</a>)<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f96; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Shield_(geology)" title="Shield (geology)">Shield</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f9c; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Platform_(geology)" title="Platform (geology)">Platform</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#9fc; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Orogenic_belt" title="Orogenic belt">Orogen</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#9cf; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Structural_basin" title="Structural basin">Basin</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#969; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Large_igneous_province" title="Large igneous province">Large igneous province</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff9; color:black;"> </span> Extended <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">crust</a></div> </td> <td class="col-break"><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cde; color:black;"> </span> 0–20 <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#abc; color:black;"> </span> 20–65 <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#89a; color:black;"> </span> >65 <a href="/wiki/Year#SI_prefix_multipliers" title="Year">Ma</a></div>  </td></tr></tbody></table></div></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Orogeny</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">mountain</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mountain_formation" title="Mountain formation">building</a> process that takes place at a <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent plate margin</a> when plate motion compresses the margin. An <em><a href="/wiki/Orogenic_belt" title="Orogenic belt">orogenic belt</a></em> or <em>orogen</em> develops as the compressed plate crumples and is <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">uplifted</a> to form one or more <a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">mountain ranges</a>. This involves a series of geological processes collectively called <b>orogenesis</b>. These include both structural <a href="/wiki/Deformation_(physics)" title="Deformation (physics)">deformation</a> of existing <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> and the creation of new continental crust through <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">Magma</a> rising in the orogen carries less dense material upwards while leaving more dense material behind, resulting in compositional differentiation of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> (<a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> and uppermost <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Waltham_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waltham-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Vine_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vine-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <b>synorogenic</b> (or <b>synkinematic</b>) process or event is one that occurs during an orogeny.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>orogeny</i> comes from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BD%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ὄρος">ὄρος</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>óros</i></span>)</i> 'mountain' and <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B3%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:γένεσις">γένεσις</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>génesis</i></span>)</i> 'creation, origin'.<sup id="cite_ref-Chambers_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chambers-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it was used before him, the American geologist <a href="/wiki/Grove_Karl_Gilbert" title="Grove Karl Gilbert">G. K. Gilbert</a> used the term in 1890 to mean the process of mountain-building, as distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Epeirogenic_movement" title="Epeirogenic movement">epeirogeny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tectonics">Tectonics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Tectonics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Continental_collision" title="Continental collision">Continental collision</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Active_Margin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Active_Margin.svg/260px-Active_Margin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Active_Margin.svg/390px-Active_Margin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Active_Margin.svg/520px-Active_Margin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="287" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic plate">oceanic plate</a> beneath a <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">continental plate</a> to form an accretionary orogen (example: the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>) </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Continental-continental_convergence_Fig21contcont.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Continental-continental_convergence_Fig21contcont.gif/260px-Continental-continental_convergence_Fig21contcont.gif" decoding="async" width="260" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Continental-continental_convergence_Fig21contcont.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="173" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Continental_collision" title="Continental collision">Continental collision</a> of two continental plates to form a collisional orogen. Typically, continental crust is subducted to lithospheric depths for <a href="/wiki/Blueschist" title="Blueschist">blueschist</a> to <a href="/wiki/Eclogite_facies" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclogite facies">eclogite facies</a> metamorphism, and then exhumed along the same subduction channel. (example: the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>) </figcaption></figure> <p>Orogeny takes place on the <a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent margins</a> of continents. The convergence may take the form of <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> (where a <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a> rides forcefully over an <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic plate">oceanic plate</a> to form a noncollisional orogeny) or continental collision (convergence of two or more continents to form a collisional orogeny).<sup id="cite_ref-Press_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Press-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Orogeny typically produces <i>orogenic belts</i> or <i>orogens</i>, which are elongated regions of deformation bordering continental <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">cratons</a> (the stable interiors of continents). Young orogenic belts, in which subduction is still taking place, are characterized by frequent <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic activity">volcanic activity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>. Older orogenic belts are typically deeply <a href="/wiki/Eroded" class="mw-redirect" title="Eroded">eroded</a> to expose displaced and deformed <a href="/wiki/Strata" class="mw-redirect" title="Strata">strata</a>. These are often highly <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosed" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphosed">metamorphosed</a> and include vast bodies of <a href="/wiki/Intrusive_igneous_rock" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrusive igneous rock">intrusive igneous rock</a> called <a href="/wiki/Batholith" title="Batholith">batholiths</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-levin-2010-83_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levin-2010-83-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Subduction zones consume oceanic <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a>, thicken lithosphere, and produce earthquakes and volcanoes. Not all subduction zones produce orogenic belts; mountain building takes place only when the subduction produces compression in the overriding plate. Whether subduction produces compression depends on such factors as the rate of plate convergence and the degree of coupling between the two plates,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009289_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009289-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the degree of coupling may in turn rely on such factors as the angle of subduction and rate of sedimentation in the oceanic trench associated with the subduction zone. The <a href="/wiki/Andes_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Andes Mountains">Andes Mountains</a> are an example of a noncollisional orogenic belt, and such belts are sometimes called <i>Andean-type orogens</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287–288,_297–299_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287–288,_297–299-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As subduction continues, <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arcs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Continental_fragment" title="Continental fragment">continental fragments</a>, and oceanic material may gradually accrete onto the continental margin. This is one of the main mechanisms by which continents have grown. An orogen built of crustal fragments (<i><a href="/wiki/Terranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Terranes">terranes</a></i>) accreted over a long period of time, without any indication of a major continent-continent collision, is called an <i>accretionary orogen.</i> The <a href="/wiki/North_American_Cordillera" title="North American Cordillera">North American Cordillera</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lachlan_Orogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Lachlan Orogen">Lachlan Orogen</a> of southeast Australia are examples of accretionary orogens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009288_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009288-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The orogeny may culminate with continental crust from the opposite side of the subducting oceanic plate arriving at the subduction zone. This ends subduction and transforms the accretional orogen into a <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayan</a>-type collisional orogen.