CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Bryozoa - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"e1f716f6-c7a5-4e74-8d10-9c535b879ff2","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Bryozoa","wgTitle":"Bryozoa","wgCurRevisionId":1271105785,"wgRevisionId":1271105785,"wgArticleId":3416,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 Latin-language sources (la)","CS1: long volume value","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from August 2024","Articles with permanently dead external links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Good articles","Use dmy dates from September 2015","Articles containing German-language text","Articles with 'species' microformats","Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text","Pages with missing ISBNs", "Commons category link from Wikidata","Bryozoans","Protostome phyla","Early Ordovician first appearances","Extant Ordovician first appearances","Taxa named by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Bryozoa","wgRelevantArticleId":3416,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage", "wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q148134","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=[ "ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg/1200px-Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1699"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg/800px-Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1133"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg/640px-Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="906"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Bryozoa - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Bryozoa rootpage-Bryozoa skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages">Special pages</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Bryozoa" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Bryozoa" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Bryozoa" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Bryozoa" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Description" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Description"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Description </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Description-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Description subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Distinguishing_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinguishing_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Distinguishing features </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinguishing_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_zooid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_zooid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Types of zooid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_zooid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feeding_zooids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feeding_zooids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Feeding zooids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feeding_zooids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avicularia_and_vibracula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avicularia_and_vibracula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Avicularia and vibracula </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avicularia_and_vibracula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_polymorphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_polymorphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Structural polymorphs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_polymorphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproductive_polymorphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproductive_polymorphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.4 Reproductive polymorphs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproductive_polymorphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_polymorphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_polymorphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.5 Other polymorphs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_polymorphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colony_forms_and_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colony_forms_and_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Colony forms and composition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colony_forms_and_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Taxonomy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Taxonomy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification_and_diversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_and_diversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Classification and diversity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_and_diversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossil_record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil_record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Fossil record </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_family_tree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_family_tree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Evolutionary family tree </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_family_tree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Traditional_view" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traditional_view"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Traditional view </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traditional_view-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entoprocts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entoprocts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Entoprocts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entoprocts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grouping_into_the_Lophophorata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grouping_into_the_Lophophorata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Grouping into the Lophophorata </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grouping_into_the_Lophophorata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lophophorate_molecular_phylogenetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lophophorate_molecular_phylogenetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.4 Lophophorate molecular phylogenetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lophophorate_molecular_phylogenetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ectoproct_molecular_phylogenetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ectoproct_molecular_phylogenetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.5 Ectoproct molecular phylogenetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ectoproct_molecular_phylogenetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Physiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Physiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feeding_and_excretion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feeding_and_excretion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Feeding and excretion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feeding_and_excretion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Respiration_and_circulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Respiration_and_circulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Respiration and circulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Respiration_and_circulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction_and_life_cycles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction_and_life_cycles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Reproduction and life cycles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproduction_and_life_cycles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Ecology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ecology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Habitats_and_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitats_and_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Habitats and distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitats_and_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactions_with_non-human_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions_with_non-human_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Interactions with non-human organisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactions_with_non-human_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interaction_with_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interaction_with_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Interaction with humans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interaction_with_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Bryozoa</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" > 68 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosdiere" title="Mosdiere – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Mosdiere" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moostierchen" title="Moostierchen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Moostierchen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AD%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حيوانات حزازية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حيوانات حزازية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briozoylar" title="Briozoylar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Briozoylar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="بریوزویلار – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بریوزویلار" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Імшанкі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Імшанкі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Ектопрокти – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ектопрокти" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahovnjaci" title="Mahovnjaci – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Mahovnjaci" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briozous" title="Briozous – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Briozous" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dapawdapaw" title="Dapawdapaw – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Dapawdapaw" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechovci" title="Mechovci – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mechovci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosdyr" title="Mosdyr – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mosdyr" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moostierchen" title="Moostierchen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Moostierchen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B3ch%CA%BCilgi_%C3%A1t%CA%BC%C3%A9h%C3%ADg%C3%AD%C3%AD" title="Tóchʼilgi átʼéhígíí – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Tóchʼilgi átʼéhígíí" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammalloomad" title="Sammalloomad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sammalloomad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CF%81%CF%85%CF%8C%CE%B6%CF%89%CE%B1" title="Βρυόζωα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βρυόζωα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briozooj" title="Briozooj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Briozooj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B2%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="خزه‌زیان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خزه‌زیان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoprocta" title="Ectoprocta – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ectoprocta" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briozoos" title="Briozoos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Briozoos" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%9C%ED%98%95%EB%8F%99%EB%AC%BC" title="태형동물 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="태형동물" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahovnjaci" title="Mahovnjaci – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Mahovnjaci" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosad%C3%BDr" title="Mosadýr – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mosadýr" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%99%D7%98%D7%97%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D" title="חיטחבים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חיטחבים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мшанкалар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мшанкалар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinyama-kigoga" title="Kinyama-kigoga – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kinyama-kigoga" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Мшанкалар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мшанкалар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%ABne%C5%86i" title="Sūneņi – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sūneņi" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samangyviai" title="Samangyviai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Samangyviai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosbie%C3%ABster" title="Mosbieëster – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Mosbieëster" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoprocto" title="Ectoprocto – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Ectoprocto" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moha%C3%A1llatok" title="Mohaállatok – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mohaállatok" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Мовести животни – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Мовести животни" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%AD%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%87" title="حيوانات حزازيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="حيوانات حزازيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosdiertjes" title="Mosdiertjes – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mosdiertjes" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E8%82%9B%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="外肛動物 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="外肛動物" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6%C3%B6skdiarten" title="Mööskdiarten – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Mööskdiarten" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosdyr" title="Mosdyr – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mosdyr" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosdyr" title="Mosdyr – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Mosdyr" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoprocta" title="Ectoprocta – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ectoprocta" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mszywio%C5%82y" title="Mszywioły – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Mszywioły" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoprocta" title="Ectoprocta – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ectoprocta" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Мшанки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мшанки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machovky" title="Machovky – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Machovky" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahovnjaki" title="Mahovnjaki – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mahovnjaki" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Морске маховине – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Морске маховине" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahovnjaci" title="Mahovnjaci – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mahovnjaci" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammalel%C3%A4imet" title="Sammaleläimet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sammaleläimet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossdjur" title="Mossdjur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mossdjur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D2%AF%D0%BA%D1%87%D3%99%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Мүкчәләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Мүкчәләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A7" title="ไบรโอซัว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไบรโอซัว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Мохуватки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мохуватки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99ng_v%E1%BA%ADt_h%C3%ACnh_r%C3%AAu" title="Động vật hình rêu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Động vật hình rêu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Bryozoa" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E8%82%9B%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E9%97%A8" title="外肛动物门 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="外肛动物门" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%94%E8%98%9A%E5%8B%95%E7%89%A9" title="苔蘚動物 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="苔蘚動物" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E8%82%9B%E5%8A%A8%E7%89%A9%E9%97%A8" title="外肛动物门 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="外肛动物门" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q148134#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Bryozoa" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bryozoa">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Bryozoa" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Bryozoa" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&oldid=1271105785" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Bryozoa&id=1271105785&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBryozoa">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FBryozoa">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Bryozoa&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bryozoa" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-species mw-list-item"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" hreflang="en">Wikispecies</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q148134" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Phylum of colonial aquatic invertebrates called moss animals</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Polyzoa" redirects here. For the tunicate genus, see <a href="/wiki/Polyzoa_(tunicate)" title="Polyzoa (tunicate)">Polyzoa (tunicate)</a>.</div> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Bryozoa <div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: Ordovician– Recent<a href="#cite_note-Taylor2013-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:17.583076923077px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.22px; width:14.807692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:70.027692307692px; width:7.9470769230769px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:77.974769230769px; width:20.564923076923px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.539692307692px; width:20.294153846154px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.732307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:171.56615384615px; width:26.095384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.540307692308px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20184615385px; width:6.9249230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:37.636923076923px; width:182.36307692308px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:55.22px; width:164.78px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:56.22px; width:162.78px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div> Contested Cambrian records (<a href="/wiki/Pywackia" title="Pywackia">Pywackia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protomelission" title="Protomelission">Protomelission</a><a href="#cite_note-s41586-023-05775-5-3">[3]</a>)</div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg/240px-Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg/360px-Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg/480px-Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2323" data-file-height="3289" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">"Bryozoa", from <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur" title="Kunstformen der Natur">Kunstformen der Natur</a>, 1904 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Bryozoa" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Clade: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lophophorata" title="Lophophorata">Lophophorata</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bryozoa</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg" title="Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg">Ehrenberg</a>, 1831<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Classes </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <a href="#Classification_and_diversity">See text</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a><a href="#cite_note-FuchsObstSundberg2009ComprMolPhyloOfBryozoa-5">[5]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> Ectoprocta (Nitsche, 1869) (formerly subphylum of Bryozoa) </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> Bryozoa (also known as the Polyzoa, Ectoprocta or commonly as moss animals)<a href="#cite_note-Brusaca-6">[6]</a> are a <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> of simple, <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">aquatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrate</a> animals, nearly all living in sedentary <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a>. Typically about <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>0.5 millimetres (1⁄64 in) long, they have a special feeding structure called a <a href="/wiki/Lophophore" title="Lophophore">lophophore</a>, a "crown" of tentacles used for <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter feeding</a>. Most <a href="/wiki/Marine_(ocean)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine (ocean)">marine</a> bryozoans live in tropical waters, but a few are found in <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trenches</a> and polar waters. The bryozoans are classified as the <a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">marine bryozoans</a> (Stenolaemata), <a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">freshwater bryozoans</a> (Phylactolaemata), and <a href="/wiki/Gymnolaemata" title="Gymnolaemata">mostly-marine bryozoans</a> (Gymnolaemata), a few members of which prefer <a href="/wiki/Brackish_water" title="Brackish water">brackish water</a>. 5,869 living species are known.<a href="#cite_note-Bock2013-7">[7]</a> Originally all of the crown group Bryozoa were colonial, but as an adaptation to a mesopsammal (interstitial spaces in marine sand) life or to deep-sea habitats, secondarily solitary forms have since evolved. Solitary species have been described in four <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a>; (Aethozooides, Aethozoon, Franzenella and <a href="/wiki/Monobryozoon" title="Monobryozoon">Monobryozoon</a>). The latter having a statocyst-like organ with a supposed excretory function.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The terms Polyzoa and Bryozoa were introduced in 1830 and 1831, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Thompson1830-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Soon after it was named, another group of animals was discovered whose filtering mechanism looked similar, so it was included in Bryozoa until 1869, when the two groups were noted to be very different internally. The new group was given the name "<a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a>", while the original Bryozoa were called "Ectoprocta". Disagreements about terminology persisted well into the 20th century, but "Bryozoa" is now the generally accepted term.<a href="#cite_note-Stebbing1911-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Muir-Wood_1955-13">[13]</a> Colonies take a variety of forms, including fans, bushes and sheets. Single animals, called <a href="/wiki/Zooid" title="Zooid">zooids</a>, live throughout the colony and are not fully independent. These individuals can have unique and diverse functions. All colonies have "autozooids", which are responsible for feeding, <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">excretion</a>, and supplying nutrients to the colony through diverse channels. Some classes have specialist zooids like hatcheries for fertilized eggs, colonial defence structures, and root-like attachment structures. <a href="/wiki/Cheilostomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheilostomata">Cheilostomata</a> is the most <a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">diverse</a> <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> of bryozoan, possibly because its members have the widest range of specialist zooids. They have <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">mineralized</a> exoskeletons and form single-layered sheets which encrust over surfaces, and some colonies can creep very slowly by using spiny defensive zooids as legs. Each zooid consists of a "cystid", which provides the body wall and produces the <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a>, and a "<a href="/wiki/Polypide" title="Polypide">polypide</a>", which holds the organs. Zooids have no special excretory organs, and autozooids' polypides are scrapped when they become overloaded with waste products; usually the body wall then grows a replacement polypide. Their gut is U-shaped, with the mouth inside the crown of tentacles and the anus outside it. Zooids of all the freshwater species are simultaneous <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodites</a>. Although those of many marine species function first as males and then as females, their colonies always contain a combination of zooids that are in their male and female stages. All species emit <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> into the water. Some also release <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ova</a> into the water, while others capture sperm via their tentacles to fertilize their ova internally. In some species the <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a> have large <a href="/wiki/Yolk" title="Yolk">yolks</a>, go to feed, and quickly settle on a surface. Others produce larvae that have little yolk but swim and feed for a few days before settling. After settling, all larvae undergo a radical <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphosis</a> that destroys and rebuilds almost all the internal tissues. Freshwater species also produce <a href="/wiki/Statoblast" title="Statoblast">statoblasts</a> that lie dormant until conditions are favorable, which enables a colony's lineage to survive even if severe conditions kill the mother colony. Predators of marine bryozoans include <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">sea slugs</a> (nudibranchs), fish, <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pycnogonid" class="mw-redirect" title="Pycnogonid">pycnogonids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mite" title="Mite">mites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a>. Freshwater bryozoans are preyed on by snails, insects, and fish. In <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, many populations of one freshwater species have been wiped out by an <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introduced species</a> of snail.<a href="#cite_note-predation_golden-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Membranipora_membranacea" title="Membranipora membranacea">Membranipora membranacea</a>, a fast-growing invasive bryozoan off the northeast and northwest coasts of the US, has reduced <a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a> so much that it has affected local fish and invertebrate populations.<a href="#cite_note-h057-15">[15]</a> Bryozoans have spread diseases to <a href="/wiki/Fish_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish farm">fish farms</a> and fishermen. Chemicals extracted from a marine bryozoan species have been investigated for treatment of cancer and <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, but analyses have not been encouraging.<a href="#cite_note-Introduction-16">[16]</a> Mineralized skeletons of bryozoans first appear in rocks from the Early <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> period,<a href="#cite_note-Taylor2013-1">[1]</a> making it the last major phylum to appear in the fossil record. This has led researchers to suspect that bryozoans arose earlier but were initially unmineralized, and may have differed significantly from fossilized and modern forms. In 2021, some research suggested Protomelission, a genus known from the Cambrian <a href="/wiki/Period_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Period (geology)">period</a>, could be an example of an early bryozoan,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> but later research suggested that this taxon may instead represent a <a href="/wiki/Dasycladales" title="Dasycladales">dasyclad</a> alga.<a href="#cite_note-s41586-023-05775-5-3">[3]</a> Early fossils are mainly of erect forms, but encrusting forms gradually became dominant. It is uncertain whether the phylum is <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a>. Bryozoans' evolutionary relationships to other phyla are also unclear, partly because scientists' view of the family tree of animals is mainly influenced by better-known phyla. Both <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular phylogeny">molecular phylogeny</a> analyses disagree over bryozoans' relationships with entoprocts, about whether bryozoans should be grouped with <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">phoronids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lophophorata" title="Lophophorata">Lophophorata</a>, and whether bryozoans should be considered <a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">protostomes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinguishing_features">Distinguishing features</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Distinguishing features">edit</a>]</div> Bryozoans, <a href="/wiki/Phoronida" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoronida">phoronids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">brachiopods</a> <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter feeding">strain food out of the water</a> by means of a <a href="/wiki/Lophophore" title="Lophophore">lophophore</a>, a "crown" of hollow tentacles. Bryozoans form colonies consisting of <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clones</a> called zooids that are typically about <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">0.5 mm (1⁄64 in) long.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Phoronids resemble bryozoan zooids but are 2 to 20 cm (1 to 8 in) long and, although they often grow in clumps, do not form colonies consisting of clones.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesPhoronida-19">[19]</a> Brachiopods, generally thought to be closely related to bryozoans and phoronids, are distinguished by having shells rather like those of <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBrachiopoda-20">[20]</a> All three of these <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> have a <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a>, an internal cavity lined by <a href="/wiki/Mesothelium" title="Mesothelium">mesothelium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesPhoronida-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBrachiopoda-20">[20]</a> Some encrusting bryozoan colonies with <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">mineralized</a> <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeletons</a> look very like small corals. However, bryozoan colonies are founded by an ancestrula, which is round rather than shaped like a normal zooid of that species. On the other hand, the founding polyp of a coral has a shape like that of its daughter polyps, and coral zooids have no <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lophophore" title="Lophophore">lophophore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocts</a>, another phylum of filter-feeders, look rather like bryozoans but their <a href="/wiki/Lophophore" title="Lophophore">lophophore</a>-like feeding structure has solid tentacles, their <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a> lies inside rather than outside the base of the "crown" and they have no <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesEntoprocta-22">[22]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Summary of distinguishing features </caption> <tbody><tr align="center"> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2">Bryozoa<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>(Ectoprocta)</th> <th colspan="2">Other <a href="/wiki/Lophophorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Lophophorate">lophophorates</a><a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesLophophorataGen-23">[23]</a></th> <th>Other <a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophotrochozoa</a></th> <th colspan="2">Similar-looking phyla </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Phoronida" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoronida">Phoronida</a><a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesPhoronida-19">[19]</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a><a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBrachiopoda-20">[20]</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Annelida" class="mw-redirect" title="Annelida">Annelida</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a><a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesEntoprocta-22">[22]</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Corals</a> (class in phylum <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a>)<a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">Coelom</a> </th> <td>Three-part, if the cavity of the epistome is included</td> <td colspan="2">Three-part</td> <td>One per segment in basic form; merged in some <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></td> <td colspan="2">none </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Formation of <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a> </th> <td>Uncertain because <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphosis</a> of larvae into adults makes this impossible to trace</td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Enterocoely" title="Enterocoely">Enterocoely</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Schizocoely" title="Schizocoely">Schizocoely</a></td> <td colspan="2">not applicable </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Lophophore" title="Lophophore">Lophophore</a> </th> <td colspan="3">With hollow tentacles</td> <td>none</td> <td>Similar-looking feeding structure, but with solid tentacles</td> <td>none </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Feeding current </th> <td colspan="3">From tips to bases of tentacles</td> <td>not applicable</td> <td>From bases to tips of tentacles</td> <td>not applicable </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">Multiciliated</a> cells in <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelium</a> </th> <td>Yes<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">[24]</a></td> <td colspan="2">no<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">[24]</a></td> <td colspan="2">Yes<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">[24]</a></td> <td>not applicable </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Position of <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a> </th> <td colspan="2">Outside base of <a href="/wiki/Lophophore" title="Lophophore">lophophore</a></td> <td>Varies, none in some species</td> <td>Rear end, but none in <a href="/wiki/Siboglinidae" title="Siboglinidae">Siboglinidae</a></td> <td>Inside base of <a href="/wiki/Lophophore" title="Lophophore">lophophore</a>-like organ</td> <td>none </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Colonial </th> <td>Colonies of clones in most; one solitary <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a></td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">Sessile</a> species often form clumps, but with no active co-operation</td> <td>Colonies of clones in some species; some solitary species</td> <td>Colonies of clones </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Shape of founder zooid </th> <td>Round, unlike normal zooids<a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a></td> <td colspan="3">not applicable</td> <td colspan="2">Same as other zooids </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">Mineralized</a> <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeletons</a> </th> <td>Some <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></td> <td>no</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">Bivalve</a>-like shells</td> <td>Some sessile annelids build mineralized tubes;<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesAnnelGen-25">[25]</a> most molluscs have shells, but most modern <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a> have internal shells or none.