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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Number</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Tense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Copula</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aspect,_mood_and_voice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aspect,_mood_and_voice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Aspect, mood and voice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aspect,_mood_and_voice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Negation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Usage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possessive_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possessive_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Possessive pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Comparison</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Possession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon 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Available in 26 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-26" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">26 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenzerduits" title="Oenzerduits – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oenzerduits" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B4%EC%A0%80%EB%8F%84%EC%9D%B4%EC%B9%98" title="운저도이치 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="운저도이치" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_unserdeutsch" title="Lingua unserdeutsch – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C5%ABs%C5%B3_vokie%C4%8Di%C5%B3_kalba" title="Mūsų vokiečių kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mūsų vokiečių kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_unserdeutsch" title="Lenga unserdeutsch – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%87" title="Унзердойч – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Унзердойч" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Unserdeutsch" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E5%8C%85%E7%88%BE%E5%85%8B%E9%87%8C%E5%A5%A7%E7%88%BE%E5%BE%B7%E8%AA%9E" title="拉包爾克里奧爾德語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="拉包爾克里奧爾德語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q13244#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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.navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: tan;">Unserdeutsch</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: tan;">Rabaul Creole German</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">110, almost all in Australia (2016)<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;">German-based creole</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: tan;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=103">crp</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/uln" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:uln">uln</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/unse1236">unse1236</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should <b>specify the language</b> of its non-English content, using <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span>, <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for transliterated languages, and <span class="nowrap">{{</span><a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a><span class="nowrap">}}</span> for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used - notably <code>uln</code> for Unserdeutsch.<span class="hide-when-compact"> <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Unserdeutsch</b> ('Our German'), or <b>Rabaul Creole German</b>, is a <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole language</a> that originated in <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Augsburg_-_Rabaul_Creole_German_(Unserdeutsch)_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Augsburg_-_Rabaul_Creole_German_(Unserdeutsch)-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The substrate language is assumed to be <a href="/wiki/Tok_Pisin" title="Tok Pisin">Tok Pisin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the majority of the lexicon is from <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-unser_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unser-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_&_Volker_2017_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_&_Volker_2017-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>German was the language of instruction in Catholic mission schools, which is where the language originated, and children residing in a German-run orphanage later used the language regularly outside of their classrooms.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language developed into a first language for some when these children had families of their own.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oral stories tell a version that Unserdeutsch originated by children sharing stories where they used German vocabulary with Tok Pisin grammar, this change in language is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">relexification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_&_Volker_2017_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_&_Volker_2017-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of Unserdeutsch speakers and their families migrated to <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> after Papua New Guinea's <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_New_Guinea" title="Territory of New Guinea">independence in 1975</a>. During fieldwork conducted by researchers between 2014 and 2017, there were about 100 speakers found in Australia and around 10 speakers found in Papua New Guinea.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_&_Volker_2017_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_&_Volker_2017-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-unser_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unser-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language is no longer learned as a first language.<b><sup id="cite_ref-:12_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b> </p><p>Most speakers of Unserdeutsch are <a href="/wiki/Bilingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilingual">bilingual</a>; speaking either <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">Standard German</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tok_Pisin" title="Tok Pisin">Tok Pisin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kuanua" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuanua">Kuanua</a>. Most surviving speakers are middle-aged or older, although younger members of the community may comprehend the language. Unserdeutsch is likely a descendant of a pidginised form of Standard German which originated in the <a href="/wiki/Gazelle_Peninsula" title="Gazelle Peninsula">Gazelle Peninsula</a> of New Britain during <a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">German colonial times</a> among the Catholic mixed-race (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vunapope&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vunapope (page does not exist)">Vunapope</a></i>) community. With increased mobility and intermarriage, it has been disappearing in the last few decades. </p><p>Unserdeutsch presumably influenced the development of its neighbour, <a href="/wiki/Tok_Pisin" title="Tok Pisin">Tok Pisin</a>. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a> in <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, it is a creole; indeed, it is the only creole that developed from colonial German.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further, Unserdeutsch is only composed of three characteristics: movement rules, questions and question words, according to <a href="/wiki/Derek_Bickerton" title="Derek Bickerton">Bickerton</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Bioprogram_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioprogram hypothesis">bioprogram hypothesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> Example </caption> <tbody><tr> <td><i><b>alle</b></i> </td> <td><i><b>boy-s</b></i> </td> <td><i><b>raus</b></i> </td> <td><i><b>schuv</b></i> </td> <td><i><b>him</b></i> </td> <td><i><b>boat</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>PL</b> </td> <td><b>boy-PL</b> </td> <td><b>get.out</b> </td> <td><b>shove</b> </td> <td><b>TR</b> </td> <td><b>boat</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>German</b> </td> <td><b>English</b> </td> <td><b>German</b> </td> <td><b>Ger/Eng</b> </td> <td><b>English</b> </td> <td><b>English</b> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>'Everybody get out, shove the boat!'</b><sup id="cite_ref-:02_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Cleanup" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may <b>require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">cleanup</a></b> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. The specific problem is: <b>Contradiction:</b> <ul><li>subsection <i>Articles</i>: "Unserdeutsch uses definite and indefinite articles .. these articles are not inflected for gender or case", and only having "ein" as indefinite article in singular</li> <li>subsection <i>Adjectives</i>: "<i>i bis eine grosse medhen.</i> I am a big girl.", with <i>eine = a (indefinite article, singular)</i><b>.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Unserdeutsch" title="Special:EditPage/Unserdeutsch">improve this article</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Unserdeutsch is typical of creole languages<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in that it reflects the lexicon of one language overlaid upon a substrate grammar – in this case German and Tok Pisin, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grammatically, Unserdeutsch bears many similarities to L2 varieties of German, suggesting incomplete language acquisition on the part of students in the German-speaking colony.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grammatically, Unserdeutsch morphology adheres to "average" creole characteristics,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but because Unserdeutsch was never formally standardized, being used only informally as an in-group <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a>, there is an unusually high degree of grammatical variation among speakers of Unserdeutsch, both between familial groups and <a href="/wiki/Idiolect" title="Idiolect">individual speakers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently, <a href="/wiki/Australian_English" title="Australian English">Australian English</a> has also influenced the language in several ways. Certain syntactic constructions appear to have been borrowed directly from English,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including an English-like <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a> construction utilizing a copula.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1991,_pp.144_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1991,_pp.144-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both of these features are generally rare in creole languages, which indicates an early, pervasive English influence that might have included conscious modeling of English sentence structure.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1991,_pp.144_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1991,_pp.144-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sentence_structure">Sentence structure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sentence structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unserdeutsch word order is rigidly <a href="/wiki/Subject-verb-object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-verb-object">SVO</a> and lacks the <a href="/wiki/V2_word_order" title="V2 word order">V2</a> constituent order of subordinate clauses found in Standard German.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tendency extends even to imperative sentences and yes/no questions, which demonstrates a strong substrate influence from Tok Pisin.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, even <a href="/wiki/Wh_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh movement">WH-fronting</a> is optional in Unserdeutsch,<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and these types of interrogatives often come at the end of a sentence, as in Tok Pisin, rather than at the beginning as in Standard German or English.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some speakers prefer to use a German-modeled sentence pattern in which the interrogative is in head position. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><span title="Unserdeutsch-language text"><i lang="uln">Du wid geht wo?</i></span></dd> <dd>Where would you go?</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><span title="Unserdeutsch-language text"><i lang="uln">Fi was du muss sterben?</i></span></dd> <dd>Why do you have to die?<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The use of either construction appears variable among speakers of Unserdeutsch.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unserdeutsch nouns are derived almost exclusively from the German lexicon,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but noun morphology is much less <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic</a> than Standard German.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unserdeutsch nouns do not change to indicate <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a> or <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a>, nor is there overt <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a> marking.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Number">Number</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rather than taking specific singular and plural forms, as in Standard German, Unserdeutsch nouns are pluralized almost exclusively by the pronominal marker <i>alle</i>, unless plurality is already indicated by a numeral or pronoun, in which case it is omitted entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.31_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.31-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, most nouns in Unserdeutsch are pluralized as in the following example: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Er malen alle plan fi bauen alle haus.</i></dd> <dd>He drew the blueprints for the construction of the houses.