<sup id="cite_ref-YuanEtAl2009_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YuanEtAl2009-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collisional orogeny may produce extremely high mountains, as has been taking place in the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> for the last 65 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The processes of orogeny can take tens of millions of years and build mountains from what were once <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_basin" title="Sedimentary basin">sedimentary basins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-levin-2010-83_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-levin-2010-83-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Activity along an orogenic belt can be extremely long-lived. For example, much of the <a href="/wiki/Basement_(geology)" title="Basement (geology)">basement</a> underlying the United States belongs to the Transcontinental Proterozoic Provinces, which accreted to <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a> (the ancient heart of North America) over the course of 200 million years in the <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_orogeny" title="Yavapai orogeny">Yavapai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mazatzal_orogeny" title="Mazatzal orogeny">Mazatzal orogenies</a> were peaks of orogenic activity during this time. These were part of an extended period of orogenic activity that included the <a href="/wiki/Picuris_orogeny" title="Picuris orogeny">Picuris orogeny</a> and culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Grenville_orogeny" title="Grenville orogeny">Grenville orogeny</a>, lasting at least 600 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-wk2007_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wk2007-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar sequence of orogenies has taken place on the west coast of North America, beginning in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian">late Devonian</a> (about 380 million years ago) with the <a href="/wiki/Antler_orogeny" title="Antler orogeny">Antler orogeny</a> and continuing with the <a href="/wiki/Sonoma_orogeny" title="Sonoma orogeny">Sonoma orogeny</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sevier_orogeny" title="Sevier orogeny">Sevier orogeny</a> and culminating with the <a href="/wiki/Laramide_orogeny" title="Laramide orogeny">Laramide orogeny</a>. The Laramide orogeny alone lasted 40 million years, from 75 million to 35 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orogens">Orogens</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Orogens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orogenic_belt" title="Orogenic belt">Orogenic belt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ForelandBasinSystem.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/ForelandBasinSystem.png/390px-ForelandBasinSystem.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/ForelandBasinSystem.png/585px-ForelandBasinSystem.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/ForelandBasinSystem.png/780px-ForelandBasinSystem.png 2x" data-file-width="994" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption>The Foreland Basin System</figcaption></figure> <p>Orogens show a great range of characteristics,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they may be broadly divided into collisional orogens and noncollisional orogens (Andean-type orogens). Collisional orogens can be further divided by whether the collision is with a second continent or a continental fragment or island arc. Repeated collisions of the later type, with no evidence of collision with a major continent or closure of an ocean basin, result in an accretionary orogen. Examples of orogens arising from collision of an island arc with a continent include <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> and the collision of Australia with the <a href="/wiki/Banda_Islands" title="Banda Islands">Banda</a> arc.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009330–332_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009330–332-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orogens arising from continent-continent collisions can be divided into those involving ocean closure (Himalayan-type orogens) and those involving glancing collisions with no ocean basin closure (as is taking place today in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Alps" title="Southern Alps">Southern Alps</a> of New Zealand).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Orogens have a characteristic structure, though this shows considerable variation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <i>foreland basin</i> forms ahead of the orogen due mainly to loading and resulting <a href="/wiki/Lithospheric_flexure" title="Lithospheric flexure">flexure of the lithosphere</a> by the developing mountain belt. A typical foreland basin is subdivided into a wedge-top basin above the active orogenic wedge, the foredeep immediately beyond the active front, a forebulge high of flexural origin and a back-bulge area beyond, although not all of these are present in all foreland-basin systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009302–303_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009302–303-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basin migrates with the orogenic front and early deposited foreland basin sediments become progressively involved in folding and thrusting. <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">Sediments</a> deposited in the foreland basin are mainly derived from the <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> of the actively uplifting rocks of the mountain range, although some sediments derive from the foreland. The fill of many such basins shows a change in time from deepwater marine (<i><a href="/wiki/Flysch" title="Flysch">flysch</a></i>-style) through shallow water to continental (<i><a href="/wiki/Molasse" title="Molasse">molasse</a></i>-style) sediments.<sup id="cite_ref-DeCelles&Giles_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeCelles&Giles-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While active orogens are found on the margins of present-day continents, older inactive orogenies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Algoman_orogeny" title="Algoman orogeny">Algoman</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-billions_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-billions-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Penokean_orogeny" title="Penokean orogeny">Penokean</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Antler_Orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Antler Orogeny">Antler</a>, are represented by deformed and metamorphosed rocks with sedimentary basins further inland.<sup id="cite_ref-Poole74_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poole74-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orogenic_cycle">Orogenic cycle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Orogenic cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wilson_Cycle" title="Wilson Cycle">Wilson Cycle</a></div> <p>Long before the acceptance of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, geologists had found evidence within many orogens of repeated cycles of deposition, deformation, crustal thickening and mountain building, and crustal thinning to form new depositional basins. These were named <i>orogenic cycles</i>, and various theories were proposed to explain them. Canadian geologist <a href="/wiki/Tuzo_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuzo Wilson">Tuzo Wilson</a> first put forward a plate tectonic interpretation of orogenic cycles, now known as Wilson cycles. Wilson proposed that orogenic cycles represented the periodic opening and closing of an ocean basin, with each stage of the process leaving its characteristic record on the rocks of the orogen.<sup id="cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Twiss1992p493-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continental_rifting">Continental rifting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Continental rifting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Continental_rifting" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental rifting">Continental rifting</a></div> <p>The Wilson cycle begins when previously stable continental crust comes under tension from a shift in <a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">mantle convection</a>. <a href="/wiki/Continental_rifting" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental rifting">Continental rifting</a> takes place, which thins the crust and creates basins in which sediments accumulate. As the basins deepen, the ocean invades the rift zone, and as the continental crust rifts completely apart, shallow marine sedimentation gives way to deep marine sedimentation on the thinned marginal crust of the two continents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Twiss1992p493-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seafloor_spreading">Seafloor spreading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Seafloor spreading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></div> <p>As the two continents rift apart, <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> commences along the axis of a new ocean basin. Deep marine sediments continue to accumulate along the thinned continental margins, which are now <a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">passive margins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Twiss1992p493-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subduction">Subduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Subduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></div> <p>At some point, subduction is initiated along one or both of the continental margins of the ocean basin, producing a <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">volcanic arc</a> and possibly an Andean-type orogen along that continental margin. This produces deformation of the continental margins and possibly crustal thickening and mountain building.