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnes2004MolluscaGen-26">[26]</a></td> <td>no</td> <td>Some taxa </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_zooid">Types of zooid</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types of zooid">edit</a>]</div> All bryozoans are colonial except for one <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monobryozoon" title="Monobryozoon">Monobryozoon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Individual members of a bryozoan colony are about <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">0.5 mm (1⁄64 in) long and are known as zooids,<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> since they are not fully independent animals.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> All colonies contain feeding zooids, known as autozooids. Those of some groups also contain non-feeding heterozooids, also known as polymorphic zooids, which serve a variety of functions other than feeding;<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> colony members are genetically identical and co-operate, rather like the organs of larger animals.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> What type of zooid grows where in a colony is determined by chemical signals from the colony as a whole or sometimes in response to the scent of predators or rival colonies.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> The bodies of all types have two main parts. The cystid consists of the body wall and whatever type of <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> is <a href="/wiki/Secretion" title="Secretion">secreted</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(zoology)" title="Epidermis (zoology)">epidermis</a>. The exoskeleton may be organic (<a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>) or made of the mineral <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>. The latter is always absent in freshwater species.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The body wall consists of the epidermis, <a href="/wiki/Basal_lamina" title="Basal lamina">basal lamina</a> (a mat of non-cellular material), <a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a>, muscles, and the <a href="/wiki/Mesothelium" title="Mesothelium">mesothelium</a> which lines the <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a> (main body cavity)<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> – except that in one class, the mesothelium is split into two separate layers, the inner one forming a membranous sac that floats freely and contains the coelom, and the outer one attached to the body wall and enclosing the membranous sac in a <a href="/wiki/Pseudocoelom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudocoelom">pseudocoelom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci-31">[31]</a> The other main part of the bryozoan body, known as the polypide and situated almost entirely within the cystid, contains the nervous system, digestive system, some specialized muscles and the feeding apparatus or other specialized organs that take the place of the feeding apparatus.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feeding_zooids">Feeding zooids</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Feeding zooids">edit</a>]</div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:282px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:402px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:52px; top:0px; width:156px; position:absolute;"> <a href="/wiki/File:Ectoproct_generalized_01.png" class="mw-file-description" title="A generalized autozooid[18]"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Ectoproct_generalized_01.png" decoding="async" width="156" height="325" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="325" /></a></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_30x108" style="position:absolute; left:30px; top:108px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Pharynx</a></div> <div id="annotation_30x128" style="position:absolute; left:30px; top:128px; line-height:110%;">Invert</div> <div id="annotation_15x160" style="position:absolute; left:15px; top:160px; line-height:110%;">Retractor muscle</div> <div id="annotation_30x205" style="position:absolute; left:30px; top:205px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></div> <div id="annotation_15x243" style="position:absolute; left:15px; top:243px; line-height:110%;">Protective covering</div> <div id="annotation_200x20" style="position:absolute; left:200px; top:20px; line-height:110%;">Lophophore's tentacles</div> <div id="annotation_180x98" style="position:absolute; left:180px; top:98px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">Ganglion</a></div> <div id="annotation_180x118" style="position:absolute; left:180px; top:118px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">Anus</a></div> <div id="annotation_195x188" style="position:absolute; left:195px; top:188px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">Coelom</a> (body cavity)</div> <div id="annotation_195x228" style="position:absolute; left:195px; top:228px; line-height:110%;">Stomach </div> <div id="annotation_195x262" style="position:absolute; left:195px; top:262px; line-height:110%;"><a href="/wiki/Testis" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis">Testis</a> </div> <div id="annotation_195x280" style="position:absolute; left:195px; top:280px; line-height:110%;">Funiculus </div> <div id="annotation_15x330" style="position:absolute; left:15px; top:330px; line-height:110%;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style>  = <a href="/wiki/Digestive_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Digestive tract">Digestive tract</a></div> <div id="annotation_160x330" style="position:absolute; left:160px; top:330px; line-height:110%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  = <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">Gonads</a></div> <div id="annotation_15x370" style="position:absolute; left:15px; top:370px; line-height:110%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  = Retractor muscle</div> <div id="annotation_160x370" style="position:absolute; left:160px; top:370px; line-height:110%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  = Outer covering</div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Ectoproct_generalized_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Ectoproct_generalized_01.png" decoding="async" width="156" height="325" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="156" data-file-height="325" /></a></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Ectoproct_generalized_01.png" title="File:Ectoproct generalized 01.png"> </a></div>A generalized autozooid<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a></div> </div></div> The most common type of zooid is the feeding autozooid, in which the polypide bears a "crown" of hollow tentacles called a <a href="/wiki/Lophophore" title="Lophophore">lophophore</a>, which captures food particles from the water.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> In all colonies a large percentage of zooids are autozooids, and some consist entirely of autozooids, some of which also engage in reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-McKinneyJackson-32">[32]</a> The basic shape of the "crown" is a full circle. Among the <a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">freshwater bryozoans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">Phylactolaemata</a>) the crown appears U-shaped, but this impression is created by a deep dent in the rim of the crown, which has no gap in the fringe of tentacles.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> The sides of the tentacles bear fine hairs called <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a>, whose beating drives a water current from the tips of the tentacles to their bases, where it exits. Food particles that collide with the tentacles are trapped by <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>, and further cilia on the inner surfaces of the tentacles move the particles towards the mouth in the center.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesLophophorataGen-23">[23]</a> The method used by ectoprocts is called "upstream collecting", as food particles are captured before they pass through the field of cilia that creates the feeding current. This method is also used by <a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">phoronids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pterobranch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterobranch">pterobranchs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The lophophore and mouth are mounted on a flexible tube called the "invert", which can be turned inside-out and withdrawn into the polypide,<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> rather like the finger of a rubber glove; in this position the lophophore lies inside the invert and is folded like the spokes of an umbrella. The invert is withdrawn, sometimes within 60 <a href="/wiki/Millisecond" title="Millisecond">milliseconds</a>, by a pair of retractor muscles that are anchored at the far end of the cystid. Sensors at the tips of the tentacles may check for signs of danger before the invert and lophophore are fully extended. Extension is driven by an increase in internal fluid pressure, which species with flexible exoskeletons produce by contracting circular muscles that lie just inside the body wall,<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> while species with a membranous sac use circular muscles to squeeze this.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci-31">[31]</a> Some species with rigid exoskeletons have a flexible membrane that replaces part of the exoskeleton, and transverse muscles anchored on the far side of the exoskeleton increase the fluid pressure by pulling the membrane inwards.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> In others there is no gap in the protective skeleton, and the transverse muscles pull on a flexible sac which is connected to the water outside by a small pore; the expansion of the sac increases the pressure inside the body and pushes the invert and lophophore out.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> In some species the retracted invert and lophophore are protected by an operculum ("lid"), which is closed by muscles and opened by fluid pressure. In one <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a>, a hollow lobe called the "epistome" overhangs the mouth.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> The gut is U-shaped, running from the mouth, in the center of the lophophore, down into the animal's interior and then back to the <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a>, which is located on the invert, outside and usually below the lophophore.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> A network of strands of <a href="/wiki/Mesothelium" title="Mesothelium">mesothelium</a> called "funiculi" ("little ropes")<a href="#cite_note-RanHouDictFuniculus-34">[34]</a> connects the mesothelium covering the gut with that lining the body wall. The wall of each strand is made of mesothelium, and surrounds a space filled with fluid, thought to be blood.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> A colony's zooids are connected, enabling autozooids to share food with each other and with any non-feeding heterozooids.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> The method of connection varies between the different classes of bryozoans, ranging from quite large gaps in the body walls to small pores through which nutrients are passed by funiculi.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci-31">[31]</a> There is a nerve ring round the pharynx (throat) and a <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglion</a> that serves as a brain to one side of this. Nerves run from the ring and ganglion to the tentacles and to the rest of the body.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Bryozoans have no specialized sense organs, but <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> on the tentacles act as sensors. Members of the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> <a href="/wiki/Bugula" title="Bugula">Bugula</a> <a href="/wiki/Phototropism" title="Phototropism">grow towards the sun</a>, and therefore must be able to detect light.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> In colonies of some species, signals are transmitted between zooids through nerves that pass through pores in the body walls, and coordinate activities such as feeding and the retraction of lophophores.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> The solitary individuals of Monobryozoon are autozooids with pear-shaped bodies. The wider ends have up to 15 short, muscular projections by which the animals anchor themselves to sand or gravel<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> and pull themselves through the sediments.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Avicularia_and_vibracula">Avicularia and vibracula</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Avicularia and vibracula">edit</a>]</div> Some authorities use the term avicularia (plural of <a href="/wiki/Avicularium" title="Avicularium">avicularium</a>) to refer to any type of zooid in which the lophophore is replaced by an extension that serves some protective function,<a href="#cite_note-McKinneyJackson-32">[32]</a> while others restrict the term to those that defend the colony by snapping at invaders and small predators, killing some and biting the <a href="/wiki/Appendage" title="Appendage">appendages</a> of others.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> In some species the snapping zooids are mounted on a peduncle (stalk), their bird-like appearance responsible for the term – <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> described these as like "the head and beak of a vulture in miniature, seated on a neck and capable of movement".<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-McKinneyJackson-32">[32]</a> Stalked avicularia are placed upside-down on their stalks.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> The "lower jaws" are modified versions of the opercula that protect the retracted lophophores in autozooids of some species, and are snapped shut "like a mousetrap" by similar muscles,<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> while the beak-shaped upper jaw is the inverted body wall.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> In other species the avicularia are stationary box-like zooids laid the normal way up, so that the modified operculum snaps down against the body wall.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> In both types the modified operculum is opened by other muscles that attach to it,<a href="#cite_note-McKinneyJackson-32">[32]</a> or by internal muscles that raise the fluid pressure by pulling on a flexible membrane.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> The actions of these snapping zooids are controlled by small, highly modified polypides that are located inside the "mouth" and bear tufts of short sensory <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> These zooids appear in various positions: some take the place of autozooids, some fit into small gaps between autozooids, and small avicularia may occur on the surfaces of other zooids.<a href="#cite_note-McKinneyJackson-32">[32]</a> In vibracula, regarded by some as a type of avicularia, the operculum is modified to form a long bristle that has a wide range of motion. They may function as defenses against predators and invaders, or as cleaners. In some species that form mobile colonies, vibracula around the edges are used as legs for burrowing and walking.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-McKinneyJackson-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Structural_polymorphs">Structural polymorphs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Structural polymorphs">edit</a>]</div> Kenozooids (from the Greek kenós 'empty')<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> consist only of the body wall and funicular strands crossing the interior,<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> and no polypide.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> The functions of these zooids include forming the stems of branching structures, acting as spacers that enable colonies to grow quickly in a new direction,<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-McKinneyJackson-32">[32]</a> strengthening the colony's branches, and elevating the colony slightly above its substrate for competitive advantages against other organisms. Some kenozooids are hypothesized to be capable of storing nutrients for the colony. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202072–73-38">[38]</a> Because kenozooids' function is generally structural, they are called "structural polymorphs." Some heterozooids found in extinct trepostome bryozoans, called mesozooids, are thought to have functioned to space the feeding autozooids an appropriate distance apart. In thin sections of trepostome fossils, mesozooids can be seen in between the tubes that held autozooids; they are smaller tubes that are divided along their length by diaphragms, making them look like rows of box-like chambers sandwiched between autozooidal tubes. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202074-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reproductive_polymorphs">Reproductive polymorphs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reproductive polymorphs">edit</a>]</div> Gonozooids act as brood chambers for fertilized eggs.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Almost all modern cyclostome bryozoans have them, but they can be hard to locate on a colony because there are so few gonozooids in one colony. The aperture in gonozooids, which is called an ooeciopore, acts as a point for larvae to exit. Some gonozooids have very complex shapes with autozooidal tubes passing through chambers within them. All larvae released from a gonozooid are clones created by division of a single egg; this is called monozygotic <a href="/wiki/Polyembryony" title="Polyembryony">polyembryony</a>, and is a reproductive strategy also used by <a href="/wiki/Armadillo" title="Armadillo">armadillos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202059-40">[40]</a> Cheilostome bryozoans also brood their embryos; one of the common methods is through ovicells, capsules attached to autozooids. The autozooids possessing ovicells are normally still able to feed, however, so these are not considered heterozooids. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202060-41">[41]</a> "Female" polymorphs are more common than "male" polymorphs, but specialized zooids that produce sperm are also known. These are called androzooids, and some are found in colonies of Odontoporella bishopi, a species that is <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> with <a href="/wiki/Hermit_crab" title="Hermit crab">hermit crabs</a> and lives on their shells. These zooids are smaller than the others and have four short tentacles and four long tentacles, unlike the autozooids which have 15–16 tentacles. Androzooids are also found in species with mobile colonies that can crawl around. It is possible that androzooids are used to exchange sperm between colonies when two mobile colonies or bryozoan-encrusted hermit crabs happen to encounter one another. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202065-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_polymorphs">Other polymorphs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other polymorphs">edit</a>]</div> Spinozooids are hollow, movable spines, like very slender, small tubes, present on the surface of colonies, which probably are for defense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202075-43">[43]</a> Some species have miniature nanozooids with small single-tentacled polypides, and these may grow on other zooids or within the body walls of autozooids that have degenerated.<a href="#cite_note-McKinneyJackson-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colony_forms_and_composition">Colony forms and composition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Colony forms and composition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flustra_foliacea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flustra_foliacea.jpg/220px-Flustra_foliacea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flustra_foliacea.jpg/330px-Flustra_foliacea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flustra_foliacea.jpg/440px-Flustra_foliacea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>A colony of the modern marine bryozoan Flustra foliacea.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheilostome_Serpulid_Cape_Cod.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Cheilostome_Serpulid_Cape_Cod.JPG/220px-Cheilostome_Serpulid_Cape_Cod.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Cheilostome_Serpulid_Cape_Cod.JPG/330px-Cheilostome_Serpulid_Cape_Cod.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Cheilostome_Serpulid_Cape_Cod.JPG/440px-Cheilostome_Serpulid_Cape_Cod.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3056" data-file-height="2176" /></a><figcaption>Cheilostome bryozoan with serpulid tubes</figcaption></figure> Although zooids are microscopic, colonies range in size from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1 cm (1⁄2 in) to over 1 m (3 ft 3 in).<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> However, the majority are under 10 cm (4 in) across.<a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a> The shapes of colonies vary widely, depend on the pattern of budding by which they grow, the variety of zooids present and the type and amount of skeletal material they <a href="/wiki/Secretion" title="Secretion">secrete</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Some marine species are bush-like or fan-like, supported by "trunks" and "branches" formed by kenozooids, with feeding autozooids growing from these. Colonies of these types are generally <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">unmineralized</a> but may have <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeletons</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Others look like small <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, producing heavy lime skeletons.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Many species form colonies which consist of sheets of autozooids. These sheets may form leaves, tufts or, in the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> <a href="/wiki/Thalamoporella" title="Thalamoporella">Thalamoporella</a>, structures that resemble an open head of lettuce.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> The most common marine form, however, is encrusting, in which a one-layer sheet of zooids spreads over a hard surface or over seaweed. Some encrusting colonies may grow to over 50 cm (1 ft 8 in) and contain about 2,000,000 zooids.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> These species generally have exoskeletons reinforced with <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>, and the openings through which the lophophores protrude are on the top or outer surface.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> The moss-like appearance of encrusting colonies is responsible for the phylum's name (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> words βρύον brúon meaning 'moss' and ζῷον zôion meaning 'animal').<a href="#cite_note-SOED1959Bryozoa-45">[45]</a> Large colonies of encrusting species often have "<a href="/wiki/Chimney" title="Chimney">chimneys</a>", gaps in the canopy of lophophores, through which they swiftly expel water that has been sieved, and thus avoid re-filtering water that is already exhausted.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> They are formed by patches of non-feeding heterozooids.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> New chimneys appear near the edges of expanding colonies, at points where the speed of the outflow is already high, and do not change position if the water flow changes.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Some freshwater species secrete a mass of gelatinous material, up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) in diameter, to which the zooids stick. Other freshwater species have plant-like shapes with "trunks" and "branches", which may stand erect or spread over the surface. A few species can creep at about <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">2 cm (3⁄4 in) per day.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Each colony grows by <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual</a> <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a> from a single zooid known as the ancestrula,<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> which is round rather than shaped like a normal zooid.<a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a> This occurs at the tips of "trunks" or "branches" in forms that have this structure. Encrusting colonies grow round their edges. In species with <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> exoskeletons, these do not mineralize until the zooids are fully grown. Colony lifespans range from one to about 12 years, and the short-lived species pass through several generations in one season.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Species that produce defensive zooids do so only when threats have already appeared, and may do so within 48 hours.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> The theory of "induced defenses" suggests that production of defenses is expensive and that colonies which defend themselves too early or too heavily will have reduced growth rates and lifespans. This "last minute" approach to defense is feasible because the loss of zooids to a single attack is unlikely to be significant.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Colonies of some encrusting species also produce special heterozooids to limit the expansion of other encrusting organisms, especially other bryozoans. In some cases this response is more belligerent if the opposition is smaller, which suggests that zooids on the edge of a colony can somehow sense the size of the opponent. Some species consistently prevail against certain others, but most <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/turf_war" class="extiw" title="wikt:turf war">turf wars</a> are indecisive and the combatants soon turn to growing in uncontested areas.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Bryozoans competing for territory do not use the sophisticated techniques employed by <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> or <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, possibly because the shortness of bryozoan lifespans makes heavy investment in turf wars unprofitable.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Bryozoans have contributed to carbonate sedimentation in marine life since the Ordovician period. Bryozoans take responsibility for many of the colony forms, which have evolved in different taxonomic groups and vary in sediment producing ability. The nine basic bryozoan colony-forms include: encrusting, dome-shaped, palmate, foliose, fenestrate, robust branching, delicate branching, articulated and free-living. Most of these sediments come from two distinct groups of colonies: domal, delicate branching, robust branching and palmate; and fenestrate. Fenestrate colonies generate rough particles both as sediment and components of stromatoporoids coral reefs. The delicate colonies however, create both coarse sediment and form the cores of deep-water, subphotic biogenic mounds. Nearly all post- bryozoan sediments are made up of growth forms, with the addition to free-living colonies which include significant numbers of various colonies. "In contrast to the Palaeozoic, post-Palaeozoic bryozoans generated sediment varying more widely with the size of their grains; they grow as they moved from mud, to sand, to gravel."<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Taxonomy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_bilaterial_animal_orders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of bilaterial animal orders">List of bilaterial animal orders</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peronopora080512.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Peronopora080512.JPG/220px-Peronopora080512.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Peronopora080512.JPG/330px-Peronopora080512.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Peronopora080512.JPG/440px-Peronopora080512.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3304" data-file-height="2490" /></a><figcaption>Peronopora, a trepostome bryozoan from the Whitewater Formation (Upper <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>) of eastern <a href="/wiki/Indiana" title="Indiana">Indiana</a>, United States</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Evactinopora_bryozoan_-_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Evactinopora_bryozoan_-_detail.jpg/220px-The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Evactinopora_bryozoan_-_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Evactinopora_bryozoan_-_detail.jpg/330px-The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Evactinopora_bryozoan_-_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Evactinopora_bryozoan_-_detail.jpg/440px-The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Evactinopora_bryozoan_-_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>Evactinopora bryozoan found in Jefferson County, <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, United States</figcaption></figure> The phylum was originally called "Polyzoa", but this name was eventually replaced by Ehrenberg's term "Bryozoa".<a href="#cite_note-Muir-Wood_1955-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-BeattyBlackwelder1974-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mayr1968BryozoaVersusEctoprocta-51">[51]</a> The name "Bryozoa" was originally applied only to the animals also known as Ectoprocta (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'outside-anus'),<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> in which the <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a> lies outside the "crown" of tentacles. After the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'inside-anus'),<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> in which the anus lies within a "crown" of tentacles, the name "Bryozoa" was promoted to <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> level to include the two <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">classes</a> Ectoprocta and Entoprocta.<a href="#cite_note-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny-54">[54]</a> However, in 1869 Hinrich Nitsche regarded the two groups as quite distinct for a variety of reasons, and coined the name "Ectoprocta" for Ehrenberg's "Bryozoa".<a href="#cite_note-FuchsObstSundberg2009ComprMolPhyloOfBryozoa-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics-55">[55]</a> Despite their apparently similar methods of feeding, they differed markedly anatomically; in addition to the different positions of the anus, ectoprocts have hollow tentacles and a <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a>, while entoprocts have solid tentacles and no coelom. Hence the two groups are now widely regarded as separate phyla, and the name "Bryozoa" is now synonymous with "Ectoprocta".<a href="#cite_note-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny-54">[54]</a> This has remained the majority view ever since, although most publications have preferred the name "Bryozoa" rather than "Ectoprocta".<a href="#cite_note-Mayr1968BryozoaVersusEctoprocta-51">[51]</a> Nevertheless, some notable scientists have continued to regard the "Ectoprocta" and Entoprocta as close relatives and group them under "Bryozoa".<a href="#cite_note-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics-55">[55]</a> The ambiguity about the scope of the name "Bryozoa" led to proposals in the 1960s and 1970s that it should be avoided and the unambiguous term "Ectoprocta" should be used.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> However, the change would have made it harder to find older works in which the phylum was called "Bryozoa", and the desire to avoid ambiguity, if applied consistently to all classifications, would have necessitated renaming of several other phyla and many lower-level groups.<a href="#cite_note-BeattyBlackwelder1974-50">[50]</a> In practice, zoological naming of split or merged groups of animals is complex and not completely consistent.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Works since 2000 have used various names to resolve the ambiguity, including: "Bryozoa",<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a> "Ectoprocta",<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> "Bryozoa (Ectoprocta)",<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci-31">[31]</a> and "Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)".<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Some have used more than one approach in the same work.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The common name "moss animals" is the literal meaning of "Bryozoa", from Greek βρυόν ('moss') and ζῷα ('animals'), based on the mossy appearance of encrusting species.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Until 2008 there were "inadequately known and misunderstood type species belonging to the Cyclostome Bryozoan family Oncousoeciidae."<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Modern research and experiments have been done using low-vacuum scanning electron microscopy of uncoated type material to critically examine and perhaps revise the taxonomy of three genera belonging to this family, including Oncousoecia, Microeciella, and Eurystrotos. This method permits data to be obtained that would be difficult to recognize with an optical microscope. The valid type species of Oncousoecia was found to be Oncousoecia lobulata. This interpretation stabilizes Oncousoecia by establishing a type species that corresponds to the general usage of the genus. Fellow Oncousoeciid Eurystrotos is now believed to be not conspecific with O. lobulata, as previously suggested, but shows enough similarities to be considered a junior synonym of Oncousoecia. Microeciella suborbicularus has also been recently distinguished from O. lobulata and O. dilatans, using this modern method of low vacuum scanning, with which it has been inaccurately synonymized with in the past. A new genus has also been recently discovered called Junerossia in the family Stomachetosellidae, along with 10 relatively new species of bryozoa such as Alderina flaventa, Corbulella extenuata, Puellina septemcryptica, Junerossia copiosa, Calyptotheca kapaaensis, Bryopesanser serratus, Cribellopora souleorum, Metacleidochasma verrucosa, Disporella compta, and Favosipora adunca.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification_and_diversity">Classification and diversity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Classification and diversity">edit</a>]</div> Counts of formally described species range between 4,000 and 4,500.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The Gymnolaemata and especially Cheilostomata have the greatest numbers of species, possibly because of their wide range of specialist zooids.