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Crowds gathered on Whitehall to hear Churchill speak.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RCSnCpopHE2J4mYLiSxc22jbgOZpebxf8-266OaSodmSHksP8Cx5xEGDs8-uYM1mMvQkrU4w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA colour photo of the crowd in front of the Ministry of Health building in Whitehall. Churchill addressed the crowd from the balcony.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SH0wYu2kfgyKdKi8tJf5kyqgcHMxNGqYpzlySOUJTCCllnxRlNL99ytX4ChztWHLplqViUjag",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHuge crowds gathered in Central London. People held parties, danced and sang in the streets. At Buckingham Palace, King George VI and the Royal Family appeared on the balcony.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis colour film was shot by RAF ground crew electrician R W Johnson and his father William Johnson. Together, they recorded VE Day celebrations on 8 May 1945 in Central London.\u003c/p\u003e"],null,[null,"l7LyNci93xs"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SSyBnKTffokem1b6FSoFHk2EaVEXS-sIYnLFRQMwi4ZI5fcOSUl7gutFVlg8XgMvSIFOzn",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSoldiers and civilians dance on a street near Berkeley Square in London.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwbpOlyN0fN20_1OCT-A5h_W1OggniE9XZs2DS7MImwC3s6ICxyD7JcGu5bWDSjx38UQ1a0i4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTwo British sailors and their girlfriends wade in the fountains in Trafalgar Square.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_So251LBct08Jpvc2pUHTOg_FCXxhIDt2rTM4muSMIBKFRgSZO4b0nn3trbTEAb4s372ud4rZQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMen and women dance the conga around a bonfire in East Acton, London on the evening of VE Day.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QN-rNrvwgZN3yaixYZw0zaF8gbKz9dqOwfWD4yZvlogdHctoZTx-kI0aSqYkKDM2llPD3vUg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFor many though, the celebrations were bitter-sweet. People mourned their lost friends and loved ones, while others were still engaged in combat, as the war in the Far East continued.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","See How The Crowds Came Together on VE DAY","People gathered together from all over London in the name of peace","//i1.ytimg.com/vi/l7LyNci93xs/hqdefault.jpg","/asset/ve-day-celebrations/MQFOE3zHGyWBdA",21,null,null,null,null,["MQFOE3zHGyWBdA",1.7777778,null,null,["//i1.ytimg.com/vi/l7LyNci93xs/hqdefault.jpg","l7LyNci93xs","VE Day Celebrations",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Imperial War Museums"],null,[null,null,"Imperial War Museums"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"MQFOE3zHGyWBdA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,"https://www.google.com/maps/dir//Lambeth+Rd%0ALondon%0A+SE1+6HZ%0AUnited+Kingdom/data\u003d!4m8!4m7!1m0!1m5!1m1!1s0x4876012c1f3ceed3:0xfed51d88d007b387!2m2!1d-0.10865839999999999!2d51.4958366?hl\u003den\u0026gl\u003dUS","http://www.iwm.org.uk/","Lambeth Rd\nLondon\n SE1 6HZ\nUnited Kingdom",51.4958366,-0.10865839999999996,"London, United Kingdom",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QbfA7hbCPk9nLxMfXSztsVnx0YtFpF1TsUvJMS4B6vNyFljQzylqMERWfB1dLsp45qHjsHHOs",531,337,0],"/partner/imperial-war-museums"]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,3,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:413c7496-fee1-4144-b061-3cc27464699c"],["stella.edit.sect",["Learning the lessons of the past","Why we continue to remember",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","The Effort to Rebuild Europe","The effect of WWII on children and the impact of The Marshall Plan","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNg93CYabhtO-THaV_mAKyEb63WNZyU-c5mA0LqpkQPtOVOx0e4eun8is3U_aSGuPdvFPNd269","/story/GgUhTOtPbr06KA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"The George C. Marshall Foundation"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"GgUhTOtPbr06KA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SahJ_nmMxX88M4rVhnYQxjtKvZYj4Uhln06nWHlfpMmH066fJo2x9lzqCednNEx2WEOEoEMqM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTherese Bonney, a photojournalist, documented the war to show what fascism does to children. She was often quoted saying that her book, Europe\u0026#39;s Children, was a book written with a lens.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R5yigOKyH6wBkfEQNOFk4K7aVwbOiTVA-mLZnBXGqFZMhVCGyXflenWLsZyui7kEV9CjH2MaM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSpanish children searching for food. \u003cbr\u003eTheir bags are filled with rotten oranges.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sd8BT43rDDFEe2XFL1mY9sP15Fr21HgcXLkeJheOoTMA98zvBc6oQPM81ohV3uI54iPstdCg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eChildren faced a strange life.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQ1oOgjodYeYh0HhQl4sq19Xy58syilfaz8PxZHyx2aI7us5dOHAa7eHsXstzUKrP_5keDFS3w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTrying to salvage some sense of normalcy by digging through the rubble for toys.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Impact Of The War On Dutch Daily Life","The story of the Second World War in 100 objects from collections in the Netherlands","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TKi2QtEtf-AaQhQsWEpZUW2mKc02qlN656Gc19FxxsBQo0kzeAMA7IqXPdukfCwQhzNL3-cQ","/story/9AVB6kUuV0xCKw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Nationaal Comité 4 en 5 mei"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"9AVB6kUuV0xCKw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S8eihT30HZgOvnKC7rhFdgrNnWHvISPe86qEL02iSOy2wLuvb-Jse0bVa1D2nVrDBKqr3eElQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUNIQUE COLLABORATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Second World War in 100 Objects was a once-in-a-lifetime exhibition made possible through the cooperation of twenty-five Dutch war and Resistance museums, the Kunsthal Rotterdam and the vfonds. The museums involved in this unique collaboration provided exceptional objects from their collections, which are being presented together for the first time at one location. These 100 objects tell the story of the Second Word War in an original way. Every object has a moving, disturbing or remarkable history. The exhibition could be seen at the Kunsthal Rotterdam from 5 February thru 5 May 2014.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOnce the exhibition has closed, information about these 100 select objects will continue to be available via \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ewww.tweedewereldoorlog.nl\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TqyBsNRkyHpi7sDM6NXyvsdujaRJhIJiuZ0pyrXCsaAuqiE5IAFGDNrYGG_I_LlYKzMSZ3ZQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1. Gasproof Baby Buggy\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the Dutch Royal Collection, The Hague / On permanent loan to \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eHet Loo Palace\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePram of metal and glass, specially made for Princess Beatrix to protect her from a possible poison gas attack.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 110 cm x w 110 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs the threat of war increased in Europe in August 1939, the Dutch army was placed at a heightened state of alertness. In early 1940, as a precautionary measure, the firm of Kiekens built two gasproof baby buggies as protection against the possibility of a poisonous attack. This one for the then two-year-old Dutch Princess Beatrix and another for her younger sister Princess Irene.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/gasproof-baby-buggy//\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R_gbk2QvRm4sscH9HLZZDXxH6WGwXB6dVs70ICxc_ZfsfS7fyDpeOM6-mJvzeN3f44tOKb7Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2. THE CAPITULATION FLAG\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam / The War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhite cloth, nailed to a piece of broomstick. With blood stains. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 148 cm x w 68 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe 14th of May 1940: four days earlier, German troops had invaded the Netherlands. Fierce battles were raging in many places. Also in Rotterdam. The Germans threatened to bomb the city if the Dutch did not surrender. A white flag was needed. Sergeant Major Gerrit Ommering made this one from a sheet and a broomstick. Waving his flag, he walked back and forth a number of times between Dutch Military Headquarters and that of the Germans during the negotiations to force a capitulation. Along the way he tended to a wounded marine and blood splattered on this flag.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/the-capitulation-flag/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QJAQzyJb2Ws9AfT42CxI0OPZYoIMumM_KZvj2TFLI1JGI-RYeGp_kf2w_HmM8_JebnsUN3uw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3. MELTED SEWING MACHINE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eElectric Singer sewing machine, affected by fire during bombardementop Rotterdam.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eH 26 cm x W 48 cm \u003cbr\u003e1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eEarly in the afternoon on 14 May 1940 the air-raid siren suddenly sounded. The people of Rotterdam rushed to take cover as German Heinkel bombers approached the city. Then all hell broke loose.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/melted-sewing-machine/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SKSwE8cHQLE_aXIOfsXyNR1LGttzVaIdm8Kv8YPbTPJnagOXhkJV8nWLIF-P8SJKzXyLg_V7kf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4. BURIED TRENCH PICKAXE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.provincie-utrecht.nl/onderwerpen/alle-onderwerpen/archeologie/provinciaal-depot//\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eProvince of Utrecht / Foundation Greb\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eH 16 cm x W 26 cm \u003cbr\u003e1939-1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn the morning of 11 May 1940, 23,000 German soldiers launched an attack on the Grebbeberg, a strategic hill near the Dutch town of Rhenen. The German army was far superior to the inexperienced and poorly armed 2,500 Dutch soldiers of the 8th Regiment Infantry (8 R.I.).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/buried-trench-pickaxe/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SZKAR5IPqIe_KlI4IjHhvG75OLdqhrjstowLp2kLXcjxfUS5Lq8SpAK3_DWXX-B5iX1cp1",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5. SHELLSHOCKED WATCH\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kazemattenmuseum.nl/?land\u003dnl\u0026amp;id\u003d0\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCasemate Museum in Kornwerderzand\u003c/a\u003e, Province of Friesland\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 30 mm x w 28 mm\u003cbr\u003e1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 14 May 1940, German planes sighted the Dutch gunboat Johan Maurits van Nassau just off the coast of the town of Callantsoog. Earlier the ship had successfully helped to defend the Afsluitdijk, the large enclosure dam in the north of the Netherlands.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/shellshocked-watch/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rq0FilD36bQbcvzFbXmC4D-SGnGHYfovgMRDRZHqsEV62j2Ca_GTYvF-Rcba28QSE0DsUUxxbM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6. SEYSS-INQUART’S SS UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the Dutch \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nmm.nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Military Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Soesterberg\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 80 cm x w 45 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eArthur Seyss-Inquart, who had been a loyal member of the Nazi-SS since 1938, was installed as Reichskommissar (Nazi Governor of the Netherlands) on 29 May 1940 in the Ridderzaal of the Dutch Parliament building in The Hague. As Hitler\u0026#39;s representative in the occupied Netherlands, he largely determined German policymaking.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/seyss-inquarts-ss-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_So0kYyY3BbWCCKybziKrtNvP9Jx1qJauEbz0SbAooeJnjWmC48ZOyfwNsl1k4r5Wm3eA0M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7. REICHSKREDIT-KASSENSCHEINE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of The \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.dnb.nl/home/index.jsp\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Central Bank\u003c/a\u003e(DNB) / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.dnb.nl/over-dnb/nationale-numismatische-collectie/index.jsp\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe Money Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eVaried dimensions, 1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWith the occupation of the Netherlands in 1940, a new temporary currency was placed into circulation: the Reichskreditkassenschein. German soldiers could purchase what they needed from Dutch shops using this money.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/reichskreditkassenscheine-2/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgHGDO8Aqhd4h2JHXZeIJpj_X-B5jxfENovbBE5NYlmTcwierP1kDQoYbo2BIOIohTuzzAvNw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8. CHOPPED OFF PIGEON’S FEET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e/ \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 7 cm x w 3 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs early as May 1940, the Germans issued an ordinance stating that all carrier and fancy pigeons had to be killed. Free-flying pigeons might be used to get messages to the Allied Forces.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/chopped-off-pigeons-feet/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TiMoX_3wkYQS8nzeih8dL_Ab-lIZCIWFKcgJ4tRxfC9m1h-F7UPc0206bvrRlETVgd9E5kxA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9. RADIO FREE ORANGE TURNTABLE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 40 cm x w 82 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe 28th of July 1940: ‘This is Radio Oranje, the voice of the Netherlands at war’.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/radio-oranje-turntable/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qy1DAYKvtJgw3Jk6yNBe0VlOzD2yc2Gj_CgXg88o3hGxNk-xOeQIb64GyHMga3A9JF7_zy4RM6",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10. DEADLY TYPEWRITER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovcg.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWar and Resistance Center Groningen\u003c/a\u003e (OVCG)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 25 cm x w 39 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe German occupier not only imposed its will using soldiers, but also through the Civil Service. A typewriter could be just as deadly as a bullet. Until the end of 1944 this typewriter was used in the Scholtenhuis on the Grote Markt, the main square in Groningen. In this monumental building countless arrest warrants were set in motion, confessions were noted in detail after brutal interrogations and documents were typed to facilitate the persecution of the Jews.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/deadly-typewriter/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgLgjZrbxml18cFtlUsLkNpU5YaEbajUPTih-BV6VTqgLS16YPEjY5Hn1-TBWAT7zRFh-04oQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11. ANTON MUSSERT’S CHAIR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 110 cm x w 70 cm, 1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis desk chair, with its Dutch Nazi Party insignia – including the States Lion – once stood in Anton Mussert’s office at NSB Headquarters located at #35 Maliebaan in the Dutch city of Utrecht. Mussert was the co-founder and leader of the National Socialist Movement (NSB) in the Netherlands.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/anton-musserts-chair/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q6HzPPSwkyOuS06deOKGkvy-SCQARjKHACJ9cvh-h4Z6-tB_wcHT_ONP-mtxgTxjjI-ctJZA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12. NETHERLANDS UNION MANIFESTO\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.niod.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e (NIOD), Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 122 cm x 86 cm, 1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThree prominent Dutch citizens: Hans Linthorst Homan, Jan de Quay and Louis Einthoven hoped to improve on a bad situation. Inclined to cooperate with the German occupier in order to ensure the preservation of Dutch values, in July 1940 they founded De Nederlandsche Unie (The Netherlands Union).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/nederlandsche-unie-manifesto/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QgQJ5436frrH-CtYXPAjrl0MtuDRGzQuq7lwh2VDRynkdoD13Yam-QFn0TWLWzjFPVfWv6WQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13. RESISTANCE TEA SPOONS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseumzeeland.nl/index.php/nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eZeeland Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eVaried dimensions, 1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1941, the Niehot family of The Hague welcomed its fourteenth child to the world. The midwife, Nelia Epker, suggested giving Dutch Royal names to the newborn baby. A birth announcement was placed in the newspaper for Irene Beatrix Wilhelmina Juliana Niehot. It was a symbolic gesture of resistance to maintain morale.