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Twiss1992p493-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mountain_building">Mountain building</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mountain building"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SunRiver.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/SunRiver.JPG/250px-SunRiver.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/SunRiver.JPG/375px-SunRiver.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/SunRiver.JPG/500px-SunRiver.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>An example of <a href="/wiki/Thin-skinned_deformation" title="Thin-skinned deformation">thin-skinned deformation</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thrust_fault" title="Thrust fault">thrust faulting</a>) of the <a href="/wiki/Sevier_Orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Sevier Orogeny">Sevier Orogeny</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a>. The white <a href="/wiki/Madison_Limestone" class="mw-redirect" title="Madison Limestone">Madison Limestone</a> is repeated, with one example in the foreground (that pinches out with distance) and another to the upper right corner and top of the picture.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sierra_Nevada_Mountains.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Sierra_Nevada_Mountains.JPG/250px-Sierra_Nevada_Mountains.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Sierra_Nevada_Mountains.JPG/375px-Sierra_Nevada_Mountains.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Sierra_Nevada_Mountains.JPG/500px-Sierra_Nevada_Mountains.JPG 2x" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="283" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_(U.S.)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierra Nevada (U.S.)">Sierra Nevada Mountains</a> (a result of <a href="/wiki/Delamination_(geology)" title="Delamination (geology)">delamination</a>) as seen from the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mountain_formation" title="Mountain formation">Mountain formation</a> in orogens is largely a result of crustal thickening. The compressive forces produced by plate convergence result in pervasive deformation of the crust of the continental margin (<a href="/wiki/Thrust_tectonics" title="Thrust tectonics">thrust tectonics</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This takes the form of folding of the ductile deeper crust and thrust faulting in the upper brittle crust.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Crustal thickening raises mountains through the principle of <a href="/wiki/Isostasy" title="Isostasy">isostasy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Isostacy is the balance of the downward <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">gravitational force</a> upon an upthrust mountain range (composed of light, <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> material) and the buoyant upward forces exerted by the dense underlying <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilcock_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilcock-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Portions of orogens can also experience uplift as a result of <a href="/wiki/Delamination_(geology)" title="Delamination (geology)">delamination of the orogenic lithosphere</a>, in which an unstable portion of cold <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithospheric</a> root drips down into the asthenospheric mantle, decreasing the density of the lithosphere and causing buoyant uplift.<sup id="cite_ref-delamination_lee_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delamination_lee-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_(U.S.)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sierra Nevada (U.S.)">Sierra Nevada</a> in California. This range of <a href="/wiki/Fault-block_mountain" class="mw-redirect" title="Fault-block mountain">fault-block mountains</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gerrard_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gerrard-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> experienced renewed uplift and abundant magmatism after a delamination of the orogenic root beneath them.<sup id="cite_ref-delamination_lee_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delamination_lee-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mount_Rundle,_Banff,_Canada_(200544945).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Mount_Rundle%2C_Banff%2C_Canada_%28200544945%29.jpg/220px-Mount_Rundle%2C_Banff%2C_Canada_%28200544945%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Mount_Rundle%2C_Banff%2C_Canada_%28200544945%29.jpg/330px-Mount_Rundle%2C_Banff%2C_Canada_%28200544945%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Mount_Rundle%2C_Banff%2C_Canada_%28200544945%29.jpg/440px-Mount_Rundle%2C_Banff%2C_Canada_%28200544945%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rundle" title="Mount Rundle">Mount Rundle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banff,_Alberta" title="Banff, Alberta">Banff, Alberta</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rundle" title="Mount Rundle">Mount Rundle</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Canada_Highway" title="Trans-Canada Highway">Trans-Canada Highway</a> between <a href="/wiki/Banff,_Alberta" title="Banff, Alberta">Banff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canmore,_Alberta" title="Canmore, Alberta">Canmore</a> provides a classic example of a mountain cut in dipping-layered rocks. Millions of years ago a collision caused an orogeny, forcing horizontal layers of an ancient ocean crust to be thrust up at an angle of 50–60°. That left Rundle with one sweeping, tree-lined smooth face, and one sharp, steep face where the edge of the uplifted layers are exposed.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although mountain building mostly takes place in orogens, a number of secondary mechanisms are capable of producing substantial mountain ranges.<sup id="cite_ref-Huggett_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huggett-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Einsele_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Einsele-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Douglas_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Douglas-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Areas that are rifting apart, such as <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a> and the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Rift" title="East African Rift">East African Rift</a>, have mountains due to thermal buoyancy related to the hot mantle underneath them; this thermal buoyancy is known as <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_topography" title="Dynamic topography">dynamic topography</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Strike-slip" class="mw-redirect" title="Strike-slip">strike-slip</a> orogens, such as the <a href="/wiki/San_Andreas_Fault" title="San Andreas Fault">San Andreas Fault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thrust_tectonics#Restraining_bends_on_strike-slip_faults" title="Thrust tectonics">restraining bends</a> result in regions of localized crustal shortening and mountain building without a plate-margin-wide orogeny. <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">Hotspot</a> volcanism results in the formation of isolated mountains and mountain chains that look as if they are not necessarily on present tectonic-plate boundaries, but they are essentially the product of plate tectonism. Likewise, uplift and erosion related to <a href="/wiki/Epeirogenic_movement" title="Epeirogenic movement">epeirogenesis</a> (large-scale vertical motions of portions of continents without much associated folding, metamorphism, or deformation)<sup id="cite_ref-Holmes_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holmes-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can create local topographic highs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Closure_of_the_ocean_basin">Closure of the ocean basin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Closure of the ocean basin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eventually, seafloor spreading in the ocean basin comes to a halt, and continued subduction begins to close the ocean basin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Twiss1992p493-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continental_collision_and_orogeny">Continental collision and orogeny</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Continental collision and orogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Continental_collision" title="Continental collision">Continental collision</a></div> <p>The closure of the ocean basin ends with a continental collision and the associated Himalayan-type orogen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erosion">Erosion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Erosion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a> represents the final phase of the orogenic cycle. Erosion of overlying strata in orogenic belts, and isostatic adjustment to the removal of this overlying mass of rock, can bring deeply buried strata to the surface. The erosional process is called <i>unroofing</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erosion inevitably removes much of the mountains, exposing the core or <i>mountain roots</i> (<a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamorphic rocks">metamorphic rocks</a> brought to the surface from a depth of several kilometres). <a href="/wiki/Isostasy" title="Isostasy">Isostatic</a> movements may help such unroofing by balancing out the buoyancy of the evolving orogen. Scholars debate about the extent to which erosion modifies the patterns of tectonic deformation (see <a href="/wiki/Erosion_and_tectonics" title="Erosion and tectonics">erosion and tectonics</a>). Thus, the final form of the majority of old orogenic belts is a long arcuate strip of crystalline metamorphic rocks sequentially below younger sediments which are thrust atop them and which dip away from the orogenic core. </p><p>An orogen may be almost completely eroded away, and only recognizable by studying (old) rocks that bear traces of orogenesis. Orogens