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy" title="Linnaean taxonomy">Linnaean system of classification</a>, which is still used as a convenient way to label groups of organisms,<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesCladistics-64">[64]</a> living members of the <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> Bryozoa are divided into:<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">Class</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">Phylactolaemata</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">Stenolaemata</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Gymnolaemata" title="Gymnolaemata">Gymnolaemata</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Order</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Plumatellida" class="mw-redirect" title="Plumatellida">Plumatellida</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cyclostomatida" title="Cyclostomatida">Cyclostomatida</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ctenostomatida" title="Ctenostomatida">Ctenostomatida</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Cheilostomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheilostomata">Cheilostomata</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Environments </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Freshwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater">Freshwater</a></td> <td>Marine</td> <td colspan="2">Mostly marine </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Lip-like epistome overhanging mouth </th> <td>Yes</td> <td colspan="3">none </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Colony shapes </th> <td>Gelatinous masses or tubular branching structures<a href="#cite_note-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity-66">[66]</a></td> <td colspan="2">Erect or encrusting<a href="#cite_note-FishFish1996StudentsGuide-67">[67]</a></td> <td>Erect, encrusting or free-living </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Exoskeleton material </th> <td>Gelatinous or membranous; unmineralized</td> <td>Mineralized</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">Chitin</a>, gelatinous or membranous; unmineralized</td> <td>Mineralized </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Operculum ("lid") </th> <td>none</td> <td>none<a href="#cite_note-FishFish1996StudentsGuide-67">[67]</a> (except in family <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eleidae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eleidae (page does not exist)">Eleidae</a>)<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></td> <td>None in most species</td> <td>Yes (except in genus <a href="/wiki/Bugula" title="Bugula">Bugula</a>) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Shape of lophophore </th> <td>U-shaped appearance<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>(except in <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> <a href="/wiki/Fredericella" title="Fredericella">Fredericella</a>, whose lophophore is circular)</td> <td colspan="3">Circular </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>How lophophore extended </th> <td>Compressing the whole body wall</td> <td>Compressing the membranous sac<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>(separate inner layer of <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelium</a> that lines the coelom)</td> <td>Compressing the whole body wall</td> <td>Pulling inwards of a flexible section of body wall, or making an internal sac expand. </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Types of zooid </th> <td>Autozooids only</td> <td>Limited heterozooids, mainly gonozooids<a href="#cite_note-HaywardRyland1985Cyclostome-69">[69]</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stolon" title="Stolon">Stolons</a> and spines as well as autozooids<a href="#cite_note-HaywardRyland1985Cyclostome-69">[69]</a></td> <td>Full range of types </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil_record">Fossil record</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Fossil record">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg/220px-OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg/330px-OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg/440px-OilShaleFossilsEstonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>Bryozoan fossils in an Upper <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> oil shale (<a href="/wiki/Kukersite" title="Kukersite">kukersite</a>), northern <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapsed;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#cccccc; font-size:100%;">Stereo image</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"><tbody><tr style="background-color:#cccccc;"><th style="text-align:center;">Left frame </th></tr><tr><td align="center"><div style="position:relative; width:225px; height:200px; padding:0; overflow:hidden;"><div style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"><a href="/wiki/File:Arhimedes3d.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/450px-Arhimedes3d.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/675px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/900px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1640" data-file-height="723" /></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table class="mw-collapsible" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"><tbody><tr style="background-color:#cccccc;"><th style="text-align:center;">Right frame </th></tr><tr><td align="center"><div style="position:relative; width:225px; height:200px; top:0; left:0; padding:0; overflow:hidden;"><div style="position:absolute; left:-225px; top:0;"><a href="/wiki/File:Arhimedes3d.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/450px-Arhimedes3d.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/675px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/900px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1640" data-file-height="723" /></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"><tbody><tr style="background-color:#cccccc;"><th style="text-align:center;">Parallel view (<a href="/wiki/Autostereogram" title="Autostereogram"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stereogram_guide_parallel.png/10px-Stereogram_guide_parallel.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stereogram_guide_parallel.png/15px-Stereogram_guide_parallel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Stereogram_guide_parallel.png/20px-Stereogram_guide_parallel.png 2x" data-file-width="222" data-file-height="233" /></a>)</th></tr><tr><td align="center"><div style="position:relative; width:450px; height:200px; padding:0; overflow:hidden;"><div style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"><a href="/wiki/File:Arhimedes3d.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/450px-Arhimedes3d.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/675px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/900px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1640" data-file-height="723" /></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><table class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"><tbody><tr style="background-color:#cccccc;"><th style="text-align:center;">Cross-eye view (<a href="/wiki/Autostereogram" title="Autostereogram"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png/10px-Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="9" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png/15px-Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png/20px-Stereogram_guide_cross-eyed.png 2x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="230" /></a>)</th></tr><tr><td align="center"><div style="position:relative; width:450px; height:200px; padding:0; overflow:hidden;"><div style="position:absolute; left:-225px; top:0;"><a href="/wiki/File:Arhimedes3d.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/450px-Arhimedes3d.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/675px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/900px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1640" data-file-height="723" /></a></div><div style="position:absolute; left:225px; top:0;"><a href="/wiki/File:Arhimedes3d.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/450px-Arhimedes3d.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/675px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Arhimedes3d.jpg/900px-Arhimedes3d.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1640" data-file-height="723" /></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below">Fossilized skeleton of <a href="/wiki/Archimedes_(bryozoan)" title="Archimedes (bryozoan)">Archimedes Bryozoan</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Fossils of about 15,000 bryozoan species have been found. Bryozoans are among the three dominant groups of Paleozoic fossils.<a href="#cite_note-Bryozoan_Evolution-70">[70]</a> Bryozoans with calcitic skeletons were a major source of the carbonate minerals that make up limestones, and their fossils are incredibly common in marine sediments worldwide from the Ordovician onward. However, unlike corals and other colonial animals found in the fossil record, Bryozoan colonies did not reach large sizes.<a href="#cite_note-Phylum_Bryozoa-71">[71]</a> Fossil bryozoan colonies are typically found highly fragmented and scattered; the preservation of complete zoaria is uncommon in the fossil record, and relatively little study has been devoted to reassembling fragmented zoaria.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The largest known fossil colonies are branching trepostome bryozoans from Ordovician rocks in the United States, reaching 66 centimeters in height.<a href="#cite_note-Phylum_Bryozoa-71">[71]</a> The oldest species with a <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">mineralized</a> skeleton occurs in the Lower <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor2013-1">[1]</a> It is likely that the first bryozoans appeared much earlier and were entirely soft-bodied, and the Ordovician fossils record the appearance of mineralized skeletons in this phylum.<a href="#cite_note-FuchsObstSundberg2009ComprMolPhyloOfBryozoa-5">[5]</a> By the <a href="/wiki/Arenigian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arenigian">Arenigian</a> stage of the Early Ordovician <a href="/wiki/Period_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Period (geology)">period</a>,<a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> about <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=480">480</a> million years ago, all the modern <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">orders</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">stenolaemates</a> were present,<a href="#cite_note-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing-74">[74]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ctenostomatida" title="Ctenostomatida">ctenostome</a> order of <a href="/wiki/Gymnolaemata" title="Gymnolaemata">gymnolaemates</a> had appeared by the Middle Ordovician, about <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=465">465</a> million years ago. The Early Ordovician fossils may also represent forms that had already become significantly different from the original members of the phylum.<a href="#cite_note-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing-74">[74]</a> Ctenostomes with phosphatized soft tissue are known from the Devonian.<a href="#cite_note-Olempska2012-75">[75]</a> Other types of <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter feeders</a> appeared around the same time, which suggests that some change made the environment more favorable for this lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a> Fossils of <a href="/wiki/Cheilostomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheilostomata">cheilostomates</a>, an order of gymnolaemates with mineralized skeletons, first appear in the Mid <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>, about <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=172">172</a> million years ago, and these have been the most abundant and diverse bryozoans from the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> to the present.<a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a> Evidence compiled from the last 100 million years show that cheilostomatids consistently grew over cyclostomatids in territorial struggles, which may help to explain how cheilostomatids replaced cyclostomatids as the dominant marine bryozoans.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Marine fossils from the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> era, which ended <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=251">251</a> million years ago, are mainly of erect forms, those from the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> are fairly equally divided by erect and encrusting forms, and more recent ones are predominantly encrusting.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Fossils of the soft, freshwater <a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">phylactolaemates</a> are very rare,<a href="#cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">[21]</a> appear in and after the Late Permian (which began about <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=260">260</a> million years ago) and consist entirely of their durable statoblasts.<a href="#cite_note-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity-66">[66]</a> There are no known fossils of freshwater members of other classes.<a href="#cite_note-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_family_tree">Evolutionary family tree</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Evolutionary family tree">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OrdovicianEdrio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/OrdovicianEdrio.jpg/220px-OrdovicianEdrio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/OrdovicianEdrio.jpg/330px-OrdovicianEdrio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/OrdovicianEdrio.jpg/440px-OrdovicianEdrio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>An Upper <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> cobble with the <a href="/wiki/Edrioasteroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Edrioasteroid">edrioasteroid</a> Cystaster stellatus and the thin branching cyclostome bryozoan Corynotrypa. Kope Formation, northern Kentucky, United States.</figcaption></figure> Scientists are divided about whether the Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) are a <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> group (whether they include all and only a single ancestor species and all its descendants), about what are the phylum's closest relatives in the family tree of animals, and even about whether they should be regarded as members of the <a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">protostomes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a>, the two major groups that account for all moderately complex animals. Molecular phylogeny, which attempts to work out the evolutionary family tree of organisms by comparing their <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> and especially their <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, has done much to clarify the relationships between the better-known <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrate</a> phyla.<a href="#cite_note-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny-54">[54]</a> However, the shortage of genetic data about "minor phyla" such as bryozoans and <a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">entoprocts</a> has left their relationships to other groups unclear.<a href="#cite_note-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Traditional_view">Traditional view</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Traditional view">edit</a>]</div> The traditional view is that the Bryozoa are a monophyletic group, in which the class <a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">Phylactolaemata</a> is most closely related to <a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">Stenolaemata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ctenostomatida" title="Ctenostomatida">Ctenostomatida</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">classes</a> that appear earliest in the fossil record.<a href="#cite_note-WoodLore2005PhylactolaemateMolPhylo-78">[78]</a> However, in 2005 a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular phylogeny">molecular phylogeny</a> study that focused on phylactolaemates concluded that these are more closely related to the phylum <a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronida</a>, and especially to the only phoronid species that is colonial, than they are to the other ectoproct classes. That implies that the Entoprocta are not monophyletic, as the Phoronida are a sub-group of ectoprocts but the standard definition of Entoprocta excludes the Phoronida.<a href="#cite_note-WoodLore2005PhylactolaemateMolPhylo-78">[78]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ropalonaria_large_010213.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ropalonaria_large_010213.jpg/220px-Ropalonaria_large_010213.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ropalonaria_large_010213.jpg/330px-Ropalonaria_large_010213.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ropalonaria_large_010213.jpg/440px-Ropalonaria_large_010213.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1764" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Ropalonaria venosa, an etching <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">trace fossil</a> of a Late Ordovician ctenostome bryozoan on a strophomenid <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopod</a> valve; Cincinnatian of southeastern Indiana, United States.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></figcaption></figure> In 2009 another <a href="/wiki/Molecular_phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular phylogeny">molecular phylogeny</a> study, using a combination of genes from <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a>, concluded that Bryozoa is a <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> phylum, in other words includes all the descendants of a common ancestor that is itself a bryozoan. The analysis also concluded that the <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">classes</a> Phylactolaemata, <a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">Stenolaemata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gymnolaemata" title="Gymnolaemata">Gymnolaemata</a> are also monophyletic, but could not determine whether <a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">Stenolaemata</a> are more closely related to <a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">Phylactolaemata</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gymnolaemata" title="Gymnolaemata">Gymnolaemata</a>. The Gymnolaemata are traditionally divided into the soft-bodied <a href="/wiki/Ctenostomatida" title="Ctenostomatida">Ctenostomatida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">mineralized</a> Cheilostomata, but the 2009 analysis considered it more likely that neither of these <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">orders</a> is monophyletic and that mineralized <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeletons</a> probably evolved more than once within the early Gymnolaemata.<a href="#cite_note-FuchsObstSundberg2009ComprMolPhyloOfBryozoa-5">[5]</a> Bryozoans' relationships with other phyla are uncertain and controversial. Traditional phylogeny, based on <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> and on the development of the adult forms from <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryos</a>, has produced no enduring consensus about the position of ectoprocts.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">[24]</a> Attempts to reconstruct the family tree of animals have largely ignored ectoprocts and other "minor phyla", which have received little scientific study because they are generally tiny, have relatively simple body plans, and have little impact on human economies – despite the fact that the "minor phyla" include most of the variety in the evolutionary history of animals.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In the opinion of Ruth Dewel, Judith Winston, and Frank McKinney, "Our standard interpretation of bryozoan <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a> is a construct resulting from over 100 years of attempts to synthesize a single framework for all invertebrates," and takes little account of some peculiar features of ectoprocts.<a href="#cite_note-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing-74">[74]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phaenopora_superba_Silurian_Brassfield.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Phaenopora_superba_Silurian_Brassfield.jpeg/220px-Phaenopora_superba_Silurian_Brassfield.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Phaenopora_superba_Silurian_Brassfield.jpeg/330px-Phaenopora_superba_Silurian_Brassfield.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Phaenopora_superba_Silurian_Brassfield.jpeg/440px-Phaenopora_superba_Silurian_Brassfield.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2792" data-file-height="1824" /></a><figcaption>Phaenopora superba, a ptilodictyine bryozoan from the Silurian of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, United States</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sucoretepora.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sucoretepora.jpg/220px-Sucoretepora.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sucoretepora.jpg/330px-Sucoretepora.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sucoretepora.jpg/440px-Sucoretepora.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5186" data-file-height="3702" /></a><figcaption>The flat, branching bryozoan Sulcoretepora, from the Middle Devonian of <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a>, United States</figcaption></figure> In ectoprocts, all of the larva's internal organs are destroyed during the metamorphosis to the adult form and the adult's organs are built from the larva's <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesoderm" title="Mesoderm">mesoderm</a>, while in other <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterians</a> some organs including the gut are built from <a href="/wiki/Endoderm" title="Endoderm">endoderm</a>. In most bilaterian embryos the blastopore, a dent in the outer wall, deepens to become the larva's gut, but in ectoprocts the blastopore disappears and a new dent becomes the point from which the gut grows. The ectoproct coelom is formed by neither of the processes used by other bilaterians, <a href="/wiki/Enterocoely" title="Enterocoely">enterocoely</a>, in which pouches that form on the wall of the gut become separate cavities, nor <a href="/wiki/Schizocoely" title="Schizocoely">schizocoely</a>, in which the tissue between the gut and the body wall splits, forming paired cavities.<a href="#cite_note-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Entoprocts">Entoprocts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Entoprocts">edit</a>]</div> When entoprocts were discovered in the 19th century, they and bryozoans (ectoprocts) were regarded as classes within the phylum Bryozoa, because both groups were <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> animals that <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter-fed</a> by means of a crown of tentacles that bore <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a>. From 1869 onwards increasing awareness of differences, including the position of the entoproct <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a> inside the feeding structure and the difference in the early <a href="/wiki/Cleavage_(embryo)" title="Cleavage (embryo)">pattern of division</a> of cells in their <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryos</a>, caused scientists to regard the two groups as separate phyla,<a href="#cite_note-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics-55">[55]</a> and "Bryozoa" became just an alternative name for ectoprocts, in which the anus is outside the feeding organ.<a href="#cite_note-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny-54">[54]</a> A series of molecular phylogeny studies from 1996 to 2006 have also concluded that bryozoans (ectoprocts) and entoprocts are not sister groups.<a href="#cite_note-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics-55">[55]</a> However, two well-known zoologists, Claus Nielsen and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cavalier-Smith" title="Thomas Cavalier-Smith">Thomas Cavalier-Smith</a>, maintain on anatomical and developmental grounds that bryozoans and entoprocts are member of the same phylum, Bryozoa. A molecular phylogeny study in 2007 also supported this old idea, while its conclusions about other phyla agreed with those of several other analyses.<a href="#cite_note-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grouping_into_the_Lophophorata">Grouping into the Lophophorata</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Grouping into the Lophophorata">edit</a>]</div> By 1891 bryozoans (ectoprocts) were grouped with <a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">phoronids</a> in a super-phylum called "Tentaculata". In the 1970s comparisons between phoronid larvae and the <a href="/wiki/Cyphonautes" title="Cyphonautes">cyphonautes</a> larva of some gymnolaete bryozoans produced suggestions that the bryozoans, most of which are colonial, evolved from a semi-colonial species of phoronid.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2001AnimalEvoPhylumEctoprocta-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">Brachiopods</a> were also assigned to the "Tentaculata", which were renamed <a href="/wiki/Lophophorata" title="Lophophorata">Lophophorata</a> as they all use a <a href="/wiki/Lophophore" title="Lophophore">lophophore</a> for filter feeding.<a href="#cite_note-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny-54">[54]</a> The majority of scientists accept this,<a href="#cite_note-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny-54">[54]</a> but Claus Nielsen thinks these similarities are superficial.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">[24]</a> The Lophophorata are usually defined as animals with a lophophore, a three-part coelom and a U-shaped gut.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2001AnimalEvoPhylumEctoprocta-81">[81]</a> In Nielsen's opinion, phoronids' and brachiopods' lophophores are more like those of <a href="/wiki/Pterobranch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterobranch">pterobranchs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">[24]</a> which are members of the phylum <a href="/wiki/Hemichordata" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemichordata">Hemichordata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Bryozoan's tentacles bear cells with multiple <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a>, while the corresponding cells of phoronids', brachiopods' and pterobranchs' lophophores have one cilium per cell; and bryozoan tentacles have no hemal canal ("blood vessel"), which those of the other three phyla have.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">[24]</a> If the grouping of bryozoans with phoronids and brachiopods into Lophophorata is correct, the next issue is whether the Lophophorata are <a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">protostomes</a>, along with most invertebrate phyla, or <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">hemichordates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>. The traditional view was that lophophorates were a mix of protostome and deuterostome features. Research from the 1970s onwards suggested they were deuterostomes, because of some features that were thought characteristic of deuterostomes: a three-part coelom; radial rather than spiral cleavage in the development of the embryo;<a href="#cite_note-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny-54">[54]</a> and formation of the coelom by <a href="/wiki/Enterocoely" title="Enterocoely">enterocoely</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">[24]</a> However the coelom of ectoproct larvae shows no sign of division into three sections,<a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2001AnimalEvoPhylumEctoprocta-81">[81]</a> and that of adult ectoprocts is different from that of other <a href="/wiki/Coelomate" class="mw-redirect" title="Coelomate">coelomate</a> phyla as it is built anew from epidermis and mesoderm after metamorphosis has destroyed the larval coelom.<a href="#cite_note-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lophophorate_molecular_phylogenetics">Lophophorate molecular phylogenetics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lophophorate molecular phylogenetics">edit</a>]</div> Molecular phylogeny analyses from 1995 onwards, using a variety of biochemical evidence and analytical techniques, placed the lophophorates as protostomes and closely related to <a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a> in a super-phylum called <a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophotrochozoa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-HelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008PhylogenOfLophophorates-83">[83]</a> "Total evidence" analyses, which used both morphological features and a relatively small set of genes, came to various conclusions, mostly favoring a close relationship between lophophorates and Lophotrochozoa.<a href="#cite_note-HelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008PhylogenOfLophophorates-83">[83]</a> A study in 2008, using a larger set of genes, concluded that the lophophorates were closer to the Lophotrochozoa than to deuterostomes, but also that the lophophorates were not monophyletic. Instead, it concluded that brachiopods and phoronids formed a monophyletic group, but bryozoans (ectoprocts) were closest to entoprocts, supporting the original definition of "Bryozoa".<a href="#cite_note-HelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008PhylogenOfLophophorates-83">[83]</a> They are the only major phylum of exclusively clonal animals, composed of modular units known as zooids. Because they thrive in colonies, colonial growth allows them to develop unrestricted variations in form. Despite this, only a small number of basic growth forms have been found and have commonly reappeared throughout the history of the bryozoa.<a href="#cite_note-Bryozoan_Evolution-70">[70]</a> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1261294616">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto;display:table}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf p{padding-right:5px;padding-left:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophotrochozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a> <a href="/wiki/File:CYC-000044_hab_Symbion_Z5v2v5N.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/CYC-000044_hab_Symbion_Z5v2v5N.png/70px-CYC-000044_hab_Symbion_Z5v2v5N.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/CYC-000044_hab_Symbion_Z5v2v5N.png/105px-CYC-000044_hab_Symbion_Z5v2v5N.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/CYC-000044_hab_Symbion_Z5v2v5N.png/140px-CYC-000044_hab_Symbion_Z5v2v5N.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Annelida" class="mw-redirect" title="Annelida">Annelida</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Polychaeta_(no)_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg/70px-Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg/105px-Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg/140px-Polychaeta_%28no%29_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1727" data-file-height="1110" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Grapevinesnail_01a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Grapevinesnail_01a.jpg/65px-Grapevinesnail_01a.jpg" decoding="async" width="65" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Grapevinesnail_01a.jpg/98px-Grapevinesnail_01a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Grapevinesnail_01a.jpg/130px-Grapevinesnail_01a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="901" data-file-height="515" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Lophophorata" title="Lophophorata">Lophophorata</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Brachiozoa" title="Brachiozoa">Brachiozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a> <a href="/wiki/File:LingulaanatinaAA_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/LingulaanatinaAA_%28cropped%29.JPG/60px-LingulaanatinaAA_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="60" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/LingulaanatinaAA_%28cropped%29.JPG/90px-LingulaanatinaAA_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/LingulaanatinaAA_%28cropped%29.JPG/120px-LingulaanatinaAA_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2140" data-file-height="609" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Phoronida" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoronida">Phoronida</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Phoronopsis_harmeri_IZ_1643662.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Phoronopsis_harmeri_IZ_1643662.png/70px-Phoronopsis_harmeri_IZ_1643662.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Phoronopsis_harmeri_IZ_1643662.png/105px-Phoronopsis_harmeri_IZ_1643662.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Phoronopsis_harmeri_IZ_1643662.png/140px-Phoronopsis_harmeri_IZ_1643662.png 2x" data-file-width="3404" data-file-height="1819" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">Bryozoa <a href="/wiki/Sensu_lato" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu lato">s.l.</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Barentsia_laxa_1498941_(no_background).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Barentsia_laxa_1498941_%28no_background%29.png/80px-Barentsia_laxa_1498941_%28no_background%29.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Barentsia_laxa_1498941_%28no_background%29.png/120px-Barentsia_laxa_1498941_%28no_background%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Barentsia_laxa_1498941_%28no_background%29.png/160px-Barentsia_laxa_1498941_%28no_background%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1366" data-file-height="643" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Ectoprocta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ectoprocta">Ectoprocta</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Bugulina_flabellata_272067784.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bugulina_flabellata_272067784.png/70px-Bugulina_flabellata_272067784.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bugulina_flabellata_272067784.png/105px-Bugulina_flabellata_272067784.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Bugulina_flabellata_272067784.png/140px-Bugulina_flabellata_272067784.png 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ectoproct_molecular_phylogenetics">Ectoproct molecular phylogenetics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ectoproct molecular phylogenetics">edit</a>]</div> The phylogenetic position of the ectoproct bryozoans remains uncertain, but it remains certain that they belong to the Protostomia and more specifically to the Lophotrochozoa. This implies that the ectoproct larva is a trochophore with the corona being a homologue of the prototroch; this is supported from the similarity between the coronate larvae and the Type 1 pericalymma larvae of some molluscs and sipunculans, where the prototroch zone is expanded to cover the hyposphere.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> A study of the mitochondrial DNA sequence suggests that the Bryozoa may be related to the <a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shen2012-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiology">Physiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Physiology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feeding_and_excretion">Feeding and excretion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Feeding and excretion">edit</a>]</div> Most species are <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter feeders</a> that sieve small particles, mainly <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> (microscopic floating plants), out of the water.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> The freshwater species <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plumatella_emarginata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plumatella emarginata (page does not exist)">Plumatella emarginata</a> feeds on <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, non-<a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> bacteria, <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">rotifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>, small <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a>, and microscopic <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CallaghanKarlson2002SummerDormancy-86">[86]</a> While the currents that bryozoans generate to draw food towards the mouth are well understood, the exact method of capture is still debated. All species also flick larger particles towards the mouth with a tentacle, and a few capture <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a> (planktonic animals) by using their tentacles as cages. In addition the tentacles, whose surface area is increased by <a href="/wiki/Microvilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Microvilli">microvilli</a> (small hairs and pleats), absorb <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> dissolved in the water.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Unwanted particles may be flicked away by tentacles or shut out by closing the mouth.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> A study in 2008 showed that both encrusting and erect colonies fed more quickly and grew faster in gentle than in strong currents.<a href="#cite_note-Pratt2008WhereFlowRight-87">[87]</a> In some species the first part of the stomach forms a muscular <a href="/wiki/Gizzard" title="Gizzard">gizzard</a> lined with <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitinous</a> teeth that crush armored prey such as <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>. Wave-like <a href="/wiki/Peristalsis" title="Peristalsis">peristaltic</a> contractions move the food through the stomach for digestion. The final section of the stomach is lined with <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the <a href="/wiki/Intestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestine">intestine</a> and out through the <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> There are no <a href="/wiki/Nephridia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephridia">nephridia</a> ("little kidneys") or other <a href="/wiki/Excretory_system" title="Excretory system">excretory</a> organs in bryozoa,<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> and it is thought that <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecular_diffusion" title="Molecular diffusion">diffuses</a> out through the body wall and lophophore.