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>There are few frequently used nouns which retain Standard German plural forms and are thus double-marked for plural.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These irregular forms are retained perhaps owing to frequency of use.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Articles">Articles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like German but unlike its substrate language, Tok Pisin, Unserdeutsch uses <a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">definite and indefinite articles</a>. However, unlike German, these articles are not inflected for gender or case, and in fact the Standard German articles are merged into a single article <i>de</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.17_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.17-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is possibly due to influence from English.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Articles are normally only used with singular nouns, with the generalized plural marker <i>alle</i> functioning as a definite plural article.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.158_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.158-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.17_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.17-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The full Unserdeutsch article set is as follows: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td></td> <td><b>Singular</b></td> <td><b>Plural</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Definite</b></td> <td>de</td> <td>alle </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Indefinite</b></td> <td>ein</td> <td>Ø </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Speakers of Unserdeutsch often omit articles altogether in speech.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.158_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.158-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.37_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.37-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nearly all Unserdeutsch verbs are lexically derived from Standard German, but the Unserdeutsch <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> system exhibits strong influence from English and Tok Pisin, and is considerably more <a href="/wiki/Isolating_language" title="Isolating language">isolating</a> than Standard German.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.160_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.160-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the distinguishing characteristics of Standard German verbs, such as <a href="/wiki/Separable_verb" title="Separable verb">separable prefixes</a>, second- and third-person stem change and the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">strong/weak distinction</a>, are not present in Unserdeutsch.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.37_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.37-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.160_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.160-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Morphology">Morphology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs are generally not inflected according to <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a> or number.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.36_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.36-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the present tense form of most Unserdeutsch verbs is identical to the Standard German <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a>, which is not conjugated.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A small number of verbs take an infinitive form that is instead modeled after the German third-person singular form (<i>geht</i>, 'go') or verb stem (<i>bleib</i>, 'stay'), and some <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive</a> verbs of English or Tok Pisin origin take the Tok Pisin suffix -<i>im</i> (<i>adoptim</i>, 'to adopt').<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following example illustrates verb morphology compared to Standard German: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>De Koenigin anfang.</i></dd> <dd>(Die Königin fängt an)</dd> <dd>The queen begins.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.160_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.160-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tense">Tense</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is no overt <a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a> in Unserdeutsch,<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a generalized past tense can be indicated through the use of the uninflected verb <i>hat</i> ('have') alongside a highly regularized German participle form, which is constructed by the addition of the prefix <i>ge</i>- to the infinitive. Even verbs borrowed from English or Tok Pisin are prefixed in this way. Thus: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Wi hat geheiraten, orait, wi hat gegeht…</i></dd> <dd>We got married, all right, (then) we went away…<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>There are few high frequency verbs that exhibit past tense forms closer to their Standard German counterparts, although these forms are lexicalized and non-productive.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is also a form of weakly grammaticalized future tense marked by the <a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">auxiliary</a> <i>wit</i> ('will,' from German <i>wird</i>), which is used with the infinitive<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the following way: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Du wit sehn Freddy morgen.</i></dd> <dd>You will see Freddy tomorrow.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Overall, though, the marking of tense is optional, and many speakers of Unserdeutsch do not distinguish between tense-specific forms.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Copula">Copula</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Copula"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unusually for a creole language,<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.36_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.36-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unserdeutsch has a <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> which is, by contrast to the rest of the verb system, conjugated in present tense.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The copular forms are very similar to their Standard German counterparts. In past tense, the copula is simply <i>war</i>; it is not conjugated at all.