are usually long, thin, arcuate tracts of rock that have a pronounced linear structure resulting in <a href="/wiki/Terrane" title="Terrane">terranes</a> or blocks of deformed rocks, separated generally by <a href="/wiki/Suture_(geology)" title="Suture (geology)">suture zones</a> or <a href="/wiki/Strike_and_dip" title="Strike and dip">dipping</a> <a href="/wiki/Thrust_fault" title="Thrust fault">thrust faults</a>. These thrust faults carry relatively thin slices of rock (which are called <a href="/wiki/Nappe" title="Nappe">nappes</a> or thrust sheets, and differ from <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plates</a>) from the core of the shortening orogen out toward the margins, and are intimately associated with <a href="/wiki/Fold_(geology)" title="Fold (geology)">folds</a> and the development of <a href="/wiki/Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Merle_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merle-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_concept">History of the concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History of the concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the development of geologic concepts during the 19th century, the presence of marine <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> in mountains was explained in <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> contexts as a result of the Biblical <a href="/wiki/Deluge_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deluge (mythology)">Deluge</a>. This was an extension of <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoplatonic">Neoplatonic</a> thought, which influenced <a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Christian_writers" title="List of early Christian writers">early Christian writers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Dominican_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Dominican order">Dominican</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Albert_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert the Great">Albert the Great</a> posited that, as erosion was known to occur, there must be some process whereby new mountains and other land-forms were thrust up, or else there would eventually be no land; he suggested that marine fossils in mountainsides must once have been at the sea-floor.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Orogeny was used by <a href="/wiki/Amanz_Gressly" title="Amanz Gressly">Amanz Gressly</a> (1840) and <a href="/wiki/Jules_Thurmann" title="Jules Thurmann">Jules Thurmann</a> (1854) as <i>orogenic</i> in terms of the creation of mountain elevations, as the term <i>mountain building</i> was still used to describe the processes.<sup id="cite_ref-FrancoisEtal2021_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FrancoisEtal2021-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Elie_de_Beaumont" class="mw-redirect" title="Elie de Beaumont">Elie de Beaumont</a> (1852) used the evocative "Jaws of a Vise" theory to explain orogeny, but was more concerned with the height rather than the implicit structures created by and contained in orogenic belts. His theory essentially held that mountains were created by the squeezing of certain rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Suess" title="Eduard Suess">Eduard Suess</a> (1875) recognised the importance of horizontal movement of rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of a <i>precursor <a href="/wiki/Geosyncline" title="Geosyncline">geosyncline</a></i> or initial downward warping of the solid earth (Hall, 1859)<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> prompted <a href="/wiki/James_Dwight_Dana" title="James Dwight Dana">James Dwight Dana</a> (1873) to include the concept of <i>compression</i> in the theories surrounding mountain-building.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With hindsight, we can discount Dana's conjecture that this contraction was due to the cooling of the Earth (aka the <a href="/wiki/Geophysical_global_cooling" title="Geophysical global cooling">cooling Earth</a> theory). The cooling Earth theory was the chief paradigm for most geologists until the 1960s. It was, in the context of orogeny, fiercely contested by proponents of vertical movements in the crust, or convection within the <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sengor1982_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sengor1982-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Steinmann" title="Gustav Steinmann">Gustav Steinmann</a> (1906) recognised different classes of orogenic belts, including the <i>Alpine type orogenic belt</i>, typified by a <a href="/wiki/Flysch" title="Flysch">flysch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molasse" title="Molasse">molasse</a> geometry to the sediments; <a href="/wiki/Ophiolite" title="Ophiolite">ophiolite</a> sequences, <a href="/wiki/Tholeiitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tholeiitic">tholeiitic</a> basalts, and a <a href="/wiki/Nappe" title="Nappe">nappe</a> style fold structure. </p><p>In terms of recognising orogeny as an <i>event</i>, <a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Buch" class="mw-redirect" title="Leopold von Buch">Leopold von Buch</a> (1855) recognised that orogenies could be placed in time by bracketing between the youngest deformed rock and the oldest undeformed rock, a principle which is still in use today, though commonly investigated by <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">geochronology</a> using radiometric dating.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on available observations from the metamorphic differences in orogenic belts of Europe and North America, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hendrik_Jan_Zwart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hendrik Jan Zwart (page does not exist)">H. J. Zwart</a> (1967)<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed three types of orogens in relationship to tectonic setting and style: Cordillerotype, Alpinotype, and Hercynotype. His proposal was revised by <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Spencer_Pitcher" title="Wallace Spencer Pitcher">W. S. Pitcher</a> in 1979<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in terms of the relationship to granite occurrences. Cawood et al. (2009)<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> categorized orogenic belts into three types: accretionary, collisional, and intracratonic. Both accretionary and collisional orogens developed in converging plate margins. In contrast, Hercynotype orogens generally show similar features to intracratonic, intracontinental, extensional, and ultrahot orogens, all of which developed in continental detachment systems at converged plate margins. </p> <ol><li>Accretionary orogens, which were produced by subduction of one oceanic plate beneath one continental plate for arc volcanism. They are dominated by calc-alkaline igneous rocks and high-T/low-P metamorphic facies series at high thermal gradients of >30 °C/km. There is a general lack of ophiolites, migmatites and abyssal sediments. Typical examples are all circum-Pacific orogens containing continental arcs.</li> <li>Collisional orogens, which were produced by subduction of one continental block beneath the other continental block with the absence of arc volcanism. They are typified by the occurrence of blueschist to eclogite facies metamorphic zones, indicating high-P/low-T metamorphism at low thermal gradients of <10 °C/km. Orogenic peridotites are present but volumetrically minor, and syn-collisional granites and migmatites are also rare or of only minor extent. Typical examples are the Alps-Himalaya orogens in the southern margin of Eurasian continent and the Dabie-Sulu orogens in east-central China.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> – Study of distribution of species</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epeirogenic_movement" title="Epeirogenic movement">Epeirogenic movement</a> – Upheavals or depressions of land exhibiting long wavelengths and little folding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fault_mechanics" title="Fault mechanics">Fault mechanics</a> – Field of study that investigates the behavior of geologic faults</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fold_mountains" title="Fold mountains">Fold mountains</a> – Mountains formed by compressive crumpling of the layers of rock</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a> – Isolated, flat-topped underwater volcano mountain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orogenies" title="List of orogenies">List of orogenies</a> – Known mountain building events of the Earth's history</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">Mantle convection</a> – Gradual movement of the planet's mantle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">Tectonic uplift</a> – Geologic uplift of Earth's surface that is attributed to plate tectonics</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Waltham-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Waltham_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWaltham2009" class="citation book cs1">Waltham, Tony (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JGtIHJTXaI4C&pg=PA20"><i>Foundations of Engineering Geology</i></a> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46959-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-46959-3"><bdi>978-0-415-46959-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Engineering+Geology&rft.pages=20&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-46959-3&rft.aulast=Waltham&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJGtIHJTXaI4C%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vine-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vine_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeareyKlepeisVine2009" class="citation book cs1">Kearey, Philip; Klepeis, Keith A.; Vine, Frederick J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HYqZntfg25UC&pg=PA287">"Chapter 10: Orogenic belts"</a>. <i>Global Tectonics</i> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. p. 287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0777-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-0777-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-0777-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10%3A+Orogenic+belts&rft.btitle=Global+Tectonics&rft.pages=287&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-0777-8&rft.aulast=Kearey&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Klepeis%2C+Keith+A.