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the <a href="/wiki/Polypide" title="Polypide">polypide</a>, which degenerates after a few weeks. Some of the old polypide is recycled, but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes, and this is compressed into a "brown body". When the degeneration is complete, the cystid (outer part of the animal) produces a new polypide, and the brown body remains in the <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a>, or in the stomach of the new polypide and is expelled next time the animal <a href="/wiki/Defecate" class="mw-redirect" title="Defecate">defecates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Respiration_and_circulation">Respiration and circulation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Respiration and circulation">edit</a>]</div> There are no respiratory organs, <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> or <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>. Instead, zooids absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide through diffusion. Bryozoa accomplish diffusion through the use of either a thin membrane (in the case of <a href="/wiki/Anasca" title="Anasca">anascans</a> and some polyzoa) or through pseudopores located on the outer dermis of the zooid.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The different bryozoan groups use various methods to share nutrients and oxygen between zooids: some have quite large gaps in the body walls, allowing the <a href="/wiki/Coelom#Coelomic_fluid" title="Coelom">coelomic fluid</a> to circulate freely; in others, the funiculi (internal "little ropes")<a href="#cite_note-RanHouDictFuniculus-34">[34]</a> of adjacent zooids connect via small pores in the body wall.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reproduction_and_life_cycles">Reproduction and life cycles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Reproduction and life cycles">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ThecideanZalas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/ThecideanZalas.jpg/220px-ThecideanZalas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/ThecideanZalas.jpg/330px-ThecideanZalas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/ThecideanZalas.jpg/440px-ThecideanZalas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Encrusting cyclostome bryozoans (B), the one on the right showing swollen gonozooids; T = <a href="/wiki/Thecideida" title="Thecideida">thecideide</a> brachiopod and S = <a href="/wiki/Sabellida" title="Sabellida">sabellid</a> worm tube; <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> of <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>.</figcaption></figure> Zooids of all phylactolaemate species are simultaneous <a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodites</a>. Although those of many marine species are protandric, in other words function first as males and then as females, their colonies contain a combination of zooids that are in their male and female stages. In all species the <a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">ovaries</a> develop on the inside of the body wall, and the <a href="/wiki/Testes" class="mw-redirect" title="Testes">testes</a> on the funiculus connecting the stomach to the body wall.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Eggs and sperm are released into the coelom, and sperm exit into the water through pores in the tips of some of the tentacles, and then are captured by the feeding currents of zooids that are producing eggs.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Some species' eggs are fertilized externally after being released through a pore between two tentacles, which in some cases is at the tip of a small projection called the "intertentacular organ" in the base of a pair of tentacles. Others' are fertilized internally, in the intertentacular organ or in the coelom.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> All phylactolaemates and stenolaemates, and most gymnolaemates, exhibit placentation, and has therefore lecithotrophic (non-feeding) larvae. Except for Cyclostomata and the small gymnolaemate family Epistomiidae, which are viviparous, all are brooders. Phylactolaemata brood their embryos in an internal brood sac, but Gymnolaemata both external membranous sacs, skeletal chambers (ovicells) and internal brooding sacs exist.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The developing embryo relies on egg's yolk, extraembryonic nutrition (matrotrophy) or both.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> In ctenostomes the mother provides a brood chamber for the fertilized eggs, and her polypide disintegrates, providing nourishment to the <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a>. Stenolaemates produce specialized zooids to serve as brood chambers, and their eggs divide within this to produce up to 100 identical embryos.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Planktotrophic (feeding) larvae are only found in class Gymnolaemata: In the cheilostomatan suborder Malacostegina they are found in the two families Membraniporidae and Electridae, and in the three ctenostome families Alcyonidiidae, Farrellidae, and Hislopiidae. In addition there are a few unconfirmed records, like the solitary form Aethozoid where larvae has never been observed, but which is assumed to have planktotrophic larvae.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cleavage_(embryo)" title="Cleavage (embryo)">cleavage</a> of bryozoan eggs is biradial, in other words the early stages are bilaterally symmetrical. It is unknown how the coelom forms, since the <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphosis</a> from <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larva</a> to adult destroys all of the larva's internal tissues. In many animals the <a href="/wiki/Blastopore" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastopore">blastopore</a>, an opening in the surface of the early embryo, tunnels through to form the gut. However, in bryozoans the blastopore closes, and a new opening develops to create the mouth.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Bryozoan larvae vary in form, but all have a band of cilia round the body which enables them to swim, a tuft of cilia at the top, and an adhesive sac that everts and anchors them when they settle on a surface.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Some gymnolaemate species produce cyphonautes larvae which have little yolk but a well-developed mouth and gut, and live as <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> for a considerable time before settling. These larvae have triangular shells of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>, with one corner at the top and the base open, forming a hood round the downward-facing mouth.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> In 2006 it was reported that the cilia of cyphonautes larvae use the same range of techniques as those of adults to capture food.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Species that brood their embryos form larvae that are nourished by large <a href="/wiki/Yolk" title="Yolk">yolks</a>, have no gut and do not feed, and such larvae quickly settle on a surface.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> In all marine species the larvae produce cocoons in which they <a href="/wiki/Metamorphosis" title="Metamorphosis">metamorphose</a> completely after settling: the larva's <a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidermis (skin)">epidermis</a> becomes the lining of the <a href="/wiki/Coelom" title="Coelom">coelom</a>, and the internal tissues are converted to a food reserve that nourishes the developing zooid until it is ready to feed.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> The larvae of phylactolaemates produce multiple polypides, so that each new colony starts with several zooids.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> In all species the founder zooids then grow the new colonies by <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a> clones of themselves. In phylactolaemates, zooids die after producing several <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clones</a>, so that living zooids are found only round the edges of a colony.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Phylactolaemates can also reproduce asexually by a method that enables a colony's lineage to survive the variable and uncertain conditions of freshwater environments.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Throughout summer and autumn they produce disc-shaped statoblasts, masses of cells that function as "survival pods" rather like the <a href="/wiki/Sponge#Asexual" title="Sponge">gemmules of sponges</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Statoblasts form on the funiculus connected to the parent's gut, which nourishes them.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> As they grow, statoblasts develop protective <a href="/wiki/Bivalve_shell" title="Bivalve shell">bivalve-like</a> shells made of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>. When they mature, some statoblasts stick to the parent colony, some fall to the bottom ("sessoblasts"), some contain air spaces that enable them to float ("floatoblasts"),<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> and some remain in the parent's cystid to re-build the colony if it dies.<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> Statoblasts can remain dormant for considerable periods, and while dormant can survive harsh conditions such as freezing and <a href="/wiki/Desiccation" title="Desiccation">desiccation</a>. They can be transported across long distances by animals, floating vegetation, currents<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> and winds,<a href="#cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">[28]</a> and even in the guts of larger animals.<a href="#cite_note-WoodOkamura1999Asajirella-96">[96]</a> When conditions improve, the valves of the shell separate and the cells inside develop into a zooid that tries to form a new colony. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plumatella_emarginata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plumatella emarginata (page does not exist)">Plumatella emarginata</a> produces both "sessoblasts", which enable the lineage to control a good territory even if hard times decimate the parent colonies, and "floatoblasts", which spread to new sites. New colonies of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plumatella_repens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plumatella repens (page does not exist)">Plumatella repens</a> produce mainly "sessoblasts" while mature ones switch to "floatoblasts".<a href="#cite_note-CallaghanKarlson2002SummerDormancy-86">[86]</a> A study estimated that one group of colonies in a patch measuring 1 square meter (11 sq ft) produced 800,000 statoblasts.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> Cupuladriid Bryozoa are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction. The sexually reproducing colonies (aclonal) are the result of a larval cupuladriid growing into an adult stage whereas the asexual colonies(clonal) are a result of a fragment of a colony of cupuladriids growing into its own colony. The different forms of reproduction in cupuladriids are achieved through a variety of methods depending on the morphology and classification of the zooid.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ecology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Habitats_and_distribution">Habitats and distribution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Habitats and distribution">edit</a>]</div> Most marine species live in tropical waters at depths less than 100 meters (330 ft; 55 fathoms). However, a few have been found in deep-sea <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">trenches</a>,<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> especially around <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a>, and others near the <a href="/wiki/Geographical_pole" title="Geographical pole">poles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jones2006AppliedPaleo-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The great majority of bryozoans are <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a>. Typically, sessile bryozoans live on hard substrates including rocks, sand or shells.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Boring bryozoans leave unique borehole traces after dissolving <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> substrates.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Encrusting forms are much the commonest of these in shallow seas, but erect forms become more common as the depth increases.<a href="#cite_note-Jones2006AppliedPaleo-99">[99]</a> An example of incrustation on pebbles and cobbles is found in the diverse Pleistocene bryozoans found in northern Japan, where fossils have been found of single stones covered with more than 20 bryozoan species.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020159-103">[103]</a> Sediments with smaller particles, like sand or silt, are usually unsuitable habitat for bryozoans, but tiny colonies have been found encrusting grains of coarse sand. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020164-104">[104]</a> Some bryozoan species specialize in colonizing marine algae, seagrasses, and even mangrove roots; the genus Amphibiobeania lives on the leaves of mangrove trees and is called "amphibious" because it can survive regular exposure to air at low tide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020162–163-105">[105]</a> There are a variety of "free-living" bryozoans that live un-attached to a substrate. A few forms such as <a href="/wiki/Cristatella" title="Cristatella">Cristatella</a> can move. Lunulitiform cheilostomes are one group of free-living bryozoans with mobile colonies. They form small round colonies un-attached to any substrate; colonies of the genus Selenaria have been observed to "walk" around using setae.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020112–113-106">[106]</a> Another cheilostome family, the Cupuladriidae, convergently evolved similarly shaped colonies capable of movement. When observed in an aquarium, Selenaria maculata colonies were recorded to crawl at a speed of one meter per hour, climb over each other, move toward light, and right themselves when turned upside-down.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202079-107">[107]</a> Later study of this genus showed that neuroelectrical activity in the colonies increased in correlation with movement toward light sources. It is theorized that the capacity for movement arose as a side effect when colonies evolved longer setae for unburying themselves from sediment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202079-107">[107]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alcyonidium_(Charleston,_South_Carolina,_1851).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Watercolor of alcyonidium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Alcyonidium_%28Charleston%2C_South_Carolina%2C_1851%29.jpg/220px-Alcyonidium_%28Charleston%2C_South_Carolina%2C_1851%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Alcyonidium_%28Charleston%2C_South_Carolina%2C_1851%29.jpg/330px-Alcyonidium_%28Charleston%2C_South_Carolina%2C_1851%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Alcyonidium_%28Charleston%2C_South_Carolina%2C_1851%29.jpg/440px-Alcyonidium_%28Charleston%2C_South_Carolina%2C_1851%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1843" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>1851 watercolor of Alcyonidium by Jacques Burkhardt.</figcaption></figure> Other free-living bryozoans are moved freely by waves, currents, or other phenomena. An <a href="/wiki/Antarctic" title="Antarctic">Antarctic</a> species, Alcyonidium pelagosphaera, consists of floating colonies. The pelagic species is between 5.0 and 23.0 mm (0.20 and 0.91 in) in diameter, has the shape of a hollow sphere and consists of a single layer of autozooids. It is still not known if these colonies are pelagic their whole life or only represents a temporarily and previously undescribed juvenile stage.<a href="#cite_note-Jones2006AppliedPaleo-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Colonies of the species Alcyonidium disciforme, which is disc-shaped and similarly free-living, inhabit muddy seabeds in the Arctic and can sequester sand grains they have engulfed, potentially using the sand as ballast to turn themselves right-side-up after they have been overturned. Some bryozoan species can form bryoliths, sphere-shaped free-living colonies that grow outward in all directions as they roll about on the seabed. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020114-109">[109]</a> In 2014 it was reported that the bryozoan <a href="/wiki/Fenestrulina_rugula" title="Fenestrulina rugula">Fenestrulina rugula</a> had become a dominant species in parts of Antarctica. <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">Global warming</a> has increased the rate of scouring by <a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">icebergs</a>, and this species is particularly adept at recolonizing scoured areas.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The phylactolaemates live in all types of freshwater environment – lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, and estuaries<a href="#cite_note-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity-66">[66]</a> – and are among the most abundant sessile freshwater animals.<a href="#cite_note-WoodLore2005PhylactolaemateMolPhylo-78">[78]</a> Some ctenostomes are exclusively freshwater while others prefer brackish water but can survive in freshwater.<a href="#cite_note-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity-66">[66]</a> Scientists' knowledge of freshwater bryozoan populations in many parts of the world is incomplete, even in some parts of Europe. It was long thought that some freshwater species occurred worldwide, but since 2002 all of these have been split into more localized species.<a href="#cite_note-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity-66">[66]</a> Bryozoans grow in <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clonal</a> colonies. A larval Bryozoan settles on a hard substance and produces a colony asexually through budding. These colonies can grow thousands of individual zooids in a relatively short period of time. Even though colonies of zooids grow through asexual reproduction, Bryozoans are hermaphrodites and new colonies can be formed through sexual reproduction and the generation of free swimming larvae. When colonies grow too large, however, they can split in two. This is the only case where asexual reproduction results in a new colony separate from its predecessor. Most colonies are stationary. Indeed, these colonies tend to be settled on immobile substances such as sediment and coarse substances. There are some colonies of freshwater species such as <a href="/wiki/Cristatella" title="Cristatella">Cristatella mucedo</a> that are able to move slowly on a creeping foot.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interactions_with_non-human_organisms">Interactions with non-human organisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Interactions with non-human organisms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Membranipora_membranacea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Membranipora_membranacea.jpg/220px-Membranipora_membranacea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Membranipora_membranacea.jpg/330px-Membranipora_membranacea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Membranipora_membranacea.jpg/440px-Membranipora_membranacea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="314" /></a><figcaption>Lacelike <a href="/wiki/Membranipora_membranacea" title="Membranipora membranacea">Membranipora membranacea</a></figcaption></figure> Marine species are common on <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>, but seldom a significant proportion of the total <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>. In temperate waters, the skeletons of dead colonies form a significant component of shell gravels, and live ones are abundant in these areas.<a href="#cite_note-MargulisSchwartz1998FiveKingdomsBryozoa-112">[112]</a> The marine lace-like bryozoan <a href="/wiki/Membranipora_membranacea" title="Membranipora membranacea">Membranipora membranacea</a> produces spines in response to predation by several species of <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">sea slugs</a> (nudibranchs).<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Other predators on marine bryozoans include fish, <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pycnogonid" class="mw-redirect" title="Pycnogonid">pycnogonids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mite" title="Mite">mites</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In general marine <a href="/wiki/Echinoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoderms">echinoderms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molluscs" class="mw-redirect" title="Molluscs">molluscs</a> eat masses of zooids by gouging pieces of colonies, breaking their mineralized "houses", while most <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a> predators on bryozoans eat individual zooids.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> In freshwater, bryozoans are among the most important <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter feeders</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Freshwater bryozoans are attacked by many predators, including snails, insects, and fish.<a href="#cite_note-CallaghanKarlson2002SummerDormancy-86">[86]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> the <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introduced species</a> <a href="/wiki/Pomacea_canaliculata" title="Pomacea canaliculata">Pomacea canaliculata</a> (golden apple snail), which is generally a destructive <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivore</a>, has wiped out phylactolaemate populations wherever it has appeared. P. canaliculata also preys on a common freshwater gymnolaemate, but with less devastating effect. Indigenous snails do not feed on bryozoans.<a href="#cite_note-predation_golden-14">[14]</a> Several species of the <a href="/wiki/Hydroid_(zoology)" title="Hydroid (zoology)">hydroid</a> family <a href="/wiki/Zancleidae" title="Zancleidae">Zancleidae</a> have symbiotic relationships with bryozoans, some of which are beneficial to the hydroids while others are <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasitic</a>. Modifications appear in the shapes of some these hydroids, for example smaller tentacles or encrustation of the roots by bryozoans.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The bryozoan <a href="/wiki/Alcyonidium_nodosum" title="Alcyonidium nodosum">Alcyonidium nodosum</a> protects the <a href="/wiki/Whelk" title="Whelk">whelk</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnupena_papyracea" title="Burnupena papyracea">Burnupena papyracea</a> against predation by the powerful and voracious <a href="/wiki/Rock_lobster" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock lobster">rock lobster</a> <a href="/wiki/Jasus_lalandii" title="Jasus lalandii">Jasus lalandii</a>. While whelk shells encrusted by the bryozoans are stronger than those without this reinforcement, chemical defenses produced by the bryozoans are probably the more significant deterrent.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bryolith_(Banc_d%27Arguin,_Mauritania).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bryolith_%28Banc_d%27Arguin%2C_Mauritania%29.jpg/220px-Bryolith_%28Banc_d%27Arguin%2C_Mauritania%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bryolith_%28Banc_d%27Arguin%2C_Mauritania%29.jpg/330px-Bryolith_%28Banc_d%27Arguin%2C_Mauritania%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Bryolith_%28Banc_d%27Arguin%2C_Mauritania%29.jpg/440px-Bryolith_%28Banc_d%27Arguin%2C_Mauritania%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1979" data-file-height="1981" /></a><figcaption>Mauritanian bryolith formed by circumrotatory growth of the bryozoan species <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthodesia_commensale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acanthodesia commensale (page does not exist)">Acanthodesia commensale</a></figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Banc_d%27Arguin" class="mw-redirect" title="Banc d'Arguin">Banc d'Arguin</a> offshore <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> the species <a href="/w/index.php?title=Acanthodesia_commensale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acanthodesia commensale (page does not exist)">Acanthodesia commensale</a>, which is generally growing attached to gravel and hard-substrate, has formed a <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">facultative symbiotic relationship</a> with <a href="/wiki/Hermit_crabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermit crabs">hermit crabs</a> of the species Pseudopagurus cf. granulimanus resulting in egg-size structures known as bryoliths.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Nucleating on an empty gastropod shell, the bryozoan colonies form multilamellar skeletal crusts that produce spherical encrustations and extend the living chamber of the hermit crab through helicospiral tubular growth. Some phylactolaemate species are intermediate hosts for a group of <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">myxozoa</a> that have also been found to cause <a href="/wiki/Proliferative_kidney_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Proliferative kidney disease">proliferative kidney disease</a>, which is often fatal in <a href="/wiki/Salmonid" class="mw-redirect" title="Salmonid">salmonid</a> fish,<a href="#cite_note-AndersonCanningOkamura2004BryozoanHostsForPKX-121">[121]</a> and has severely reduced wild fish populations in Europe and North America.<a href="#cite_note-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity-66">[66]</a> <a href="/wiki/Membranipora_membranacea" title="Membranipora membranacea">Membranipora membranacea</a>, whose colonies feed and grow exceptionally fast in a wide range of current speeds, was first noticed in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Maine" title="Gulf of Maine">Gulf of Maine</a> in 1987 and quickly became the most abundant organism living on <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pratt2008WhereFlowRight-87">[87]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasion</a> reduced the kelp population by breaking their fronds,<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> so that its place as the dominant "vegetation" in some areas was taken by another invader, the large <a href="/wiki/Alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Alga">alga</a> <a href="/wiki/Codium_fragile" title="Codium fragile">Codium fragile</a> tomentosoides.<a href="#cite_note-Pratt2008WhereFlowRight-87">[87]</a> These changes reduced the area of habitat available for local fish and invertebrates. M. membranacea has also invaded the northwest coast of the US.<a href="#cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">[18]</a> A few freshwater species have been also found thousands of kilometers from their native ranges. Some may have been transported naturally as statoblasts. Others more probably were spread by humans, for example on imported water plants or as stowaways on ships.<a href="#cite_note-WoodOkamura1999Asajirella-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interaction_with_humans">Interaction with humans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Interaction with humans">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Fish_farms" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish farms">Fish farms</a> and hatcheries have lost stock to <a href="/wiki/Proliferative_kidney_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Proliferative kidney disease">proliferative kidney disease</a>, which is caused by one or more <a href="/wiki/Myxozoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Myxozoan">myxozoans</a> that use bryozoans as alternate hosts.<a href="#cite_note-AndersonCanningOkamura2004BryozoanHostsForPKX-121">[121]</a> Some fishermen in the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> have had to find other work because of a form of <a href="/wiki/Eczema" class="mw-redirect" title="Eczema">eczema</a> (a skin disease) known as "<a href="/wiki/Dogger_Bank_itch" title="Dogger Bank itch">Dogger Bank itch</a>",<a href="#cite_note-Jones2006AppliedPaleo-99">[99]</a> caused by contact with bryozoans that have stuck to nets and lobster pots.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Marine bryozoans are often responsible for <a href="/wiki/Biofouling" title="Biofouling">biofouling</a> on ships' hulls, on docks and marinas, and on offshore structures. They are among the first colonizers of new or recently cleaned structures.<a href="#cite_note-MargulisSchwartz1998FiveKingdomsBryozoa-112">[112]</a> Freshwater species are occasional nuisances in water pipes, drinking water purification equipment, sewage treatment facilities, and the cooling pipes of power stations.<a href="#cite_note-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> A group of chemicals called <a href="/wiki/Bryostatin" title="Bryostatin">bryostatins</a> can be extracted from the marine bryozoan <a href="/wiki/Bugula_neritina" title="Bugula neritina">Bugula neritina</a>. In 2001 pharmaceutical company <a href="/wiki/GPC_Biotech" title="GPC Biotech">GPC Biotech</a> licensed bryostatin 1 from <a href="/wiki/Arizona_State_University" title="Arizona State University">Arizona State University</a> for commercial development as a treatment for cancer. GPC Biotech canceled development in 2003, saying that bryostatin 1 showed little effectiveness and some toxic side effects.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In January 2008 a <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trial</a> was submitted to the United States <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> to measure the safety and effectiveness of Bryostatin 1 in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>. However, no participants had been recruited by the end of December 2008, when the study was scheduled for completion.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> More recent work shows it has positive effects on cognition in patients with Alzheimer's disease with few side effects.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> About 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb) of bryozoans must be processed to extract <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1 gram (1⁄32 oz) of bryostatin, As a result, synthetic equivalents have been developed that are simpler to produce and apparently at least as effective.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Bryozoology_Association" title="International Bryozoology Association">International Bryozoology Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_bryozoan_genera" title="List of prehistoric bryozoan genera">List of prehistoric bryozoan genera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">Colony (biology)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Taylor2013-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2013_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2013_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor2013_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTaylorBerningWilson2013" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, P.D.; Berning, B.; Wilson, M.A. (November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/907861">"Reinterpretation of the Cambrian 'bryozoan' Pywackia as an octocoral"</a>. Journal of Paleontology. 87 (6): 984–990. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013JPal...87..984T">2013JPal...87..984T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1666%2F13-029">10.1666/13-029</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129113026">129113026</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190607161619/https://zenodo.org/record/907861">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Paleontology&rft.atitle=Reinterpretation+of+the+Cambrian+%27bryozoan%27+Pywackia+as+an+octocoral&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E984-%3C%2Fspan%3E990&rft.date=2013-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129113026%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1666%2F13-029&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013JPal...87..984T&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=P.D.&rft.au=Berning%2C+B.&rft.au=Wilson%2C+M.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F907861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaTaylorXiaZhan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ma, Junye; Taylor, Paul D.; Xia, Fengsheng; Zhan, Renbin (September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12189">"The oldest known bryozoan: Prophyllodictya (Cryptostomata) from the lower Tremadocian (Lower Ordovician) of Liujiachang, south-western Hubei, central China"</a>. Palaeontology. 58 (5): 925–934. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Palgy..58..925M">2015Palgy..58..925M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12189">10.1111/pala.12189</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130040324">130040324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeontology&rft.atitle=The+oldest+known+bryozoan%3A+Prophyllodictya+%28Cryptostomata%29+from+the+lower+Tremadocian+%28Lower+Ordovician%29+of+Liujiachang%2C+south-western+Hubei%2C+central+China&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E925-%3C%2Fspan%3E934&rft.date=2015-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130040324%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fpala.12189&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Palgy..58..925M&rft.aulast=Ma&rft.aufirst=Junye&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Paul+D.&rft.au=Xia%2C+Fengsheng&rft.au=Zhan%2C+Renbin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fpala.12189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-s41586-023-05775-5-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-s41586-023-05775-5_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-s41586-023-05775-5_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYangLanZhangSmith2023" class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Jie; Lan, Tian; Zhang, Xi-guang; Smith, Martin R. (8 March 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/file/1182254/1/Accepted%20Journal%20Article">"Protomelission is an early dasyclad alga and not a Cambrian bryozoan"</a>. Nature. 615 (7952): 468–471. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Natur.615..468Y">2023Natur.615..468Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-023-05775-5">10.1038/s41586-023-05775-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36890226">36890226</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:257425218">257425218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Protomelission+is+an+early+dasyclad+alga+and+not+a+Cambrian+bryozoan&rft.volume=615&rft.issue=7952&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E468-%3C%2Fspan%3E471&rft.date=2023-03-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-023-05775-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A257425218%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36890226&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023Natur.615..468Y&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Jie&rft.au=Lan%2C+Tian&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Xi-guang&rft.au=Smith%2C+Martin+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdurham-repository.worktribe.com%2Ffile%2F1182254%2F1%2FAccepted%2520Journal%2520Article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnst2007" class="citation journal cs1">Ernst, A. (2007). "A cystoporate bryozoan species from the Zechstein (Late Permian)". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 81 (2): 113–117. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PalZ...81..113E">2007PalZ...81..113E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02988385">10.1007/BF02988385</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129637643">129637643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pal%C3%A4ontologische+Zeitschrift&rft.atitle=A+cystoporate+bryozoan+species+from+the+Zechstein+%28Late+Permian%29&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E113-%3C%2Fspan%3E117&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129637643%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02988385&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PalZ...81..113E&rft.aulast=Ernst&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FuchsObstSundberg2009ComprMolPhyloOfBryozoa-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FuchsObstSundberg2009ComprMolPhyloOfBryozoa_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FuchsObstSundberg2009ComprMolPhyloOfBryozoa_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FuchsObstSundberg2009ComprMolPhyloOfBryozoa_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FuchsObstSundberg2009ComprMolPhyloOfBryozoa_5-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuchsObstSundberg2009" class="citation journal cs1">Fuchs, J.; Obst, M.; Sundberg, P (July 2009). "The first comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) based on combined analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial genes". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 52 (1): 225–233. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009MolPE..52..225F">2009MolPE..52..225F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2009.01.021">10.1016/j.ympev.2009.01.021</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19475710">19475710</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+first+comprehensive+molecular+phylogeny+of+Bryozoa+%28Ectoprocta%29+based+on+combined+analyses+of+nuclear+and+mitochondrial+genes&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E225-%3C%2Fspan%3E233&rft.date=2009-07&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19475710&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2009.01.021&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009MolPE..52..225F&rft.aulast=Fuchs&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Obst%2C+M.