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.36_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.36-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <caption>Present Tense </caption> <tbody><tr> <td></td> <td><b>Singular</b></td> <td><b>Plural</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1st person</b></td> <td>i bin</td> <td>wir bis </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>2nd person</b></td> <td>du bis</td> <td>eu seid </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>3rd person</b></td> <td>er/sie is</td> <td>die sind </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <caption>Past Tense </caption> <tbody><tr> <td></td> <td><b>Singular</b></td> <td><b>Plural</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1st person</b></td> <td>i war</td> <td>wir war </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>2nd person</b></td> <td>du war</td> <td>eu war </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>3rd person</b></td> <td>er/sie war</td> <td>die war </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Some speakers preferentially use an uninflected copula, <i>bis</i>, as in: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Mama du hoeren i bis deutsch am sprehen!</i></dd> <dd>Mama, do you hear me, I am speaking German!<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Notably, whether inflected or not, the copula is <a href="/wiki/Zero_copula" title="Zero copula">frequently deleted</a> in spoken Unserdeutsch.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aspect,_mood_and_voice"><span id="Aspect.2C_mood_and_voice"></span>Aspect, mood and voice</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Aspect, mood and voice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Unserdeutsch <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> system is fairly complex.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typical of a creole language, most of these constructions are formed by the addition of preverbal markers.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">Progressive or habitual</a> aspect is expressed using the so-called <i>am</i>-construction, formed using the particle <i>am</i> and the infinitive verb.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1991,_pp.144_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1991,_pp.144-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Sie is am lahen!</i></dd> <dd>She is laughing!<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Habitual past action can be marked using the auxiliary <i>wit</i> (or sometimes <i>wid</i>) along with an infinitive verb, a construction that functions similarly to English past tense <a href="/wiki/Conditional_perfect#English" title="Conditional perfect">would phrases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>wit</i> auxiliary can also express conditional aspect, although this usage is rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Jetz i wit ni leben in New Guinea.</i></dd> <dd>Now I would not live in New Guinea.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>There is no true <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a> in Unserdeutsch.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Command statements are formed identically to declarative clauses, and unlike English or German (but similar to Tok Pisin) these constructions retain SVO word order.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Du ni denken dass i war ni angs.</i></dd> <dd>Don’t think I wasn’t afraid.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>It is possible in Unserdeutsch to form directional serial verbs using the so-called <i>komm</i>-construction. This compound verb construction uses the verbs <i>komm</i> and <i>geht</i>, which are reanalyzed as directional markers.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Un dann de bishop laufen komm.</i></dd> <dd>And then the bishop came there.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Interestingly, it is also possible to form an English-like passive voice construction<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using the past tense copula <i>war</i>, the <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">past participle</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">preposition</a> <i>bei</i>. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>De Chicken war gestohlen bei alle Raskol.</i></dd> <dd>The chicken was stolen by the thieves.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1991,_pp.144_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1991,_pp.144-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>This passive construction is very rare, and is a clear example of secondary adstrate influence from English.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Negation">Negation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Negation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verb phrases are <a href="/wiki/Negation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Negation (linguistics)">negated</a> by the particle <i>ni</i> ('not,' from German <i>nicht</i>), which is usually placed at the beginning of the phrase. In a few <a href="/wiki/Idiom" title="Idiom">idiomatic expressions</a>, the negator is post-verbal, more closely mirroring German negation syntax.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>i ni essen rote fleisch.</i></dd> <dd>I don’t eat red meat.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unserdeutsch uses a hybrid system of <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronouns</a>, demonstrating heavy influence from both the substrate and lexifier languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td></td> <td><b>Singular</b></td> <td><b>Plural</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1st person</b></td> <td>i</td> <td>wi / uns </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>2nd person</b></td> <td>du</td> <td>eu / du </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>3rd person</b></td> <td>er / sie</td> <td>die </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>Two pronouns, first-person plural <i>wi</i> and third-person singular masculine <i>er</i>, have distinct object forms (<i>uns</i> and <i>ihm</i>, respectively), reflecting Standard German pronominal case marking.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested by Volker (1982)<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.31_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.31-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that, when used in <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> position, the first-person plural <i>uns</i> is <a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">exclusive</a>, although this is disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Volker (1982) also identifies an object form of first-person singular, <i>mi</i>, which is not attested elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.33_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.33-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Usage">Usage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Use of the second-person plural <i>eu</i> is rare, and <i>du</i> is sometimes substituted.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third-person pronouns mark biological sex only, and there is no equivalent to the German or English neuter forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are no <a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">formal</a> pronouns in Unserdeutsch, perhaps reflecting non-European cultural conceptions of friendship and acquaintance in the South Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second-person singular <i>du</i> can be used in place of the Standard German impersonal pronoun <i>man</i>, mirroring English usage.