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century advances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid_to_late_20th_century_advances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Contemporary developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Forms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Core_principles_of_emergentism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_principles_of_emergentism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Core principles of emergentism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Core_principles_of_emergentism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Core principles of emergentism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Core_principles_of_emergentism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definition_and_nature_of_emergence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition_and_nature_of_emergence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Definition and nature of emergence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition_and_nature_of_emergence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_emergence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_emergence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Types of emergence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_emergence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Key characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_foundations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_foundations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Theoretical foundations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theoretical_foundations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theoretical foundations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_foundations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_other_philosophical_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_other_philosophical_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Relationship to other philosophical theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_other_philosophical_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_vitalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_vitalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Relationship to vitalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_vitalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ontological_vs._epistemological_emergentism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ontological_vs._epistemological_emergentism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Ontological vs. epistemological emergentism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ontological_vs._epistemological_emergentism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causality_in_emergentism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causality_in_emergentism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Causality in emergentism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causality_in_emergentism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Scientific perspectives</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_perspectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Scientific perspectives subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emergence_in_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_in_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Emergence in physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_in_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_in_biology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_in_biology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Emergence in biology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_in_biology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_in_cognitive_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_in_cognitive_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Emergence in cognitive science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_in_cognitive_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergentism_and_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergentism_and_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Emergentism and language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergentism_and_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linguistic_emergence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_emergence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>Linguistic emergence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_emergence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pragmatics_and_Semantics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pragmatics_and_Semantics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.2</span> <span>Pragmatics and Semantics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pragmatics_and_Semantics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_emergentism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_emergentism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.3</span> <span>Literary emergentism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_emergentism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms_and_debates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms_and_debates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticisms and debates</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticisms_and_debates-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticisms and debates subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticisms_and_debates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Main_criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Main criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Main_criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Responses_to_criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responses_to_criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Responses to criticisms</span> </div> 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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>In philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interdisciplinary_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interdisciplinary_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Interdisciplinary applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interdisciplinary_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_Philosophers_and_Scientists_in_Emergentism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_Philosophers_and_Scientists_in_Emergentism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notable Philosophers and Scientists in Emergentism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_Philosophers_and_Scientists_in_Emergentism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Future research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" 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.mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-AI_generated plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:OOjs_UI_icon_robot.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/OOjs_UI_icon_robot.svg/40px-OOjs_UI_icon_robot.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/OOjs_UI_icon_robot.svg/60px-OOjs_UI_icon_robot.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/OOjs_UI_icon_robot.svg/80px-OOjs_UI_icon_robot.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may incorporate text from a <a href="/wiki/Large_language_model" title="Large language model">large language model</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> It may include <a href="/wiki/Hallucination_(artificial_intelligence)" title="Hallucination (artificial intelligence)">hallucinated</a> information or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Fictitious_references" title="Wikipedia:Fictitious references">references</a>. Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit">remove</a> claims that are <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:RS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:RS">unverifiable</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:COPYVIO" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:COPYVIO">copyright violations</a>. See <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:LLM" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:LLM">the project page about this</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Emergentism</b> is the belief in <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a>, particularly as it involves <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>. A property of a <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> is said to be emergent if it is a new outcome of some other properties of the system and their interaction, while it is itself different from them.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, emergentism is analyzed both as it contrasts with and parallels <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This philosophical theory suggests that higher-level properties and phenomena arise from the interactions and organization of lower-level entities yet are not reducible to these simpler components. It emphasizes the idea that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg/260px-SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg/390px-SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg/520px-SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1124" data-file-height="1437" /></a><figcaption>The formation of complex symmetrical and <a href="/wiki/Fractal" title="Fractal">fractal</a> <a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">patterns</a> in <a href="/wiki/Snowflake" title="Snowflake">snowflakes</a> exemplifies emergence in a physical system.