&rft.au=Sundberg%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brusaca-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Brusaca_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrusca1980" class="citation book cs1">Brusca, Richard C. (1980) [1973]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commonintertidal00brus">"21: The Lophophorate Phyla"</a>. Common intertidal invertebrates of the Gulf of California (revised & expanded, 2nd ed.). Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816506828" title="Special:BookSources/9780816506828"><bdi>9780816506828</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1029265317">1029265317</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=21%3A+The+Lophophorate+Phyla&rft.btitle=Common+intertidal+invertebrates+of+the+Gulf+of+California&rft.place=Tucson%2C+AZ&rft.edition=revised+%26+expanded%2C+2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1029265317&rft.isbn=9780816506828&rft.aulast=Brusca&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommonintertidal00brus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bock2013-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Bock2013_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBockGordon2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bock, P.; Gordon, D.P. (August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279928935">"Phylum Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831"</a>. Zootaxa. 3703 (1): 67–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11646%2Fzootaxa.3703.1.14">10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.14</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zootaxa&rft.atitle=Phylum+Bryozoa+%3Cspan+style%3D%22font-size%3A85%25%3B%22%3EEhrenberg%2C+1831%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.volume=3703&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E67-%3C%2Fspan%3E74&rft.date=2013-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11646%2Fzootaxa.3703.1.14&rft.aulast=Bock&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Gordon%2C+D.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F279928935&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwahaOstrovskyWanninger2020" class="citation journal cs1">Schwaha, Thomas F.; Ostrovsky, Andrew N.; Wanninger, Andreas (June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7317743">"Key novelties in the evolution of the aquatic colonial phylum Bryozoa: evidence from soft body morphology"</a>. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 95 (3): 696–729. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fbrv.12583">10.1111/brv.12583</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7317743">7317743</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32032476">32032476</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Reviews+of+the+Cambridge+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=Key+novelties+in+the+evolution+of+the+aquatic+colonial+phylum+Bryozoa%3A+evidence+from+soft+body+morphology&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E696-%3C%2Fspan%3E729&rft.date=2020-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7317743%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32032476&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fbrv.12583&rft.aulast=Schwaha&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rft.au=Ostrovsky%2C+Andrew+N.&rft.au=Wanninger%2C+Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7317743&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwahaBernhardEdgcombTodaro2019" class="citation journal cs1">Schwaha, Thomas; Bernhard, Joan M.; Edgcomb, Virginia P.; Todaro, M. Antonio (1 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-019-00948-w">"Aethozooides uraniae, a new deep-sea genus and species of solitary bryozoan from the Mediterranean Sea, with a revision of the Aethozoidae"</a>. Marine Biodiversity. 49 (4): 1843–1856. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019MarBd..49.1843S">2019MarBd..49.1843S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12526-019-00948-w">10.1007/s12526-019-00948-w</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11380%2F1174838">11380/1174838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Biodiversity&rft.atitle=Aethozooides+uraniae%2C+a+new+deep-sea+genus+and+species+of+solitary+bryozoan+from+the+Mediterranean+Sea%2C+with+a+revision+of+the+Aethozoidae&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1843-%3C%2Fspan%3E1856&rft.date=2019-08-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11380%2F1174838&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12526-019-00948-w&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019MarBd..49.1843S&rft.aulast=Schwaha&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Bernhard%2C+Joan+M.&rft.au=Edgcomb%2C+Virginia+P.&rft.au=Todaro%2C+M.+Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs12526-019-00948-w&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson1830-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Thompson1830_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1830" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, John V. (1830). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thompson-1830zoologicalresear-00thom">"Memoir V: On Polyzoa, a new animal discovered as an inhabitant of some Zoophites"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zoologicalresear00thom">Zoological researches and illustrations; or Natural history of nondescript or imperfectly known animals</a>. Cork, IE: King and Ridings. pp. 89–102.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Memoir+V%3A+On+Polyzoa%2C+a+new+animal+discovered+as+an+inhabitant+of+some+Zoophites&rft.btitle=Zoological+researches+and+illustrations%3B+or+Natural+history+of+nondescript+or+imperfectly+known+animals&rft.place=Cork%2C+IE&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E102&rft.pub=King+and+Ridings&rft.date=1830&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=John+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthompson-1830zoologicalresear-00thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrenberg1831" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ehrenberg, Christian G. (1831). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/SymbolaephysicaAnimEhre">"Pars zoologica. Animalia evertebrata exclusis insectis [Invertebrata other than Insecta]"</a>. Symbolae physicae, seu lcones et descriptiones corporum naturalium novorum aut minus cognitorum (in Latin). Berolini Ex officina Academica. pp. 1–126.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pars+zoologica.+Animalia+evertebrata+exclusis+insectis+%5BInvertebrata+other+than+Insecta%5D&rft.btitle=Symbolae+physicae%2C+seu+lcones+et+descriptiones+corporum+naturalium+novorum+aut+minus+cognitorum.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E126&rft.pub=Berolini+Ex+officina+Academica&rft.date=1831&rft.aulast=Ehrenberg&rft.aufirst=Christian+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FSymbolaephysicaAnimEhre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stebbing1911-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Stebbing1911_12-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStebbing1911" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Stebbing, T.R.R. (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stebbing-1911-proceedingsoflin-190912linn">"The terms Polyzoa and Bryozoa"</a>. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Session 123 (Symposium): 61–72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Linnean+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=The+terms+Polyzoa+and+Bryozoa&rft.volume=Session+123+%28Symposium%29&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Stebbing&rft.aufirst=T.R.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstebbing-1911-proceedingsoflin-190912linn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Muir-Wood_1955-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Muir-Wood_1955_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Muir-Wood_1955_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuir-Wood1955" class="citation book cs1">Muir-Wood, H.M. (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/muir-wood-classification-brachiopoda">A history of the classification of the phylum Brachiopoda</a>. London: British Museum (Natural History). p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+classification+of+the+phylum+Brachiopoda&rft.place=London&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=British+Museum+%28Natural+History%29&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Muir-Wood&rft.aufirst=H.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmuir-wood-classification-brachiopoda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-predation_golden-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-predation_golden_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-predation_golden_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2006" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, T.S. (May 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111006013213/http://www2.biology.sc.chula.ac.th/web%20of%20NHJCU%20PDF/6-1,31-36.pdf">"Heavy Predation on Freshwater Bryozoans by the Golden Apple Snail, Pomacea canaliculata"</a> (PDF). Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University. 6 (1): 31–36. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.biology.sc.chula.ac.th/web%20of%20NHJCU%20PDF/6-1,31-36.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 6 October 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+History+Journal+of+Chulalongkorn+University&rft.atitle=Heavy+Predation+on+Freshwater+Bryozoans+by+the+Golden+Apple+Snail%2C+Pomacea+canaliculata&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E31-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.date=2006-05&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=T.S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww2.biology.sc.chula.ac.th%2Fweb%2520of%2520NHJCU%2520PDF%2F6-1%2C31-36.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-h057-15"><a href="#cite_ref-h057_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauer2016" class="citation book cs1">Lauer, Antje (2016). "Watersipora subtorquata and the Possible Role of Its Associated Microbes: An Attempt to Explain the Extraordinary Invasion Success of This Marine Bryozoan Species". The Mechanistic Benefits of Microbial Symbionts. Advances in Environmental Microbiology. Vol. 2. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 239–268. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-28068-4_9">10.1007/978-3-319-28068-4_9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-28066-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-28066-0"><bdi>978-3-319-28066-0</bdi></a>. <q>Occasionally, the impact of an invertebrate invader can be substantial; such has been documented for Membranipora membranacea, a fast-growing invasive bryozoan species which has reduced kelp forests off the northeast and northwest coasts of the USA to an extent that it has affected local fish and invertebrate populations</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Watersipora+subtorquata+and+the+Possible+Role+of+Its+Associated+Microbes%3A+An+Attempt+to+Explain+the+Extraordinary+Invasion+Success+of+This+Marine+Bryozoan+Species&rft.btitle=The+Mechanistic+Benefits+of+Microbial+Symbionts&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=Advances+in+Environmental+Microbiology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E268&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-28068-4_9&rft.isbn=978-3-319-28066-0&rft.aulast=Lauer&rft.aufirst=Antje&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Introduction-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Introduction_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/bryozoa/bryozoa.html">"Introduction to the Bryozoa"</a>. Berkeley, CA: University of California Museum of Paleontology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191208225858/https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/bryozoa/bryozoa.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Bryozoa&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Museum+of+Paleontology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fbryozoa%2Fbryozoa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhangZhangMaTaylor2021" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Zhiliang; Zhang, Zhifei; Ma, J.; Taylor, P. D.; Strotz, L. C.; Jacquet, S. M.; Skovsted, C. B.; Chen, F.; Han, J.; Brock, G. A. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8580826">"Fossil evidence unveils an early Cambrian origin for Bryozoa"</a>. Nature. 599 (7884): 251–255. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Natur.599..251Z">2021Natur.599..251Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04033-w">10.1038/s41586-021-04033-w</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8580826">8580826</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34707285">34707285</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240073948">240073948</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Fossil+evidence+unveils+an+early+Cambrian+origin+for+Bryozoa&rft.volume=599&rft.issue=7884&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E251-%3C%2Fspan%3E255&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8580826%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A240073948%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Natur.599..251Z&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34707285&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-021-04033-w&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Zhiliang&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Zhifei&rft.au=Ma%2C+J.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+P.+D.&rft.au=Strotz%2C+L.+C.&rft.au=Jacquet%2C+S.+M.&rft.au=Skovsted%2C+C.+B.&rft.au=Chen%2C+F.&rft.au=Han%2C+J.&rft.au=Brock%2C+G.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8580826&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-28">ac</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-29">ad</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-30">ae</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-31">af</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-32">ag</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-33">ah</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-34">ai</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-35">aj</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-36">ak</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-37">al</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-38">am</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-39">an</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-40">ao</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-41">ap</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-42">aq</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-43">ar</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-44">as</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-45">at</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-46">au</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-47">av</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-48">aw</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-49">ax</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-50">ay</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-51">az</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-52">ba</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-53">bb</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-54">bc</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-55">bd</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-56">be</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-57">bf</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-58">bg</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBryozoa_18-59">bh</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppert,_E.E.Fox,_R.S.Barnes,_R.D.2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/829">"Lophoporata"</a>. Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/829">829–845</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lophoporata&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=829-845&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Brooks+%2F+Cole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+E.E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821%2Fpage%2F829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesPhoronida-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesPhoronida_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesPhoronida_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesPhoronida_19-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppert,_E.E.Fox,_R.S.Barnes,_R.D.2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/817">"Lophoporata"</a>. Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/817">817–821</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lophoporata&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=817-821&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Brooks+%2F+Cole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+E.E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821%2Fpage%2F817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesBrachiopoda-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBrachiopoda_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBrachiopoda_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesBrachiopoda_20-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppert,_E.E.Fox,_R.S.Barnes,_R.D.2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/821">"Lophoporata"</a>. Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/821">821–829</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lophoporata&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=821-829&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Brooks+%2F+Cole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+E.E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821%2Fpage%2F821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RichFenton1997Bryozoans-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RichFenton1997Bryozoans_21-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichFenton,_M.A.Fenton,_C.L.1997" class="citation book cs1">Rich, T.H.; Fenton, M.A.; Fenton, C.L. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_ntSspji0LYC&q=bryozoans&pg=PA141">"'Moss Animals', or Bryozoans"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fossilbookrecor00rich/page/142">The fossil book</a>. Dover Publications. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fossilbookrecor00rich/page/142">142–152</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-29371-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-29371-4"><bdi>978-0-486-29371-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Moss+Animals%27%2C+or+Bryozoans&rft.btitle=The+fossil+book&rft.pages=142-152&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-486-29371-4&rft.aulast=Rich&rft.aufirst=T.H.&rft.au=Fenton%2C+M.A.&rft.au=Fenton%2C+C.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ntSspji0LYC%26q%3Dbryozoans%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesEntoprocta-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesEntoprocta_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesEntoprocta_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppert,_E.E.Fox,_R.S.Barnes,_R.D.2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/808">"Kamptozoa and Cycliophora"</a>. Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/808">808–812</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kamptozoa+and+Cycliophora&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=808-812&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Brooks+%2F+Cole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+E.E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821%2Fpage%2F808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesLophophorataGen-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesLophophorataGen_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesLophophorataGen_23-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppert,_E.E.Fox,_R.S.Barnes,_R.D.2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/817">"Lophoporata"</a>. Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/817">817</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lophoporata&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=817&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Brooks+%2F+Cole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+E.E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821%2Fpage%2F817&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda_24-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda_24-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda_24-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda_24-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2002PhyloPosOfEntoproctaEctoproctaPhoronidaBrachiopoda_24-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNielsen2002" class="citation journal cs1">Nielsen, C. (July 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F42.3.685">"The Phylogenetic Position of Entoprocta, Ectoprocta, Phoronida, and Brachiopoda"</a>. Integrative and Comparative Biology. 42 (3): 685–691. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F42.3.685">10.1093/icb/42.3.685</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21708765">21708765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrative+and+Comparative+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Phylogenetic+Position+of+Entoprocta%2C+Ectoprocta%2C+Phoronida%2C+and+Brachiopoda&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E685-%3C%2Fspan%3E691&rft.date=2002-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F42.3.685&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21708765&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Ficb%252F42.3.685&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesAnnelGen-25"><a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesAnnelGen_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppert,_E.E.Fox,_R.S.Barnes,_R.D.2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/414">"Annelida"</a>. Invertebrate Zoology (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/414">414–420</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Annelida&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=414-420&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Brooks+%2F+Cole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+E.E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821%2Fpage%2F414&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnes2004MolluscaGen-26"><a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnes2004MolluscaGen_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppert,_E.E.Fox,_R.S.Barnes,_R.D.2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/284">Invertebrate Zoology</a> (7th ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/284">284–291</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=284-291&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Brooks+%2F+Cole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+E.E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821%2Fpage%2F284&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiere2009" class="citation book cs1">Giere, O. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=an9ncYOxkUoC&q=solitary+bryozoan&pg=PA227">"Tentaculata"</a>. Meiobenthology (2nd ed.). Springer Verlag. p. 227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68657-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68657-6"><bdi>978-3-540-68657-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183240/https://books.google.com/books?id=an9ncYOxkUoC&q=solitary+bryozoan&pg=PA227">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tentaculata&rft.btitle=Meiobenthology&rft.pages=227&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer+Verlag&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-540-68657-6&rft.aulast=Giere&rft.aufirst=O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dan9ncYOxkUoC%26q%3Dsolitary%2Bbryozoan%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Doherty2001EctoproctaInAnderson_28-25">z</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoherty,_P.J.2001" class="citation book cs1">Doherty, P.J. (2001). "The Lophophorates". In Anderson, D.T. (ed.). Invertebrate Zoology (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 363–373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-551368-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-551368-4"><bdi>978-0-19-551368-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Lophophorates&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E363-%3C%2Fspan%3E373&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-551368-4&rft.au=Doherty%2C+P.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleFowler,_H.WCoulson,_J.Onions,_C.T.1964" class="citation book cs1">Little, W.; Fowler, H.W; Coulson, J. & Onions, C.T. (1964). "Zooid". Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860613-0"><bdi>978-0-19-860613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zooid&rft.btitle=Shorter+Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860613-0&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+H.W&rft.au=Coulson%2C+J.&rft.au=Onions%2C+C.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://palaeontologicalsociety.in/vol50_2/v1.pdf">Bryozoans and Palaeoenvironmental Interpretation</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci_31-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci_31-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2001InEncOfLifeSci_31-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNielsen,_C.2001" class="citation book cs1">Nielsen, C. (2001). "Bryozoa (Ectoprocta: 'Moss' Animals)". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnpg.els.0001613">10.1038/npg.els.0001613</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470016176" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470016176"><bdi>978-0470016176</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bryozoa+%28Ectoprocta%3A+%27Moss%27+Animals%29&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Life+Sciences&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnpg.els.0001613&rft.isbn=978-0470016176&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McKinneyJackson-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McKinneyJackson_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinneyJackson_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinneyJackson_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinneyJackson_32-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinneyJackson_32-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinneyJackson_32-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinneyJackson_32-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McKinneyJackson_32-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinneyJackson,_J.B.C.1991" class="citation book cs1">McKinney, F.K.; Jackson, J.B.C. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TMnsG36wHoIC&q=Avicularia+bryozoa&pg=PA7">"Bryozoans as modular machines"</a>. Bryozoan evolution. University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56047-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-56047-2"><bdi>978-0-226-56047-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183241/https://books.google.com/books?id=TMnsG36wHoIC&q=Avicularia+bryozoa&pg=PA7">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 29 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bryozoans+as+modular+machines&rft.btitle=Bryozoan+evolution&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-226-56047-2&rft.aulast=McKinney&rft.aufirst=F.K.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+J.B.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTMnsG36wHoIC%26q%3DAvicularia%2Bbryozoa%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiisgårdNielsenLarsen2000" class="citation journal cs1">Riisgård, H.U.; Nielsen, C; Larsen, PS (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/207/m207p033.pdf">"Downstream collecting in ciliary suspension feeders: the catch-up principle"</a> (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 207: 33–51. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000MEPS..207...33R">2000MEPS..207...33R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps207033">10.3354/meps207033</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/207/m207p033.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 12 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Downstream+collecting+in+ciliary+suspension+feeders%3A+the+catch-up+principle&rft.volume=207&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E33-%3C%2Fspan%3E51&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps207033&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000MEPS..207...33R&rft.aulast=Riisg%C3%A5rd&rft.aufirst=H.U.&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+C&rft.au=Larsen%2C+PS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.int-res.com%2Farticles%2Fmeps%2F207%2Fm207p033.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RanHouDictFuniculus-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RanHouDictFuniculus_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RanHouDictFuniculus_34-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/funiculus">"funiculus"</a>. Random House Dictionary. Random House. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100513073724/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/funiculus">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2010. Retrieved 2 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=funiculus&rft.btitle=Random+House+Dictionary&rft.pub=Random+House&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Ffuniculus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayward1985" class="citation book cs1">Hayward, P.J. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HgwVAAAAIAAJ&q=monobryozoon&pg=PA106">"Systematic part"</a>. Ctenostome Bryozoans. Synopses of the British fauna. Linnean Society of London. pp. 106–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07583-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07583-2"><bdi>978-90-04-07583-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183239/https://books.google.com/books?id=HgwVAAAAIAAJ&q=monobryozoon&pg=PA106">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Systematic+part&rft.btitle=Ctenostome+Bryozoans&rft.series=Synopses+of+the+British+fauna&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E106-%3C%2Fspan%3E107&rft.pub=Linnean+Society+of+London&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07583-2&rft.aulast=Hayward&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHgwVAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dmonobryozoon%26pg%3DPA106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiere2009" class="citation book cs1">Giere, O. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=an9ncYOxkUoC&q=monobryozoon&pg=PA227">"Tentaculata"</a>. Meiobenthology (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. p. 227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68657-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68657-6"><bdi>978-3-540-68657-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183241/https://books.google.com/books?id=an9ncYOxkUoC&q=monobryozoon&pg=PA227">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tentaculata&rft.btitle=Meiobenthology&rft.pages=227&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-540-68657-6&rft.aulast=Giere&rft.aufirst=O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dan9ncYOxkUoC%26q%3Dmonobryozoon%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott_R.1940" class="citation book cs1">Liddell, H.G.; Scott R. (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2356587">"kenos"</a>. A Greek-English Lexicon. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-864226-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-864226-8"><bdi>978-0-19-864226-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183237/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2356587&redirect=true">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 1 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=kenos&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1940&rft.isbn=978-0-19-864226-8&rft.aulast=Liddell&rft.aufirst=H.G.&rft.au=Scott+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fptext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253D%252356587&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202072–73-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor202072–73_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, pp. 72–73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202074-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor202074_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202059-40"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor202059_40-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202060-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor202060_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202065-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor202065_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202075-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor202075_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranchGriffiths,_C.I.Beckley,_L.E.2007" class="citation book cs1">Branch, M.L.; Griffiths, C.I.; Beckley, L.E. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W_2QB8ftLgcC&q=bryozoa+lace+animal&pg=PA104">"Bryozoa: Moss or Lace Animals"</a>. Two Oceans – A Guide to the Marine Life of Southern Africa. Struik. pp. 104–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-77007-633-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-77007-633-4"><bdi>978-1-77007-633-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bryozoa%3A+Moss+or+Lace+Animals&rft.btitle=Two+Oceans+%E2%80%93+A+Guide+to+the+Marine+Life+of+Southern+Africa&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E104-%3C%2Fspan%3E110&rft.pub=Struik&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-77007-633-4&rft.aulast=Branch&rft.aufirst=M.L.&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+C.I.&rft.au=Beckley%2C+L.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW_2QB8ftLgcC%26q%3Dbryozoa%2Blace%2Banimal%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-SOED1959Bryozoa-45"><a href="#cite_ref-SOED1959Bryozoa_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleFowler,_H.W.Coulson,_J.Onions,_C.T.1959" class="citation book cs1">Little, W.; Fowler, H.W.; Coulson, J. & Onions, C.T. (1959). "Bryozoa". Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860613-0"><bdi>978-0-19-860613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bryozoa&rft.btitle=Shorter+Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860613-0&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+H.W.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+J.&rft.au=Onions%2C+C.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckmanOkamura1998" class="citation journal cs1">Eckman, J.E.; Okamura, B (December 1998). "A Model of Particle Capture by Bryozoans in Turbulent Flow: Significance of Colony Form". The American Naturalist. 152 (6): 861–880. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ANat..152..861E">1998ANat..152..861E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F286214">10.1086/286214</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18811433">18811433</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5535013">5535013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=A+Model+of+Particle+Capture+by+Bryozoans+in+Turbulent+Flow%3A+Significance+of+Colony+Form&rft.volume=152&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E861-%3C%2Fspan%3E880&rft.date=1998-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F286214&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5535013%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18811433&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998ANat..152..861E&rft.aulast=Eckman&rft.aufirst=J.E.&rft.au=Okamura%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogel1996" class="citation book cs1">Vogel, S. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XBqncfXFsOIC&q=bryozoan+chimney&pg=PA191">"Life in velocity gradients"</a>. Life in moving fluids (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02616-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02616-9"><bdi>978-0-691-02616-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183243/https://books.google.com/books?id=XBqncfXFsOIC&q=bryozoan+chimney&pg=PA191">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 5 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Life+in+velocity+gradients&rft.btitle=Life+in+moving+fluids&rft.pages=191&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02616-9&rft.aulast=Vogel&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXBqncfXFsOIC%26q%3Dbryozoan%2Bchimney%26pg%3DPA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Dassow2006" class="citation journal cs1">von Dassow, M. (1 August 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090706012640/http://www.biolbull.org/cgi/content/full/211/1/76">"Function-Dependent Development in a Colonial Animal"</a>. Biological Bulletin. 