&rft.au=Vine%2C+Frederick+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHYqZntfg25UC%26pg%3DPA287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllaby2013" class="citation book cs1">Allaby, Michael (2013). "synorogenic". <i>A dictionary of geology and earth sciences</i> (Fourth ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199653065" title="Special:BookSources/9780199653065"><bdi>9780199653065</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=synorogenic&rft.btitle=A+dictionary+of+geology+and+earth+sciences&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780199653065&rft.aulast=Allaby&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chambers-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chambers_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D37Cd3Ad7eIC&pg=PA972">"orogeny"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Chambers_Dictionary" title="Chambers Dictionary">Chambers 21st Century Dictionary</a></i>. Allied Publishers. 1999. p. 972. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0550106254" title="Special:BookSources/978-0550106254"><bdi>978-0550106254</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=orogeny&rft.btitle=Chambers+21st+Century+Dictionary&rft.pages=972&rft.pub=Allied+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0550106254&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD37Cd3Ad7eIC%26pg%3DPA972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman1994" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, G. M. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AbECAQAAQBAJ&q=%22orogeny%22+gilbert&pg=PA160">"Pangean Orogenic and Epeirogenic Uplifts and Their Possible Climatic Significance"</a>. In Klein, G. O. (ed.). <i>Pangea: Paleoclimate, Tectonics, and Sedimentation During Accretion, Zenith, and Breakup of a Supercontinent</i>. Geological Society of America Special Paper. Vol. 288. <a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America" title="Geological Society of America">Geological Society of America</a>. p. 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813722887" title="Special:BookSources/9780813722887"><bdi>9780813722887</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pangean+Orogenic+and+Epeirogenic+Uplifts+and+Their+Possible+Climatic+Significance&rft.btitle=Pangea%3A+Paleoclimate%2C+Tectonics%2C+and+Sedimentation+During+Accretion%2C+Zenith%2C+and+Breakup+of+a+Supercontinent&rft.series=Geological+Society+of+America+Special+Paper&rft.pages=160&rft.pub=Geological+Society+of+America&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780813722887&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=G.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAbECAQAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522orogeny%2522%2Bgilbert%26pg%3DPA160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Press-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Press_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_Press2003" class="citation book cs1">Frank Press (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P8iEVK1yGKwC&pg=PA468"><i>Understanding Earth</i></a> (4th ed.). Macmillan. pp. 468–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-9617-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-9617-6"><bdi>978-0-7167-9617-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Earth&rft.pages=468-69&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-9617-6&rft.au=Frank+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP8iEVK1yGKwC%26pg%3DPA468&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009287_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeareyKlepeisVine2009">Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-levin-2010-83-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-levin-2010-83_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-levin-2010-83_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2010" class="citation book cs1">Levin, Harold L. 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Special Publication 22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Flysch+deposits+of+the+foreland+basin%2C+western+United+States&rft.btitle=Tectonics+and+Sedimentation&rft.pages=58-82&rft.pub=Society+of+Economic+Paleontologists+and+Mineralogists&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Poole&rft.aufirst=F.G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.muststayawake.com%2FSDAG%2Flibrary%2FPooleUSGS-halftones.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Twiss1992p493-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Twiss1992p493_25-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_J._TwissEldridge_M._Moores1992" class="citation book cs1">Robert J. Twiss; Eldridge M. Moores (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=14fn03iJ2r8C&pg=PA493">"Plate tectonic models of orogenic core zones"</a>. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/structuralgeolog0000twis/page/493"><i>Structural Geology</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/structuralgeolog0000twis/page/493">493</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2252-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-2252-6"><bdi>978-0-7167-2252-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plate+tectonic+models+of+orogenic+core+zones&rft.btitle=Structural+Geology&rft.pages=493&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-2252-6&rft.au=Robert+J.+Twiss&rft.au=Eldridge+M.+Moores&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D14fn03iJ2r8C%26pg%3DPA493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeareyKlepeisVine2009208–209_26-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeareyKlepeisVine2009">Kearey, Klepeis & Vine 2009</a>, pp. 208–209.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaccennaBeckerHoltBrun2021" class="citation journal cs1">Faccenna, Claudio; Becker, Thorsten W.; Holt, Adam F.; Brun, Jean Pierre (June 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2021.116905">"Mountain building, mantle convection, and supercontinents: revisited"</a>. <i>Earth and Planetary Science Letters</i>. <b>564</b>: 116905. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2021.116905">10.1016/j.epsl.2021.116905</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234818905">234818905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.atitle=Mountain+building%2C+mantle+convection%2C+and+supercontinents%3A+revisited&rft.volume=564&rft.pages=116905&rft.date=2021-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2021.116905&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234818905%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Faccenna&rft.aufirst=Claudio&rft.au=Becker%2C+Thorsten+W.&rft.au=Holt%2C+Adam+F.&rft.au=Brun%2C+Jean+Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.epsl.2021.116905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowell1989" class="citation book cs1">Howell, David G. (1989). "Mountain building and the shaping of continents". <i>Tectonics of Suspect Terranes</i>. pp. 157–199. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-009-0827-7_6">10.1007/978-94-009-0827-7_6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-6858-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-010-6858-1"><bdi>978-94-010-6858-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mountain+building+and+the+shaping+of+continents&rft.btitle=Tectonics+of+Suspect+Terranes&rft.pages=157-199&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-009-0827-7_6&rft.isbn=978-94-010-6858-1&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allen-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Allen_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPA_Allen1997" class="citation book cs1">PA Allen (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e5i8cRGRCuwC&pg=PA36">"Isostasy in zones of convergence"</a>. <i>Earth Surface Processes</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 36 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-632-03507-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-632-03507-6"><bdi>978-0-632-03507-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Isostasy+in+zones+of+convergence&rft.btitle=Earth+Surface+Processes&rft.pages=36+ff&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-632-03507-6&rft.au=PA+Allen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De5i8cRGRCuwC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilcock-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wilcock_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerard_V._MiddletonPeter_R._Wilcock1994" class="citation book cs1">Gerard V. Middleton; Peter R. Wilcock (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K4IgLIDbZicC&pg=PA170">"§5.5 Isostasy"</a>. <i>Mechanics in the Earth and Environmental Sciences</i> (2nd ed.). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geol.umd.edu/~rudnick/Webpage/Lee_2000_Science.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 15 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Osmium+Isotopic+Evidence+for+Mesozoic+Removal+of+Lithospheric+Mantle+Beneath+the+Sierra+Nevada%2C+California&rft.volume=289&rft.issue=5486&rft.pages=1912-16&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10988067&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.289.5486.1912&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Sci...289.1912L&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=C.-T.&rft.au=Yin%2C+Q&rft.au=Rudnick%2C+RL&rft.au=Chesley%2C+JT&rft.au=Jacobsen%2C+SB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geol.umd.edu%2F~rudnick%2FWebpage%2FLee_2000_Science.