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.33_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.33-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">reciprocal</a> pronouns are not used in Unserdeutsch; rarely, these are formed by combining the pronoun with <span title="Unserdeutsch-language text"><i lang="uln">selbs</i></span> ('self') or direct borrowing of the English "each other."<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.16_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.16-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.36_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.36-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, personal pronouns can be omitted entirely.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.33_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.33-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possessive_pronouns">Possessive pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Possessive pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Unserdeutsch <a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">possessive</a> pronouns, while outwardly similar to their Standard German counterparts, do not take case, gender or number endings. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td></td> <td><b>Singular</b></td> <td><b>Plural</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>1st person</b></td> <td>mein</td> <td>Ø </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>2nd person</b></td> <td>dein</td> <td>euer </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>3rd person</b></td> <td>sein / ihre</td> <td>Ø </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>There is no first-person (outside of the name <i>Unserdeutsch</i>) or third-person plural possessive pronoun; in order to express these forms of possession, speakers generally use a prepositional construction with <i>fi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.34_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.34-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With very few exceptions, Unserdeutsch adjectives are lexically identical to their German counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with other parts of speech, these adjectives are considerably more analytical than those of Standard German.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.37_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.37-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adjectives precede the referent, and show no agreement for case or gender. There is an attributive marker reanalyzed from the Standard German adjective endings<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> into a uniform and invariant -<i>e</i>, which is suffixed to an adjective that precedes a verb.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>i bis eine grosse medhen.</i></dd> <dd>I am a big girl.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.37_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.37-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>A handful of high frequency adjectives, such as <i>gut</i>, retain their Standard German <a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">suppletive</a> forms (such as <i>besser</i> and <i>beste</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Comparison">Comparison</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Comparison"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">comparative</a> forms of most Unserdeutsch adjectives are marked analytically using the particle <i>mehr</i> ('more').<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The superlative is formed using the suffix -<i>ste</i>, but without the vowel changes that characterize this process in Standard German.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.159_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.159-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the comparative and superlative constructions are formed as follows: </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Maria is mehr klen denn Des.</i></dd> <dd>Maria is smaller than Des.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Diese is de groesste.</i></dd> <dd>This is the biggest.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.159_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.159-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>A few high frequency adjectives retain their German synthetic comparative and superlative forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>alt</i>, <i>elter</i>, <i>eltest</i></dd> <dd>old, older, oldest<sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possession">Possession</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Possession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aside from possessive pronouns, Unserdeutsch has three constructions that mark possession, each modeled after forms found in one of the dominant languages of the area, Tok Pisin, German and English.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.34_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.34-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.16_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.16-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first of these forms uses a preposition, <i>fi</i>, to express possession, similar to the Tok Pisin <i>bilong</i>-construction. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Haus fi Tom</i></dd> <dd>Tom’s house<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.156_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.156-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The second form simply juxtaposes the possessor immediately before the item possessed, as is found is many dialects of German. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Diese Car, de Tyre is heruntergegangen.</i></dd> <dd>This car’s tire is flat.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.156_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.156-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The last form is modeled after English, wherein the possessor takes an overt -<i>s</i> <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> suffix. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Papas Waesche</i></dd> <dd>Papa’s washing<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.156_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.156-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>This English-modeled form is less common than the other two.<sup id="cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.156_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.156-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e25-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/uln">Unserdeutsch</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (25th ed., 2022) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStrazny2013" class="citation book cs1">Strazny, Philipp, ed. (2013). <i>Encyclopedia of Linguistics</i>. Chicago: Routledge. p. 803 – via ProQuest Ebook Central.