211 (1): 76–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4134580">10.2307/4134580</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3185">0006-3185</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4134580">4134580</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16946244">16946244</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biolbull.org/cgi/content/full/211/1/76">the original</a> on 6 July 2009. Retrieved 5 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Function-Dependent+Development+in+a+Colonial+Animal&rft.volume=211&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E76-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.date=2006-08-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16946244&rft.issn=0006-3185&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4134580%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4134580&rft.aulast=von+Dassow&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biolbull.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F211%2F1%2F76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylorJames2013" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Paul D.; James, Noel P. (August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fsed.12032">"Secular changes in colony-forms and bryozoan carbonate sediments through geological history"</a>. Sedimentology. 60 (5): 1184–1212. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fsed.12032">10.1111/sed.12032</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128939236">128939236</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sedimentology&rft.atitle=Secular+changes+in+colony-forms+and+bryozoan+carbonate+sediments+through+geological+history&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1184-%3C%2Fspan%3E1212&rft.date=2013-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fsed.12032&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128939236%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Paul+D.&rft.au=James%2C+Noel+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fsed.12032&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BeattyBlackwelder1974-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BeattyBlackwelder1974_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BeattyBlackwelder1974_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeattyBlackwelder1974" class="citation journal cs1">Beatty, J.A.; Blackwelder (1974). "Names of Invertebrate Phyla". Systematic Zoology. 23 (4): 545–547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2412472">10.2307/2412472</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2412472">2412472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Systematic+Zoology&rft.atitle=Names+of+Invertebrate+Phyla&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E545-%3C%2Fspan%3E547&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2412472&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2412472%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Beatty&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rft.au=Blackwelder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mayr1968BryozoaVersusEctoprocta-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mayr1968BryozoaVersusEctoprocta_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mayr1968BryozoaVersusEctoprocta_51-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1968" class="citation journal cs1">Mayr, E. (June 1968). "Bryozoa versus Ectoprocta". Systematic Zoology. 17 (2): 213–216. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2412368">10.2307/2412368</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2412368">2412368</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Systematic+Zoology&rft.atitle=Bryozoa+versus+Ectoprocta&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E213-%3C%2Fspan%3E216&rft.date=1968-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2412368&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2412368%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleFowler,_H.WCoulson,_J.Onions,_C.T.1964" class="citation book cs1">Little, W.; Fowler, H.W; Coulson, J. & Onions, C.T. (1964). "Ecto-". Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860613-0"><bdi>978-0-19-860613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ecto-&rft.btitle=Shorter+Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860613-0&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+H.W&rft.au=Coulson%2C+J.&rft.au=Onions%2C+C.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleFowler,_H.W.Coulson,_J.Onions,_C.T.1964" class="citation book cs1">Little, W.; Fowler, H.W.; Coulson, J. & Onions, C.T. (1964). "Ento-". Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860613-0"><bdi>978-0-19-860613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ento-&rft.btitle=Shorter+Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860613-0&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+H.W.&rft.au=Coulson%2C+J.&rft.au=Onions%2C+C.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny_54-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny_54-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny_54-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny_54-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny_54-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Halanych2004AnimalPhylogeny_54-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalanych2004" class="citation journal cs1">Halanych, K.M. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-fourier.ujf-grenoble.fr/~dpiau/cdem/130124b.pdf">"The new view of animal phylogeny"</a> (PDF). Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 35: 229–256. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130124">10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130124</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www-fourier.ujf-grenoble.fr/~dpiau/cdem/130124b.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Ecology%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Systematics&rft.atitle=The+new+view+of+animal+phylogeny&rft.volume=35&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E229-%3C%2Fspan%3E256&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130124&rft.aulast=Halanych&rft.aufirst=K.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-fourier.ujf-grenoble.fr%2F~dpiau%2Fcdem%2F130124b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics_55-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics_55-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics_55-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HausdorfHelmkampfMeyer2007Spiralian_Phylogenomics_55-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHausdorfHelmkampfMeyerWitek2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hausdorf, B.; Helmkampf, M.; Meyer, A.; Witek, A.; Herlyn, H.; Bruchhaus, I.; Hankeln, T.; Struck, T.H.; Lieb, B. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsm214">"Spiralian Phylogenomics Supports the Resurrection of Bryozoa Comprising Ectoprocta and Entoprocta"</a>. Molecular Biology and Evolution. 24 (12): 2723–2729. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsm214">10.1093/molbev/msm214</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17921486">17921486</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Biology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Spiralian+Phylogenomics+Supports+the+Resurrection+of+Bryozoa+Comprising+Ectoprocta+and+Entoprocta&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2723-%3C%2Fspan%3E2729&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsm214&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17921486&rft.aulast=Hausdorf&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Helmkampf%2C+M.&rft.au=Meyer%2C+A.&rft.au=Witek%2C+A.&rft.au=Herlyn%2C+H.&rft.au=Bruchhaus%2C+I.&rft.au=Hankeln%2C+T.&rft.au=Struck%2C+T.H.&rft.au=Lieb%2C+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fmolbev%252Fmsm214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuffey1969" class="citation journal cs1">Cuffey, R. J. (1969). "Bryozoa versus Ectoprocta – The Necessity for Precision". Systematic Zoology. 18 (2): 250–251. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2412617">10.2307/2412617</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2412617">2412617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Systematic+Zoology&rft.atitle=Bryozoa+versus+Ectoprocta+%E2%80%93+The+Necessity+for+Precision&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E250-%3C%2Fspan%3E251&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2412617&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2412617%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cuffey&rft.aufirst=R.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhiselin1977" class="citation journal cs1">Ghiselin, M.T. (1977). "On Changing the Names of Higher Taxa". Systematic Zoology. 26 (3): 346–349. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2412681">10.2307/2412681</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2412681">2412681</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Systematic+Zoology&rft.atitle=On+Changing+the+Names+of+Higher+Taxa&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E346-%3C%2Fspan%3E349&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2412681&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2412681%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ghiselin&rft.aufirst=M.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYokoboriIsetoAsakawaSasaki2008" class="citation journal cs1">Yokobori, S.; Iseto, T; Asakawa, S; Sasaki, T; Shimizu, N; Yamagishi, A; Oshima, T; Hirose, E (May 2008). "Complete nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial genomes of two solitary entoprocts, Loxocorone allax and Loxosomella aloxiata: Implications for lophotrochozoan phylogeny". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 47 (2): 612–628. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008MolPE..47..612Y">2008MolPE..47..612Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2008.02.013">10.1016/j.ympev.2008.02.013</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18374604">18374604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Phylogenetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Complete+nucleotide+sequences+of+mitochondrial+genomes+of+two+solitary+entoprocts%2C+Loxocorone+allax+and+Loxosomella+aloxiata%3A+Implications+for+lophotrochozoan+phylogeny&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E612-%3C%2Fspan%3E628&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18374604&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2008.02.013&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008MolPE..47..612Y&rft.aulast=Yokobori&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Iseto%2C+T&rft.au=Asakawa%2C+S&rft.au=Sasaki%2C+T&rft.au=Shimizu%2C+N&rft.au=Yamagishi%2C+A&rft.au=Oshima%2C+T&rft.au=Hirose%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds2000" class="citation journal cs1">Reynolds, K.T. (2000). "Taxonomically Important Features on the Surface of Floatoblasts in Plumatella (Bryozoa)". Microscopy and Microanalysis. 6 (3): 202–210. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000MiMic...6..202R">2000MiMic...6..202R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1431927600000349">10.1017/S1431927600000349</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10790488">10790488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microscopy+and+Microanalysis&rft.atitle=Taxonomically+Important+Features+on+the+Surface+of+Floatoblasts+in+Plumatella+%28Bryozoa%29&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E202-%3C%2Fspan%3E210&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10790488&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1431927600000349&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000MiMic...6..202R&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=K.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> The text begins "Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa) ..." </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrumbleBrown,_L2002" class="citation book cs1">Trumble, W; Brown, L (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorteroxfordeng00will_0">"Bryozoa"</a>. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860457-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860457-0"><bdi>978-0-19-860457-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bryozoa&rft.btitle=Shorter+Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860457-0&rft.aulast=Trumble&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Brown%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorteroxfordeng00will_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Taylor, Zaton 2008 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2008" class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, Paul D (October 2008). "Taxonomy of the bryozoan genera Oncousoecia, Microeciella and Eurystrotos". Journal of Natural History. 42 (39–40): 2557–2574. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00222930802277640">10.1080/00222930802277640</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84315311">84315311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Natural+History&rft.atitle=Taxonomy+of+the+bryozoan+genera+Oncousoecia%2C+Microeciella+and+Eurystrotos&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E39%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2557-%3C%2Fspan%3E2574&rft.date=2008-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00222930802277640&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84315311%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Paul+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2006" class="citation book cs1">Chapman, A.D. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/publications/other/species-numbers/pubs/number-living-species-report.pdf">Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the World</a> (PDF). Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-642-56849-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-642-56849-6"><bdi>978-0-642-56849-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/publications/other/species-numbers/pubs/number-living-species-report.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Numbers+of+Living+Species+in+Australia+and+the+World&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Department+of+the+Environment+and+Heritage%2C+Australian+Government&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-642-56849-6&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=A.D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.environment.gov.au%2Fbiodiversity%2Fabrs%2Fpublications%2Fother%2Fspecies-numbers%2Fpubs%2Fnumber-living-species-report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RuppertFoxBarnesCladistics-64"><a href="#cite_ref-RuppertFoxBarnesCladistics_64-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuppert,_E.E.Fox,_R.S.Barnes,_R.D.2004" class="citation book cs1">Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/2">"Introduction to Invertebrates"</a>. Invertebrate Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780030259821/page/2">2–9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-025982-1"><bdi>978-0-03-025982-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Invertebrates&rft.btitle=Invertebrate+Zoology&rft.pages=2-9&rft.edition=7&rft.pub=Brooks+%2F+Cole&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-03-025982-1&rft.au=Ruppert%2C+E.E.&rft.au=Fox%2C+R.S.&rft.au=Barnes%2C+R.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780030259821%2Fpage%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=156688">"ITIS Standard Report Page: Phylactolaemata"</a>. Integrated Taxonomic Information System. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180118182014/https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=156688">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2018. Retrieved 12 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ITIS+Standard+Report+Page%3A+Phylactolaemata&rft.pub=Integrated+Taxonomic+Information+System&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itis.gov%2Fservlet%2FSingleRpt%2FSingleRpt%3Fsearch_topic%3DTSN%26search_value%3D156688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity_66-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity_66-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity_66-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity_66-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity_66-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity_66-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MassardGeimer2008FreshwaterBryoDiversity_66-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMassardGeimer2008" class="citation journal cs1">Massard, J.A.; Geimer, Gaby (2008). "Global diversity of bryozoans (Bryozoa or Ectoprocta) in freshwater". <a href="/wiki/Hydrobiologia" title="Hydrobiologia">Hydrobiologia</a>. 595 (1): 93–99. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008HyBio.595...93M">2008HyBio.595...93M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10750-007-9007-3">10.1007/s10750-007-9007-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13057599">13057599</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrobiologia&rft.atitle=Global+diversity+of+bryozoans+%28Bryozoa+or+Ectoprocta%29+in+freshwater&rft.volume=595&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13057599%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10750-007-9007-3&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008HyBio.595...93M&rft.aulast=Massard&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rft.au=Geimer%2C+Gaby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FishFish1996StudentsGuide-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FishFish1996StudentsGuide_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FishFish1996StudentsGuide_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishFish,_S.1996" class="citation book cs1">Fish, J.D.; Fish, S. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studentsguideto00fish/page/418">"Bryozoa"</a>. A student's guide to the seashore (2 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/studentsguideto00fish/page/418">418–419</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46819-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46819-0"><bdi>978-0-521-46819-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bryozoa&rft.btitle=A+student%27s+guide+to+the+seashore&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=418-419&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-46819-0&rft.aulast=Fish&rft.aufirst=J.D.&rft.au=Fish%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstudentsguideto00fish%2Fpage%2F418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJablonskiLidgardTaylor1997" class="citation journal cs1">Jablonski, D.; Lidgard, S.; Taylor, P.D. (1997). "Comparative Ecology of Bryozoan Radiations: Origin of novelties in cyclostomes and Cheilostomes". <a href="/wiki/PALAIOS" title="PALAIOS">PALAIOS</a>. 12 (6): 505–523. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997Palai..12..505J">1997Palai..12..505J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3515408">10.2307/3515408</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3515408">3515408</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PALAIOS&rft.atitle=Comparative+Ecology+of+Bryozoan+Radiations%3A+Origin+of+novelties+in+cyclostomes+and+Cheilostomes&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E505-%3C%2Fspan%3E523&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3515408%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3515408&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997Palai..12..505J&rft.aulast=Jablonski&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Lidgard%2C+S.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+P.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HaywardRyland1985Cyclostome-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HaywardRyland1985Cyclostome_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HaywardRyland1985Cyclostome_69-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaywardRyland,_J.S.1985" class="citation book cs1">Hayward, P.J.; Ryland, J.S. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cAsVAAAAIAAJ&q=Stenolaemata+Cyclostomata+heterozooid&pg=PA7">"Key to the higher taxa of marine Bryozoa"</a>. Cyclostome bryozoans. Linnean Society of London. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07697-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07697-6"><bdi>978-90-04-07697-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183237/https://books.google.com/books?id=cAsVAAAAIAAJ&q=Stenolaemata+Cyclostomata+heterozooid&pg=PA7">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 9 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Key+to+the+higher+taxa+of+marine+Bryozoa&rft.btitle=Cyclostome+bryozoans&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Linnean+Society+of+London&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07697-6&rft.aulast=Hayward&rft.aufirst=P.J.&rft.au=Ryland%2C+J.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcAsVAAAAIAAJ%26q%3DStenolaemata%2BCyclostomata%2Bheterozooid%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bryozoan_Evolution-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bryozoan_Evolution_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bryozoan_Evolution_70-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinneyFrank_KJeremy" class="citation news cs1">McKinney; Frank K; Jeremy. "Bryozoan Evolution". Boston: Unwin & Hyman, 1989.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bryozoan+Evolution&rft.au=McKinney&rft.au=Frank+K&rft.au=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phylum_Bryozoa-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Phylum_Bryozoa_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phylum_Bryozoa_71-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnst2020" class="citation book cs1">Ernst, Andrej (2020). "2- Fossil record and evolution of Bryozoa". Phylum Bryozoa. pp. 11–56.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2-+Fossil+record+and+evolution+of+Bryozoa&rft.btitle=Phylum+Bryozoa&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E56&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Ernst&rft.aufirst=Andrej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacksonKey2019" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, Patrick N. Wyse; Key, Marcus M. Key Jr. (2019). "Epizoan and endoskeletozoan distribution across reassembled ramose stenolaemate bryozoan zoaria from the Upper Ordovician (Katian) of the Cincinnati Arch region, USA". Australasian Palaeontological Memoirs. 52: 169–178.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Australasian+Palaeontological+Memoirs&rft.atitle=Epizoan+and+endoskeletozoan+distribution+across+reassembled+ramose+stenolaemate+bryozoan+zoaria+from+the+Upper+Ordovician+%28Katian%29+of+the+Cincinnati+Arch+region%2C+USA&rft.volume=52&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E169-%3C%2Fspan%3E178&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Patrick+N.+Wyse&rft.au=Key%2C+Marcus+M.+Key+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorsvikRyanTrenchHarper1991" class="citation journal cs1">Torsvik, T.H.; Ryan, Paul D.; Trench, Allan; <a href="/wiki/David_Harper_(palaeontologist)" title="David Harper (palaeontologist)">Harper, David A.T.</a> (January 1991). "Cambrian-Ordovician paleogeography of Baltica". Geology. 19 (1): 7–10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991Geo....19....7T">1991Geo....19....7T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0091-7613%281991%29019%3C0007%3ACOPOB%3E2.3.CO%3B2">10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0007:COPOB>2.3.CO;2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Cambrian-Ordovician+paleogeography+of+Baltica&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.date=1991-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2F0091-7613%281991%29019%3C0007%3ACOPOB%3E2.3.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991Geo....19....7T&rft.aulast=Torsvik&rft.aufirst=T.H.&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Paul+D.&rft.au=Trench%2C+Allan&rft.au=Harper%2C+David+A.T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing-74">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing_74-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing_74-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing_74-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing_74-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DewelWinstonMcKinney2001Deconstructing_74-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDewelWinston,_J.E.McKinney,_F.J.2002" class="citation book cs1">Dewel, R.A.; Winston, J.E.; McKinney, F.J. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4-jlUfCMlQkC&q=ectoprocta%20bryozoa%20phylogeny&pg=PA93">"Deconstructing byozoans: origin and consequences of a unique body plan"</a>. In Wyse Jacksdon, P.E.; Buttler, C.E.; Spencer Jones, M.E. (eds.). Bryozoan studies 2001: proceedings of the Twelfth International Bryozoology Conference. M.E. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger. pp. 93–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5809-388-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5809-388-2"><bdi>978-90-5809-388-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183244/https://books.google.com/books?id=4-jlUfCMlQkC&q=ectoprocta%20bryozoa%20phylogeny&pg=PA93">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 13 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Deconstructing+byozoans%3A+origin+and+consequences+of+a+unique+body+plan&rft.btitle=Bryozoan+studies+2001%3A+proceedings+of+the+Twelfth+International+Bryozoology+Conference&rft.place=Lisse&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E93-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.pub=Swets+and+Zeitlinger&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-90-5809-388-2&rft.aulast=Dewel&rft.aufirst=R.A.&rft.au=Winston%2C+J.E.&rft.au=McKinney%2C+F.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4-jlUfCMlQkC%26q%3Dectoprocta%2520bryozoa%2520phylogeny%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olempska2012-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Olempska2012_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlempska2012" class="citation journal cs1">Olempska, E. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4202%2Fapp.2011.0200">"Exceptional soft-tissue preservation in boring ctenostome bryozoans and associated "fungal" borings from the Early Devonian of Podolia, Ukraine"</a>. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 57 (4): 925–940. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4202%2Fapp.2011.0200">10.4202/app.2011.0200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Palaeontologica+Polonica&rft.atitle=Exceptional+soft-tissue+preservation+in+boring+ctenostome+bryozoans+and+associated+%22fungal%22+borings+from+the+Early+Devonian+of+Podolia%2C+Ukraine&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E925-%3C%2Fspan%3E940&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4202%2Fapp.2011.0200&rft.aulast=Olempska&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4202%252Fapp.2011.0200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinney1994" class="citation journal cs1">McKinney, F.K. (1994). "One hundred million years of competitive interactions between bryozoan clades: asymmetrical but not escalating". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 56 (3): 465–481. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1995.tb01105.x">10.1111/j.1095-8312.1995.tb01105.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=One+hundred+million+years+of+competitive+interactions+between+bryozoan+clades%3A+asymmetrical+but+not+escalating&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E465-%3C%2Fspan%3E481&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8312.1995.tb01105.x&rft.aulast=McKinney&rft.aufirst=F.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1999" class="citation book cs1">Wood, R. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H_ah6Hzib4AC&q=bryozoa+distribution+range&pg=PA235">Reef evolution</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 235–237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-857784-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-857784-3"><bdi>978-0-19-857784-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183234/https://books.google.com/books?id=H_ah6Hzib4AC&q=bryozoa+distribution+range&pg=PA235">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reef+evolution&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E235-%3C%2Fspan%3E237&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-857784-3&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH_ah6Hzib4AC%26q%3Dbryozoa%2Bdistribution%2Brange%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WoodLore2005PhylactolaemateMolPhylo-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WoodLore2005PhylactolaemateMolPhylo_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WoodLore2005PhylactolaemateMolPhylo_78-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WoodLore2005PhylactolaemateMolPhylo_78-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodLore_M.2005" class="citation book cs1">Wood, T.S.; Lore M. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bryotechnologies.com/pdf/18S_rDNA.pdf">"The higher phylogeny of phylactolaemate bryozoans inferred from 18S ribosomal DNA sequences"</a> (PDF). In Moyano, H. I.; Cancino, J.M.; Wyse-Jackson, P.N. (eds.). Bryozoan Studies 2004: Proceedings of the 13th International Bryozoology Association. London: Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 361–367. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://bryotechnologies.com/pdf/18S_rDNA.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+higher+phylogeny+of+phylactolaemate+bryozoans+inferred+from+18S+ribosomal+DNA+sequences&rft.btitle=Bryozoan+Studies+2004%3A+Proceedings+of+the+13th+International+Bryozoology+Association&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E361-%3C%2Fspan%3E367&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=T.S.&rft.au=Lore+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbryotechnologies.com%2Fpdf%2F18S_rDNA.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPohowsky1978" class="citation journal cs1">Pohowsky, R.A. (1978). "The boring ctenostomate bryozoa: taxonomy and paleobiology based on cavities in calcareous substrata". Bulletins of American Paleontology. 73: 192p.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletins+of+American+Paleontology&rft.atitle=The+boring+ctenostomate+bryozoa%3A+taxonomy+and+paleobiology+based+on+cavities+in+calcareous+substrata&rft.volume=73&rft.pages=192p&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Pohowsky&rft.aufirst=R.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGareySchmidt-Rhaesa1998" class="citation journal cs1">Garey, J.R.; Schmidt-Rhaesa, Andreas (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F38.6.907">"The Essential Role of "Minor" Phyla in Molecular Studies of Animal Evolution"</a>. American Zoologist. 38 (6): 907–917. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2F38.6.907">10.1093/icb/38.6.907</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Zoologist&rft.atitle=The+Essential+Role+of+%22Minor%22+Phyla+in+Molecular+Studies+of+Animal+Evolution&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E907-%3C%2Fspan%3E917&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2F38.6.907&rft.aulast=Garey&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rft.au=Schmidt-Rhaesa%2C+Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Ficb%252F38.6.907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nielsen2001AnimalEvoPhylumEctoprocta-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2001AnimalEvoPhylumEctoprocta_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2001AnimalEvoPhylumEctoprocta_81-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nielsen2001AnimalEvoPhylumEctoprocta_81-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNielsen2001" class="citation book cs1">Nielsen, C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UmCg6c0HkqMC&q=ectoprocta%20bryozoa%20phylogeny&pg=PA257">"Phylum Ectoprocta"</a>. Animal evolution: interrelationships of the living phyla (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 244–264. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850681-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850681-2"><bdi>978-0-19-850681-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183241/https://books.google.com/books?id=UmCg6c0HkqMC&q=ectoprocta%20bryozoa%20phylogeny&pg=PA257">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Phylum+Ectoprocta&rft.btitle=Animal+evolution%3A+interrelationships+of+the+living+phyla&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E244-%3C%2Fspan%3E264&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850681-2&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUmCg6c0HkqMC%26q%3Dectoprocta%2520bryozoa%2520phylogeny%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190201080336/http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chordata/hemichordata.html">"Introduction to the Hemichordata"</a>. University of California Museum of Paleontology. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chordata/hemichordata.html">the original</a> on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 22 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+Hemichordata&rft.pub=University+of+California+Museum+of+Paleontology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fchordata%2Fhemichordata.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008PhylogenOfLophophorates-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008PhylogenOfLophophorates_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008PhylogenOfLophophorates_83-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008PhylogenOfLophophorates_83-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008" class="citation journal cs1">Helmkampf, M.; Bruchhaus, Iris; Hausdorf, Bernhard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593926">"Phylogenomic analyses of lophophorates (brachiopods, phoronids and bryozoans) confirm the Lophotrochozoa concept"</a>. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1645): 1927–1933. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2008.0372">10.1098/rspb.2008.0372</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593926">2593926</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18495619">18495619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Phylogenomic+analyses+of+lophophorates+%28brachiopods%2C+phoronids+and+bryozoans%29+confirm+the+Lophotrochozoa+concept&rft.volume=275&rft.issue=1645&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1927-%3C%2Fspan%3E1933&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2593926%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18495619&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2008.0372&rft.aulast=Helmkampf&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Bruchhaus%2C+Iris&rft.au=Hausdorf%2C+Bernhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2593926&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNielsenWorsaae2010" class="citation journal cs1">Nielsen, C.; Worsaae, K. (September 2010). "Structure and occurrence of cyphonautes larvae (Bryozoa, Ectoprocta)". Journal of Morphology. 271 (9): 1094–1109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjmor.10856">10.1002/jmor.10856</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20730922">20730922</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11453241">11453241</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Morphology&rft.atitle=Structure+and+occurrence+of+cyphonautes+larvae+%28Bryozoa%2C+Ectoprocta%29&rft.volume=271&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1094-%3C%2Fspan%3E1109&rft.date=2010-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A11453241%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20730922&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjmor.10856&rft.aulast=Nielsen&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Worsaae%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shen2012-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Shen2012_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShen,_X.Tian,_M.Meng,_X.Liu,_H.2012" class="citation journal cs1">Shen, X.; Tian, M.; Meng, X.; Liu, H.; Cheng, H.; Zhu, C.; Zhao, F. (September 2012). "Complete mitochondrial genome of Membranipora grandicella (Bryozoa: Cheilostomatida) determined with next-generation sequencing: The first representative of the suborder Malacostegina". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part D: Genomics and Proteomics. 7 (3): 248–253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cbd.2012.03.003">10.1016/j.cbd.2012.03.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22503287">22503287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Biochemistry+and+Physiology+Part+D%3A+Genomics+and+Proteomics&rft.atitle=Complete+mitochondrial+genome+of+Membranipora+grandicella+%28Bryozoa%3A+Cheilostomatida%29+determined+with+next-generation+sequencing%3A+The+first+representative+of+the+suborder+Malacostegina&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E248-%3C%2Fspan%3E253&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cbd.2012.03.