</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_concepts_of_emergence">Early concepts of emergence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early concepts of emergence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of emergence can be traced back to ancient philosophical traditions. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, in particular, suggested that the whole could possess properties that its individual parts did not, laying an early foundation for emergentist thought. This idea persisted through the ages, influencing various schools of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "emergence" was formally introduced in the 19th century by the philosopher George Henry Lewes. He distinguished between "resultant" and "emergent" properties, where resultant properties could be predicted from the properties of the parts, whereas emergent properties could not. This distinction was crucial in differentiating emergent phenomena from simple aggregative effects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_in_the_20th_century">Development in the 20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development in the 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 20th century, emergentism gained further traction through the works of British emergentists like C.D. Broad and Samuel Alexander. C.D. Broad, in his 1925 book <i>The Mind and Its Place in Nature</i>, argued that <a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">mental states</a> were emergent properties of brain processes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroad192556_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroad192556-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alexander" title="Samuel Alexander">Samuel Alexander</a>, in his work <i>Space, Time, and Deity</i>, suggested that emergent qualities like <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> could not be fully explained by the underlying physical processes alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander1920213_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1920213-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These philosophers were reacting against the reductionist view that all phenomena could be fully explained by their constituent parts. They argued that emergent properties such as consciousness have their own causal powers and cannot be reduced to or predicted from their base components. This period also saw the influence of <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt psychology</a>, which emphasized that psychological phenomena cannot be understood solely by analyzing their component parts, further supporting emergentist ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mid_to_late_20th_century_advances">Mid to late 20th century advances</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mid to late 20th century advances"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the mid-20th century, emergentism was somewhat overshadowed by the rise of <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive sciences">cognitive sciences</a>, which often leaned towards more reductionist explanations. However, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a> found renewed interest towards the late 20th century with the advent of <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">complex systems</a> theory and <a href="/wiki/Non-linear_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linear dynamics">non-linear dynamics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this period, scientists and philosophers began to explore how complex behaviors and properties could arise from relatively simple interactions in systems as diverse as ant colonies, economic markets, and <a href="/wiki/Neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural networks">neural networks</a>. This interdisciplinary approach highlighted the ubiquity and importance of emergent phenomena across different domains, from <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> to <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_developments">Contemporary developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Contemporary developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In recent years, emergentism has continued to evolve, integrating insights from various scientific fields. For example, in physics, the study of phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductivity</a> and the behavior of complex <a href="/wiki/Quantum_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum systems">quantum systems</a> has provided empirical examples of emergent properties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In biology, the study of complex <a href="/wiki/Biological_network" title="Biological network">biological networks</a> and the dynamics of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> has further illustrated how emergent properties play a crucial role in natural systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKauffman199371_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKauffman199371-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The resurgence of interest in <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> has also contributed to contemporary discussions on emergentism. Researchers in these fields are particularly interested in how intelligent behavior and consciousness might emerge from artificial systems, providing new perspectives and challenges for emergentist theories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2001_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms">Forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism can be compatible with <a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">physicalism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the theory that the universe is composed exclusively of physical entities, and in particular with the evidence relating changes in the brain with changes in mental functioning. </p><p>Some varieties of emergentism are not specifically concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a> but constitute a theory of the nature of the universe comparable to <a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">pantheism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They suggest a <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchical</a> or layered view of the whole of nature, with the layers arranged in terms of increasing <a href="/wiki/Complexity" title="Complexity">complexity</a> with each requiring its own <a href="/wiki/Special_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Special science">special science</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Core_principles_of_emergentism">Core principles of emergentism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Core principles of emergentism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism is underpinned by several core principles that define its theoretical framework and distinguish it from other philosophical doctrines such as <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition_and_nature_of_emergence">Definition and nature of emergence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Definition and nature of emergence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergence refers to the arising of novel and <a href="/wiki/Coherent_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Coherent structure">coherent structures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Patterns">patterns</a>, and properties during the process of <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organization</a> in complex systems. These emergent properties are not predictable from the properties of the individual components alone. Emergent properties are seen as a result of the interactions and relationships between the components of a system, which produce new behaviors and characteristics that are not present in the isolated parts. This concept is crucial in understanding why certain phenomena cannot be fully explained by analyzing their parts independently.