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gerrard-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gerrard_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_Gerrard1990" class="citation book cs1">John Gerrard (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jHnrVEyMhkQC&pg=PA9"><i>Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains</i></a>. MIT Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-07128-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-07128-4"><bdi>978-0-262-07128-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mountain+Environments%3A+An+Examination+of+the+Physical+Geography+of+Mountains&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-262-07128-4&rft.au=John+Gerrard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjHnrVEyMhkQC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManley,_Curtis_R.GlaznerFarmer2000" class="citation journal cs1">Manley, Curtis R.; Glazner, Allen F.; Farmer, G. Lang (2000). "Timing of Volcanism in the Sierra Nevada of California: Evidence for Pliocene Delamination of the Batholithic Root?". <i>Geology</i>. <b>28</b> (9): 811. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Geo....28..811M">2000Geo....28..811M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0091-7613%282000%2928%3C811%3ATOVITS%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<811:TOVITS>2.0.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Timing+of+Volcanism+in+the+Sierra+Nevada+of+California%3A+Evidence+for+Pliocene+Delamination+of+the+Batholithic+Root%3F&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=811&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2F0091-7613%282000%2928%3C811%3ATOVITS%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Geo....28..811M&rft.au=Manley%2C+Curtis+R.&rft.au=Glazner%2C+Allen+F.&rft.au=Farmer%2C+G.+Lang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140723230042/http://www.mountainnature.com/Geology/platetectonics.htm">"The Formation of the Rocky Mountains"</a>. <i>Mountains in Nature</i>. n.d. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mountainnature.com/geology/platetectonics.htm">the original</a> on 23 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mountains+in+Nature&rft.atitle=The+Formation+of+the+Rocky+Mountains&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mountainnature.com%2Fgeology%2Fplatetectonics.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Huggett-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Huggett_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_J._Huggett2007" class="citation book cs1">Richard J. Huggett (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QY3-bBTUmKEC&pg=PA104"><i>Fundamentals of Geomorphology</i></a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39084-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-39084-2"><bdi>978-0-415-39084-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Geomorphology&rft.pages=104&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-39084-2&rft.au=Richard+J.+Huggett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQY3-bBTUmKEC%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Einsele-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Einsele_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerhard_Einsele2000" class="citation book cs1">Gerhard Einsele (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-N3nidyNoJUC&pg=PA453"><i>Sedimentary Basins: Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget</i></a> (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 453. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-66193-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-66193-1"><bdi>978-3-540-66193-1</bdi></a>. <q>Without denudation, even relatively low uplift rates as characteristic of epeirogenetic movements (<i>e.g.</i> 20m/MA) would generate highly elevated regions in geological time periods.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sedimentary+Basins%3A+Evolution%2C+Facies%2C+and+Sediment+Budget&rft.pages=453&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-3-540-66193-1&rft.au=Gerhard+Einsele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-N3nidyNoJUC%26pg%3DPA453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Douglas-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Douglas_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIan_DouglasRichard_John_HuggettMike_Robinson2002" class="citation book cs1">Ian Douglas; Richard John Huggett; Mike Robinson (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=afH8DDAVkUQC&pg=PA33"><i>Companion Encyclopedia of Geography: The Environment and Humankind</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27750-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27750-1"><bdi>978-0-415-27750-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Companion+Encyclopedia+of+Geography%3A+The+Environment+and+Humankind&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27750-1&rft.au=Ian+Douglas&rft.au=Richard+John+Huggett&rft.au=Mike+Robinson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DafH8DDAVkUQC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holmes-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Holmes_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_HolmesDoris_L._Holmes2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Holmes" title="Arthur Holmes">Arthur Holmes</a>; <a href="/wiki/Doris_L._Holmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Doris L. Holmes">Doris L. Holmes</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E6vknq9SfIIC&pg=PT109"><i>Holmes Principles of Physical Geology</i></a> (4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-4381-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-4381-0"><bdi>978-0-7487-4381-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holmes+Principles+of+Physical+Geology&rft.pages=92&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7487-4381-0&rft.au=Arthur+Holmes&rft.au=Doris+L.+Holmes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE6vknq9SfIIC%26pg%3DPT109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagripantiBottesiKietzmannFolguera2012" class="citation journal cs1">Sagripanti, Lucía; Bottesi, Germán; Kietzmann, Diego; Folguera, Andrés; Ramos, Víctor A. (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5027%2FandgeoV39n2-a01">"Mountain building processes at the orogenic front. A study of the unroofing in Neogene foreland sequence (37ºS)"</a>. <i>Andean Geology</i>. <b>39</b> (2): 201–219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5027%2FandgeoV39n2-a01">10.5027/andgeoV39n2-a01</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11336%2F68522">11336/68522</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Andean+Geology&rft.atitle=Mountain+building+processes+at+the+orogenic+front.+A+study+of+the+unroofing+in+Neogene+foreland+sequence+%2837%C2%BAS%29&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=201-219&rft.date=2012-05&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11336%2F68522&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5027%2FandgeoV39n2-a01&rft.aulast=Sagripanti&rft.aufirst=Luc%C3%ADa&rft.au=Bottesi%2C+Germ%C3%A1n&rft.au=Kietzmann%2C+Diego&rft.au=Folguera%2C+Andr%C3%A9s&rft.au=Ramos%2C+V%C3%ADctor+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5027%252FandgeoV39n2-a01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merle-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Merle_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivier_Merle1998" class="citation book cs1">Olivier Merle (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UJeVXaMhxI8C&pg=PA1">"§1.1 Nappes, overthrusts and fold-nappes"</a>. <i>Emplacement Mechanisms of Nappes and Thrust Sheets</i>. Petrology and Structural Geology. Vol. 9. Springer. pp. 1 ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4879-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-4879-5"><bdi>978-0-7923-4879-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C2%A71.1+Nappes%2C+overthrusts+and+fold-nappes&rft.btitle=Emplacement+Mechanisms+of+Nappes+and+Thrust+Sheets&rft.series=Petrology+and+Structural+Geology&rft.pages=1+ff&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-4879-5&rft.au=Olivier+Merle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUJeVXaMhxI8C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVai2009" class="citation journal cs1">Vai, G.B. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4gGAgHcKX6YC&dq=fossils+and+the+noachian+deluge,+neoplatonism&pg=PA187">"The scientific revolution and Nicholas Steno's twofold conversion"</a>. <i>Geol Soc Am Mem</i>. <b>203</b>: 187–208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813712031" title="Special:BookSources/9780813712031"><bdi>9780813712031</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geol+Soc+Am+Mem&rft.atitle=The+scientific+revolution+and+Nicholas+Steno%27s+twofold+conversion&rft.volume=203&rft.pages=187-208&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780813712031&rft.aulast=Vai&rft.aufirst=G.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4gGAgHcKX6YC%26dq%3Dfossils%2Band%2Bthe%2Bnoachian%2Bdeluge%2C%2Bneoplatonism%26pg%3DPA187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGohau1990" class="citation book cs1">Gohau, Gabriel (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GBG7XDS5CbwC"><i>A history of geology</i></a>. New Brunwick: Rutgers University Press. pp. 26–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813516660" title="Special:BookSources/9780813516660"><bdi>9780813516660</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+geology&rft.place=New+Brunwick&rft.pages=26-27&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780813516660&rft.aulast=Gohau&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGBG7XDS5CbwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FrancoisEtal2021-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FrancoisEtal2021_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrançoisPubellierRobertBulois2021" class="citation journal cs1">François, Camille; Pubellier, Manuel; Robert, Christian; Bulois, Cédric; Jamaludin, Siti Nur Fathiyah; Oberhänsli, Roland; Faure, Michel; St-Onge, Marc R. (1 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18814%2Fepiiugs%2F2021%2F021025">"Temporal and spatial evolution of orogens: a guide for geological mapping"</a>. <i>Episodes</i>. <b>45</b> (3): 265–283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18814%2Fepiiugs%2F2021%2F021025">10.18814/epiiugs/2021/021025</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244188689">244188689</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Episodes&rft.atitle=Temporal+and+spatial+evolution+of+orogens%3A+a+guide+for+geological+mapping&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=265-283&rft.date=2021-10-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18814%2Fepiiugs%2F2021%2F021025&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244188689%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.aufirst=Camille&rft.au=Pubellier%2C+Manuel&rft.au=Robert%2C+Christian&rft.au=Bulois%2C+C%C3%A9dric&rft.au=Jamaludin%2C+Siti+Nur+Fathiyah&rft.au=Oberh%C3%A4nsli%2C+Roland&rft.au=Faure%2C+Michel&rft.au=St-Onge%2C+Marc+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.18814%252Fepiiugs%252F2021%252F021025&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÉlie_de_Beaumont1852" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_%C3%89lie_de_Beaumont" title="Jean-Baptiste Élie de Beaumont">Élie de Beaumont, JB</a> (1852). <i>Notice sur les Systèmes de Montagnes</i> [<i>Note on Mountain Systems</i>] (in French). Paris: Bertrand.