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/resistance-teaspoons/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sjmqndd7A6MfTKSo2725SsyAw0kSkTl72qo8h27_LHmxKrlAwjK292COaoUqA0O8JnU_7n7g",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14. WOMEN\u0026#39;S AUTO-MOBILE CORPS (VAC) UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.defensie.nl/cdc/bronbeek/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eBronbeek Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Arnhem\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 150 cm x w 55 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePrior to the Second World War, Japan conquered both Korea and Taiwan (Formosa) and a part of China. The initial aim of expanding Japanese territory changed into efforts to establish a great Asian Empire.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/vrouwen-automobiel-corps-vac-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sd6gAvXWOJiI05-0IsdBLyXeLxej5MazMO_SgmK5KOcbQsYRHsuHa4s716oHFs7T8EofeEaAih",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15. ANTON DE KOM’S FOUNTAIN PEN\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the De Kom family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 12 cm x w 1 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eEven before the Second World War, the writer and activist Anton de Kom fought with all his heart for equality between blacks and whites in the Dutch colony of Suriname. His book Wij slaven van Suriname (We Slaves of Suriname) was a symbol of resistance against colonialism.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/anton-de-koms-fountain-pen/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TMfrZaGkle3VgcUTyB3yj6NFUcfH5R12QsXtOPhAtqZsaloMV-ti5pTPImF2Hpbf3kxT5J",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16. MIMEOGRAPH WITH BICYCLE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eResistance Museum, Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 120 cm x w 180 cm (Copying machine)\u003cbr\u003eh 120 cm x w 50 cm (Bicycle) \u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1940, the German occupier abolished freedom of the press. Only information that it sanctioned was allowed in the papers, on the radio and in newsreels. An illegal press arose in reaction to this. The first newspapers appeared sporadically, but by the end of the war the number of illegal publications had increased to 1300.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/mimeograph-with-bicycle/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Toa-qzYmGJKN7dSEIwP32hyHyDqh4o_ENJcrA1f4kRJdbkEcnqyX0zoi96LGbNdjBjiL-Yueg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17. NETHERLANDS\u0026#39; WINTER-AID MONEY BOX\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e/\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl//\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 17 cm x ø 10 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1940, the Reichskommissar (Nazi Governor) of the occupied Netherlands, Seyss-Inquart, set up Winterhulp Nederland (Netherlands\u0026#39; Winter-Aid) modelled on the German example. Through collections and raffles the organization raised money to help provide needy Dutch families with food and clothing. All other charitable organizations were banned.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/winterhulp-nederland-money-box/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QowjZK9zYR1OqXSZRb2zRomoRtqawreg-YcMu1toytR4MzJ2TjsCUxYItGck1Z2Hs6ZSY9",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e18. GATSONIDES’ COAL GAS-GENERATOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 125 cm x w 265 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eBecause the German occupier commandeered fuel for its own needs, early in the war there was already a shortage of petrol. To ensure that cars could still keep riding, some were equipped with a gas generator or a large gas reservoir on top. This meant extensively rebuilding the vehicle. The Dutch race car driver and inventor Maus Gatsonides developed a new kind of gas generator: a gasifier.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/gatsonides-gas-generator/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rzn4nkNmnoVkphhhpXVqzBX0h0JhXYcuWyUGt5WduT8-FZTr8pKuBFOu4ZKOX1cKHJ3IrwXQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e19. ‘KRAUT FILTER\u0026#39;\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.friesverzetsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFrisian Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 75 cm x w 63 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJust like the newspapers, the radio also fell under strict German supervision during the occupation. In January 1941, Dutch stations were replaced by a single state-run broadcaster overseen by the NSB (Dutch Nazi Party).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/kraut-filter/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QIUsV_ly1nt2iOf2iXWRV5eP57qXDnO1c6KzaU_38C2kkvrHqF_f3s564KwANqeh8aJqT0Ox4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20. ELFSTEDENTOCHT CHALLENGE CUP\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.elfstedentocht.frl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRoyal Society of Eleven Frisian Cities\u003c/a\u003e/\u003ca href\u003d\"http://friesscheepvaartmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFrisian Maritime Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 35 cm x ø 12 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the early morning hours of 6 February 1941, 1900 people fastened on their skates. The race of all races was about to begin: the Elfstedentocht (Eleven Cities Speed Skating Tour). The weather was mild and the ice looked inviting. But there were also some concern. An imposed blackout meant a large part of the race would have to be skated in the dark, making it very difficult for many participants. The Frisian skater Auke Adema finished first.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/elfstedentocht-challenge-cup/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RjPFO8eHjSUhFNSg5oSzLtqqgigASwJqg3pHYC_x8dJZwv9oQPO8rjegkXnSUIl4Vc6ujT0cQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e21. ORANJEHOTEL DOOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e, with the permission of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oranjehotel.org/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Foundation Oranjehotel\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 230 cm x w 95 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis wooden door once closed off the distinctive small archway in the long prison wall on Van Alkemadelaan in the Dutch seaside town of Scheveningen. During the war, this notorious prison quickly became known to the Dutch as the Oranjehotel (Lit. Orange Hotel), given that many Dutch Resistance fighters – including members of the Resistance group De Geuzen, Anton de Kom and Boy Ecury – were interned here.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/oranjehotel-door/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q9JKBylxVwTKMkZT3erLcy7kap-yaxb5zy9A55PBCXDOXNIzrdYQ66y830mdq8dqqabeJybuY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e22. MERCHANT NAVY GUNNER’S VEST\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.maritiemmuseum.nl/nl/page/42/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMaritime Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 79 cm x w 58 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRoeland Jan Kroesen was just one of thousands of men sailing with the Dutch Merchant Navy when the Second World War broke out. Life changed drastically: ships that weren\u0026#39;t in occupied waters at the outbreak of the war and capable of helping the Allied effort were required to do so. This was the result of a vaarplicht (injunction to continue sailing) issued by Dutch royal decree on 6 June 1940.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/merchant-navy-gunners-vest/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ri8NA7PydmJy6KGP9rS0lB9Ed0vm_27DsjYjK3v4dHGRNsLwIZzEKut5NumvQtveQsBx7UulVU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e23. FORGED IDENTITY CARD\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.markt12.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMarkt 12 - Euregional Hiding Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Aalten\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 11 cm x b 24 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 8 October 1941, the Jewish cattle dealer Salli Schwarz narrowly escaped a roundup on Molenstraat in the town of Winterswijk. Sneaking through backyard after backyard, he embarked on a journey that would last the rest of the war. Salli, followed by his wife Betty and daughter Ria, went from one hiding place to another.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/forged-identity-card/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QMvqFDy3UyorZm3Wzf6PzTdV4bSWCtbp1iEsz4-AvNry05DXFpa7queLCm1_Iv-g1Ux6uI5Vs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e24. \u0026#39;FORBIDDEN FOR JEWS\u0026#39; \u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum-zh.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eSouth Holland Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Gouda\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 19 cm x w 40 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eLess than two months after the German invasion, Jewish employees of the Dutch Air Raid Defence Service were dismissed. It was the first in a long line of anti-Jewish measures. Jews were gradually isolated from the rest of the population in the Netherlands.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/verboden-voor-joden/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTVkjLVAhLTkF6Goo1IvOlRlxGP_rUb5edv3l6Jadhd3N1SJLSQS--o8foqsHPZQNIMhlcDA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e25. SNIP AND SNAP MARIONETTES\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bijzonderecollecties.uva.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eSpecial Collections of the University of Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.theaterinstituut.nl/#tin-na-bijna-80jaar?cache\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Theatre Institute\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 85 cm x w 25 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the months following the bombing of Rotterdam in May 1940, the Germans wanted daily life to continue as normal as possible. So entertainment was of great importance. And who better to help with this than the popular twosome of Snip and Snap. For years the comedy reviews of Willy Walden (Snip) and Piet Muyselaar (Snap) had drawn full houses.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/snip-and-snap-marionettes/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SyWFxSRQvbR3eSfNNQcS5yqKUOllKrjpB6-5NfSd_RyQtthzUhDOZ91wm6tTJag5wvdKEBeA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e 26. LAST SELF-PORTRAITS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRijksmuseum Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 31 cm x w 25 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter the February Strike of 1941, the sculptor and draftsman Cor van Teeseling joined a Resistance group that printed and distributed the illegal Communist newspaper De Waarheid (Lit. The Truth). Six months later, the Germans arrested him. On 10 November 1941, the death sentence was pronounced against him.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/last-self-portraits/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWmjB1VSivXyqphdbCaarQFYk7kP0a9hCLheAl-SikiESCo_1y0OtLEcllci7tiLXIcw_RdOU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e27. DIRECTIONS TO CAMP AMERSFOORT\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the National Monument Camp Amersfoort\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 20 cm x w 99 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIt was a simple black \u0026amp; white signboard alongside the road with a few abbreviated German words. Nothing more. But for the thousands of prisoners who saw this board on their way to Polizeiliches Durchgangslager (Police Transit Camp) Amersfoort, it was their first glimpse of an unknown future.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/directions-to-camp-amersfoort/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ss_MpoXImydWgtqtJJ5NgSueOPT8gTkkNfWgYHFpc-16uB6Es0BJ4aczQdan8ZHE4XDAbfskdZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e28. ENGELANDVAARDER’S CANOE \u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the Peteri family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 50 cm x w 460 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDuring the war around 1700 Dutch men and women who tried to reach freedom in England, over land or by sea, were given the honorary name: Engelandvaarders (Lit. England-farers). They hoped to actively take part in the Allied struggle against the Germans. Two brothers, Henri and Willem Peteri, managed to escape from the occupied Netherlands in this canoe.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/engelandvaarders-canoe/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SpcZ9pi9qrfkjyOGpXbILr3dr-vpEr71iXO44BhsYXJYrFnivdEu_wlPj2XejEvnWX70p6Kbw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e29. GERMAN LANGUAGE RADIO COURSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Arthur van Beveren\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 24 cm x w 16 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn Sunday 5 October 1941 listeners readied themselves with a textbook for their first German lesson, broadcast on a Dutch radio station from the city of Hilversum. Alfred Rügner began by telling his audience a little something about German pronunciation.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/german-language-radio-course/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TEWShu9DSMIbjLl8QYcyHaHZixip_8E407JKc-IbQBg2Y_OxwUt6Cldc8CbHPkNbho6218zkqT",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e30. STEEL ‘STEED’ WITH WOODEN TIRES\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nmm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch National Military Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 120 cm (bicycle)\u003cbr\u003eø 75 cm (wheel)\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the period 1940-1945, very few people actually owned a car so bicycles were a major means of transport. Because imports of rubber were discontinued during the war, bicycle tires were quickly scarce. But this made people inventive: when certain products were unavailable during the war, people came up with substitutes.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/steel-steed-with-wooden-tires/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9oCmOZxba7_kbVfXeyxs9O6CmBOEkU-Z0lSpgDgJAFXqLVnAhfc6mt6tsPVmFaI4AGPaUEg0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e31. JAPANESE MACHINE GUN\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.defensie.nl/cdc/bronbeek/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ecollection of the Bronbeek Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Arnhem\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 41 cm x b 140 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIt was a quiet, breezy night with a full-moon as marine H. Kooi of the Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indisch Leger, KNIL (Royal Netherlands East Indies Army) left the city of Surabaya to go into battle. Two months earlier, at the beginning of 1942, Japan had attacked the Dutch East Indies and it now threatened to occupy Java as well. Suddenly we find ourselves in the middle of a fight against the Japanese...\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/japanese-machine-gun/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TXsnjRsWNfBaJ8bhKw7VZAEjueh_TKBeUfZPzPFZOGGuwlLzOsiZJQ6bd5Q-lmoWncfNhR",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e32. ROLL OF ‘YELLOW STAR’ FABRIC\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 60 cm x w 137 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs of 3 May 1942, all Jews age six and older were required to wear a so-called yellow star visible on the left side of their clothing. It was yet another measure to isolate and exclude Jews from Dutch society. The word Jood (Jew) appears in the middle of this six-pointed star, which has the same form as the Jewish Star of David.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/roll-of-yellow-star-fabric/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SHBHlZeQvXWPQ8ZGNtdCv-TX05hrGhujLI6VZrPlpXkhYhZyouoIWMe9GaoDSR7ErUuSD8KK8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e33. AIR FILTER FROM DEFENCE BUNKER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.monumentfortdebilt.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFort De Bilt Memorial Centre and Monument\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eA number of machine gun bunkers were built near all the forts forming the Dutch Waterlinie, land that could be flooded as a means of defence. In the event of a gas attack these bunkers could be sealed off airtight.