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_emergence">Types of emergence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Types of emergence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism distinguishes between two main types of emergence: weak and strong. </p> <ul><li><b>Weak emergence</b>: This type of emergence involves properties that can in principle be derived from the interactions of lower-level entities but are not immediately obvious. These properties are emergent in the sense that they are the result of complex interactions but do not involve fundamentally new properties. For instance, the behavior of a computer program can be understood by examining its code, but the complexity of the program's behavior may not be immediately apparent from the code alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Strong emergence</b>: This type of emergence involves properties that are fundamentally new and cannot be predicted or explained by the behavior of the lower-level components. Strong emergent properties are seen as novel qualities that arise from the complex interactions within a system. An example often cited in discussions of strong emergence is consciousness, which some argue cannot be fully explained by the physical processes of the brain alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_characteristics">Key characteristics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Key characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergent properties are characterized by several key features that distinguish them from simple aggregative properties: </p> <ul><li><b>Irreducibility</b>: Emergent properties cannot be reduced to or fully explained by their constituent parts. This means that understanding the individual components of a system is not sufficient to understand the emergent properties that arise from their interactions. For example, the wetness of water is an emergent property that cannot be understood solely by examining individual water molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Novel properties</b>: Emergent systems exhibit new properties that are not present in their individual components. These properties arise from the complex interactions and relationships between the parts of the system. The novelty of emergent properties is a key aspect that distinguishes them from the properties of the individual parts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroad192564_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroad192564-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Non-linearity</b>: The relationship between the parts of a system and its emergent properties is often non-linear, meaning that small changes in the components or their interactions can lead to large and unexpected changes in the emergent properties. This non-linearity is a hallmark of complex systems and is a crucial aspect of emergent phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Context-dependence</b>: Emergent properties are often context-dependent, meaning that they arise from the specific organization and interactions within a system. Changes in the context or organization of the system can lead to changes in the emergent properties. This context-dependence highlights the importance of considering the system as a whole when studying emergent phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_foundations">Theoretical foundations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Theoretical foundations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The theoretical foundations of emergentism are deeply intertwined with various philosophical theories and debates, particularly those concerning the nature of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, the relationship between parts and wholes, and the nature of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>. Emergentism contrasts sharply with <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a>, which attempts to explain complex phenomena entirely in terms of their simpler components, and <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holism</a>, which emphasizes the whole without necessarily addressing the emergence of properties.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_to_other_philosophical_theories">Relationship to other philosophical theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Relationship to other philosophical theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism stands in contrast to reductionism, which holds that all phenomena can be fully explained by their constituent parts. Reductionists argue that understanding the basic building blocks of a system provides a complete understanding of the system itself. However, emergentists contend that this approach overlooks the novel properties that arise from complex interactions within a system. For example, while the properties of water can be traced back to <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> atoms, the wetness of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> cannot be fully explained by examining these <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a> in isolation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Holism, on the other hand, emphasizes the significance of the whole system, suggesting that the properties of the whole are more important than the properties of the parts. Emergentism agrees with holism to some extent but differs in that it specifically focuses on how new properties emerge from the interactions within the system. Holism often overlooks the dynamic processes that lead to the emergence of new properties, which are central to emergentism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_to_vitalism">Relationship to vitalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Relationship to vitalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></div> <p>Emmeche <i>et al.</i> (1998) state that "there is a very important difference between the vitalists and the emergentists: the vitalist's creative forces were relevant only in organic substances, not in inorganic matter. Emergence hence is creation of new properties regardless of the substance involved." "The assumption of an extra-physical vitalis (vital force, <a href="/wiki/Entelechy" class="mw-redirect" title="Entelechy">entelechy</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lan_vital" title="Élan vital">élan vital</a>, etc.), as formulated in most forms (old or new) of vitalism, is usually without any genuine explanatory power. It has served altogether too often as an <a href="/wiki/Thought-terminating_clich%C3%A9" title="Thought-terminating cliché">intellectual tranquilizer or verbal sedative</a>—stifling scientific inquiry rather than encouraging it to proceed in new directions."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ontological_vs._epistemological_emergentism">Ontological vs. epistemological emergentism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ontological vs. epistemological emergentism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism can be divided into ontological and epistemological categories, each addressing different aspects of emergent properties. </p> <ul><li><b>Ontological emergentism</b>: This perspective asserts that emergent properties genuinely exist in the world. Ontological emergentists argue that emergent properties are real and have causal powers. For example, the consciousness that arises from neural processes in the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> is seen as a real, causally efficacious property that cannot be reduced to or predicted from the underlying physical processes alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim199897_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim199897-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Epistemological emergentism</b>: This perspective suggests that emergent properties arise due to our limitations in knowledge and understanding. According to epistemological emergentists, what we perceive as emergent properties are actually the result of complex interactions that we do not yet fully understand. Therefore, these properties are not fundamentally new but appear so because of our current epistemic limitations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Causality_in_emergentism">Causality in emergentism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Causality in emergentism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A crucial aspect of emergentism is its treatment of <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>, particularly the concept of <a href="/wiki/Downward_causation" title="Downward causation">downward causation</a>. Downward causation refers to the influence that higher-level properties can exert on the behavior of lower-level entities within a system. This idea challenges the traditional view that causation only works from the bottom up, from simpler to more complex levels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Downward causation</b>: Emergentists argue that emergent properties can have causal effects on the components of the system from which they arise. For instance, social structures and norms can influence individual behavior, even though these structures and norms themselves emerge from the interactions between individuals. This two-way causal relationship is a key feature of emergent systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Two-way causality</b>: In emergent systems, causality is not unidirectional. While lower-level interactions give rise to emergent properties, these emergent properties can, in turn, affect the behavior and interactions at the lower level. This bidirectional causality highlights the complexity and interdependence of emergent systems, making them resistant to reductionist explanations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_perspectives">Scientific perspectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Scientific perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism finds its scientific support and application across various disciplines, illustrating how complex behaviors and properties arise from simpler interactions. These scientific perspectives demonstrate the practical significance of emergentist theories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_in_physics">Emergence in physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Emergence in physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, emergence is observed in phenomena where macroscopic properties arise from the interactions of microscopic components. A classic example is <a href="/wiki/Superconductivity" title="Superconductivity">superconductivity</a>, where the collective behavior of <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a> in certain materials leads to the phenomenon of zero <a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical resistance">electrical resistance</a>. This emergent property cannot be fully explained by the properties of individual electrons alone, but rather by their interactions within the lattice structure of the material.