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notice+sur+les+Syst%C3%A8mes+de+Montagnes&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Bertrand&rft.date=1852&rft.aulast=%C3%89lie+de+Beaumont&rft.aufirst=JB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span> English synopsis in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDennis1982" class="citation book cs1">Dennis, John G. (1982). <i>Orogeny</i>. Benchmark Papers in Geology. Vol. 62. 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(1873). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1450110">"On Some Results of the Earth's Contraction From Cooling, Including a Discussion of the Origins of Mountains, and the Nature of the Earth's Interior"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Science" title="American Journal of Science">American Journal of Science</a></i>. <b>5</b> (30): 423–43. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1873AmJS....5..423D">1873AmJS....5..423D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-5.30.423">10.2475/ajs.s3-5.30.423</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131423196">131423196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=On+Some+Results+of+the+Earth%27s+Contraction+From+Cooling%2C+Including+a+Discussion+of+the+Origins+of+Mountains%2C+and+the+Nature+of+the+Earth%27s+Interior&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=423-43&rft.date=1873&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A131423196%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2475%2Fajs.s3-5.30.423&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1873AmJS....5..423D&rft.aulast=Dana&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1450110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sengor1982-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sengor1982_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Sengor1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cel%C3%A2l_%C5%9Eeng%C3%B6r" title="Celâl Şengör">Şengör, Celâl</a> (1982). "Classical theories of orogenesis". In <a href="/wiki/Akiho_Miyashiro" title="Akiho Miyashiro">Miyashiro, Akiho</a>; Aki, Keiiti; Şengör, Celâl (eds.). <i>Orogeny</i>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-103764" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-103764"><bdi>0-471-103764</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classical+theories+of+orogenesis&rft.btitle=Orogeny&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-471-103764&rft.aulast=%C5%9Eeng%C3%B6r&rft.aufirst=Cel%C3%A2l&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuch1902" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Buch, L. Von (1902). <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> (in German). Berlin: Roth & Eck.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gesammelte+Schriften&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Roth+%26+Eck&rft.date=1902&rft.aulast=Buch&rft.aufirst=L.+Von&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwart1967" class="citation journal cs1">Zwart, HJ (1967). "The duality of orogenic belts". <i>Geol. Mijnbouw</i>. <b>46</b>: 283–309.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geol.+Mijnbouw&rft.atitle=The+duality+of+orogenic+belts&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=283-309&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Zwart&rft.aufirst=HJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPitcher1979" class="citation journal cs1">Pitcher, WS (1979). "The nature, ascent and emplacement of granitic magmas". <i>Journal of the Geological Society</i>. <b>136</b> (6): 627–62. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979JGSoc.136..627P">1979JGSoc.136..627P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1144%2Fgsjgs.136.6.0627">10.1144/gsjgs.136.6.0627</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128935736">128935736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Geological+Society&rft.atitle=The+nature%2C+ascent+and+emplacement+of+granitic+magmas&rft.volume=136&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=627-62&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128935736%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2Fgsjgs.136.6.0627&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1979JGSoc.136..627P&rft.aulast=Pitcher&rft.aufirst=WS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCawoodKronerCollinsKusky2009" class="citation book cs1">Cawood, PA; Kroner, A; Collins, WJ; Kusky, TM; Mooney, WD; Windley, BF (2009). <i>Accretionary orogens through Earth history</i>. Geological Society. pp. 1–36. Special Publication 318.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accretionary+orogens+through+Earth+history&rft.pages=1-36&rft.pub=Geological+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Cawood&rft.aufirst=PA&rft.au=Kroner%2C+A&rft.au=Collins%2C+WJ&rft.au=Kusky%2C+TM&rft.au=Mooney%2C+WD&rft.au=Windley%2C+BF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarmsBradyCheney2006" class="citation conference cs1">Harms; Brady; Cheney (2006). <i>Exploring the Proterozoic Big Sky Orogeny in Southwest Montana</i>. 19th annual Keck symposium.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Exploring+the+Proterozoic+Big+Sky+Orogeny+in+Southwest+Montana&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Harms&rft.au=Brady&rft.au=Cheney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_Jones2003" class="citation book cs1">Kevin Jones (2003). <i>Mountain Building in Scotland: Science : A Level 3 Course Series</i>. Open University Worldwide Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7492-5847-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7492-5847-4"><bdi>978-0-7492-5847-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mountain+Building+in+Scotland%3A+Science+%3A+A+Level+3+Course+Series&rft.pub=Open+University+Worldwide+Ltd&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7492-5847-4&rft.au=Kevin+Jones&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span> provides a detailed history of a number of orogens, including the Caledonian Orogeny, which lasted from the late <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, with the main collisional events occurring during <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> times.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTom_McCann2008" class="citation book cs1">Tom McCann, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BR9FWgu2ps4C&q=orogeny"><i>Precambrian and Palaeozoic</i></a>. The Geology of Central Europe. Vol. 1. Geological Society of London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86239-245-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86239-245-8"><bdi>978-1-86239-245-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Precambrian+and+Palaeozoic&rft.series=The+Geology+of+Central+Europe&rft.pub=Geological+Society+of+London&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-86239-245-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBR9FWgu2ps4C%26q%3Dorogeny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span> is one of a two-volume exposition of the geology of central Europe with a discussion of major orogens.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuzanne_Mahlburg_KayVíctor_A._RamosWilliam_R._Dickinson2009" class="citation book cs1">Suzanne Mahlburg Kay; <a href="/wiki/V%C3%ADctor_Alberto_Ramos" title="Víctor Alberto Ramos">Víctor A. Ramos</a>; William R. Dickinson, eds. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ThpUlnCKwdgC"><i>Backbone of the Americas: Shallow Subduction, Plateau Uplift, and Ridge and Terrane Collision; Memoir 204</i></a>. Geological Society of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8137-1204-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8137-1204-8"><bdi>978-0-8137-1204-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Backbone+of+the+Americas%3A+Shallow+Subduction%2C+Plateau+Uplift%2C+and+Ridge+and+Terrane+Collision%3B+Memoir+204&rft.pub=Geological+Society+of+America&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8137-1204-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DThpUlnCKwdgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOrogeny" class="Z3988"></span> Evolution of the Cordilleras of the Americas from a multidisciplinary perspective from a symposium held in Mendoza, Argentina (2006).