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/air-filter-from-defence-bunker/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TrHbkgMrNNTT0jm6RfJ4_vVo976s88goEvt-QrMd12U73csZm4GLCS0pYWVhDOBlASbiHiAQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e34. GERMAN BIRTHDAY GIFT\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.niod.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies\u003c/a\u003e (NIOD), Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 67 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 11 May 1942, in his headquarters at #35 Maliebaan in Utrecht, the leader of the Dutch Nazi Party (NSB), Anton Mussert, was congratulated by his personnel on the occasion of his forty-eighth birthday. Then two members of his staff carried in a large present. They opened the package to reveal a huge book, almost 70 cm high and weighing at least 15 kilos.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/german-birthday-gift/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T14aDtINndat2QicFfwHlzi8GcqXwEiej5B0uYj20ZLctg8SEAOXvXJVU1wBhznjo44K5wT1iu",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e35. CIGARETTES FROM HOME-GROWN TOBACCO\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.achterhoeksmuseum1940-1945.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAchterhoeks Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e 1940-1945, Hengelo\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eVaried dimensions, 1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThere was a huge shortage of tobacco during the war years due to the compulsory delivery of a large part of the tobacco stock to Germany and the loss of supply lines from abroad.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/cigarettes-from-home-grown-tobacco/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RiuKKilYFWhTLOSVqa7iv8oylTS2pyVvQh3TPWswJtI9eqmiifcXYzWJJjOdAkPZq0yCi0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e36. FROM SIMON VESTDIJK’S WORK\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://vestdijk.com/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eVestdijk Society\u003c/a\u003e / Hans Visser\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 25 cm x w 21 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 4 May 1942, the Germans imprisoned 460 prominent Dutch people including politicians, mayors, professors, clergymen, lawyers, writers and musicians in the Beekvliet Preparatory Seminary in the Dutch town of Sint-Michielsgestel.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/from-simon-vestdijks-work/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rm4_Ye7p9ir8tujXJHEEv95ZhNZ_EqDCeIwITUU3suev8gbYZu2zl6i2oArYJZzLqdm4sk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e37. FILE CABINETS WITH STAMPS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eResistance Museum Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePer box:\u003cbr\u003eh 12 cm x w 16 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThanks to these rubber stamps – stored in envelopes arranged alphabetically in these cabinets – it was possible to create fake identity cards and other documents during the war. Exactly how many were forged is unknown, but by the beginning of 1944 the count was already 91,000.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/file-cabinets-with-stamps/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RpbDyp_Ee4i4g9z_6jTItRJkzjQRpvAzGAQm_IlRvVhZnLX8fHkwcbTyqJhOBVvG9qCgJ7miU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e38. BURMA RAILWAY CROSSTIE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 14 cm x w 192 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Japanese occupier in the Dutch East Indies forced Western men and Dutch Indonesians of the colony to work as slave labourers. Thousands of men, who were first vigorous, strong and healthy, suffered terribly under the wretched conditions. All day long they toiled in the burning sun and almost unbearable heat to lay the infamous Burma Railway.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/burma-railway-crosstie/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qr8aB0SyAZRYSevEEyKGNmUECUqjPHZOhX4f_35EVPzxkzkqq6yl1Q_UmxBxgrQ5YF18FugrM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e39. ANNE FRANK’S MARBLES\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.annefrank.org/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAnne Frank House\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 9 cm x w 19 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eSome Jewish children gave away their toys when they had to report for transport or went into hiding. Marbles were a child’s prized possession. The night before they were transported, a few children in the South of Amsterdam were known to have said: ‘Let’s just toss them!’ They threw their marbles out the window, hoping other children in the neighbourhood would gather them up.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/anne-franks-marbles/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QkTKuRSs0UVggAe1PDCOtz0j1o1zz2yddUnu8U7SaEaR98vQg_aZsjjiKqgomHvizQRrTW8g",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e40. WESTERBORK-AUSCHWITZ TRAIN SIGNBOARD\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/index.html#/index\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCamp Westerbork Memorial Centre\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 40 cm x w 80 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis metal train sign ‘Westerbork-Auschwitz, Auschwitz-Westerbork’ indicated a return trip that nobody would ever make. On 15 and 16 July 1942, the first two cargo trains packed with more than 2,000 Jews left the Westerbork Transit Camp headed for the Auschwitz extermination camp in Poland. Most of the people aboard these transports were killed the same day they arrived. A total of 65 trains left for Auschwitz alone.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/westerbork-auschwitz-train-signboard/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SstjiFtBSq8CbqcFc0MmxuTShFv1sinRrHu9goQ_v8QFiFo0MdEi710RbtAc9FikhTfZJnTLQZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e41. ORDEDIENST COVERALLS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"about:invalid#zGuavaz\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCamp Westerbork Memorial Centre\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 145 cm x w 60 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn October 1939 the first German-Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi Germany arrived in Westerbork. They were involved in the internal organization of the refugee camp starting in 1940, as well as later on when it officially became a transit camp for Jews: Polizeiliches Judendurchgangslager Westerbork.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/ordedienst-coveralls/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QibUgyRdGoOeGkaZRJLd-r_4T_nxac_rhAJDIysIgEfZ1zED6AUM2edke2DJA-xaxcSuCkw5I",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e42. JEUGDSTORM TRUMPET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.achterhoeksmuseum1940-1945.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAchterhoeks Museum \u003c/a\u003e 1940-1945, Hengelo\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 16 cm x w 51 cm\u003cbr\u003e1939-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e‘When standing at attention for a long time, once the musical director gives the sign, the horn may be placed under the right arm’ These and other strict instructions applied to playing the Nationale Jeugdstorm (NJS, National Youth Storm) trumpet.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/jeugdstorm-trumpet/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Re2WyIdPnfY0RX8ifyfhPnnlZN3kzxyuWL3T7yXX3NSmEYDAE-SO303gTUKglZu9K4lUSn5A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e43. FAREWELL LETTER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 17 cm x w 15 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eA planned sea crossing on 21 March 1942 of the Jewish Engelandvaarder (Lit. England-farer) Carl Martin Zellermayer and eight others failed because they were betrayed. In the ferry boss’ house in the Dutch harbour village of Simonshaven they awaited nightfall. Once it was dark, they could embark on their journey to England. But before that happened, the Germans surrounded the house and arrested the would-be Engelandvaarders.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/farewell-letter/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TY6I5Vlg6N1jTY-OdGy_TBsnj9QMODmu8pCawjbnb4ujSOnYkZGjdZHPYBpK5SWJi6C0bYPQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e44. BEAR WITH FULL BELLY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 37 cm x w 11 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eNine-year-old Margreet Kuiper arrived at Camp Tjideng in Batavia with nothing. The last suitcase with any of her belongings was lost along the way. But then she found this teddy bear in the garbage. The Japanese, who occupied the Dutch East Indies in 1942, interned the Dutch in special camps. A reign of terror prevailed in Camp Tijdeng. Hunger and disease were rampant and in the absence of medicine, the death toll rose. In this difficult period Margreet cherished this teddy bear.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/bear-with-full-belly/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SAU6wKgmHi4uZMit9BKv6vmQgqNJR4Vk0dvi7KZ_3hpDuu1jGh8pNHbYLeQtZF4AOvgU5m3M_i",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e45. SEIZED BELL\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumklokenpeel.nl/nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003e National Clock \u0026amp; Peel Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Asten\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 41 cm x ø 39 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn September 1942, the Germans enacted a measure that made many of the Dutch extremely angry: they seized bronze church bells to melt them down for canons and ammunition.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/seized-bell/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgCZuKStL_flJCDCnmcJpA8i9vs1_GVLIaywADcivQ4YaHkKAZwnqH7usd2rJsg2xMgVADSw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e46. LIFE VEST FROM JAPANESE ‘HELL SHIP’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.defensie.nl/cdc/bronbeek/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eBronbeek Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Arnhem\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 45 cm x w 30 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Nitimei Maru, a Japanese troop ship with around 1,000 Dutch prisoners of war and 1562 Japanese soldiers aboard, departed from Singapore on 29 December 1942.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/life-vest-from-hell-ship/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TiXxjeOyWVoeN772QomKnsyWc5rkmSsDQPbu1A6icW5VIdFhF0MVjScafJ1Trvk1sUVYXX6A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e‘47. DE NIEUWE MENSCH’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRijksmuseum Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 277 cm x w 172 cm\u003cbr\u003eca. 1937\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1940 the leader of the Dutch Nazi Party (NSB), Anton Mussert, received this painting as a gift from the Dutch businessman Louis van Leeuwen Boomkamp before he departed for the Dutch East Indies. Mussert hung it in his office at NSB Headquarters in Utrecht.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/de-nieuwe-mensch-2/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QW9Sx01ECQmVg62aFE7vk1WCUOJNOyf-mm1ItRvmjyU2v1kelh5hX93WHV6DSbczQE8XwBhRQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e48. FLAG IN GOOD HANDS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the Winterswijk Synagogue\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 182 cm x w 230 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1943, the Jewish family Gans was on their way to the train station because Father Josef, Mother Martha and their four children Abraham, Louise, Emma and baby Harry had received a call-up notice. After earlier deferments they were ordered, like many other Jews, to report for internment in the Vught Concentration Camp.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/flag-in-good-hands/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qba_T9DE4O5pDZY0o3BDBnhFqWzSQsyNQAGWE__ODlu-qEG1BmWI_skVfmEfwHjycE2p8keVQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e49. BETRAYER’S BOUNTY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.niod.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies\u003c/a\u003e (NIOD), Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 27 cm x w 20 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis receipt was given to members of the Dutch Henneicke Colonne in 1943 for the Jews they had arrested and delivered to the German authorities.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/betrayers-bounty/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TFfM5ASU7f9Q6EW_OjsceTd3qcOrcp82DSeZ4Q6KLUxl_7cDRoCLz0w1L7pCyTQIgq8snjTUBc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e50. BLESSED RADIO\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kazemattenmuseum.nl/?land\u003dnl\u0026amp;id\u003d0\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCasemate Museum\u003c/a\u003e in Kornwerderzand, Province of Friesland.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 19 cm x w 14 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn May 1943, the Germans tried with all their means to jam the reception of foreign radio stations, including Radio Oranje (Radio Free Orange) from England. But this had little effect and the majority of the Dutch population continued to listen to these forbidden broadcasters.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/blessed-radio/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RfGzLJ4lZ2OOiTq8F8OG397cigK1ZhSPemlgjahSYHgcz6GlibvJOSkZq6fV1fb8VToyquiA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e51. SHOEMAKER’S FAREWELL\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.nmkampvught.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Monument Camp Vught\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 15 cm x w 54 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe everyday life of the Jewish Gold family, who lived in the village of Jutphaas near Utrecht, came to an abrupt end in April 1943: Father, Mother and their son Lothar were picked up from their home and eventually deported. They always had close contact with the neighbours across the street, the Steenaart family.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/shoemakers-farewell/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TpMsvNHiWZ3GmTLhItLbQ7F5YOl2Y0YZZMk8F6MNXsa4wQhz53dWVFXFf1yuszsrojkT0fXQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e52. APRIL-MAY STRIKE DEATH PENALTY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovcg.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWar and Resistance Center Groningen\u003c/a\u003e(OVCG)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 30 cm x w 35 cm \u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 29 April 1943, Wehrmachtbefehlshaber (Wehrmacht Commander) General Friedrich Christiansen announced that Dutch soldiers who had fought against the invading Germans in May 1940 would again be taken as prisoners of war and sent to Germany to work in factories and on the land.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/april-may-strike-death-penalty/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QgdVcpLegUR3dgfvppib_aKcmcnvBulwN0DLRav_txYWTELfe6YhkIhZVx1t85QsFOsnnxQ0U",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e53. VOLUNTEER’S SS-UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nmm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch National Military Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Soesterberg\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 60 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Dutch volunteers who fought with the Germans were initially two apart groups: those who served with the Waffen-SS and those who registered for the Dutch Vrijwilligerslegion (Volunteer Legion).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/volunteers-ss-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R_3bJKL3g0FjzhvqskhdIskCy1GpFPB-nc5jQ5nVdzmgvI2I4a3xcixrb0_xXclkXw0gNkujA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e54. LOOTED CUTLERY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eMade available to the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/index.html#/index\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCamp Westerbork Memorial Centre\u003c/a\u003e, for the exhibition In bewaring gegeven (Given in Safekeeping)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFor years Chris B’s family used this silver-plated cutlery to eat their meals. In 1943, B. was an ardent Nazi who actively took part in hunting down Jews hiding in Amsterdam and its vicinity. He was a member of the Henneicke Colonne, a group that in a period of six months arrested between 8000 and 9000 Jews and delivered them to the Hollandsche Schouwberg, the Amsterdam theatre venue from which the deportations took place. B. and his fellow Dutch ‘Jew hunters’ received a bounty payment of 7.50 guilders for each person they rounded up.