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another significant example is <a href="/wiki/Quantum_entanglement" title="Quantum entanglement">quantum entanglement</a>, where particles become interconnected in such a way that the state of one particle instantly influences the state of another, regardless of the distance between them. This non-local property emerges from the quantum interactions and cannot be predicted merely by understanding the individual particles separately. Such emergent properties challenge classical notions of locality and causality, showcasing the profound implications of emergentism in modern physics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, emergent behaviors are observed in <a href="/wiki/Non-equilibrium_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-equilibrium systems">non-equilibrium systems</a> where patterns and structures spontaneously form. For instance, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9nard_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Bénard cells">Bénard cells</a> — a phenomenon where heated fluid forms <a href="/wiki/Hexagonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexagonal">hexagonal</a> <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> cells — arise from <a href="/wiki/Thermal_gradients" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal gradients">thermal gradients</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">fluid dynamics</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organization</a> is an emergent property of the system, highlighting how macro-level order can emerge from micro-level interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_in_biology">Emergence in biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Emergence in biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergent phenomena are prevalent in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, particularly in the study of life and evolutionary processes. One of the most fundamental examples is the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> from non-living chemical compounds. This process, often studied through the lens of <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">abiogenesis</a>, involves complex <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> that lead to <a href="/wiki/Self-replicating" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-replicating">self-replicating</a> molecules and eventually <a href="/wiki/Living_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Living organisms">living organisms</a>. The properties of life — such as <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">growth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a> — emerge from these molecular interactions and cannot be fully understood by examining individual molecules in isolation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKauffman199388_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKauffman199388-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In evolutionary biology, the diversity of life forms arises from <a href="/wiki/Genetic_mutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic mutations">genetic mutations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, and environmental interactions. Complex traits such as the eye or the brain emerge over time through evolutionary processes. These traits exhibit novel properties that are not predictable from the genetic components alone but result from the dynamic interplay between genes and the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Systems biology further illustrates emergent properties in biological networks. For example, metabolic networks where <a href="/wiki/Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymes">enzymes</a> and substrates interact exhibit emergent behaviors like <a href="/wiki/Robustness" title="Robustness">robustness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adaptability" title="Adaptability">adaptability</a>. These properties are crucial for the survival of organisms in changing environments and arise from the complex interconnections within the network.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_in_cognitive_science">Emergence in cognitive science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Emergence in cognitive science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, emergentism plays a crucial role in understanding <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive processes">cognitive processes</a>. Consciousness is often cited as a paradigmatic example of an emergent property. While neural processes in the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> involve electrochemical interactions among <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a>, the subjective experience of consciousness arises from these processes in a way that is not directly reducible to them. This emergence of conscious experience from neural substrates is a central topic in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a> and cognitive science.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim1998102_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim1998102-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> (AI) and <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> provide contemporary examples of emergent behavior in artificial systems. Complex algorithms and <a href="/wiki/Neural_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural networks">neural networks</a> can learn, adapt, and exhibit intelligent behavior that is not explicitly programmed. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a> models can recognize patterns and make decisions based on vast amounts of data, demonstrating emergent <a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">intelligence</a> from simpler computational rules. This emergent behavior in AI systems reflects the principles of emergentism, where higher-level functions arise from the interaction of lower-level components.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2001_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergentism_and_language">Emergentism and language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Emergentism and language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism and <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> are intricately connected through the concept that linguistic properties and structures arise from simpler interactions among cognitive, communicative and social processes. This perspective provides a dynamic view of <a href="/wiki/Language_development" title="Language development">language development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, emphasizing the role of interaction and <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> over innate or static principles. This connection can be explored from several angles: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Linguistic_emergence">Linguistic emergence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Linguistic emergence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_development" title="Language development">Language development</a>: Emergentism posits that language structures and rules emerge from the interaction of simpler neural and cognitive processes rather than being innate or pre-programmed. This idea contrasts with Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar, which suggests that the ability to acquire language is hard-wired into the brain. Emergentists argue that language arises from general cognitive capabilities such as pattern recognition and memory interacting with environmental input.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>: Syntax and grammatical rules are seen as emergent properties resulting from the usage patterns of speakers within a language community. As individuals communicate, certain patterns become regularized and form the basis of syntactic rules. These rules are not explicitly taught but emerge naturally from the communicative practices of the community.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Connectionist models</b>: In computational linguistics, connectionist or neural network models provide a framework for understanding how language properties can emerge from simpler processes. These models simulate how neural connections in the brain can give rise to complex behaviors like language comprehension and production through learning and interaction. For instance, a neural network might learn to generate grammatically correct sentences by being exposed to large datasets of language, demonstrating emergent properties from the training data.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Language evolution</b>: From a sociolinguistic perspective, the evolution of language itself can be viewed through an emergentist lens. Languages change and develop new properties over time as speakers interact, adapt, and innovate. These changes are emergent phenomena resulting from social interaction, cultural exchange, and cognitive adaptation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pragmatics_and_Semantics">Pragmatics and Semantics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pragmatics and Semantics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>: Emergentism also applies to the way meaning (semantics) and context (pragmatics) are derived in language. Meaning is not fixed but emerges from the use of words in specific contexts. Pragmatic rules such as implicatures and speech acts arise from the conventions and expectations of communication within a community. These rules are not pre-determined but develop dynamically as speakers interact.