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Orogeny&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output 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geology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Structural_geology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Structural geology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Structural_geology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Structural_geology" title="Structural geology">Structural geology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underlying theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_mechanism" title="Deformation mechanism">Deformation mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lam%C3%A9%27s_stress_ellipsoid" title="Lamé's stress ellipsoid">Lamé's stress ellipsoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohr%E2%80%93Coulomb_theory" title="Mohr–Coulomb theory">Mohr–Coulomb theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohr%27s_circle" title="Mohr's circle">Mohr's circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overburden_pressure" title="Overburden pressure">Overburden pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_mechanics" title="Rock mechanics">Rock mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deformation_(physics)" title="Deformation (physics)">Strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strain_partitioning" title="Strain partitioning">Strain partitioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)" title="Stress (mechanics)">Stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_field" title="Stress field">Stress field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tension_(geology)" title="Tension (geology)">Tension</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurement conventions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brunton_compass" title="Brunton compass">Brunton compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclinometer" title="Inclinometer">Inclinometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthographic_projection" title="Orthographic projection">Orthographic projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rake_(geology)" title="Rake (geology)">Rake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereographic_projection" title="Stereographic projection">Stereographic projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_and_dip" title="Strike and dip">Strike and dip</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Large-scale <a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretionary_wedge" title="Accretionary wedge">Accretionary wedge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allochthon" title="Allochthon">Allochthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autochthon_(geology)" title="Autochthon (geology)">Autochthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-arc_basin" title="Back-arc basin">Back-arc basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_collision" title="Continental collision">Continental collision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9collement" title="Décollement">Décollement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensional_tectonics" title="Extensional tectonics">Extensional tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fault_block" title="Fault block">Fault block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Window_(geology)" title="Window (geology)">Fenster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fold_and_thrust_belt" title="Fold and thrust belt">Fold and thrust belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fold_mountains" title="Fold mountains">Fold mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreland_basin" title="Foreland basin">Foreland basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graben" title="Graben">Graben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-graben" title="Half-graben">Half-graben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_(geology)" title="Horse (geology)">Horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst_(geology)" title="Horst (geology)">Horst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst_and_graben" title="Horst and graben">Horst and graben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-arc_basin" title="Intra-arc basin">Intra-arc basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(geology)" title="Inversion (geology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klippe" title="Klippe">Klippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plate_interactions" title="List of tectonic plate interactions">List of tectonic plate interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9lange" title="Mélange">Mélange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_formation" title="Mountain formation">Mountain formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nappe" title="Nappe">Nappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obduction" title="Obduction">Obduction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Orogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pull-apart_basin" title="Pull-apart basin">Pull-apart basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rift_valley" title="Rift valley">Rift valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">Rift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddle_(landform)" title="Saddle (landform)">Saddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike-slip_tectonics" title="Strike-slip tectonics">Strike-slip tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_basin" title="Structural basin">Structural basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suture_(geology)" title="Suture (geology)">Suture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syneclise" class="mw-redirect" title="Syneclise">Syneclise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrane" title="Terrane">Terrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick-skinned_deformation" title="Thick-skinned deformation">Thick-skinned deformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin-skinned_deformation" title="Thin-skinned deformation">Thin-skinned deformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_tectonics" title="Thrust tectonics">Thrust tectonics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fracture_(geology)" title="Fracture (geology)">Fracturing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columnar_jointing" title="Columnar jointing">Columnar jointing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dike_(geology)" title="Dike (geology)">Dike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exfoliation_joint" title="Exfoliation joint">Exfoliation joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissure" title="Fissure">Fissure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_(geology)" title="Joint (geology)">Joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein_(geology)" title="Vein (geology)">Vein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">Faulting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asperity_(faults)" title="Asperity (faults)">Asperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclasite" title="Cataclasite">Cataclasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclastic_rock" title="Cataclastic rock">Cataclastic rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detachment_fault" title="Detachment fault">Detachment fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(geology)" title="Disturbance (geology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fault_friction" title="Fault friction">Fault friction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fault_mechanics" title="Fault mechanics">Fault mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fault_scarp" title="Fault scarp">Fault scarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fault_trace" title="Fault trace">Fault trace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrust_fault" title="Thrust fault">Thrust fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_zone" title="Transfer zone">Transfer zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foliation_(geology)" title="Foliation (geology)">Foliation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lineation_(geology)" title="Lineation (geology)">lineation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleavage_(geology)" title="Cleavage (geology)">Cleavage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compaction_(geology)" title="Compaction (geology)">Compaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crenulation" title="Crenulation">Crenulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissility_(geology)" title="Fissility (geology)">Fissility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oblique_foliation" title="Oblique foliation">Oblique foliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_solution" title="Pressure solution">Pressure solution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_microstructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock microstructure">Rock microstructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slickenside" title="Slickenside">Slickenside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylolite" title="Stylolite">Stylolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_phase" title="Tectonic phase">Tectonic phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonite" title="Tectonite">Tectonite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fold_(geology)" title="Fold (geology)">Folding</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anticline" title="Anticline">Anticline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevron_(geology)" title="Chevron (geology)">Chevron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detachment_fold" title="Detachment fold">Detachment fold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dome_(geology)" title="Dome (geology)">Dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homocline" title="Homocline">Homocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monocline" title="Monocline">Monocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncline" title="Syncline">Syncline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vergence_(geology)" title="Vergence (geology)">Vergence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Boudinage" title="Boudinage">Boudinage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competence_(geology)" title="Competence (geology)">Competence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Structural_geology#Kinematics" title="Structural geology">Kinematic analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_fold_evolution" title="3D fold evolution">3D fold evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleostress_inversion" title="Paleostress inversion">Paleostress inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleostress" title="Paleostress">Paleostress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Section_restoration" title="Section restoration">Section restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shear_zone" title="Shear zone">Shear zone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mylonite" title="Mylonite">Mylonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_shear" title="Pure shear">Pure shear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shear_(geology)" title="Shear (geology)">Shear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span 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