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Linguistics&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=803&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnserdeutsch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-University_of_Augsburg_-_Rabaul_Creole_German_(Unserdeutsch)-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Augsburg_-_Rabaul_Creole_German_(Unserdeutsch)_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.germanistik.unibe.ch/research/projects/unserdeutsch_rabaul_creole_german/index_eng.html">"Rabaul Creole German (Unserdeutsch)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bern" title="University of Bern">University of Bern</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rabaul+Creole+German+%28Unserdeutsch%29&rft.pub=University+of+Bern&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.germanistik.unibe.ch%2Fresearch%2Fprojects%2Funserdeutsch_rabaul_creole_german%2Findex_eng.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnserdeutsch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Another Germanic creole now official in Papua New Guinea, based on English which is also official</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:03_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaitzVolker2017" class="citation journal cs1">Maitz, Péter; Volker, Craig Alan (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.germanistik.unibe.ch/e40649/e40653/e714347/e714523/Maitz_Volker_2017_ger.pdf">"Documenting Unserdeutsch: Reversing Colonial Amneasia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 365–397. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fjpcl.32.2.06mai">10.1075/jpcl.32.2.06mai</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pidgin+and+Creole+Languages&rft.atitle=Documenting+Unserdeutsch%3A+Reversing+Colonial+Amneasia&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=365-397&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fjpcl.32.2.06mai&rft.aulast=Maitz&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A9ter&rft.au=Volker%2C+Craig+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.germanistik.unibe.ch%2Fe40649%2Fe40653%2Fe714347%2Fe714523%2FMaitz_Volker_2017_ger.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnserdeutsch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-unser-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-unser_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-unser_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbs.com.au/yourlanguage/german/en/article/2016/03/15/unserdeutsch">"Unserdeutsch"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Special_Broadcasting_Service" title="Special Broadcasting Service">Special Broadcasting Service</a></i>. 16 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Special+Broadcasting+Service&rft.atitle=Unserdeutsch&rft.date=2016-03-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbs.com.au%2Fyourlanguage%2Fgerman%2Fen%2Farticle%2F2016%2F03%2F15%2Funserdeutsch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnserdeutsch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_&_Volker_2017-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_&_Volker_2017_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_&_Volker_2017_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_&_Volker_2017_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaitzVolker2017" class="citation journal cs1">Maitz, Peter; Volker, Craig Alan (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190827104006/https://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/germanistik/sprachwissenschaft/Unserdeutsch/publikationen/Maitz_Volker_2017.pdf">"Documenting Unserdeutsch: Reversing Colonial Amnesia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages</i>. <b>32</b> (2): 376. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fjpcl.32.2.06mai">10.1075/jpcl.32.2.06mai</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/germanistik/sprachwissenschaft/Unserdeutsch/publikationen/Maitz_Volker_2017.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pidgin+and+Creole+Languages&rft.atitle=Documenting+Unserdeutsch%3A+Reversing+Colonial+Amnesia&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=376&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fjpcl.32.2.06mai&rft.aulast=Maitz&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Volker%2C+Craig+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.philhist.uni-augsburg.de%2Flehrstuehle%2Fgermanistik%2Fsprachwissenschaft%2FUnserdeutsch%2Fpublikationen%2FMaitz_Volker_2017.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnserdeutsch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolker1991" class="citation journal cs1">Volker, Craig (1991). "The Birth and Decline of Rabaul Creole German". <i>Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea</i>. <b>22</b> (1–2): 143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Linguistic+Society+of+Papua+New+Guinea&rft.atitle=The+Birth+and+Decline+of+Rabaul+Creole+German&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=143&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Volker&rft.aufirst=Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnserdeutsch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSakiyamaKraussMiyaoka2007" class="citation book cs1">Sakiyama, Osamu; Krauss, Michael E.; Miyaoka, Osahito (2007). <i>The Vanishing Languages of the Pacific Rim</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 136.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vanishing+Languages+of+the+Pacific+Rim&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Sakiyama&rft.aufirst=Osamu&rft.au=Krauss%2C+Michael+E.&rft.au=Miyaoka%2C+Osahito&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnserdeutsch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolker" class="citation journal cs1">Volker, Craig. "The Birth and Decline of Rabaul Creole German". <i>Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea</i>. <b>22</b> (1–2): 143 – via UBC Okanagan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Linguistic+Society+of+Papua+New+Guinea&rft.atitle=The+Birth+and+Decline+of+Rabaul+Creole+German&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=143&rft.aulast=Volker&rft.aufirst=Craig&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnserdeutsch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1991</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Holm, 1989, <i>Pidgins and Creoles</i>, vol. 2: Reference Survey</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomaine2017" class="citation book cs1">Romaine, Suzanne (2017). <i>Pidgin and Creole Languages</i>. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pidgin+and+Creole+Languages&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Romaine&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnserdeutsch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser, Siegwalt and Peter Maitz (2017). "The Creoleness of Unserdeutsch (Rabaul Creole German): A Typological Perspective". Journal of the Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea special issue 2017: 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz, Peter, et al (2019). “Unserdeutsch (Rabaul Creole German), Papua New Guinea.” Unpublished manuscript, University of Augsburg, pp.11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_and_Volker_2017,_pp.377_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz and Volker 2017, pp.377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker, Craig (1989). "Rabaul Creole German Syntax." Working Paper in Linguistics 21(1): 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1991,_pp.144-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1991,_pp.144_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1991,_pp.144_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1991,_pp.144_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1991,_pp.144_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1991, pp.144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.11_21-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker, Craig (1982). An Introduction to Rabaul Creole German (Unserdeutsch). unpublished Master thesis, University of Queensland, pp.31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.31-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.31_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.31_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1982, pp.31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.17-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.17_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.17_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1989, pp.157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.158-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.158_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.158_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1989, pp.158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.37-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.37_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.37_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.37_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.37_32-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1982, pp.37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.160-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.160_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.160_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.160_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1989, pp.160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.36-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.36_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.36_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.36_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.36_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1982, pp.36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.12_35-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.13_36-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.20_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1991, pp.145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1982, pp.38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.14_47-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.15_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.33-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.33_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.33_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.33_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1982, pp.33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1982, pp.32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.16-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.16_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maitz_et_al_2019,_pp.16_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maitz et al 2019, pp.16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1982,_pp.34-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.34_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1982,_pp.34_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1982, pp.34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lindenfelser and Maitz 2017, pp.118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.159-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.159_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.159_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1989, pp.159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Volker_1989,_pp.156-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.156_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.156_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.156_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Volker_1989,_pp.156_57-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Volker 1989, pp.156.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Peter Mühlhäusler: <i>Tracing the roots of pidgin German.</i> In: <i>Language and Communication</i>, 4/(1)/1984, S. 27–57. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0271-5309">0271-5309</a></li> <li>Craig A. Volker: <i>Rabaul Creole German Syntax.</i> In: Working Papers in Linguistics, University of Hawaii 21/1989, S. 153–189 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/germanistik/sprachwissenschaft/Unserdeutsch/publikationen/volker_1989a.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>)</li> <li>Craig A. Volker: <i>An Introduction to Rabaul Creole German (Unserdeutsch).</i> unpublished Master thesis (1982), University of Queensland. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/de/lehrstuehle/germanistik/sprachwissenschaft/Unserdeutsch/publikationen/volker_1982.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180510050953/https://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/de/lehrstuehle/germanistik/sprachwissenschaft/Unserdeutsch/publikationen/volker_1982.pdf">Archived</a> 2018-05-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li> <li>Craig A. Volker: <i>The birth and decline of Rabaul Creole German, Language and Linguistics in Melanesia.</i> In: John Lynch (ed.): <i>Oceanic studies : proceedings of the first international conference on oceanic linguistics</i> Australian Nat. Univ., Canberra 1996, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85883-440-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-85883-440-5">0-85883-440-5</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.philhist.uni-augsburg.de/lehrstuehle/germanistik/sprachwissenschaft/Unserdeutsch/publikationen/volker_1991.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2022">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unserdeutsch&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output 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Namibia">Namibian German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li>South Africa: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nataler_Deutsch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nataler Deutsch (page does not exist)">Nataler Deutsch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernese_German" title="Bernese German">Bernese German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Plautdietsch language">Plautdietsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Texas German">Texas German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_German" title="Wisconsin German">Wisconsin German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Alemán Coloniero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentinien-schwyzert%C3%BCtsch_dialect" title="Argentinien-schwyzertütsch dialect">Argentinian Swiss German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_German" title="Brazilian German">Brazilian German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian_dialect#Brazilian_Municipalities_that_have_co-official_Pomeranian_dialect" title="East Pomeranian dialect">Ostpommersch</a></li> 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