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22503287&rft.au=Shen%2C+X.&rft.au=Tian%2C+M.&rft.au=Meng%2C+X.&rft.au=Liu%2C+H.&rft.au=Cheng%2C+H.&rft.au=Zhu%2C+C.&rft.au=Zhao%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CallaghanKarlson2002SummerDormancy-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CallaghanKarlson2002SummerDormancy_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CallaghanKarlson2002SummerDormancy_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CallaghanKarlson2002SummerDormancy_86-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCallaghanR.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Callaghan, T.P.; R., Karlson (June 2002). "Summer dormancy as a refuge from mortality in the freshwater bryozoan Plumatella emarginata". Oecologia. 132 (1): 51–59. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Oecol.132...51C">2002Oecol.132...51C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00442-002-0946-0">10.1007/s00442-002-0946-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28547286">28547286</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19925846">19925846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=Summer+dormancy+as+a+refuge+from+mortality+in+the+freshwater+bryozoan+Plumatella+emarginata&rft.volume=132&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E59&rft.date=2002-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00442-002-0946-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19925846%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28547286&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Oecol.132...51C&rft.aulast=Callaghan&rft.aufirst=T.P.&rft.au=R.%2C+Karlson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pratt2008WhereFlowRight-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pratt2008WhereFlowRight_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pratt2008WhereFlowRight_87-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pratt2008WhereFlowRight_87-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratt2008" class="citation journal cs1">Pratt, M.C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.smith.edu/context/bio_facpubs/article/1297/viewcontent/Living_where_the_flow_is_right.pdf">"Living where the flow is right: How flow affects feeding in bryozoans"</a> (PDF). Integrative and Comparative Biology. 48 (6): 808–822. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2Ficn052">10.1093/icb/icn052</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21669834">21669834</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrative+and+Comparative+Biology&rft.atitle=Living+where+the+flow+is+right%3A+How+flow+affects+feeding+in+bryozoans&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E808-%3C%2Fspan%3E822&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2Ficn052&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21669834&rft.aulast=Pratt&rft.aufirst=M.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.smith.edu%2Fcontext%2Fbio_facpubs%2Farticle%2F1297%2Fviewcontent%2FLiving_where_the_flow_is_right.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyland1967" class="citation journal cs1">Ryland, J.S. (1967). "Respiration in polyzoa (ectoprocta)". Nature. 216 (5119): 1040–1041. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967Natur.216.1040R">1967Natur.216.1040R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F2161040b0">10.1038/2161040b0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4207120">4207120</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Respiration+in+polyzoa+%28ectoprocta%29&rft.volume=216&rft.issue=5119&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1040-%3C%2Fspan%3E1041&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4207120%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F2161040b0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1967Natur.216.1040R&rft.aulast=Ryland&rft.aufirst=J.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNekliudovaSchwahaKotenkoGruber2021" class="citation journal cs1">Nekliudova, U. A.; Schwaha, T. F.; Kotenko, O. N.; Gruber, D.; Cyran, N.; Ostrovsky, A. N. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8042935">"Three in one: Evolution of viviparity, coenocytic placenta and polyembryony in cyclostome bryozoans"</a>. BMC Ecology and Evolution. 21 (1): 54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12862-021-01775-z">10.1186/s12862-021-01775-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8042935">8042935</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33845757">33845757</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=Three+in+one%3A+Evolution+of+viviparity%2C+coenocytic+placenta+and+polyembryony+in+cyclostome+bryozoans&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=54&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8042935%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33845757&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12862-021-01775-z&rft.aulast=Nekliudova&rft.aufirst=U.+A.&rft.au=Schwaha%2C+T.+F.&rft.au=Kotenko%2C+O.+N.&rft.au=Gruber%2C+D.&rft.au=Cyran%2C+N.&rft.au=Ostrovsky%2C+A.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8042935&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoosbruggerSchwahaWalzlObst2012" class="citation journal cs1">Moosbrugger, M.; Schwaha, T.; Walzl, M. G.; Obst, M.; Ostrovsky, A. N. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3489856">"The placental analogue and the pattern of sexual reproduction in the cheilostome bryozoan Bicellariella ciliata (Gymnolaemata)"</a>. Frontiers in Zoology. 9 (1): 29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1742-9994-9-29">10.1186/1742-9994-9-29</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3489856">3489856</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23098166">23098166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Zoology&rft.atitle=The+placental+analogue+and+the+pattern+of+sexual+reproduction+in+the+cheilostome+bryozoan+Bicellariella+ciliata+%28Gymnolaemata%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=29&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3489856%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23098166&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1742-9994-9-29&rft.aulast=Moosbrugger&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Schwaha%2C+T.&rft.au=Walzl%2C+M.+G.&rft.au=Obst%2C+M.&rft.au=Ostrovsky%2C+A.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3489856&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKotenkoOstrovsky2024" class="citation journal cs1">Kotenko, O. N.; Ostrovsky, A. N. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024PalJ...57.1306K/abstract">"Unravelling the Evolution of Bryozoan Larvae"</a>. Paleontological Journal. 57 (11): 1306. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024PalJ...57.1306K">2024PalJ...57.1306K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS0031030123110072">10.1134/S0031030123110072</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleontological+Journal&rft.atitle=Unravelling+the+Evolution+of+Bryozoan+Larvae&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1306&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS0031030123110072&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024PalJ...57.1306K&rft.aulast=Kotenko&rft.aufirst=O.+N.&rft.au=Ostrovsky%2C+A.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fui.adsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F2024PalJ...57.1306K%2Fabstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeckerWanningerSchwaha2020" class="citation journal cs1">Decker, Sebastian; Wanninger, Andreas; Schwaha, Thomas (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13127-020-00443-2">"Morphology and life cycle of an epiphytic pherusellid ctenostome bryozoan from the Mediterranean Sea"</a>. Organisms Diversity & Evolution. 20 (3): 417–437. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020ODivE..20..417D">2020ODivE..20..417D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13127-020-00443-2">10.1007/s13127-020-00443-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Organisms+Diversity+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Morphology+and+life+cycle+of+an+epiphytic+pherusellid+ctenostome+bryozoan+from+the+Mediterranean+Sea&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E417-%3C%2Fspan%3E437&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13127-020-00443-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020ODivE..20..417D&rft.aulast=Decker&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rft.au=Wanninger%2C+Andreas&rft.au=Schwaha%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs13127-020-00443-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwaha2020" class="citation book cs1">Schwaha, Thomas (23 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SK4HEAAAQBAJ&dq=planktotrophic+ctenostome+larvae&pg=PA134">Phylum Bryozoa</a>. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-058631-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-058631-2"><bdi>978-3-11-058631-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phylum+Bryozoa&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2020-11-23&rft.isbn=978-3-11-058631-2&rft.aulast=Schwaha&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSK4HEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dplanktotrophic%2Bctenostome%2Blarvae%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwahaZeppilliGonzález-CasarrubiosCepeda2024" class="citation journal cs1">Schwaha, Thomas; Zeppilli, Daniela; González-Casarrubios, Alberto; Cepeda, Diego (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12526-024-01409-9">"The first deep-sea ctenostome bryozoan from the Indian Ocean: Aethozoon flavum sp. nov"</a>. Marine Biodiversity. 54 (2): 19. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024MarBd..54...19S">2024MarBd..54...19S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12526-024-01409-9">10.1007/s12526-024-01409-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Biodiversity&rft.atitle=The+first+deep-sea+ctenostome+bryozoan+from+the+Indian+Ocean%3A+Aethozoon+flavum+sp.+nov.&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=19&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12526-024-01409-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024MarBd..54...19S&rft.aulast=Schwaha&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Zeppilli%2C+Daniela&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez-Casarrubios%2C+Alberto&rft.au=Cepeda%2C+Diego&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs12526-024-01409-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrathmann2006" class="citation journal cs1">Strathmann, R.R. (March 2006). "Versatile ciliary behaviour in capture of particles by the bryozoan cyphonautes larva". Acta Zoologica. 87 (1): 83–89. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1463-6395.2006.00224.x">10.1111/j.1463-6395.2006.00224.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Zoologica&rft.atitle=Versatile+ciliary+behaviour+in+capture+of+particles+by+the+bryozoan+cyphonautes+larva&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E83-%3C%2Fspan%3E89&rft.date=2006-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1463-6395.2006.00224.x&rft.aulast=Strathmann&rft.aufirst=R.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WoodOkamura1999Asajirella-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WoodOkamura1999Asajirella_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WoodOkamura1999Asajirella_96-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodOkamura1998" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, T.S.; Okamura, Beth (December 1998). "Asajirella gelatinosa in Panama: a bryozoan range extension in the Western Hemisphere". <a href="/wiki/Hydrobiologia" title="Hydrobiologia">Hydrobiologia</a>. 390 (1–3): 19–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1003502814572">10.1023/A:1003502814572</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1525771">1525771</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrobiologia&rft.atitle=Asajirella+gelatinosa+in+Panama%3A+a+bryozoan+range+extension+in+the+Western+Hemisphere&rft.volume=390&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.date=1998-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1003502814572&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1525771%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=T.S.&rft.au=Okamura%2C+Beth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'DeaJacksonTaylorRodríguez2008" class="citation journal cs1">O'Dea, Aaron; Jackson, Jeremy B. C.; Taylor, Paul D.; Rodríguez, Felix (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4983.2008.00790.x">"Modes of reproduction in recent and fossil cupuladriid bryozoans"</a>. Palaeontology. 51 (4): 847–864. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Palgy..51..847O">2008Palgy..51..847O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4983.2008.00790.x">10.1111/j.1475-4983.2008.00790.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41016220">41016220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeontology&rft.atitle=Modes+of+reproduction+in+recent+and+fossil+cupuladriid+bryozoans&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E847-%3C%2Fspan%3E864&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41016220%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-4983.2008.00790.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008Palgy..51..847O&rft.aulast=O%27Dea&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Jeremy+B.+C.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Paul+D.&rft.au=Rodr%C3%ADguez%2C+Felix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1475-4983.2008.00790.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmiliani1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Emiliani" title="Cesare Emiliani">Emiliani, C.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MfAGpVq8gpQC&q=bryozoa%20marine%20tropical&pg=PA489">"The Paleozoic"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphys00emil/page/488">Planet Earth: Cosmology, Geology, & the Evolution of Life & the Environment</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphys00emil/page/488">488–490</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503652-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-503652-7"><bdi>978-0-19-503652-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 11 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Paleozoic&rft.btitle=Planet+Earth%3A+Cosmology%2C+Geology%2C+%26+the+Evolution+of+Life+%26+the+Environment&rft.pages=488-490&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-503652-7&rft.aulast=Emiliani&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMfAGpVq8gpQC%26q%3Dbryozoa%2520marine%2520tropical%26pg%3DPA489&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones2006AppliedPaleo-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jones2006AppliedPaleo_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones2006AppliedPaleo_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones2006AppliedPaleo_99-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jones2006AppliedPaleo_99-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2006" class="citation book cs1">Jones, R.W. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KJBKC4qvV8AC&q=bryozoa+marine+tropical&pg=RA5-PA116">"Principal fossil groups"</a>. Applied palaeontology. Cambridge University Press. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84199-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84199-3"><bdi>978-0-521-84199-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183244/https://books.google.com/books?id=KJBKC4qvV8AC&q=bryozoa+marine+tropical&pg=RA5-PA116">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Principal+fossil+groups&rft.btitle=Applied+palaeontology&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84199-3&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=R.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKJBKC4qvV8AC%26q%3Dbryozoa%2Bmarine%2Btropical%26pg%3DRA5-PA116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuklinskiBader2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kuklinski, P.; Bader, Beate (2007). "Comparison of bryozoan assemblages from two contrasting Arctic shelf regions". <a href="/wiki/Estuarine,_Coastal_and_Shelf_Science" title="Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science">Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science</a>. 73 (3–4): 835–843. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ECSS...73..835K">2007ECSS...73..835K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecss.2007.03.024">10.1016/j.ecss.2007.03.024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Estuarine%2C+Coastal+and+Shelf+Science&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+bryozoan+assemblages+from+two+contrasting+Arctic+shelf+regions&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E835-%3C%2Fspan%3E843&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ecss.2007.03.024&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007ECSS...73..835K&rft.aulast=Kuklinski&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Bader%2C+Beate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruscaBrusca" class="citation news cs1">Brusca, R; Brusca, G. "Invertebrates (2nd Edition)". Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Invertebrates+%282nd+Edition%29&rft.aulast=Brusca&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Brusca%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonLemerHiroseDecker2024" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, Mildred J.; Lemer, Sarah; Hirose, Masato; Decker, Sebastian H.; Schwaha, Thomas (31 December 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11686985">"Ecology of endolithic bryozoans: colony development, growth rates and interactions of species in the genus Immergentia"</a>. Zoological Letters. 10 (1): 23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40851-024-00246-9">10.1186/s40851-024-00246-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2056-306X">2056-306X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11686985">11686985</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39736804">39736804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zoological+Letters&rft.atitle=Ecology+of+endolithic+bryozoans%3A+colony+development%2C+growth+rates+and+interactions+of+species+in+the+genus+Immergentia&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23&rft.date=2024-12-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11686985%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2056-306X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F39736804&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs40851-024-00246-9&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Mildred+J.&rft.au=Lemer%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Hirose%2C+Masato&rft.au=Decker%2C+Sebastian+H.&rft.au=Schwaha%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11686985&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020159-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2020159_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020164-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2020164_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020162–163-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2020162–163_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 162–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020112–113-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2020112–113_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 112–113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor202079-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor202079_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor202079_107-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 79. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeckHaywardSpencer-Jones1995" class="citation journal cs1">Peck, L. S.; Hayward, P. J.; Spencer-Jones, M. E. (October 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00349118">"A pelagic bryozoan from Antarctica"</a>. Marine Biology. 123 (4): 757–762. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995MarBi.123..757P">1995MarBi.123..757P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00349118">10.1007/BF00349118</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83529565">83529565</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170803131921/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00349118">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Biology&rft.atitle=A+pelagic+bryozoan+from+Antarctica&rft.volume=123&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E757-%3C%2Fspan%3E762&rft.date=1995-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A83529565%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00349118&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995MarBi.123..757P&rft.aulast=Peck&rft.aufirst=L.+S.&rft.au=Hayward%2C+P.+J.&rft.au=Spencer-Jones%2C+M.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2FBF00349118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2020114-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor2020114_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTaylor2020">Taylor 2020</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatt_McGrath2014" class="citation news cs1">Matt McGrath (16 June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-27831958">"'Weedy thing' thrives as Antarctic shores warm"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140617181747/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-27831958">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=%27Weedy+thing%27+thrives+as+Antarctic+shores+warm&rft.date=2014-06-16&rft.au=Matt+McGrath&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-27831958&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamel2020" class="citation web cs1">Ramel, Gordon (5 March 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.earthlife.net/inverts/bryozoa.html">"Bryozoans: The Fascinating Colonies Of Phylum Ectoprocta"</a>. Earthlife. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220327220537/https://www.earthlife.net/inverts/bryozoa.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Earthlife&rft.atitle=Bryozoans%3A+The+Fascinating+Colonies+Of+Phylum+Ectoprocta&rft.date=2020-03-05&rft.aulast=Ramel&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.earthlife.net%2Finverts%2Fbryozoa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MargulisSchwartz1998FiveKingdomsBryozoa-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MargulisSchwartz1998FiveKingdomsBryozoa_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MargulisSchwartz1998FiveKingdomsBryozoa_112-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargulisSchwartz_K.V.1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Margulis, L.</a>; Schwartz K.V. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9IWaqAOGyt4C&q=bryozoa+ectoprocta+fouling">"Bryozoa"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fivekingdomsillu00marg_0/page/335">Five kingdoms: an illustrated guide to the phyla of life on earth</a>. Elsevier. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fivekingdomsillu00marg_0/page/335">335</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3027-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3027-9"><bdi>978-0-7167-3027-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 20 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bryozoa&rft.btitle=Five+kingdoms%3A+an+illustrated+guide+to+the+phyla+of+life+on+earth&rft.pages=335&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3027-9&rft.aulast=Margulis&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Schwartz+K.V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9IWaqAOGyt4C%26q%3Dbryozoa%2Bectoprocta%2Bfouling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIyengarHarvell2002" class="citation journal cs1">Iyengar, E.V.; Harvell, CD (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13449426">"Specificity of cues inducing defensive spines in the bryozoan Membranipora membranacea"</a>. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 225: 205–218. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002MEPS..225..205I">2002MEPS..225..205I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps225205">10.3354/meps225205</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120126225336/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13449426">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Specificity+of+cues+inducing+defensive+spines+in+the+bryozoan+Membranipora+membranacea&rft.volume=225&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E205-%3C%2Fspan%3E218&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps225205&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002MEPS..225..205I&rft.aulast=Iyengar&rft.aufirst=E.V.&rft.au=Harvell%2C+CD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.inist.fr%2F%3FaModele%3DafficheN%26cpsidt%3D13449426&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaywardRyland,_J.S.1985" class="citation book cs1">Hayward, P. J.; Ryland, J.S. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cAsVAAAAIAAJ&q=Bryozoa%20predator%20prey&pg=PA27">"Predators"</a>. Cyclostome bryozoans: keys and notes for the identification of the species. Brill Archive. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07697-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07697-6"><bdi>978-90-04-07697-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183245/https://books.google.com/books?id=cAsVAAAAIAAJ&q=Bryozoa%20predator%20prey&pg=PA27">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 18 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Predators&rft.btitle=Cyclostome+bryozoans%3A+keys+and+notes+for+the+identification+of+the+species&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07697-6&rft.aulast=Hayward&rft.aufirst=P.+J.&rft.au=Ryland%2C+J.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcAsVAAAAIAAJ%26q%3DBryozoa%2520predator%2520prey%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDayOsman1981" class="citation journal cs1">Day, R.W.; Osman, R.W. (January 1981). "Predation by Patiria miniata (Asteroidea) on bryozoans". Oecologia. 51 (3): 300–309. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981Oecol..51..300D">1981Oecol..51..300D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00540898">10.1007/BF00540898</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28310012">28310012</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19976956">19976956</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=Predation+by+Patiria+miniata+%28Asteroidea%29+on+bryozoans&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E300-%3C%2Fspan%3E309&rft.date=1981-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00540898&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19976956%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28310012&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981Oecol..51..300D&rft.aulast=Day&rft.aufirst=R.W.&rft.au=Osman%2C+R.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinneyTaylor,_P.D.Lidgard,_S.2003" class="citation book cs1">McKinney, F.K.; Taylor, P.D.; Lidgard, S. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bVlYBhq5hNYC&q=%22Predation%20on%20Bryozoans%20and%20its%20Reflection%20in%20the%20Fossil%20Record%22&pg=PA239">"Predation on Bryozoans and its Reflection in the Fossil Record"</a>. In Kelley, P.H.; Kowalewski, M.; Hansen, T.A. (eds.). Predator-prey interactions in the fossil record. Springer. pp. 239–246. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47489-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-47489-7"><bdi>978-0-306-47489-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230308183233/https://books.google.com/books?id=bVlYBhq5hNYC&q=%22Predation%20on%20Bryozoans%20and%20its%20Reflection%20in%20the%20Fossil%20Record%22&pg=PA239">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 18 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Predation+on+Bryozoans+and+its+Reflection+in+the+Fossil+Record&rft.btitle=Predator-prey+interactions+in+the+fossil+record&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E239-%3C%2Fspan%3E246&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-306-47489-7&rft.aulast=McKinney&rft.aufirst=F.K.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+P.D.&rft.au=Lidgard%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbVlYBhq5hNYC%26q%3D%2522Predation%2520on%2520Bryozoans%2520and%2520its%2520Reflection%2520in%2520the%2520Fossil%2520Record%2522%26pg%3DPA239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2006" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, T.S. (October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wright.edu/~tim.wood/documents/2006_ThaiBryos_000.pdf">"Freshwater Bryozoans of Thailand (Ectoprocta and Entoprocta)"</a> (PDF). The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University. 6 (2): 83–119. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.wright.edu/~tim.wood/documents/2006_ThaiBryos_000.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Natural+History+Journal+of+Chulalongkorn+University&rft.atitle=Freshwater+Bryozoans+of+Thailand+%28Ectoprocta+and+Entoprocta%29&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E83-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.date=2006-10&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=T.S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wright.edu%2F~tim.wood%2Fdocuments%2F2006_ThaiBryos_000.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuce2007" class="citation journal cs1">Puce, S. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18888422">"Symbiotic relationships between hydroids and bryozoans"</a>. International Symbiosis Society Congress Number 5. 44 (1–3): 137–143. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120126215431/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18888422">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Symbiosis+Society+Congress+Number+5&rft.atitle=Symbiotic+relationships+between+hydroids+and+bryozoans&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Puce&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.inist.fr%2F%3FaModele%3DafficheN%26cpsidt%3D18888422&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrayMcQuaidDavies-Coleman2005" class="citation journal cs1">Gray, C.A.; McQuaid, CD; Davies-Coleman, MT (December 2005). "A symbiotic shell-encrusting bryozoan provides subtidal whelks with chemical defence against rock lobsters". African Journal of Marine Science. 27 (3): 549–556. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005AfJMS..27..549G">2005AfJMS..27..549G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2989%2F18142320509504115">10.2989/18142320509504115</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84531235">84531235</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Journal+of+Marine+Science&rft.atitle=A+symbiotic+shell-encrusting+bryozoan+provides+subtidal+whelks+with+chemical+defence+against+rock+lobsters&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E549-%3C%2Fspan%3E556&rft.date=2005-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84531235%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2989%2F18142320509504115&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005AfJMS..27..549G&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=C.A.&rft.au=McQuaid%2C+CD&rft.au=Davies-Coleman%2C+MT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlicperaTaylorWestphal2013" class="citation journal cs1">Klicpera, André; Taylor, Paul D.; Westphal, Hildegard (30 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.836168">"Bryoliths constructed by bryozoans in symbiotic associations with hermit crabs in a tropical heterozoan carbonate system, Golfe d'Arguin, Mauritania"</a>. Marine Biodiversity. 43 (4): 429–444. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013MarBd..43..429K">2013MarBd..43..429K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12526-013-0173-4">10.1007/s12526-013-0173-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15841444">15841444</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200111231258/https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.836168">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Biodiversity&rft.atitle=Bryoliths+constructed+by+bryozoans+in+symbiotic+associations+with+hermit+crabs+in+a+tropical+heterozoan+carbonate+system%2C+Golfe+d%27Arguin%2C+Mauritania&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E429-%3C%2Fspan%3E444&rft.date=2013-07-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15841444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12526-013-0173-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013MarBd..43..429K&rft.aulast=Klicpera&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Paul+D.&rft.au=Westphal%2C+Hildegard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.pangaea.de%2F10.1594%2FPANGAEA.836168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AndersonCanningOkamura2004BryozoanHostsForPKX-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AndersonCanningOkamura2004BryozoanHostsForPKX_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AndersonCanningOkamura2004BryozoanHostsForPKX_121-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonCanningOkamura1999" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, C.; Canning, E.U.; Okamura, B. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1203412">"Molecular data implicate bryozoans as hosts for PKX (Phylum Myxozoa) and identify a clade of bryozoan parasites within the Myxozoa"</a>. Parasitology. 119 (6): 555–561. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS003118209900520X">10.1017/S003118209900520X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10633916">10633916</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2851575">2851575</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120126223846/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1203412">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Parasitology&rft.atitle=Molecular+data+implicate+bryozoans+as+hosts+for+PKX+%28Phylum+Myxozoa%29+and+identify+a+clade+of+bryozoan+parasites+within+the+Myxozoa&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E555-%3C%2Fspan%3E561&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2851575%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10633916&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS003118209900520X&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Canning%2C+E.U.&rft.au=Okamura%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.inist.fr%2F%3FaModele%3DafficheN%26cpsidt%3D1203412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClin2008" class="citation journal cs1">Clin, B. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.imh.mug.edu.pl/attachment/attachment/4761/2008t4.pdf">"Professional photosensitive eczema of fishermen by contact with bryozoans: disabling occupational dermatosis"</a> (PDF). International Maritime Health. 59 (1–4): 1–4. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19227737">19227737</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.imh.mug.edu.pl/attachment/attachment/4761/2008t4.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Maritime+Health&rft.atitle=Professional+photosensitive+eczema+of+fishermen+by+contact+with+bryozoans%3A+disabling+occupational+dermatosis&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19227737&rft.aulast=Clin&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.imh.mug.edu.pl%2Fattachment%2Fattachment%2F4761%2F2008t4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodMarsh1999" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, T.S.; Marsh, Terrence G (February 1999). "Biofouling of wastewater treatment plants by the freshwater bryozoan, Plumatella vaihiriae". Water Research. 33 (3): 609–614. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0043-1354%2898%2900274-7">10.1016/S0043-1354(98)00274-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Water+Research&rft.atitle=Biofouling+of+wastewater+treatment+plants+by+the+freshwater+bryozoan%2C+Plumatella+vaihiriae&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E609-%3C%2Fspan%3E614&rft.date=1999-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0043-1354%2898%2900274-7&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=T.S.&rft.au=Marsh%2C+Terrence+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070509175548/http://www.marinebiotech.org/bryostatin.html">"Bryostatin 1"</a>. 19 June 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marinebiotech.org/bryostatin.html">the original</a> on 9 May 2007. Retrieved 20 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bryostatin+1&rft.date=2006-06-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marinebiotech.org%2Fbryostatin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/results/NCT00606164">"Safety, Efficacy, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics Study of bryostatin 1 in Patients With Alzheimer's Disease"</a>. National Institutes of Health. 19 August 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110613200451/http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/results/NCT00606164">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Safety%2C+Efficacy%2C+Pharmacokinetics%2C+and+Pharmacodynamics+Study+of+bryostatin+1+in+Patients+With+Alzheimer%27s+Disease&rft.pub=National+Institutes+of+Health&rft.date=2009-08-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclinicaltrials.gov%2Fct2%2Fshow%2Fresults%2FNCT00606164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelsonSunLimSen2017" class="citation journal cs1">Nelson, T. J.; Sun, M. K.; Lim, C.; Sen, A.; Khan, T.; Chirila, F. V.; Alkon, D. L. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5438479">"Bryostatin Effects on Cognitive Function and PKCɛ in Alzheimer's Disease Phase IIA and Expanded Access Trials"</a>. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 58 (2): 521–535. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3233%2FJAD-170161">10.3233/JAD-170161</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5438479">5438479</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28482641">28482641</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Alzheimer%27s+Disease&rft.atitle=Bryostatin+Effects+on+Cognitive+Function+and+PKC%C9%9B+in+Alzheimer%27s+Disease+Phase+IIA+and+Expanded+Access+Trials&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E521-%3C%2Fspan%3E535&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5438479%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28482641&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3233%2FJAD-170161&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=T.+J.&rft.au=Sun%2C+M.+K.&rft.au=Lim%2C+C.&rft.au=Sen%2C+A.&rft.au=Khan%2C+T.&rft.au=Chirila%2C+F.+V.&rft.au=Alkon%2C+D.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5438479&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenderBaryzaBennettBi2002" class="citation journal cs1">Wender, P.A.; Baryza, JL; Bennett, CE; Bi, FC; Brenner, SE; Clarke, MO; Horan, JC; Kan, C; et al. (20 November 2002). "The Practical Synthesis of a Novel and Highly Potent Analogue of Bryostatin". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 124 (46): 13648–13649. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JAChS.12413648W">2002JAChS.12413648W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja027509%2B">10.1021/ja027509+</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12431074">12431074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Chemical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Practical+Synthesis+of+a+Novel+and+Highly+Potent+Analogue+of+Bryostatin&rft.volume=124&rft.issue=46&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E13648-%3C%2Fspan%3E13649&rft.date=2002-11-20&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12431074&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja027509%2B&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002JAChS.12413648W&rft.aulast=Wender&rft.aufirst=P.A.&rft.au=Baryza%2C+JL&rft.au=Bennett%2C+CE&rft.au=Bi%2C+FC&rft.au=Brenner%2C+SE&rft.au=Clarke%2C+MO&rft.au=Horan%2C+JC&rft.au=Kan%2C+C&rft.au=Lac%C3%B4te%2C+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2020" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Paul D. (2020). Bryozoan Paleobiology. London: Natural History Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118455005" title="Special:BookSources/9781118455005"><bdi>9781118455005</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bryozoan+Paleobiology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Natural+History+Museum&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781118455005&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Paul+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Hall, S.R.; Taylor, P.D.; Davis, SA; Mann, S (2002). "Electron diffraction studies of the calcareous skeletons of bryozoans". Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 88 (3–4): 410–419. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0162-0134%2801%2900359-2">10.1016/S0162-0134(01)00359-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11897358">11897358</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Inorganic+Biochemistry&rft.atitle=Electron+diffraction+studies+of+the+calcareous+skeletons+of+bryozoans&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E410-%3C%2Fspan%3E419&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0162-0134%2801%2900359-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11897358&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=S.R.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+P.D.&rft.au=Davis%2C+SA&rft.au=Mann%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hayward, P.G., J.S. Ryland and P.D. Taylor (eds.), 1992. Biology and Palaeobiology of Bryozoans, Olsen and Olsen, Fredensborg, Denmark. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Winston, J. E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2Ficq146">"Life in the Colonies: Learning the Alien Ways of Colonial Organisms"</a>. Integrative and Comparative Biology. 50 (6): 919–933. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2Ficq146">10.1093/icb/icq146</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21714171">21714171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrative+and+Comparative+Biology&rft.atitle=Life+in+the+Colonies%3A+Learning+the+Alien+Ways+of+Colonial+Organisms&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E919-%3C%2Fspan%3E933&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficb%2Ficq146&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21714171&rft.aulast=Winston&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Ficb%252Ficq146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Robison, R.A. (ed.), 1983. <a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology" title="Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology">Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology</a>, Part G, Bryozoa (revised). Geological Society of America and University of Kansas Press. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Sharp, J. H.; Winson, M. K.; Porter, J. S. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cadair.aber.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2160/3792/1/bryozoan.pdf">"Bryozoan metabolites: An ecological perspective"</a> (PDF). Natural Product Reports. 24 (4): 659–673. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fb617546e">10.1039/b617546e</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2160%2F3792">2160/3792</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17653353">17653353</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://cadair.aber.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2160/3792/1/bryozoan.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+Product+Reports&rft.atitle=Bryozoan+metabolites%3A+An+ecological+perspective&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E659-%3C%2Fspan%3E673&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2160%2F3792&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17653353&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2Fb617546e&rft.aulast=Sharp&rft.aufirst=J.+H.&rft.au=Winson%2C+M.+K.&rft.au=Porter%2C+J.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcadair.aber.ac.uk%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F2160%2F3792%2F1%2Fbryozoan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Taylor, P; Wilson, M. A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325233234/http://www.wooster.edu/geology/Taylor%26Wilson2003.pdf">"Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities"</a> (PDF). Earth-Science Reviews. 62 (1): 1–103. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ESRv...62....1T">2003ESRv...62....1T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0012-8252%2802%2900131-9">10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00131-9</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.wooster.edu/geology/taylor%26Wilson2003.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth-Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=Palaeoecology+and+evolution+of+marine+hard+substrate+communities&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E103&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0012-8252%2802%2900131-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003ESRv...62....1T&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Wilson%2C+M.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.wooster.edu%2Fgeology%2Ftaylor%2526Wilson2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Vinn, Olev; Wilson, Mark A.; Mõtus, Mari-Ann; Toom, Ursula (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265853181">"The earliest bryozoan parasite: Middle Ordovician (Darriwilian) of Osmussaar Island, Estonia"</a>. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 414: 129–132. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PPP...414..129V">2014PPP...414..129V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2014.08.021">10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.08.021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeogeography%2C+Palaeoclimatology%2C+Palaeoecology&rft.atitle=The+earliest+bryozoan+parasite%3A+Middle+Ordovician+%28Darriwilian%29+of+Osmussaar+Island%2C+Estonia&rft.volume=414&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E129-%3C%2Fspan%3E132&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.palaeo.2014.08.021&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PPP...414..129V&rft.aulast=Vinn&rft.aufirst=Olev&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Mark+A.&rft.au=M%C3%B5tus%2C+Mari-Ann&rft.au=Toom%2C+Ursula&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F265853181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABryozoa" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Woollacott, R.M. and R.L. Zimmer (eds), 1977. The Biology of Bryozoans, Academic Press, New York. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Bryozoa" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bryozoa.net/">Index to Bryozoa</a> Bryozoa Home Page, was at RMIT; now bryozoa.net</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bryozoa.net/links.html">Other Bryozoan WWW Resources</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bryozoa.net/iba/index.html">International Bryozoology Association</a> official website</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://neogenebryozoans.myspecies.info/">Neogene Bryozoa of Britain</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/IntroBryozoa.htm">Bryozoan Introduction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earthlife.net/inverts/bryozoa.html">The Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)</a></li> <li><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Bryozoa">Phylum Bryozoa</a> at Wikispecies</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141015183508/http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/conn.river/bryozoa.html">Bryozoans</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_River" title="Connecticut River">Connecticut River</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080720172410/http://www.tafi.org.au/zooplankton/imagekey/bryozoa/index.html">Bryozoa Fact Sheet</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_animal_phyla1040" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210);background:rgb(211,211,164)"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Animalia" title="Template talk:Animalia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Animalia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Animalia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_animal_phyla1040" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div><div class="hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Bacteria_classification" title="Template:Bacteria classification">Bacteria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd> <dt>(major groups</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptista" title="Template:Cryptista">Cryptista</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Alveolata" title="Template:Alveolata">Alveolata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Stramenopile" title="Template:Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plants</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Opisthokont_protists" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Mesomycetozoea" title="Template:Mesomycetozoea">Mesomycetozoea</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> </div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Animalia436" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:rgb(245,245,232);width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Porifera (sponges)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora (comb jellies)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/ParaHoxozoa" title="ParaHoxozoa">ParaHoxozoa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Planulozoa" title="Planulozoa">Planulozoa</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa (Trichoplax and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a> (Triploblasts)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>(see below↓)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(245,245,232)"><div> <dl><dt>The <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogeny</a> of the animal root <a href="/wiki/Animal#Internal_phylogeny" title="Animal">is disputed</a>; see also</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eumetazoa" title="Eumetazoa">Eumetazoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Benthozoa" title="Benthozoa">Benthozoa</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div id="Bilateria1040" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bilateria485" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:rgb(245,245,232);width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata (chordates)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Ambulacraria" title="Ambulacraria">Ambulacraria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Protostomia240" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">Protostomia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">Ecdysozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scalidophora16" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Scalidophora" title="Scalidophora">Scalidophora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida (penis worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">N+L+P</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nematoida13" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Nematoida" title="Nematoida">Nematoida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda (roundworms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="L+P3" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">L+P</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera (corset animals)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Panarthropoda" title="Panarthropoda">Panarthropoda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora (velvet worms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda (arthropods)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada (waterbears)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Spiralia" title="Spiralia">Spiralia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Gnathifera36" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Gnathifera_(Spiralia)" title="Gnathifera (Spiralia)">Gnathifera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha (arrow worms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulid" title="Gnathostomulid">Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">M+S</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limnognathia" title="Limnognathia">Micrognathozoa (Limnognathia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndermata" title="Syndermata">Syndermata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rotifer" title="Rotifer">Rotifera (wheel animals)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Platytrochozoa" title="Platytrochozoa">Platytrochozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="R+M3" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">R+M</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Rouphozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Rouphozoa">Rouphozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Platyhelminthes (flatworms)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotrich" title="Gastrotrich">Gastrotricha (hairybacks)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoa" title="Mesozoa">Mesozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida or Rhombozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salinella" title="Salinella">Monoblastozoa (Salinella)</a>†</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Lophotrochozoa" title="Lophotrochozoa">Lophotrochozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbion" title="Symbion">Cycliophora (Symbion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida (segmented worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)">M+K</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca (molluscs)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Kryptotrochozoa" title="Kryptotrochozoa">Kryptotrochozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea (ribbon worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Lophophorata" title="Lophophorata">Lophophorata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bryozoa s.l.</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta or Kamptozoa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ectoprocta (moss animals)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Brachiozoa" title="Brachiozoa">Brachiozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">Brachiopoda (lamp shells)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronida (horseshoe worms)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(245,245,232)"><div> <dl><dt>The <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogeny</a> of Bilateria <a href="/wiki/Bilateria#Phylogeny" title="Bilateria">is disputed</a>; see also</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nephrozoa" title="Nephrozoa">Nephrozoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">Deuterostomia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xenambulacraria" title="Xenambulacraria">Xenambulacraria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Centroneuralia" title="Centroneuralia">Centroneuralia</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><hr /></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Major_groupswithin_phyla29" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #f0f0f0;">Major groups within phyla</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponges</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demosponge" title="Demosponge">Demosponges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexactinellid" title="Hexactinellid">Glass sponges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous_sponge" title="Calcareous sponge">Calcareous sponges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidarians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoans inc. corals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medusozoa" title="Medusozoa">Medusozoans inc. jellyfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cephalochordate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalochordate">Lancelets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">Tunicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crinozoa" title="Crinozoa">Sea lilies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterozoa" title="Asterozoa">Asterozoans inc. starfish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinozoa" title="Echinozoa">Echinozoans inc. sea urchins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acorn_worm" title="Acorn worm">Acorn worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterobranchia" title="Pterobranchia">Pterobranchs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromadorea" title="Chromadorea">Chromadorea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoplea" title="Enoplea">Enoplea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secernentea" title="Secernentea">Secernentea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chelicerata" title="Chelicerata">Chelicerates inc. arachnids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriapoda" title="Myriapoda">Myriapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">Crustaceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexapoda" title="Hexapoda">Hexapods inc. insects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Platyhelminths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turbellaria" title="Turbellaria">Turbellaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">Trematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogenea" title="Monogenea">Monogenea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cestoda" title="Cestoda">Cestoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ectoproctans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylactolaemata" title="Phylactolaemata">Phylactolaemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stenolaemata" title="Stenolaemata">Stenolaemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnolaemata" title="Gymnolaemata">Gymnolaemata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">Polychaetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitellata" title="Clitellata">Clitellata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sipuncula" title="Sipuncula">Sipuncula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastropoda" title="Gastropoda">Gastropods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">Cephalopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bivalvia" title="Bivalvia">Bivalves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiton" title="Chiton">Chitons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusk_shell" title="Tusk shell">Tusk shells</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:rgb(235,235,210)"><div> <dl><dd>Phyla with ≥1000 extant species bolded</dd> <dd>Potentially <a href="/wiki/Dubious_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Dubious species">dubious phyla</a> †</dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain41" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain41" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> phyla/divisions by domain</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bacteria12" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferribacteraceae" title="Deferribacteraceae">Deferribacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictyoglomus_thermophilum" title="Dictyoglomus thermophilum">Dictyoglomota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiritimatiellota" title="Kiritimatiellota">Kiritimatiellota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaea11" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" class="mw-redirect" title="Euryarchaeota">Euryarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Korarchaeota" title="Korarchaeota">Korarchaeota</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota">Nanoarchaeota</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrososphaerota" title="Nitrososphaerota">Nitrososphaerota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota">Thermoproteota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeal_Richmond_Mine_acidophilic_nanoorganisms" title="Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms">Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apusomonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakobea" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobea">Jakobea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthocerotophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocerotophyta">Anthocerotophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">Lycopodiophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micrognathozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrognathozoa">Micrognathozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Parakaryon" title="Parakaryon">Parakaryon</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers2965" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers2965" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Bryozoa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q148134" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q148134">Q148134</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">ADW</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Bryozoa/">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Faunal_Directory" title="Australian Faunal Directory">AFD</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biodiversity.org.au/afd/taxa/Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">BOLD</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bench.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=7">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1BRYOP">1BRYOP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eu-nomen.eu/portal/taxon.php?GUID=urn:lsid:faunaeur.org:taxname:15424">15424</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea (new)</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fauna-eu.org/cdm_dataportal/taxon/cf9fb193-0b4a-4c9c-a4f0-d5e00f257551">cf9fb193-0b4a-4c9c-a4f0-d5e00f257551</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/53">53</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/68104">68104</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=140">140</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=155469">155469</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=10205">10205</a></li> <li>NZOR: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/2353967f-ea0a-4495-9db7-0b408fd3dc19">2353967f-ea0a-4495-9db7-0b408fd3dc19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=442934">442934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=24773">24773</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=146142">146142</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox1488" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q148134#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4170528-2">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85017385">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119498769">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119498769">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph386384&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007292550205171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&oldid=1271105785">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&oldid=1271105785</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bryozoans" title="Category:Bryozoans">Bryozoans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Protostome_phyla" title="Category:Protostome phyla">Protostome phyla</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Early_Ordovician_first_appearances" title="Category:Early Ordovician first appearances">Early Ordovician first appearances</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Extant_Ordovician_first_appearances" title="Category:Extant Ordovician first appearances">Extant Ordovician first appearances</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Taxa_named_by_Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg" title="Category:Taxa named by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg">Taxa named by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Latin-language_sources_(la)" title="Category:CS1 Latin-language sources (la)">CS1 Latin-language sources (la)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from August 2024">Articles with dead external links from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Good_articles" title="Category:Good articles">Good articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_September_2015" title="Category:Use dmy dates from September 2015">Use dmy dates from September 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_German-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing German-language text">Articles containing German-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_%27species%27_microformats" title="Category:Articles with 'species' microformats">Articles with 'species' microformats</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text">Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_missing_ISBNs" title="Category:Pages with missing ISBNs">Pages with missing ISBNs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link from Wikidata">Commons category link from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 January 2025, at 16:42 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bryozoa&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"> Search </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" >Bryozoa</div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 68 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-268bn","wgBackendResponseTime":186,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.941","walltime":"2.283","ppvisitednodes":{"value":27188,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":657552,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":34397,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":24,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":21,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":570303,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":16,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1967.630 1 -total"," 35.44% 697.331 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.47% 402.854 66 Template:Cite_journal"," 19.56% 384.788 1 Template:Automatic_taxobox"," 10.42% 205.123 30 Template:Navbox"," 9.48% 186.442 44 Template:Cite_book"," 8.04% 158.111 7 Template:Clade"," 6.01% 118.346 1 Template:Animalia"," 5.92% 116.443 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 5.67% 111.661 1 Template:Fossil_range"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.215","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20175554,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAndersonCanningOkamura1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeattyBlackwelder1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBockGordon2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBranchGriffiths,_C.I.Beckley,_L.E.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrusca1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruscaBrusca\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCallaghanR.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuffey1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDayOsman1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeckerWanningerSchwaha2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDewelWinston,_J.E.McKinney,_F.J.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoherty,_P.J.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEckmanOkamura1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrenberg1831\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmiliani1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErnst2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErnst2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFishFish,_S.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuchsObstSundberg2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGareySchmidt-Rhaesa1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhiselin1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiere2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGrayMcQuaidDavies-Coleman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalanych2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHausdorfHelmkampfMeyerWitek2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayward1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaywardRyland,_J.S.1985\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHelmkampfBruchhausHausdorf2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIyengarHarvell2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJablonskiLidgardTaylor1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacksonKey2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonLemerHiroseDecker2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlicperaTaylorWestphal2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKotenkoOstrovsky2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuklinskiBader2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScott_R.1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittleFowler,_H.W.Coulson,_J.Onions,_C.T.1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittleFowler,_H.W.Coulson,_J.Onions,_C.T.1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittleFowler,_H.WCoulson,_J.Onions,_C.T.1964\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMaTaylorXiaZhan2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargulisSchwartz_K.V.1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMassardGeimer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatt_McGrath2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKinney1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKinneyFrank_KJeremy\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKinneyJackson,_J.B.C.1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKinneyTaylor,_P.D.Lidgard,_S.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoosbruggerSchwahaWalzlObst2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuir-Wood1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNekliudovaSchwahaKotenkoGruber2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelsonSunLimSen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNielsen,_C.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNielsen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNielsen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNielsenWorsaae2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;DeaJacksonTaylorRodríguez2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlempska2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeckHaywardSpencer-Jones1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPohowsky1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratt2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuce2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamel2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReynolds2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichFenton,_M.A.Fenton,_C.L.1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiisgårdNielsenLarsen2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuppert,_E.E.Fox,_R.S.Barnes,_R.D.2004\"] = 8,\n [\"CITEREFRyland1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwaha2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwahaBernhardEdgcombTodaro2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwahaOstrovskyWanninger2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwahaZeppilliGonzález-CasarrubiosCepeda2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShen,_X.Tian,_M.Meng,_X.Liu,_H.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStebbing1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrathmann2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorBerningWilson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorJames2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson1830\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorsvikRyanTrenchHarper1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrumbleBrown,_L2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVogel1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWenderBaryzaBennettBi2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWoodLore_M.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodMarsh1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodOkamura1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYangLanZhangSmith2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYokoboriIsetoAsakawaSasaki2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhangZhangMaTaylor2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_Dassow2006\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"=\"] = 4,\n [\"Animalia\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated image\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotation\"] = 16,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Automatic taxobox\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 44,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 66,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 6,\n [\"Clade\"] = 7,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 5,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 10,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Fossil range\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Grc-tr\"] = 2,\n [\"Grc-transl\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN?\"] = 3,\n [\"Lang\"] = 5,\n [\"Legend2\"] = 4,\n [\"Life on Earth\"] = 1,\n [\"Lit\"] = 2,\n [\"Ma\"] = 5,\n [\"MirrorH\"] = 3,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Pb\"] = 3,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 13,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 2,\n [\"Stereo image\"] = 1,\n [\"Taxonbar\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","360","26.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","7.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","100","7.4"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","80","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntity","60","4.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","40","2.9"],["[others]","360","26.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-5b65fffc7d-t5vg8","timestamp":"20250214172842","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Bryozoa","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bryozoa","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q148134","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q148134","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-02-25T15:43:11Z","dateModified":"2025-01-22T16:42:28Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/3\/33\/Haeckel_Bryozoa.jpg","headline":"phylum of marine invertebrates"}</script> </body> </html>