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Child language development</b>: In the context of language acquisition, emergentism suggests that children learn language through interaction with their environment and the gradual build-up of linguistic structures. Children are exposed to language data and through cognitive processes such as pattern recognition and hypothesis testing develop an understanding of linguistic rules. This process is emergent because it arises from the interaction of the child's cognitive capabilities with the linguistic input they receive.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literary_emergentism">Literary emergentism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Literary emergentism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Literary emergentism is a trend in literary theory. It arises as a reaction against traditional interpretive approaches – <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>, etc., accusing them of analytical <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a> and lack of hierarchy. Literary emergentism claims to describe the emergence of a text as contemplative logic consisting of seven degrees, similar to the epistemological doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a> in his <a href="/wiki/The_Philosophy_of_Freedom" title="The Philosophy of Freedom">Philosophy of Freedom</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also references to <a href="/wiki/Terrence_Deacon" title="Terrence Deacon">Terrence Deacon</a>, author of the theory of Incomplete nature, according to whom the emergent perspective is metaphysical, whereas the human consciousness emerges as an incessant creation of something from nothing. <sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Dimitar Kalev, in all modern literary-theoretical discourses, there is an epistemological "gap" present between the sensory-imagery phenomena of reading and their proto-phenomena from the text. <sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, in any attempt at literary reconstructions, certain "destruction" is reached, which, from an epistemological point of view, is a designation of the existing transcendence as some "interruption" of the divine "top-down". The emergentist approach does not interpret the text but rather reconstructs its becoming, identifying itself with the contemplative logic of the writer, claiming that it possesses a being of ideal objectivity and universal accessibility. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms_and_debates">Criticisms and debates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Criticisms and debates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism, like any philosophical theory, has been subject to various criticisms and debates. These discussions revolve around the validity of emergent properties, the explanatory power of emergentism, and its implications for other areas of philosophy and science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Main_criticisms">Main criticisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Main criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Lack of empirical evidence</b>: One of the primary criticisms of emergentism is the perceived lack of empirical evidence supporting the existence of emergent properties. Critics argue that many so-called emergent properties can eventually be explained by more detailed examination of lower-level processes. For instance, while consciousness is often cited as an emergent property, some scientists believe that advances in neuroscience may eventually explain it in purely physical terms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim1998112_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim1998112-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Conceptual ambiguity</b>: The term "emergence" is sometimes criticized for being vague and inconsistently defined. Critics argue that without a clear and precise definition, the concept of emergence can be too flexible, leading to its overuse or misuse in various contexts. This ambiguity can make it difficult to distinguish genuine emergent properties from those that are merely complex.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Reductionist arguments</b>: Reductionists argue that all phenomena, including those considered emergent, can ultimately be explained by their constituent parts and the laws governing them. They contend that emergentism often underestimates the explanatory power of reductionist approaches and overestimates the novelty of emergent properties. According to reductionists, what appears to be emergent might simply be the result of incomplete understanding of the underlying processes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Responses_to_criticisms">Responses to criticisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Responses to criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Philosophical counterarguments</b>: Proponents of emergentism argue that emergent properties are necessary to explain the complexity of certain phenomena. They maintain that some properties cannot be reduced to or predicted from their constituent parts, emphasizing the importance of considering the system as a whole. For example, the wetness of water or the behavior of a market cannot be fully understood by analyzing individual molecules or transactions alone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Scientific evidence</b> Supporting Emergence: Emergentists point to various examples in physics, biology, and cognitive science where emergent properties provide the best explanations for observed phenomena. In physics, phenomena such as superconductivity and quantum entanglement are often cited as cases where emergent properties are crucial for understanding the behavior of systems. In biology, the emergence of life from non-living matter and the complex behavior of ecosystems are seen as evidence supporting emergentist views.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Clarifying definitions and criteria</b>: In response to the criticism of conceptual ambiguity, some philosophers and scientists have worked on providing clearer definitions and criteria for emergence. They aim to distinguish between weak and strong emergence more precisely and to specify the conditions under which properties can be considered genuinely emergent. This effort helps to reduce the flexibility and potential misuse of the concept.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>These criticisms and debates highlight the dynamic and evolving nature of emergentism, reflecting its impact and relevance across various fields of inquiry. By addressing these challenges, proponents of emergentism continue to refine and strengthen their theoretical framework. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications_of_emergentism">Applications of emergentism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Applications of emergentism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism finds applications across various scientific and philosophical domains, illustrating how complex behaviors and properties can arise from simpler interactions. These applications underscore the practical relevance of emergentist theories and their impact on understanding complex systems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_science">In science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: In science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Complex systems</b>: Emergentism provides a framework for understanding complex systems in various scientific fields. In physics, emergent properties such as superconductivity arise from the collective behavior of electrons, which cannot be fully explained by examining individual electrons alone. This collective behavior demonstrates how new properties emerge from the interactions within the system, offering insights into phenomena that are otherwise difficult to explain through reductionist approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Network theory</b>: Network theory applies emergentist principles to study how interactions within networks lead to emergent properties. In biology, for example, metabolic networks exhibit robustness and adaptability as emergent behaviors arising from the interactions of enzymes and substrates. These properties are crucial for the survival of organisms in changing environments and provide a deeper understanding of biological resilience and adaptation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Quantum mechanics</b>: In quantum mechanics, phenomena such as quantum entanglement and superposition illustrate emergent properties that challenge classical notions of causality and locality. These properties emerge from the complex interactions of quantum particles, providing a richer understanding of the fundamental nature of matter and energy. Emergentist approaches in quantum mechanics help bridge the gap between microscopic and macroscopic descriptions of physical systems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_philosophy">In philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: In philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a>: Emergentism plays a significant role in the philosophy of mind, particularly in discussions about <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mental_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental states">mental states</a>. It offers an alternative to reductionist views by suggesting that mental properties emerge from neural processes but possess their own causal powers. This perspective helps address the mind-body problem by proposing that consciousness is an emergent property that cannot be fully explained by physical processes alone, thus enriching our understanding of the nature of mind and cognition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim1998119_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim1998119-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>: Emergentist theories are applied in ethics to explain how moral values and ethical principles can emerge from social and cultural interactions. According to emergentism, ethical norms and values are not pre-existing entities but arise from the complex interactions and agreements within a society. This view helps to understand the dynamic and evolving nature of morality, providing a framework for addressing ethical issues in a rapidly changing world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a>: In epistemology, emergentism is used to explore how knowledge and understanding arise from simpler cognitive processes. Emergentist theories suggest that our ability to form concepts, reason, and understand complex phenomena results from the interactions of more basic cognitive functions. This approach provides insights into the nature of knowledge and the processes underlying learning and comprehension.