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/looted-cutlery/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RMPjo92_41qcmnaIsAeJej293ICMPq_V6R6Rtf3HvPOD9PyE77HtEoAvFkCAjbBbkjNAQPQA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e55. HANNIE SCHAFT’S DISGUISE GLASSES\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1943, the red-headed Dutch student Hannie Schaft joined a Communist Resistance group in the Dutch city of Haarlem. This group liquidated betrayers. Hannie worked closely with the sisters Truus and Freddie Oversteegen.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/hannie-schafts-disguise-glasses/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SpCwcJwpo82ll5Dv4A13rC6eyPLVXJ6r0nbOECdKK61BldZ-iKUjsrOSAsHGyqKa1Rpp6IctE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e56. CHRIST AND THE ADULTERESS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumdefundatie.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFundatie Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Zwolle / Borrowed via the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.cultureelerfgoed.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Cultural Heritage Agency\u003c/a\u003e (RCE)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 100 cm x w 90 cm \u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1943, via an art broker, Hermann Goering purchased this ‘Vermeer’ for the astronomical amount of 1.65 million guilders. The seller was the painter and art dealer Han van Meegeren.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/christ-and-the-adulteress/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tcz5HNcx1MqrD9aCn7uOxMlhXyiYRmrVn5BdnlSqHKuCqcG6p5HoOggYx4M8xprP9ei-wkuAA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e57. A LAST MESSAGE FROM ETTY HILLESUM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 9 cm x w 14 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 7 September 1943, a freight train with 987 Jews aboard departed from the Westerbork Transit Camp in the east of the Netherlands to the Auschwitz Concentration and Extermination Camp in occupied Poland. Sitting on her backpack in an overcrowded railway car, twenty-nine-year-old Etty Hillseum wrote this postcard to her friend Christine who lived in Deventer. ‘We have left the camp singing...’ she entrusted to paper. Then she threw the card from the train – her last sign of life.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/laatste-groet-etty-hillesum-2/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TnDzYIr6xfBZtiQHL-qNolYTxT5XCThFGRHKQ8Vz11YHCB5BIC27DKYlC6UHOQx2hMjXNZAnc5",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e58. STILL LIFE WITH BREAD\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.vughtsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eVught Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e via the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.nmkampvught.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Monument Camp Vught\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 65 cm x w 75 cm \u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe painter Johan van Sweden, who was also a member of the Groningen artists’ collective De Ploeg (The Plough Team), ended up in the Vught Concentration Camp in the Netherlands because of his Resistance activities. He made commissioned portraits for some of the camp guards and the SS there and because of this received a number of special privileges. He was provided with his own studio, while the guards went about getting him painting supplies.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/still-life-with-bread/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QUQIxfTofbSMCXf9liQhziTDfHGiB2_HWHcdY_SrrBlatQ7wrO20ERK4qG2l1LKlbUYKhghDs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e59. AUNT TRUUS’ TOTE BAG\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 23 cm x w 45 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1942 Truus Scholten joined the resistance in the Dutch province of Limburg, bordering on Germany. As a midwife, she was respected by both the Dutch and the Germans. Her line of work exempted her from the imposed evening curfew and she was allowed to keep her car.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/aunt-truus-tote-bag/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rq4SZHii-Vkp1hwhekJ20KQqeEgR3u-Xxk388h20QCUfm9owCGecRba9XKH8VizLgTlvhFouY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e60. TOY PLANE IN HIDING\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the Rooiman family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 15 cm x w 40 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 27 September 1942, the Jewish child Joop Levy went into hiding with his parents. They were taken in by the Ebbers family on their farm in the village of Lintelo in the Achterhoek, a region in the eastern part of the Netherlands. Joop had no friends to play with.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/toy-plane-in-hiding/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rg_TzPD9XdhvAJ4Yko5sPRruMJu62LursXaJSn8hNWZPIzTPzAZRp3NIyU3a_UtOMi5TVxQfNm",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e61. SINTERKLAAS COSTUME\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 155 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFlip Heil participated in Resistance activities related to the illegal Amsterdam newspaper Het Parool. He was married to a Jewish woman, Lien Barend. Because the Nazis tended not to bother couples in mixed-marriages, Lien was relatively safe.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/sinterklaas-costume/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tq9S7hAI3_NlOcaYArHI2EVH4BE-UdUEFXxgjAOIkZpHxYfeesARiYxj8WvSa83n8PRgWq_yY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e62. B2 SPY RADIO SET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.cryptomuseum.com/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCrypto Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 16 cm x w 52 cm \u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWalking down the street with a suitcase isn’t particularly unusual and it wasn’t during the war either. It was, however, a different story if the case contained an illegal radio transmitter. Many Resistance fighters risked their lives to maintain contact with a free England using a B2-transmitter.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/b2-spy-radio-set/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLwh_OPjghc2HJEwYNLpoAEb_I7ns_COu0SqjCyOdnGgeMDU34_T7yW3ynl4CUouRCx2uo_B8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e63. GERMAN PROPAGANDA POSTER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.niod.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Institute for War\u003c/a\u003e, Holocaust and Genocide Studies (NIOD), Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 110 cm x w 79 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Dutch cities of Nijmegen, Enschede, Deventer and Arnhem endured heavy attacks from Allied bombers on 22 February 1944. Due to bad weather conditions, the pilots could not attack the designated targets in Germany so instead they chose an opportune target: the railway yard in Nijmegen.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/german-propaganda-poster/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rkqlf6ug9U45gN8-qP1lTtHV-ZUUJa2QkM9EmR-beC7ZASIRfsyUpE8NN4l7vhEFgrpUM4V44"],["",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e64. PERSECUTION CAPTURED IN TIME\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/index.html#/index\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCamp Westerbork Memorial Centre\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJust a few seconds... that’s how long this girl stared into the camera on 19 May 1944 in the doorway of this boxcar in Westerbork, unaware of her fate. The train was about to depart for the Auschwitz-Birkenau Extermination Camp in Poland. It is surmised that she was gassed there during the night of 2 August 1944. Her exact identity was unknown for decades, but as the ‘Girl with the Scarf’ she became a symbol of the persecution of the Jews.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/persecution-captured-in-time/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"],null,[null,"lnwmFk55fj8"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QONdcPc8JxrpML8JAklXKvhZKhG1kpQi4q3bVHjjBx9Q8yFj-ZRYtB6FLzwIWyRjvz5png2w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e65. RUPERT DOLL\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collections of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.friesverzetsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFrisian Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e and the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum-zh.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eSouth Holland Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Gouda\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 82 cm x w 57 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe English called him ‘Rupert’ and the Americans ‘Oscar’. The Allies used these paratrooper dummies to cause confusion and chaos among the German troops.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"about:invalid#zGuavaz\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ryr6rzqvl4eQ5-1CONjihn-69opKDOXXbP0EDEmw5guKqNtd5VfBZ3iig1j1BAZpqCBazt0w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e66. TAPESTRY FROM SINGAPORE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 141 cm x w 100 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRabbi Chaim Nussbaum grew up in Scheveningen in the Netherlands and after getting married returned with his wife to the country of his birth, Lithuania. When the Nazis invaded Lithuania in 1941, Chaim managed to escape with his family.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/tapestry-from-singapore/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RxvEaGo6D_Hx-ItBNXaqCv__nfkrlE5U8NeCTTXn44K-ze7RTfGWRZFeW_27m34KbPFo-JAb4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e67. SS-FLAG\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovcg.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWar and Resistance Center Groningen\u003c/a\u003e(OVCG)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDuring the occupation, this SS-flag was used at the Scholtenhuis on the Grote Markt in Groningen. The headquarters of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the notorious Nazi Security Service – a division of the SS – was located here.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/ss-flag/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RuUFZsMmKCYrZaXxTc5WAOcPSYG1WY8ddi7uaHw-G_RBa-B5P000wSmyYI7_kNu3PEDN8hwg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e68. A RING FOR ROZA\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 2 cm x w 2 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter their hiding place was betrayed, Roza and Siem Vos were deported via Westerbork to the Auschwitz Extermination Camp in Poland on 3 March 1944. They were immediately separated from each other.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/a-ring-for-roza/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QqbmgmT5UGwm1-AXjAnAGrLkeHJ8kvSq-TeAAn0ChQNTmoEedrcH0xsKfBJ1AMZe9kplLsYcMv",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e69. PRINCE BERNHARD’S BS-UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nmm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch National Military Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Soesterberg\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 57 cm x w 47 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDuring the years the Dutch Royal family spent exiled in England, Prince Bernhard was of tremendous support to Queen Wilhelmina. In September 1944 she appointed him commander-in-chief of the BS: Nederlandse Binnenlandse Strijdkrachten (Dutch Interior Forces).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/prince-bernhards-bs-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RoPkhW3XK-vVQDnSuMmpciqW5sYeKTGOyJiBh2I_BLAb917zbLyd62Z7MOxhns2xEPtigS9Hg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e70. SILK ROUTE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.airbornemuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003e‘Hartenstein’ Airborne Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Oosterbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 70 cm x w 70 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhen Lieutenant Colonel John Frost, commander of the British 2nd Parachute Battalion, landed in the Netherlands on 17 September 1944, this silk map of the Netherlands, Belgium and France was safely tucked in his pocket.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/silk-route/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TgJvMl2amJmIQxJ-tn7U36bt747WlpPKz2SmsVTFLQuoCn9Z0isXSIcLN_ruWg6CJ7cLCzscJU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e71. DIVINE WEDDING DRESS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.airbornemuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003e‘Hartenstein’ Airborne Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Oosterbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 130 cm x w 60 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Allies wanted to put an end to the war as quickly as possible, so in the autumn of 1944 they launched a dangerous plan: Operation Market Garden. On the 17th of September 1944, 35.000 British and American paratroopers jumped from planes above the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Gelderland or landed by glider.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/divine-wedding-dress/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RI1xrPJQQ_wxKKEBFTMNOn1REMx0fIPDMBqLR9dog3uHnZZ8Bh53MZMFZlrBUYhTPzEGPKeU8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e72. FOLDABLE MOTORCYCLE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.airbornemuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003e‘Hartenstein’ Airborne Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Oosterbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 90 cm x w 140 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis British folding motorcycle literally fell from the sky during the Battle of Arnhem. On 17 September 1944, nearly 5,200 men of the British First Airborne Division landed by parachute or glider on the woodland heath near the town of Renkum, some distance from the city of Arnhem. In supply containers hanging from parachutes, just about everything was dropped: food, radios, bicycles and this British Welbike single-seat motorcycle.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/foldable-motorcycle/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T_SRWWarEWhhar_3E6OldEm9_V89YTzE9N5CBLeH-C8_EHxYy0BOUB15j0gSenwii6mpLCOw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e73. SPERRGEBIET WARNING\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e1944-1945, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 80 cm x w 100 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDutch cities and villages were filled with signboards: displaying instructions and warnings in German. Most were for practical purposes, for instance to help people find different German government offices. But there were also signs with a more threatening tone, like this one indicating a Sperrgebiet: an area restricted to everybody without official clearance.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/sperrgebiet-warning/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TRcyrMWUc7aMHpQ5JKzmTLIStFb4fWl3sEBN9j9-bYrezw93CL7QNixZ0dtkP5A0MD8K67",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e74. TREES’ DIARY ABOUT ‘MARKET GARDEN’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e1944-1945, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 22 cm x w 17 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eTrees Schretlen wrote on 18 September 1944: ‘The battle for Nijmegen has begun.’ The Americans and British have arrived to liberate the city. Trees kept a diary in the high school agenda she purchased for her junior year. Given all the schools had been closed, she no longer needed it for her classes. She drew a radio in the margin with the caption ‘Forward to the final victory.’\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/trees-diary-about-market-garden/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SKx9VgvkPTLOY1imQDawrWyHhtfUQRcUhmb2TEipjyGVdL0giRbi9sL7UXDDcBbVMWzambIg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e75. ‘REGISTRATION BUREAU, WAR VOLUNTEERS’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.achterhoeksmuseum1940-1945.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAchterhoeks Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Hengelo\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 43 cm x w 90 cm \u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThere were youngsters in the liberated south of the Netherlands who were eager to join the armed struggle. On 1 October 1944 the exiled Dutch government in London reached the Oorlogsvrijwilligersbesluit (Lit. War Volunteers Decision): allowing Dutch males, ages 18 to 36 years, to volunteer for deployment in Europe or in the Dutch East Indies, which was occupied by the Japanese.