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interdisciplinary_applications">Interdisciplinary applications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Interdisciplinary applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a>: In artificial intelligence (AI), emergentist principles are used to develop systems that exhibit intelligent behavior through the interaction of simpler algorithms. Machine learning models, such as neural networks, demonstrate how complex behaviors can emerge from the training and adaptation processes. These models learn to recognize patterns and make decisions based on large datasets, reflecting the principles of emergentism in their design and functionality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2001_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>: Emergentism is applied in sociology and economics to understand how complex social behaviors and economic trends arise from individual actions and interactions. In sociology, emergentist theories help explain how social norms, institutions, and collective behaviors develop from the interactions of individuals within a society. In economics, emergent properties such as market trends and economic cycles are seen as the result of numerous individual decisions and actions, providing a comprehensive framework for analyzing economic phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a>: Emergentist approaches in linguistics study how language structures and rules emerge from the interactions and usage patterns of speakers. Syntax, grammar, and meaning are seen as emergent properties resulting from social interactions and cognitive processes. This perspective provides a dynamic understanding of language development and evolution, highlighting the role of interaction and adaptation in linguistic phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>These applications of emergentism illustrate its broad relevance and utility in explaining and understanding complex systems across various domains, highlighting the interdisciplinary impact of emergentist theories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_Philosophers_and_Scientists_in_Emergentism">Notable Philosophers and Scientists in Emergentism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notable Philosophers and Scientists in Emergentism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism has been significantly shaped and debated by numerous philosophers and scientists over the years. Here are notable figures who have contributed to the development and discourse of emergentism, providing a rich tapestry of ideas and empirical evidence that support the theory's application across various domains: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: One of the earliest thinkers to suggest that the whole could possess properties that its individual parts did not. This idea laid the foundational groundwork for emergentist thought by emphasizing that certain phenomena cannot be fully explained by their individual components alone. Major Work: <i>Metaphysics</i><sup id="cite_ref-Meta_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Meta-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Lewes" title="George Henry Lewes">George Henry Lewes</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: Formally introduced the term "emergence" in the 19th century. He distinguished between "resultant" and "emergent" properties where emergent properties could not be predicted from the properties of the parts, a critical distinction in emergentist theory. Major Work: <i>Problems of Life and Mind</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewes187578_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewes187578-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: Early proponent of emergentism in social and political contexts. Mill's work emphasized the importance of understanding social phenomena as more than the sum of individual actions, highlighting the emergent properties in societal systems. Major Work: <i>A System of Logic</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMill1843152_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMill1843152-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: In his 1925 book <i>The Mind and Its Place in Nature</i>, Broad argued that mental states were emergent properties of brain processes. He developed a comprehensive philosophical framework for emergentism, advocating for the irreducibility of higher-level properties. Major Work: <i>The Mind and Its Place in Nature</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroad192556_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroad192556-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alexander" title="Samuel Alexander">Samuel Alexander</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: In his work <i>Space, Time, and Deity</i>, Alexander suggested that emergent qualities like consciousness and life could not be fully explained by underlying physical processes alone, emphasizing the novelty and unpredictability of emergent properties. Major Work: <i>Space, Time, and Deity</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander1920213_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1920213-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: A prominent critic and commentator on emergentism. Kim extensively analyzed the limits and scope of emergent properties, particularly in the context of mental causation and the philosophy of mind, questioning the coherence and causal efficacy of emergent properties. Major Work: <i>Mind in a Physical World</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim199897_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim199897-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: Advanced the idea that emergent properties are irreducible and possess their own causal powers. Polanyi's work in chemistry and philosophy of science provided empirical and theoretical support for emergentist concepts, especially in complex systems and hierarchical structures. Major Work: <i>Personal Knowledge</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolanyi1958202_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolanyi1958202-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Philip_W._Anderson" title="Philip W. Anderson">Philip W. Anderson</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: Nobel laureate in physics, Anderson's work on condensed matter physics and the theory of superconductivity provided significant empirical examples of emergent phenomena. His famous essay "More is Different" argued for the necessity of emergentist explanations in physics. Major Work: <i>More is Different</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972393_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972393-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Kauffman" title="Stuart Kauffman">Stuart Kauffman</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: A theoretical biologist whose work in complex systems and self-organization highlighted the role of emergence in biological evolution and the origin of life. Kauffman emphasized the unpredictability and novelty of emergent biological properties. Major Work: <i>The Origins of Order</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKauffman199371_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKauffman199371-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Sperry</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: Neuropsychologist and Nobel laureate, Sperry's split-brain research contributed to the understanding of consciousness as an emergent property of brain processes. He argued that emergent mental properties have causal efficacy, influencing the lower-level neural processes. Major Work: <i>Science and Moral Priority</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperry1983145_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESperry1983145-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Terrence_Deacon" title="Terrence Deacon">Terrence Deacon</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: Anthropologist and neuroscientist, Deacon's work on the evolution of language and human cognition explored how emergent properties arise from neural and social interactions. His book <i>Incomplete Nature</i> delves into the emergentist explanation of life and mind. Major Work: <i>Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon2012189_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon2012189-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Steven_Johnson_(author)" title="Steven