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/registration-bureau-war-volunteers/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RHgVNn9kZOXFWEyPD9aOmjA-VvqDRAD8XxUWF0d_HE5rl0b2Kj2Ei87MADXe-J84tfN9A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e76. CROMWELL BATTLE TANK\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFor more than four years, the village of Overloon in the eastern part of the Dutch province of Brabant went untouched by the Second World War. Of course residents saw German soldiers in their streets, but they were spared the wartime violence. That changed dramatically in the fall of 1944.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/cromwell-battle-tank/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TDsGTRkNqgmIx0Ph9uWDpMe4NwSm9XjLiiZfyK_I3dTdAFntjAOIk-LFn-EPP-FFgliS1BE3Y",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e77. POLISH LIBERATOR’S UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.maczekmuseum.nl/en\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eGeneral Maczek Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Breda\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 60 cm x w 70 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eShouting with joy, the population of Breda welcomed their liberators on 29 October 1944. Surprisingly enough those troops turned out to be Polish. After fierce fighting under the leadership of General Maczek, the 1st Polish Armoured Division had managed to liberate the Dutch city from the Germans.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/polish-liberators-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TqwNTe6HPa2kaO5tEmZHJWLm_XuA6opNTBAtH55BqCVkdgUZ0-eWYYGE_2grffCIkwgDxBGdrO",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e78. ROYAL LIBERATION DRESS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 52 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1944, a little Jewish girl named Elianne Muller wore this dress made of parachute material – dyed orange – during the Liberation celebration that took place in the village of Neerkant in the Dutch province of Brabant. It went beautifully with her reddish curls. The family Thijssen, who had been hiding the girl, made her this dress for this festive occasion.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/royal-liberation-dress/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T5ODtABXb2Aa-XgFt0YMDz_1ZF5-0qvXSbX0fhlfTh-svpmBUnk5RCYfI7qOb81lV-PqGS7-0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e79. GERMAN SUBMACHINE GUN\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseumzeeland.nl/index.php/nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eZeeland Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 28 cm x w 62 cm.\u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhen Lieutenant Bas Groeneweg disarmed a young German soldier he had taken prisoner during the liberation of Zeeland, he did not hesitate for a moment.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/german-submachine-gun/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TyvgsU7m1LYJRZTINjuay0Q_1KSJGDX1_VKgJB5Jlh6fqQX7u1M__2DXhadiJmCYVlyUdOP14",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e80. AMERICAN WATER WEASEL\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseumzeeland.nl/index.php/nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eZeeland Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter the September 1944 defeat during the Battle of Arnhem, taking control of the mouth of the River Scheldt in Belgium was a priority for the Allies. This strategic move would give them access to the waterway leading to the city of Antwerp, which had already been liberated. Antwerp’s harbour was a very important supply point for the massive Allied effort. To help make this possible, the British Royal Air Force (RAF) bombed dykes at four different locations on Walcheren in the Dutch province of Zeeland, almost entirely submerging the peninsula.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/american-water-weasel/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SR2XHxADXgZIWK3Zpl9Lf-EnxxBvLMhKMu0hwZJkf-NvV6KMMg14BLQRB-0Svq6TS6B3j1VGo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e81. WOODEN WAALSDORPERVLAKTE CROSS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.friesverzetsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFrisian Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 142 cm x w 60 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWaalsdorpervlakte, in the dunes by the Dutch seaside village of Scheveningen, was one of the most notorious spots during the Second World War. On this desolate sand plain more than 250 people were killed by the Germans.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/wooden-waalsdorpervlakte-cross/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SYjL3TxWwgP1ZFqvFWAf3JDSIIT3X0WaFm3LStp8VIVNhx69W3wK1fVegctHN6IcvnKBkpF0lI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e82. ORIGINAL BURIAL CROSS OF AN AMERICAN LIBERATOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Herman Wijnhoven\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 74 cm x w 45 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eReturning from a bombing raid of Germany’s Ruhr Valley in 1944, American pilot James M. Hansen’s fighter plane ran into trouble and crashed. James was killed instantly. The Allies, who buried him in the temporary American military cemetery in the village of Molenhoek near the Dutch city of Nijmegen, placed this wooden cross on his grave.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/original-burial-cross-of-an-american-liberator/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R-yN02TJmwJmF6elyWHn51CC_Er29xmwvfvi2l6YbKydHr-yh8gtjpUtqe7ZVXGnLF3Cq6qYo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e83. RAZZIA IN ROTTERDAM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 187 cm x w 47 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the early hours of 10 November 1944, 8,000 German soldiers flooded the streets of Rotterdam. They lay a cordon around the city, took up position on the bridges and squares and shut down the telephone service. They distributed pamphlets ordering all men ages 17 to 40 years to report for tewerkstelling (employment in the service of Germany).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/razzia-in-rotterdam/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZqMKTGrE8Gc4SniLi03V-tfbSofKSbKr7pFHcmNRfFgj2k0w680yAnY3YNb_aTerusNi1dA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e84. ESCAPED WEARING TRADITIONAL BONNET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.markt12.nl/home.asp?l\u003dnl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMarkt 12 - Euregionaal Freedom Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Aalten\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 20 cm x w 35 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOne out of every five inhabitants of the town of Aalten located in the Achterhoek, the so-called back corner in the east of the Netherlands bordering Germany, was in hiding there during the Second World War. The occupier was on constant look out for people on the run, Jews or young men trying to avoid work in the labour camps. Even the churches in town were not safe.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/escaped-wearing-traditional-bonnet/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T9GelutYoLCA3P5wODQZPU5jdpI8nJObJXVmSL0fkqSYemQsOlDY4sghiL8zUZ5Icfq97nK14",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e85. EMBROIDERED BLOUSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.indischherinneringscentrum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eIndies Commemoration Centre\u003c/a\u003e / courtesy of Joost Bodegom\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 82 cm x w 70 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter Japan invaded the Dutch East Indies, the Japanese occupier put 100,000 Dutch people in camps. There were separate camps for prisoners of war, for men and boys ages ten years and older and for women and children.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/embroidered-blouse/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RalQ_yyCDlT6gJ1zgu9XpheXiIgyVSZwHw35deJdHE20ouClKwvzBtaRkgAb_LwtA5wGBibMQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e86. EMERGENCY STOVE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the Roest family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 50 cm x w 25 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe last winter of the war (1944-1945) was extremely icy and cold. Hunger was rampant in the west of the Netherlands, particularly in the big cities. There was also a large shortage of fuel. The supply of coal from the province of Limburg had come to a halt. To make a bad situation even worse, from November 1944 the gas and electricity in Amsterdam was often shut down. No gas, no coal, and as a result no heating. So anything flammable was burnt in makeshift stoves like this one.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/emergency-stove/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_StX-ArumhwDBYe3gBRQ-e9cT-RYuKxGEhp_LA1ts3F107zDiHxpFvstAhIBycY1qwFSXz2Wg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e87. DOG HAIR SWEATER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e 1944-1945, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 42 cm x w 43 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDuring the war, little Liesbeth van Ogtrop lived with her brother Hein-Jan and her parents in the Dutch village of Eemnes. The family had a dark grey keeshond named Sten. Whenever Sten was groomed, the brush was filled with handfuls of hair. During the bitter cold winter of 1944-1945, the Van Ogtrop family did not go hungry thanks to a supply of vegetables they had grown in their garden. But textiles, coal and many other products were scarce. Then Liesbeth’s mother got the idea to put the dog hair she had accumulated to good use. An acquaintance spun some balls of wool and she knit her daughter a sweater.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/dog-hair-sweater/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q9SEhxN9cjVpBd6pxAjVMcrlJv1sLqWGgimeXvbNIIT2QTYmguiNw4zvOrekPZDhhCeEuPWQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e88. SHARDS OF METAL FROM A V2 ROCKET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Ron van Vleuten\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn September 1944 fourteen-year-old Ron van Vleuten, from the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague, began to hear the menacing sounds of V2 rockets being launched in the distance: ‘Will it pass us by? Quiet. Listen. Is it going to make it? Yes... luckily it’s going further!’ Ron sighed in relief. That deadly V2 bomb didn’t fall from the sky prematurely, like so many others, but was headed for England.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/shards-of-metal-from-a-v2-rocket/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RJifGxNBjtv4C5o3PuvqhkOgRkNALEgJ8og9VpZhi1MqvVUsPWiru828DLmRUdkd4GXuXSGw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e89. SOUVENIR SEAGULL WINGS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 8 cm x w 32 cm \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe winter of 1944-1945, which was at first very rainy and then unbearably cold, led to one of the worst disasters in Dutch history. Famine threatened the lives of 3.6 million people, especially in the big cities in the west of the country.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/souvenir-seagull-wings/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TO0cKS8bT8EK55OlFirar8db8XXDMEjrCHI1po3kVtxdXmvgYQr228NO4wekVqLVPTA-YbXQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e90. BABYHUIS ADMINISTRATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovcg.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWar and Resistance Center Groningen\u003c/a\u003e(OVCG)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThirteen malnourished babies were taken in by the clandestine Princess Margriet Babyhuis (Lit. Baby House) in Groningen because of the widespread famine in Amsterdam. A group of ladies from Groningen, acting on the initiative of Sieneke Bones, decided to help these infants through the hard winter. People in Groningen supported the project with money and food.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/babyhuis-administration/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tj4v-bPUFMAc_5MifwTNR-UKe2-VLU1ycYRD9Mm3iM87t8Te7A8vKogbhThBttTU0QNs9dCg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e91. MARLENE DIETRICH WAS HERE...\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum 1944 -1945\u003c/a\u003e, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 21 cm x w 17 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis guest book belonged to the parents of sixteen-year-old Carla Hustinx from the city of Maastricht. Their home was a regular place to stay for singers, movie stars, athletes and comedians that came to entertain American soldiers after the south of the Netherlands was liberated in September 1944.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/marlene-dietrich-washere/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ScSpFehbNCP67KKTv_nln_IbqgDB2aeMvHyOuwm5FRxxuqqqbKqi7V4_x3VtCgwasPb2XLOI0Y",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e92. STOLEN CUTLERY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum 1944-1945\u003c/a\u003e, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 18 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the autumn of 1944, an almost twenty-nine-year old English soldier named Jim fell head-over-heels for nineteen-year-old Emelia Sluys. Emelia was staying with relatives on Groesbeekseweg in the city of Nijmegen because her home had been destroyed during the Battle of Arnhem. To his regret Emelia did not share his feelings: she also thought he was too old.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/stolen-cutlery/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TjkDH4zr9-YSuskBfUD-bfG6aomt4eTSSwlOc7otcL_VqczfY12nZuZ04OKTlAH3cIf97oLw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e93. THANKS TO A BISCUIT TIN\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Milena Holdert and Judith Herzberg\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 12 cm x ø 6 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThere are circumstances when your life could very well depend on something as simple as a biscuit tin. This one went with Abel Herzberg and his wife Thea on a dreadful journey. In the Westerbork Transit Camp as well as the Bergen-Belsen Concentration Camp, it was matter of life or death to be able to safely store the little bit of food that was available from time to time.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/thanks-to-a-biscuit-tin/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SrigMcudS3I8yf8j-jb0g0mOkGSPiYhZTg5kjMci2UgVDDgwa19eZsw3XU85V_1F9bbMrXDChS",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e94. JAPANESE FLAG\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the J. B. Leyten, LL.M.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 140 cm x w 200 cm\u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe text of this ‘good luck flag’, which belonged to the Japanese General Shunkichi Ikeda, reads: ’A tiger walks 1,000 miles, but always returns again’. A group of Japanese women from his place of birth embroidered this thousand-stitch saying, meant to bring him luck and prosperity.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/japanese-flag/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qlsz-ZAjQ-3o659UR3PazdIKjwA47ibFOnwux6VAJ8-VcuEcsyjYpj6Is7Z_orpWUY-Z8KtOM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e95. BOOTS OF THE COMMANDER OF CAMP AMERSFOORT\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kampamersfoort.nl/p/start\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Monument Camp Amersfoort\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 44 cm x w 29 cm \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eKarl Berg was originally the third man in the chain of command at Camp Amersfoort and in 1943 he was appointed camp commandant. He had a reputation for being cruel and merciless. Berg was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of prisoners.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/boots-of-the-commander-of-camp-amersfoort/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T1sMJHMODOgFSB1b2h4qO2EJkFsUEXq3N88WQYkqTi5My6IT_BVrDXB1Bv_BFFNWN2Xypfx1ys",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e96. CLIPPED AND SHAVED\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eResistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 4 cm x w 15 cm \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFreedom! Suddenly Dutch flags were hanging all over the place and people were singing and dancing arm-in-arm in the streets. But pent-up emotions were also unleashed: ‘Kraut whores’, girls and women who had consorted with the Germans during the war, were targeted. They were dragged from their homes, marched through the streets, jeered and spit at in the days following the Liberation.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/clipped-and-shaved/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QSySl2vHG1CVpr3nPPQUKn-3h38XwiIgrnLtH2AyqbA0utqw2lnWocIp1ufeLn-w6dYCXkn7mb",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e97. JACKET WORN BY A-BOMB SURVIVOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e(Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 124 cm x w 53 cm \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eA flash and a deafening rumble. On 9 August 1945, the American Air Force exploded an atomic bomb 500 metres above Nagasaki. The Japanese city was wiped away, 39,000 people died and 25,000 were wounded.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/jacket-worn-by-a-bomb-survivor/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QYBkRjSFRBq-zHsbJgQcXZ77QLIx6vBFuf9fPMyaYZslRwRp9t1s2xfYAErgLhadMtMv9mig",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e98. BOX FROM ‘OUTSIDE THE CAMP’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThese were once the toys, clothing and medicine of Hugo Steenmeijer, the child of a Dutch father and an Indisch (East Indian) mother.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/box-from-outside-the-camp/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TNJNzUN1oRmrDxuGxGDGMC5mCL0pQh9bbb7bn4-s82Wml7qwembkZZFCocbOYkG61OmokhNQs"],["",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e99. THE NETHERLANDS IS LIBERATED\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Prince Bernhard, in trust to the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.beeldengeluid.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Institute for Sound and Image\u003c/a\u003e, Hilversum\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn September 1944 Prince Bernhard visited Maastricht, the first Dutch city liberated by the Allies. As commander-in-chief of the BS: Nederlandse Binnenlandse Strijdkrachten (Dutch Interior Forces), he then went to see other areas where the war had taken its toll.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/the-netherlands-is-liberated/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"],null,[null,"G-l3rAkpFOs"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTvEIQ-uGVDzo-G3EFH8TuW4C8rdHu9n9ZvOarO-QIxDKuKoz3zuJESuPZUbhrXHO9JcCoWg"],["",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100. THE JAPANESE CAPITULATE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 2 cm x w 19 cm\u003cbr\u003e8mm-film \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis is the only known film footage of the Japanese capitulation being celebrated. Prisoner Noor Prins, who was locked up in the Aek Paminke III Internment Camp on Sumatra Island in the Dutch East Indies, managed to hide her film camera from the Japanese for years.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/the-japanese-capitulate/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"],null,[null,"UijtQoIqFI0"]]]]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,4,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:29971ff1-c349-4072-940c-f55fa2053fd3"],["stella.edit.sect",["Explore the part aeronautics played","Discover the role that the air forces played in bringing the war to an end",null,null,null,1],30,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","The Playbook","The key aerial events and achievements","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SnzM7xWHhwjacZMLHfOShuvHD1NOr0rJHV8oVjAcyQUYZR7AdM-czMLmyi1e6U0P301hm9R_4","/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/moments",16,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"1",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:a6e6657b-3332-483e-a520-c8af390f4531","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SnzM7xWHhwjacZMLHfOShuvHD1NOr0rJHV8oVjAcyQUYZR7AdM-czMLmyi1e6U0P301hm9R_4","4pR4yFxp1bWZVsKDmNXYSVoI4Fo",[0.5,0.40084508,0,1.0186143,0.51014787],null,null,null,[4968,6194]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[2,"smithsonian-world-war-ii"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,"en"],["stella.common.cobject","The Pilots","Human stories of bravery, courage, and exceptional lives","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SOv-gJcmMeIl1WBT7Zf-mDMUSrkwjC4DRvqU1c0O75KyT9mR-gm2930D9fCOzGWUVPQJeCN9o","/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/pilots",16,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"2",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:ecfd688d-905a-4199-af7e-d89ea7495c08","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SOv-gJcmMeIl1WBT7Zf-mDMUSrkwjC4DRvqU1c0O75KyT9mR-gm2930D9fCOzGWUVPQJeCN9o","oL2M0bxdoSmmi0wJQAgfn2NfmFU",[0.4560078,0.36647093,0,0.5942551,0.44237533],null,null,null,[13156,10220]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[2,"smithsonian-world-war-ii"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,"en"],["stella.common.cobject","The Planes","Learn about icons of aeronautics and remembering their journeys","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZT8th2eW8Bhgbv2gqsqTbutgdnVECNxwaUfFtJ6j-iG5da71Xqe6CKLNbsxUNuw-1wyFqdNub","/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/planes",16,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"3",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d85b5882-aff9-40dd-b2ae-fadb8fd52f57","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZT8th2eW8Bhgbv2gqsqTbutgdnVECNxwaUfFtJ6j-iG5da71Xqe6CKLNbsxUNuw-1wyFqdNub","iVSyIMLvrCRmbRYyqiYLFeEa32Q",[0.412,0.4262295,0,0.824,0.6008827],null,null,null,[2000,1586]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[2,"smithsonian-world-war-ii"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,"en"],["stella.common.cobject","The Posters","The role of the arts in the war effort","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sk9hxbgzsfy3XbiADY4IA-KWIXuvyVGBs7Njr7up3qbEEOKypKrCH4Dfx4RbJ5Snx6IOTcLrA","/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/art",16,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"4",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:46dae539-0506-40b3-a592-b8e41186c7a5","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sk9hxbgzsfy3XbiADY4IA-KWIXuvyVGBs7Njr7up3qbEEOKypKrCH4Dfx4RbJ5Snx6IOTcLrA","DcUSahpikmXQBfzgH7R0JJAx6ZM",[0.42201725,0.32390887,0,0.25608712,0.11533046],null,null,null,[6559,8422]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[2,"smithsonian-world-war-ii"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,"en"]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,5,"TableOfContentsTiles","EditorialSection:feac3910-bd3e-48fe-842a-96a48292d7e6"],["stella.edit.sect",["Achievements in the air","Key moments and milestones of WWII",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","The Story of the Last American Aerial Conflict in Europe","The final events before hostilities officially ended an hour before midnight on May 8, 1945","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TaRZ5lYI-UoxNSrTiDj-XhNrbMLdfUwfjIBOcvEUNxvfMmWWDFpeEWyusV8m7j-wuFCEXo-7I","/story/ZAWx8kAhj5P7Jg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"ZAWx8kAhj5P7Jg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TagJKLJUPiSksN7JX0pojp-GIVX4FHYreO_awvy3LCOtP5gJvFWTsc95qLoyrOVvJ6BvyiZw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn May 8, 1945, Germany surrendered to the Allies, ending nearly six years of Nazi tyranny over Europe. The National Air and Space Museum has a unique artifact in our collection related to that day 75 years ago — a machine gun that was carried by a German aircraft that was claimed to be the last enemy aircraft shot down by U.S. forces in Europe before the end of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QzQ_Fv8TDtDlzD_GNUGexN1XyfbvBrUK4o9J1szIPnR9OreWbdP-rSjbXqbSU-bhNFzP58vg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn May 1945 the U.S. 204th AAA (Anti-Aircraft Artillery) Battalion was stationed about 25 miles southeast of Kassel, Germany, protecting airfield R-11 at Eschwege. The 204th belonged to the IXth Air Defense Command, whose job was to protect vital ports, cities, airfields, supply bases, and lines of communication behind the field armies from the French beaches to Germany. Around 2:37 pm that afternoon, the 204th\u0026#39;s gunners saw a German aircraft flying low towards their positions near the airfield. Batteries C and D began firing at the aircraft with their M-51 electrically driven turret-mounted antiaircraft guns. The German aircraft, a Junkers Ju 88, descended and belly landed in a field between low hills. The aircraft crash-landed with propellers still turning, shedding the blades, but beyond the left engine breaking free from the wing, the aircraft seemed to have suffered little damage. The one thing that stood out was that the crew had jettisoned the cockpit canopy before hitting the ground. As U.S. soldiers approached, they found to their surprise that the aircraft held not only a reduced crew of two, but also approximately ten “passengers.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RIDbOEgDGj5LD3d-W-f7Rf8LAbdlmnXSmnoz0p1qY6TD8_B2Hd9PFWPZyHukThHZBdRCmZiA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBy May 1945 Nazi Germany was in collapse. With the Allies pressing in from all sides, Hitler had committed suicide. In the east, the Soviet army had pushed into German territory, but in the rush to defeat the enemy, the Soviets had bypassed pockets of resistance. One of these pockets was in the Courland region of western Latvia. Ordered to hold the area with their backs to the Baltic Sea, some 200,000 German and Latvian soldiers, sailors, and airmen were trapped by the Red Army. Despite a blockade by the Soviet Baltic Fleet, the Germans had attempted several evacuations by sea. With surrender announced for May 8, the Luftwaffe made a last attempt to fly into the Courland pocket to rescue Germans from Soviet capture.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RIDbOEgDGj5LD3d-W-f7Rf8LAbdlmnXSmnoz0p1qY6TD8_B2Hd9PFWPZyHukThHZBdRCmZiA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEarly that morning, at their base in Vaernes, Norway, several aircraft, including the Ju 88 that would crash at Eshwege, readied for the flight. After flying over the Baltic, the Ju 88 landed at Cirava airfield in the Courland Pocket and picked up wounded soldiers. Taking off again, they flew west to reach land held by either Germans or by the western Allied armies. Running low on fuel, the Ju 88 had just left Soviet-controlled territory when the pilot spotted the airfield at Eschwege. Having no pre-arranged signal to show the aircraft’s intentions, the defenders fired on the perceived threat. Following the established procedure for a belly landing, the crew jettisoned the canopy, since the regular access to the cockpit under the fuselage would be blocked. Once U.S. personnel arrived on the scene, a hole was cut in the side of the aircraft to reveal the passengers in the bomb bay and rear fuselage who were now trapped by the blocked underside. The downing of this desperate flight was claimed as the last U.S. air victory in Europe before hostilities officially ended an hour before midnight.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RKwwTahBQkyhaCaXQky7DwORVReyfU3EsmXX5ZNoiVjsvmqxXBohxkZyuCg3pAD8PCDYybMA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the rear-firing MG 81 machine guns and its mount were retrieved from the jettisoned canopy as a souvenir. In 1947, IXth Air Defense Command had been inactivated and was nearing disbanding when its commander, General William Richardson, donated these artifacts to the Museum. They now provide us with a tangible link to events 75 years ago and the end of that terrible war.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Flypast That Celebrated the End of World War II","Remembering the flyover of the USS Missouri during the Japanese surrender ceremony","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9CSbRPaO7wE1EghmO_T_keQPO1lOrRIbI9pjuhO9hIQuvvq4Gmxm0mIEBIQ1y9NyoX3_4gbh6","/story/EAWxZVI9SBPRKg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:650a0d50-fd1c-4c0d-b433-c8cb45554d35","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9CSbRPaO7wE1EghmO_T_keQPO1lOrRIbI9pjuhO9hIQuvvq4Gmxm0mIEBIQ1y9NyoX3_4gbh6","gwUML_oZ0vBeYVSxl55dqAbrFLE",[0.5116216,0.35796693,0,0.83271164,0.47829506],null,null,null,[4720,4752]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"EAWxZVI9SBPRKg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S2GSBgKIVk3EhnvPViC5LGXWHWwqg7zG72vkOojUuW6ZOjuhNjaTesf6RIRH-2tDcJy-50FA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn September 2, 1945, there was a grand ceremony in Tokyo Bay. Aboard the battleship USS Missouri, representatives from the Empire of Japan met with those of the United States., United Kingdom, France, Soviet Union, China, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand to sign the document that formally ended World War II.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QvCN5kp77s0FX0U8UYeDvtDp1ZnEmBque-pDqwgzjjlGoNsyeiODZ41p7hkKd9vP9rQl04OjM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSurrounding the Missouri were other vessels from the U.S. Third Fleet including some British and Australian navy ships and even one Dutch vessel, a hospital ship. The armada included everything from battleships, cruisers, destroyers to minesweepers, submarines, landing vessels, repair ships, oilers, cargo vessels, and hospital ships. But only five aircraft carriers were anchored in the bay: two light carriers and one escort carrier from the U.S. Navy and two escort carriers of the Royal Navy. The big fleet carriers, which had shouldered the offensive tasks of the Navy after the U.S. battleship fleet had been sunk on December 7, 1941, were not represented. So where we they?\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QJhANaPkHvRqWkG9fz-f-56mYkKNSAVJ77ryFe-prtPhp22ShrEz4aZXx531kM_78Rl2WXLm8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhile the Japanese had broadcast their surrender on the morning of August 15 (the evening of August 14 in Washington, D.C.), it took some time for hostilities to come to a stop. Combat continued in places where Japanese commands had not received (or refused to believe) word of the cease-fire and surrender. But things had quieted down within afew days and by September, parts of the Third Fleet’s fast carrier task force (fleet and light carriers of both the U.S. and Royal navies) had been reassigned to other duties. Still, there was concern that kamikazes, whether rogue or under government orders, might try to disrupt the surrender ceremony. The Navy wanted fighter cover in case of any aerial threat to the assembled military leadership. Consequently, the remaining ships of the fast carrier task force roughly half the maximum wartime strength, were not in Tokyo Bay, but instead were cruising offshore, ready to conduct flight operations to protect the ships and VIPs if necessary. Fortunately, these preparations were not needed: The instrument of surrender was signed by all parties without a hitch, at which point the carrier planes showed their other reason for being in the sky that morning.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RzXZXF-NDUBA7b8K01vy4PnUBf1B-23FU9Z4bv6NLnYimvPsqyRpPum6KfCdt-GvzE4hFZTsg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMoments after the ceremony on the Missouri concluded, 349 carrier airplanes (though some sources say it was 450) flew overhead in a massed formation.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHQvWIkT2Yh1AghZ_zyCgLPi4ko80wpow2a-gEoi0aZD_xJWx9y1Damfg4k6lGdD5QPUGyvg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThey were followed by 462 B-29 Superfortresses, the only other aircraft that had been able to bomb targets in the Japanese home islands on a regular basis during the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RByvtFxeJZgveY0RNfeeRHBl9dms-fhNdAMHF7waSCnVtm_SII7VLZawgoYThwX2JD-1CR",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIt was an aerial show of might to match the roughly 250 Allied vessels in the harbor that day: A fitting celebration to the end of both the Pacific War and World War II as a whole.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,1,"moments",null,null,null,6,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:2f6989b0-7003-4122-a302-e64decd5a98f"],["stella.edit.sect",null,17,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Preserving the Incredible Stories","A journey into the pilots and planes with the National Air and Space Museum","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SjJ_ik9ZLmpTi07PzKMhkiwIV9IS-PyDm0yf3D2Llwgsc7syIelY95lh9ibVJ8bLY6ljO3zQ","/asset/world-war-ii-victory-in-europe-stem-in-30/0AEMjQz9fr8OiA",21,null,null,null,null,["0AEMjQz9fr8OiA",1.7777778,null,null,["//i3.ytimg.com/vi/N9gyXZUwRdM/hqdefault.jpg","N9gyXZUwRdM","World War II: Victory in Europe - 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VIIc C","A British air history legend","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qtcf3qxNJBc3vcJSaBZ5zQ48vPzKDt85Bubl1-ZgMZGs0vmbzLUfZzArCjGalEaVGOWcS__Ks","/story/nwVh8vu5z7ucZQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"An inside look"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"nwVh8vu5z7ucZQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,null,"https://airandspace.si.edu","INDEPENDENCE AVE AT 6TH ST, SW\nWashington, DC, 20560\nUnited States",38.88781,-77.019905,"Washington, DC, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4",1524,725,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum"],[[["","Welcome inside the cockpit!",[null,"\u003cp\u003eClick and drag around the screen to explore the panorama and experience how it felt to be the pilot.