Johnson (author)">Steven Johnson</a></b></li></ul> <p>Contribution: An author and theorist whose popular science books, such as <i>Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software</i>, have brought the concept of emergentism to a broader audience. Johnson illustrates how complex systems in nature and society exhibit emergent properties. Major Work: <i>Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2001_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2001-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future_research">Future research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Future research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Emergentism offers a valuable framework for understanding complex systems and phenomena that cannot be fully explained by their constituent parts. Its interdisciplinary nature and broad applicability make it a significant area of study in both philosophy and science. Future research will continue to explore the implications and potential of emergent properties, contributing to our understanding of the natural world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-stanford-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stanford_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stanford_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/properties-emergent">[1]</a>, O'Connor, Timothy and Wong, Hong Yu (eds.), "Emergent Properties", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKistler2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kistler, Max (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/20118808">"New Perspectives on Reduction and Emergence in Physics, Biology and Psychology"</a>. <i>Synthese</i>. <b>151</b> (3): 311–312. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-006-9014-3">10.1007/s11229-006-9014-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0039-7857">0039-7857</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20118808">20118808</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36301964">36301964</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=New+Perspectives+on+Reduction+and+Emergence+in+Physics%2C+Biology+and+Psychology&rft.volume=151&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=311-312&rft.date=2006&rft.issn=0039-7857&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36301964%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20118808%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11229-006-9014-3&rft.aulast=Kistler&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20118808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Connor2019_3-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Connor2019">O'Connor 2019</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Gulick_4-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVan_Gulick">Van Gulick</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroad192556-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroad192556_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBroad192556_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBroad1925">Broad 1925</a>, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander1920213-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander1920213_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander1920213_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlexander1920">Alexander 1920</a>, p. 213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a 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Available at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.academia.edu/121134447/LITERARY_EMERGENTISM">https://www.academia.edu/121134447/LITERARY_EMERGENTISM</a> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim1998112-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim1998112_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKim1998">Kim 1998</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim1998119-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKim1998119_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKim1998">Kim 1998</a>, p. 119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meta-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Meta_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aristotle, <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics (Aristotle)</a></i>, Book VIII (Eta) 1045a 8–10: "... the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the whole is something besides the parts ...", i.e., the whole is other than the sum of the parts.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewes187578-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewes187578_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewes1875">Lewes 1875</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMill1843152-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMill1843152_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMill1843">Mill 1843</a>, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolanyi1958202-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolanyi1958202_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPolanyi1958">Polanyi 1958</a>, p. 202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972393-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnderson1972393_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson1972">Anderson 1972</a>, p. 393.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESperry1983145-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESperry1983145_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSperry1983">Sperry 1983</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeacon2012189-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDeacon2012189_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDeacon2012">Deacon 2012</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor2019" class="citation web cs1">O'Connor, Timothy (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/properties-emergent/">"Emergent Properties"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Emergent+Properties&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fproperties-emergent%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Gulick" class="citation web cs1">Van Gulick, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/emergence/">"Emergence"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. University of Tennessee.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Emergence&rft.aulast=Van+Gulick&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Femergence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collegesidekick.com/study-guides/sanjacinto-philosophy/emergentism">"Emergentism"</a>. <i>College Sidekick</i>. San Jacinto Philosophy Study Guides.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=College+Sidekick&rft.atitle=Emergentism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collegesidekick.com%2Fstudy-guides%2Fsanjacinto-philosophy%2Femergentism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle. <i>Metaphysics, Book VIII (Eta) 1045a 8–10</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Metaphysics%2C+Book+VIII+%28Eta%29+1045a+8%E2%80%9310&rft.au=Aristotle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewes1875" class="citation book cs1">Lewes, George Henry (1875). <i>Problems of Life and Mind</i>. London: Trübner & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+of+Life+and+Mind&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Tr%C3%BCbner+%26+Co.&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Lewes&rft.aufirst=George+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMill1843" class="citation book cs1">Mill, John Stuart (1843). <i>A System of Logic</i>. London: John W. Parker.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+System+of+Logic&rft.place=London&rft.pub=John+W.+Parker&rft.date=1843&rft.aulast=Mill&rft.aufirst=John+Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroad1925" class="citation book cs1">Broad, C.D. (1925). <i>The Mind and Its Place in Nature</i>. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mind+and+Its+Place+in+Nature&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Broad&rft.aufirst=C.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander1920" class="citation book cs1">Alexander, Samuel (1920). <i>Space, Time, and Deity</i>. London: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space%2C+Time%2C+and+Deity&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim1998" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Jaegwon (1998). <i>Mind in a Physical World</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind+in+a+Physical+World&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Jaegwon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolanyi1958" class="citation book cs1">Polanyi, Michael (1958). <i>Personal Knowledge</i>. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Personal+Knowledge&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Polanyi&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1972" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Philip W. (1972). "More is Different". <i>Science</i>. <b>177</b> (4047): 393–396. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972Sci...177..393A">1972Sci...177..393A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.177.4047.393">10.1126/science.177.4047.393</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17796623">17796623</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=More+is+Different&rft.volume=177&rft.issue=4047&rft.pages=393-396&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17796623&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.177.4047.393&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972Sci...177..393A&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Philip+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKauffman1993" class="citation book cs1">Kauffman, Stuart (1993). <i>The Origins of Order</i>. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Order&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Kauffman&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSperry1983" class="citation book cs1">Sperry, Roger (1983). <i>Science and Moral Priority</i>. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Moral+Priority&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Sperry&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeacon2012" class="citation book cs1">Deacon, Terrence W. (2012). <i>Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter</i>. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Incomplete+Nature%3A+How+Mind+Emerged+from+Matter&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Deacon&rft.aufirst=Terrence+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2001" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Steven (2001). <i>Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software</i>. New York, NY: Scribner.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emergence%3A+The+Connected+Lives+of+Ants%2C+Brains%2C+Cities%2C+and+Software&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmergentism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>Beckermann, Ansgar, Hans Flohr, and Jaegwon Kim, eds., <i>Emergence Or Reduction? Essays on the Prospects of Nonreductive Physicalism</i> (1992).</li> <li>Cahoone, Lawrence, <i>The Orders of Nature</i> (2013).</li> <li>Clayton, Philip and Paul Davies, eds., <i>The Re-emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion</i>. Oxford University Press (2008).</li> <li>Gregersen Niels H., eds., <i>From Complexity to Life: On Emergence of Life and Meaning</i>. Oxford University Press (2013).</li> <li>Jones, Richard H., <i>Analysis & the Fullness of Reality: An Introduction to Reductionism & Emergence</i>. Jackson Square Books (2013).</li> <li>Laughlin, Robert B., <i><a href="/wiki/A_Different_Universe" title="A Different Universe">A Different Universe</a></i> (2005).</li> <li>MacDonald, Graham and Cynthia, <i>Emergence in Mind</i>. Oxford University Press (2010).</li> <li>McCarthy, Evan, "The Emergentist Theory of Truth" (2015).</li> <li>Morowitz, Harold J., <i>The Emergence of Everything: How the World Became Complex</i>. Oxford University Press (2002).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emergentism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="http://neocybernetics.com/lecture3/">Towards modeling of emergence</a>: lecture slides from Helsinki University of Technology</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://biomimetic-architecture.com">Biomimetic Architecture – Emergence applied to building and construction</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://studiesinemergentorder.org">Studies in Emergent Order</a>: Studies in Emergent Order (SIEO) is an open-access journal</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://consc.net/papers/granada.html">Emergence</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.d-iep.org/diep">DIEP</a>: Dutch Institute for Emergent Phenomena</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output 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of language">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wilkins" title="John Wilkins">Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Arnauld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Lancelot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Mauthner" title="Fritz Mauthner">Mauthner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ric%C5%93ur" title="Paul Ricœur">Ricœur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sapir" title="Edward Sapir">Sapir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Bloomfield" title="Leonard Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Vygotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lee_Whorf" title="Benjamin Lee Whorf">Whorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Watzlawick</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_language" title="Category:Theories of language">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrast theory of meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastivism" title="Contrastivism">Contrastivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylism" title="Cratylism">Cratylism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_reference_theory" title="Direct reference theory">Direct reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_determinism" title="Linguistic determinism">Linguistic determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediated_reference_theory" title="Mediated reference theory">Mediated reference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phallogocentrism" title="Phallogocentrism">Phallogocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance_theory" title="Relevance theory">Relevance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Semantic holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supposition_theory" title="Supposition theory">Supposition theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosism" title="Symbiosism">Symbiosism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Theological noncognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_descriptions" title="Theory of descriptions">Theory of descriptions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Definite_description" title="Definite description">Definite description</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verification theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cant_(language)" title="Cant (language)">Cant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity" title="Linguistic relativity">Linguistic relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth-bearer" title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Use%E2%80%93mention_distinction" title="Use–mention distinction">Use–mention distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorization" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorization">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(mathematics)" title="Set (mathematics)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_(philosophy)" title="Class (philosophy)">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_resemblance" title="Family resemblance">Family resemblance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">Logical form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalanguage" title="Metalanguage">Metalanguage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality (natural language)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Principle of compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_reference" title="Sense and reference">Sense and reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">Sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_(logic)" title="Statement (logic)">Statement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_language_articles" title="Index of philosophy of language articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)" title="Cratylus (dialogue)">Cratylus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(n.d.)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_Grammar" title="Port-Royal Grammar">Port-Royal Grammar</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1660)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Arte_Combinatoria" title="De Arte Combinatoria">De Arte Combinatoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1666)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Essay_Towards_a_Real_Character,_and_a_Philosophical_Language" title="An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language">An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1668)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alciphron_(book)" title="Alciphron (book)">Alciphron</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1732)</span></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_Denoting" title="On Denoting">On Denoting</a>" <span style="font-size:85%;">(1905)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1921)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1936)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Investigations" title="Philosophical Investigations">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1953)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Of_Grammatology" title="Of Grammatology">Of Grammatology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naming_and_Necessity" title="Naming and Necessity">Naming and Necessity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein_on_Rules_and_Private_Language" title="Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language">Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1982)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limited_Inc" title="Limited Inc">Limited Inc</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1988)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">Semantics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">Formal semantics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Language" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Language">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_mind" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB" title="Alva Noë">Alva Noë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes">Mental process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a 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