\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"],["stella.svi",38.88839189999999,-77.02081770000001,null,289.8192790300569,-14.262698063302523,null,null,"//maps.googleapis.com/maps/api/streetview?size\u003d1200x1000\u0026pano\u003dCAoSLEFGMVFpcE5zOE5GRVh6aktyNXhaSmcwU2RLQkRxMllRdkVUNk1fQlpnWk9H\u0026heading\u003d-70.18072096994308\u0026pitch\u003d-14.262698063302523\u0026fov\u003d90.00000000000001\u0026sensor\u003dfalse\u0026client\u003dgoogle-cultural\u0026signature\u003doPCowxg08dQpU0bGoMe8bUwtw6w",0,90.00000000000001,"/streetview?sv_pid\u003dCAoSLEFGMVFpcE5zOE5GRVh6aktyNXhaSmcwU2RLQkRxMllRdkVUNk1fQlpnWk9H\u0026sv_f\u003d90.00000000000001\u0026sv_h\u003d289.8192790300569\u0026sv_p\u003d-14.262698063302523\u0026sv_lat\u003d38.88839189999999\u0026sv_lng\u003d-77.02081770000001",null,0,[10,"AF1QipNs8NFEXzjKr5xZJg0SdKBDq2YQvET6M_BZgZOG"],"SvInfo:a7e3ec11-1923-4e33-8877-6ba73edd4e7a"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat","An American standard","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RChhIBrfOVqwpiP_UbQBnc7JiayoRrLi2Bb8nCyEWp-gXoW-xcPfbbPFyk23EcCJgjungBCuY","/story/DAVRwzWaHQCNsg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"An inside look"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"DAVRwzWaHQCNsg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,null,"https://airandspace.si.edu","INDEPENDENCE AVE AT 6TH ST, SW\nWashington, DC, 20560\nUnited States",38.88781,-77.019905,"Washington, DC, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4",1524,725,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum"],[[["","Welcome inside the cockpit!",[null,"\u003cp\u003eClick and drag around the screen to explore the panorama and experience how it felt to be the pilot.\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"],["stella.svi",38.8882987,-77.0209974,null,101.27135878304388,0.11922730798441705,null,null,"//maps.googleapis.com/maps/api/streetview?size\u003d1200x1000\u0026pano\u003dCAoSLEFGMVFpcE10eTBwM1ZzblNuUGhPTE9rSktqSFBaSTBSVlltZ1dIU1pjaWdK\u0026heading\u003d101.27135878304388\u0026pitch\u003d0.11922730798441705\u0026fov\u003d89.00686034791028\u0026sensor\u003dfalse\u0026client\u003dgoogle-cultural\u0026signature\u003dhRQIhqnPHFDmY3g0evSJdq3S7Do",1,89.00686034791028,"/streetview?sv_pid\u003dCAoSLEFGMVFpcE10eTBwM1ZzblNuUGhPTE9rSktqSFBaSTBSVlltZ1dIU1pjaWdK\u0026sv_f\u003d89.00686034791028\u0026sv_h\u003d101.27135878304388\u0026sv_p\u003d0.11922730798441705\u0026sv_lat\u003d38.8882987\u0026sv_lng\u003d-77.0209974",null,0,[10,"AF1QipMty0p3VsnSnPhOLOkJKjHPZI0RVYmgWHSZcigJ"],"SvInfo:7d45cd46-9250-4f05-ab18-f946bae7c386"]]]]]]],null,null,null,null,"cockpit",null,null,null,8,"SimpleStack","EditorialSection:748b5f18-c81e-4faf-a137-7745339cce4a"],["stella.edit.sect",["Heroic pilots","The brave people risking their lives in the skies",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","A Pilot Who Supported the Allied Aviators Against the Odds","\"Pat the Pilot\" was an American aviatrix, WAFS member, and Allied liaison","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RTUF5MKgMD2H28CU8ocLm9K3oSl1rRhAF8PIwyWZbYj7ZQe_vWQzpt3pepfnmDa4piExGD6MdQ","/story/rwXxBV_kkV28IQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"rwXxBV_kkV28IQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TDhKuoFDRb9HTU6VefgpLEWYVXN9PQY4JCt_2o3We6po2l3ty94HmNpmMpOpPiGw4DEvt0OXBi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAline “Pat” Rhonie made a perfect three-point landing in her 125 hp Luscombe Phantom when she touched down in Manchester, New Hampshire, on June 6, 1940. Owned by Rhonie, the plane was a Warner-powered, high-wing, two-seat cabin monoplane that she flew as the American Liaison for the French Aero Club. Rhonie piloted civilian and military aircraft throughout the United States as an American aviatrix and eventual member of the Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron, yet her mission traversed international borders to support the Allied cause.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TDhKuoFDRb9HTU6VefgpLEWYVXN9PQY4JCt_2o3We6po2l3ty94HmNpmMpOpPiGw4DEvt0OXBi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBorn Aline Rhonie Hofheimer in 1909, she often went by the nickname “Pat.” Prior to World War II, she amassed an impressive resume:\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e- In 1931, she became one of the first American women to receive a U.S. transport pilot license. \u003cbr\u003e- In 1934, she was the first woman to fly solo from New York to Mexico City, where she met with famous artist Diego Rivera. She showed Rivera the tempera technique she learned from John Sloan and in return, Rivera taught her fresco mural painting. \u003cbr\u003e- From 1934 to 1938, she completed a 126-foot long mural depicting the history of aviation at Roosevelt Field, Long Island. \u003cbr\u003e- On a trip overseas in 1936, Rhonie earned her English Pilot’s License, and she was the first American woman to receive an Irish Commercial License in 1938. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eShe did all this, earning the titles of global aviatrix and renowned artist before reaching her 30th birthday.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TDhKuoFDRb9HTU6VefgpLEWYVXN9PQY4JCt_2o3We6po2l3ty94HmNpmMpOpPiGw4DEvt0OXBi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eRhonie’s war work began in September 1939. Though highly qualified, she was turned away from flying in the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force, the female auxiliary of the Royal Air Force, on account of not being a British subject. She instead assisted in organizing Red Cross units and ventured to France, where she worked with a society that supplied books to soldiers at the front. Eventually, she enlisted voluntarily as a lieutenant in the French Section Sanitaire, an ambulance unit for women.\u003cbr\u003e \u003cbr\u003eWhile in France, Rhonie witnessed the plight of Allied aviators. According to one report, she watched “the twisting of American-made Curtiss fighters when they tangled in dog-fights with the German Messerschmidts…” In her experience, she watched French aviators struggle to maintain canvas covers over aircraft in open fields in below-freezing temperatures. As an American Liaison for the French Aero Club, Rhonie saw an opportunity to help and embarked on a mission to raise funds for canteens to support the Allied aviators.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T6LjrmMQCTKhiseG1yqpP3N0go7_MSDmBQlbdN63a-IkSWmUlsUcAgfazcnboFtXjE9x12",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAmerican Liaison for the French Aero Club\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhen Rhonie compiled her list of aviation sponsors of 1940, the United States had not yet entered World War II. She knew she was treading on thin ice in requesting the support and sponsorship of Americans. In an interview with the New York Mirror, Rhonie explained, “I know I’ve got to watch myself. I know that I must not keep calling the Allies ‘we.’ I know that I must not tell Americans that this is the war we thought we were fighting last time… this time, Democracy is REALLY at stake… I know all that, but it’s so hard to keep my mouth shut…” \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe responses to Rhonie’s sponsor requests revealed an interesting assessment of American aviation attitudes toward the war effort prior to the United States’ entry. Some, for example, expressed vehement support. Among such supporters were George Chapline, VP of Sales at Wright Aeronautical Corporation; Harry F. Guggenheim; Richard H. Depew Jr. of Taylorcraft Aviation Corporation; and Clifford Henderson, the “Barnum of Aviation” and Managing Director of the U.S. National Air Races from 1928-1939. Rhonie also received overwhelming support from fellow women aviators, including Louise Thaden, who had won the Bendix Trophy Race in 1936, and Betty Gillies, original member and President of the Ninety-Nines from 1939-1941. (Betty, who married the Vice President of Grumman, Brewster Allison “Bud” Gillies, in 1930, was a talented aviatrix whose skills would earn her a spot as the first official member of the U.S. Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TZZONC2htXZJ_VNS8OXKHGu6Md6TSPD7HJTAQbxwCfKeQ6eSBJxNqe2MvJKGJI5vi0qMzg2Ksi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOthers, however, denied Rhonie’s request for sponsorship. Some, such as the Vice Chairmen of the Air Safety Board for the Civil Aeronautics Authority, were morally opposed to supporting a war effort that did not involve the United States. Others, including C.R. Smith, President of American Airlines; J.S. Allard, VP of Curtiss-Wright Corporation; and Clarence M. Young, Pan American World Airways executive and holder of U.S. Civil Air License No. 2., simply felt they did not have the time or that their professional position prevented them from outwardly supporting the cause. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRegardless, the fundraising tour received enough support, and Rhonie arrived in New York on April 3, 1940. Throughout May and June of 1940, she flew around New England, and on July 4, she left for Denver to continue her cross-country tour. Rhonie provided a fresh perspective on the needs and experiences of Allied airmen overseas. In her numerous interviews throughout her tour, she promoted the Allied cause to American audiences and received financial support for Allied aviators’ canteens.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QmGdP_aYJ4CUlevbJELCxxFTJIQlajFlvzb_QMxg0bnUlMGIcteAn_gb8gDlciiYYcTPRdLQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWomen’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOnce the U.S. entered the war in December 1941 after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Rhonie partook in the formation of a U.S. women’s air corps. Citing English women pilots who had been used to ferry military planes across the channel to the French airdrome, women flyers such as Jacqueline Cochran and Nancy Love believed their efforts could be used to free up male pilots for front line duty. Rhonie supported their vision and agreed that, in addition to ferrying aircraft, women would make excellent teachers for the first seventy-five hours of instruction before releasing men to military flyers for tactical instruction. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRhonie submitted a letter to the Secretary of the Navy in support of the initiative and offered her services as a pilot to the United States’ war effort. In a response dated April 15, 1942, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air, Artemus L. Gates, explained they had carefully considered employing civilian ferry pilots and ensured, “In the event that this policy should be modified to include pilots with your qualifications, you will be notified forthwith.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q9tZSkB_qkYDBeSdfR3mLynqTxeva6MrqSL6fm1gzF7E2EpCKP6WhjhdXoe4x4-DaBUyGjS_lA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFive months later, Rhonie received a telegram from General “Hap” Arnold, Commanding General of the Army Air Forces. The telegram informed Rhonie of the plan to establish a women’s ferrying squadron and asked her to report to Wilmington at her own expense for an interview and flight check. Under the leadership of Nancy Harkness Love, Rhonie became one of the original nine qualified women selected as a part of the Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS). \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn October 22, 1942, under the direction of Betty Gillies, Rhonie flew one of six L-4B Cubs from the Piper factory in Lockhaven, Pennsylvania, to Mitchel Field on Long Island for the WAFS first official ferrying mission. Though she was the fourth to join behind Nancy Love, Betty Gillies, and Cornelia Fort, Rhonie was the first to leave the WAFS. She ferried aircraft until December 31, 1942, when she was discharged through normal civil service procedures.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SbA9niC6SSpMF4qyrUhjGy8svTKe_4RbqkP-m1EMqQPr3hQ6TA5nglNttF8ITAspDa26spHPM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWith a shortage of Allied ferrying pilots across the globe, Rhonie went back to England on her own accord where, from November 1943 through November 1944, she served in the Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA). After the war, Rhonie was appointed a member of the French national association of the Croix de Guerre (Cross of War), received the Médaille de la Reconnaissance française (Medal of French Gratitude), and was made a Companion of the Ordre de la Libération (Order of Liberation). She died January 7, 1963, at the age of 54. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhether raising funds by piloting her Luscombe Phantom across the U.S. as a French Aero Club Liaison or ferrying military aircraft across the U.S. and England as a member of the WAFS and ATA, Rhonie’s overall enthusiasm for the Allied cause highlights the global efforts of aviators in World War II. Even before the U.S. entered the war, Rhonie emphasized how American aircraft, French aviators, and all Allied supporters played an important role in the war effort. In pursuing her passion, American aviatrix Pat the Pilot is but one example of women’s global influence during World War II both on the ground and in the air.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Ben Kuroki: A Story We All Need to Know","A decorated pilot and the only Japanese American to serve in air combat in the Pacific","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_STNtcl9SGeePXZZEF0ytCK2E_WcPcP-JspQtUBnum8hQgIP9azQhxsQ55QNWm7mcEcB_YDuQ","/story/QwVRpj5n7yv_IQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:220c7e8b-b408-495d-9a14-06afa632fdc5","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_STNtcl9SGeePXZZEF0ytCK2E_WcPcP-JspQtUBnum8hQgIP9azQhxsQ55QNWm7mcEcB_YDuQ","V7P4aKLkVl37Y0OTz3SFtb-vDgI",[0.5,0.38713217,0,1.5896134,0.77426434],null,null,null,[1280,1636]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"QwVRpj5n7yv_IQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SVIUxMaPbIejOD-8f_zEsEjpi_tLPjfGjNrHSXJ4ZgYUmX_k-C3djNFeULRlZmhMbTGE4mkf4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn times of national crisis or trauma, Americans have an amazing capacity to unite, support one another, display unbreakable resolve, and express their humanity in a myriad of ways. Indeed, for many, these qualities are at the heart of what it means to be an American. One need look no further than the American capacity for moral support and charitable giving in response to natural disasters. Like no other, we are a nation of caring, a citizenry of givers to those in need.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eBut in the midst of national catastrophe, we can also be gripped by fear and feel threatened. Sadly, those understandable emotions in a crisis sometimes can lead to intolerance, and even aggression, toward the perceived source of that threat. In times when our national psyche is traumatized and our daily life destabilized, groups of our fellow Americans can be collectively isolated and targeted — blamed for a crisis for which they bear no responsibility and are victims just the same as the rest of us. Such reactions are typically bound up with the complex history of race and identity in the United States. While many of us are able to self-identify with immigrant roots in this country, we have also struggled to keep the national fabric from fraying along ethnic and racial lines. This challenge has surfaced most visibly during periods of national crisis.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TQyY2Yip1399d2jZVSzFg6Ln0Z-SDBbiiK6lsVBd5x_8ChfFO7lUK_vaaLBXZ6i0NlwXliCw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe current COVID-19 pandemic has thrown us into one of these times of national trauma and fear. While the overwhelming majority of Americans are exhibiting the unity and compassion for those afflicted that is a hallmark of our society, a minority have manifested their fear and upset by targeting Asian Americans with ridicule, unfounded allegation, and even violent attack. As May is Asian Pacific American Heritage Month, this is an important time to take a stand by making an effort to understand from where these acts of intolerance stem, coming to terms with our own history, and voicing outrage against such intolerance based on an appreciation of the journey we must take as one people to be the nation we aspire to be.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis juxtaposition of American unity and humanity with irrational fear and intolerance during difficult times has many historical precedents. In recent memory, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, by a small group of fanatical outsiders brought our country together in inspiring ways and spawned heartwarming compassion across the country for those in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania. Still, a small number of our fellow citizens chose to lash out at Americans of Arab heritage, or those perceived to be.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePrior to 9/11, the most searing attack on Americans’ sense of security came on December 7, 1941, with the bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japan. That event inspired what has became known as the Greatest Generation to rally and engage that moment of national trauma with unprecedented unity and commitment to face what lay ahead, and ultimately achieve victory in World War II. But it was also a time when fear and distrust led to the incarceration of 120,000 American citizens of Japanese descent, and recrimination against many more. The story of one Japanese American in World War II, Ben Kuroki, sheds light in an informative way on that time, but is also incredibly relevant for our current time.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tt87IuI3AIaEk5N2rVdPpYotknNqSUyI62AjhEn9iRpjUYujNVkFHBFf0C-Tq0zz_44LXu6A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter Pearl Harbor, a Nebraska farm boy named Ben Kuroki volunteered for the U.S. Army Air Corps. He could not have been more American: born in the breadbasket of America, one of ten children, growing up in a small town of with a population of about 500, vice-president of his high school senior class. His parents had come to the United States from Japan, started a family, and settled into a happy life in their adopted country. Outraged as an American when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, Ben Kuroki and his brother Fred enlisted in the U.S. Army.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eKuroki somehow slipped through the filter that placed all Japanese American enlistees in segregated units and he became a gunner in a B-24 squadron based in Europe. He served with distinction and completed 30 combat missions, more than the standard full tour of 25. He returned to the United States for rest and recuperation, and as a war hero made appearances to engender support for the war. In particular, he was toured through the Japanese American incarceration camps to garner support and recruitment of other Japanese Americans to fight. He quickly found himself at the center of a firestorm of controversy—exploited by the government and distrusted by his fellow Japanese Americans wrongfully imprisoned in camps. Kuroki fiercely fought for his country and wanted to be seen as every other American in uniform doing his duty. But his Japanese heritage placed him in the complex duality of American hero and “suspect citizen.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tt87IuI3AIaEk5N2rVdPpYotknNqSUyI62AjhEn9iRpjUYujNVkFHBFf0C-Tq0zz_44LXu6A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHis dedication undeterred by this circumstance, Kuroki returned to the fight by serving another full tour of duty as a B-29 gunner in the Pacific. He was the only Japanese American to serve in air combat in the Pacific, and one of very few soldiers at all to have fought in both the European and Pacific theaters. He completed a total of 58 combat missions and was awarded three Distinguished Flying Crosses and the Air Medal with five oak leaf clusters. After the war, Kuroki did a series of speaking tours addressing issues of racial injustice, funded with his own savings and small donations. When asked about his experience, Kuroki remarked, “I had to fight like hell for the right to fight for my own country.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S_-JiqQgDO3uS-wOWM_VGdDs9C2M4HIyiEFEMSxekbaOeu6WPCEVnaOcWJ8zRmehfXQZiyRQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBen Kuroki was an American hero by any measure, and his experiences tell us much about World War II air combat. But what makes his story truly important for us to know today is the powerful example it provides that we are all individuals that make up this great nation. No one should be judged by generalization, and no one should walk in fear of recrimination based on unfounded perceptions of a group to which they belong. If we can respect each other as individuals, then we become an unstoppable collective force. Ben Kuroki showed us being American was who he was and what he stood for in spite of other’s attempts to label him or make assumptions based on his ethnic heritage. But he also showed us we are a better America for embracing people of all backgrounds, especially under the most arduous of circumstances. As we observe the 75th anniversary of the end of World War II, let’s remember what Ben Kuroki did for our country in World War II, and what his inspiration can mean for us today.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Fighter Pilots and Flying Aces","The lives and legacies of pilots post-war","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SftDyAwVXZXeeJq93f1vJZxtMH-m8_p-vLuRezIYqr3u3Rx1ekDrScbqIF4Qjact6Es5ANNps","/story/rwVRxxx3AW-xLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:dc42f911-90c0-4172-976a-429672be5fa4","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SftDyAwVXZXeeJq93f1vJZxtMH-m8_p-vLuRezIYqr3u3Rx1ekDrScbqIF4Qjact6Es5ANNps","3dueBndWQVfwgocvVSiVllyu_bE",[0.5,0.35144672,0,1.0262125,0.70289344],null,null,null,[2825,2049]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"rwVRxxx3AW-xLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S1OFK2TllinQGYh1tSqOwFpgl6awTboJf2rCrZBoH2U-OZa68u6UXyF_4SDXtyrCMeAZP7Dg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntroduction\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOne of my favorite conversations to have with visitors at our museum are those that draw connections across different time periods. It’s easy to forget that many of the same people involved in one era go on to have careers spanning into later periods. As we reflect on the 75th anniversary of the end of World War II this year, I wanted to highlight three World War II “ace” pilots (meaning they shot down five or more enemy aircraft) and how they went on to careers that helped to define and shape the future of the U.S. Air Force.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis is not an exhaustive list nor a “top three,” by any means, but rather three examples from among many dozens more that could be mentioned.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SH59cUW-aiDLjGg9iuLCZgplKBeavTKcfoi4cHJsM7UJHBigqw8sLoeX3h3hoJsErI-rfb",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMajor George Welch\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn a warm Saturday night in Waikiki, Hawaii, 2nd Lt. George Welch attended a dinner and dance party that turned into an all-night poker game. As Sunday morning dawned and the victors gathered their winnings, the festive mood was shattered by the sound of gunfire. The date: December 7, 1941.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXqD7BW0R39P4x8ds9uRBQ3VNW3J7233JF-Dx7ohN1esWmDEaB-707OE2MzwJTzBwAIT9hRpo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWelch, a recent addition to the 47th Pursuit Squadron, called the airstrip at Haleiwa to have two P-40B Warhawks ready to go. Welch and his friend 2nd Lt. Kenneth Taylor hopped into Taylor’s car and raced to the airfield as Japanese bullets rained down. The two airmen jumped into their airplanes and took off. After damaging two Aichi D3A Val dive bombers, Welch landed to fix a jammed gun and reload. He proceeded to shoot down another Val and a Mitsubishi A6M Zero. With four credited aerial victories, Welch had almost reached ace status before the U.S. had even declared war!\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXqD7BW0R39P4x8ds9uRBQ3VNW3J7233JF-Dx7ohN1esWmDEaB-707OE2MzwJTzBwAIT9hRpo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWelch’s achievements did not end on that day of infamy. For a time, Welch held the title of “King of the New Guinea’s Skies,” flying P-39 Airacobras and P-38 Lightnings in the Pacific. After shooting down 16 enemy planes, a case of malaria took him off combat duty.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7yU3Wtc2C8xLWFMmrOPNXuvezyNiJOjbAO7IoGbkzfkFfb4o35XeS9hGdTUCgr7wMNSf_FDs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWelch’s post-war career was both vital to the early U.S. Air Force and tragic. In spring 1944, Welch resigned his commission and became a test pilot for North American Aviation. In October 1947, he was the first to fly the XP-86, the prototype for what became the F-86 Sabre, in which he reached 618 mph in level flight. Seven years later, in October 1954, Welch was test flying an early model of another new fighter, the F-100A Super Sabre. Pulling 7 Gs out of a dive at Mach 1.55 caused a catastrophic failure and the airplane began to disintegrate. Although Welch initially survived the crash, he died en route to a hospital. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWelch, one of the first air-to-air victors of World War II, also helped usher in a new age of jet combat and supersonic fighters that came to define the U.S. Air Force.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qjvtuq6ihNRwlr1PPYs4r3Ak-Y8WPDNYaF2nLTwAk4XDo9Z3jySBsF8fdgMsDo_ABLArOx9A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBrigadier General Robin Olds\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e“By the time I was five, “I could name an airplane by the sound of its engine on takeoff or landing,” claimed ace pilot Brig. Gen. Robin Olds. He grew up steeped in air power, as the son of Maj. Gen. Robert Olds, who was a mentor to Gen. Curtis LeMay. Robin entered West Point in 1940 and then flew P-38 Lightnings with the 479th Fighter Group, arriving in Europe less than two weeks before D-Day. Olds made ace in only two engagements, the first on August 14, 1944, when he downed two Fw-190s, then on August 25, when he shot down three Bf 109s. That made him the last P-38 pilot in the 8th Air Force to make ace. His unit transitioned to P-51 Mustangs, in which Olds continued to tear apart German fighters, ultimately ending the war with 12 aerial victories.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9APK7_RaPkdHz2DgJG2WOP4Z_aNxM1Hsg3ipajEpDsjNUvYnbkdtgT5dfrUCol_vYufpX",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSuch a record would be notable on its own, but Olds is most famous for his achievements following World War ll. For several years, Olds rotated through various non-combat roles, including flying in a P-80 Shooting Star aerobatics demonstration team, flying Gloster Meteors in an exchange program with the RAF, and holding non-combat command positions in Washington, DC, before eventually getting orders to command the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing and join the Vietnam War in September 1966.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eImmediately upon arriving to his new command, he got in a fistfight with two lieutenants at the officers’ club who—in the tradition of the Wing—tried to rip the patches off Olds’ flight suit. Instead of seeing this as a discipline problem, Olds thought it was a sign of healthy morale, saying, “These guys had spirit.” His first act was to show the Wing, nicknamed the “Wolf Pack,” that he was willing to learn and would be flying alongside his men, pushing them. “I’d give the guys in the briefing room the same goading speech, ‘I’m gonna be better than you!’” he recalled. “As soon as they stopped being pissed off, they got into the spirit of the challenge.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S6gBllNGWlFlqbtdUtyrqIPUTMirnVMyxh8MDoxMY6u4l6mKb6-8H2Prdz1nRfihwfQM8mEB3A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOlds’ deputy commander of operations was a friend he had worked with previously at the 81st Tactical Fighter Wing: Col. Daniel “Chappie” James. Starting as an instructor for the Tuskegee Airmen, James later became the first African American four-star general. Together, the two were known by their joint nickname: “Blackman and Robin.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QqEOX0wB85-PKHvE72-hKvTHG0lMPF-X7ihx_YpO_leifqhdM_WPvVcvBWa9-ysZZxtpqAeA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBy the end of the year, Olds was frustrated with the mounting losses to North Vietnamese MiG fighters and designed “Operation Bolo.” The plan revolved around taking the QRC-160 jamming pods typically carried by F-105 Thunderchiefs and instead placing them on F-4 Phantoms. North Vietnamese forces thought the electronic signature was indicative of vulnerable F-105s, but instead it was a trap. A swarm of Phantoms, including James and Olds, went after the surprised MiGs. While James chased one MiG into position for his wingman to shoot it down, Olds also contributed one victory to the total of seven destroyed MiG-21s, nearly half of North Vietnam’s MiG-21 inventory at that time.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Suqy1zt9ogX3lhy6HXnTHFh8mvcFCO8efcOKWMdPX885uyXdoF8R3PklxoLwApYWyW7NCz1g8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOlds ended his time in Southeast Asia with four aerial victories, making him a triple ace with a career total of 16. He then spent time as the commandant of cadets at the Air Force Academy before retiring in 1973. Although he began his career as a World War II ace, Olds’ later career not only made important contributions to the American effort in the Vietnam War, but became culturally emblematic of the stereotypical fighter pilot in the process.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SkHX3snjraRISMD2QkZKAXMswYFCRmr5_Y-lLfy1yWL98NulrOmDMSlhxsC60baen10PFtrHU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eColonel James Hagerstrom\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn the morning of January 23, 1944, 1st Lt. James Hagerstrom, having only recently recovered from malaria, was leading a flight of P-40 Warhawks on a “maximum effort” bombing mission in the Pacific. Nearing their target of Boram, New Guinea, Hagerstrom saw 10 to 15 Mitsubishi A6M Zeros pouring down on a group of P-38s near him. His group dropped his tanks and dove into what became a massive dogfight. He and his wingman, 2nd Lt. John Bodak, each shot down Zeroes off the other’s tails, as Hagerstrom damaged more Japanese fighters in multiple head-on passes and shot down more that were chasing other P-38s. Hagerstrom expended all his ammunition in the fight, emerging with four victory credits (three Zeroes and one Kawasaki Ki-61 Hien) in addition to damaging others while saving the lives of two P-38 pilots. Combined with the two victories he earned the previous year, he was now an ace.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SkHX3snjraRISMD2QkZKAXMswYFCRmr5_Y-lLfy1yWL98NulrOmDMSlhxsC60baen10PFtrHU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHagerstrom was discharged after the war and joined the Texas Air National Guard. When the Korean War began in 1950, he was recalled to active duty. Fitting the fighter pilot stereotype, Hagerstrom longed for air-to-air victories. Of the 40 American ace pilots in the Korean War, Hagerstrom was the only one flying in a fighter-bomber unit (the 67th Squadron) as opposed to a dedicated fighter-interceptor squadron. This was due to his reputation for dropping his bombs as fast as possible and heading straight for the North Korea-China border, known as “MiG Alley,” where enemy planes were more likely to be flying. Hagerstrom never missed an opportunity, whether it was by volunteering to fly on Christmas day (when he got his second MiG-15 kill), or when he flew on his last day in Korea. He was literally standing in his dress uniform waiting for his transport home to land when a friend told him a sensitive mission requiring four pilots had come up. Hagerstom jumped in an F-86 immediately and shot down another MiG, bringing his total to 8.5 credits in Korea.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SkHX3snjraRISMD2QkZKAXMswYFCRmr5_Y-lLfy1yWL98NulrOmDMSlhxsC60baen10PFtrHU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter Korea, Hagerstrom continued to make important contributions to the Air Force. He set up an evaluation program for the then-new AIM-9 Sidewinder missile, which has since become a mainstay of air combat. After various command and staff positions, Hagerstrom joined the Vietnam War in 1966. Working out of Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base, he led a program to adapt the “Starlight Scope” for use on AC-47 gunships, giving them much better visibility for night operations. Hagerstrom spent his time in Southeast Asia helping to run interdiction efforts in Laos against the Ho Chi Minh Trail before his frustration with that conflict prompted him to resign in 1968.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLy46hg0SNlnS-It5P2nCuxrEpFyuiHPllh1fJw962c6jK0yy7iyYqCHnF2fgUvO0rSCgxrvk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Legacy of World War II\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn many ways, these men are exemplars of the stereotypical fighter pilot, establishing their ace status in World War II. Stories of air-to-air combat are exciting, and ace status is certainly a source of pride. But aerial victories alone do not win or lose wars. Each of these officers—and countless others—went beyond their role as fighter aces to contribute to the development of the U.S. Air Force, whether by holding command positions and leading others, developing new tactics, or pushing the boundaries of aviation technology. These men are but the tip of the iceberg of examples in which the World War II experience was foundational, defining the trajectory of the Air Force.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","How “Whitey” Feightner Helped Shape Generations of U.S. Navy Aircraft","How the avid flyer went from Navy test pilot to two-star admiral","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwkdQq4f5VGXOxXIqsxb_-f6bI793izGOqs16faaWijBovsGrIq_OMFZBDNORu8Tg7xFW8-g","/story/tQVhHCCb_m_qIA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"tQVhHCCb_m_qIA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQxWQEmq2aEGnmr6ibRIZD4RGYVM2gQBznoYSLwJiNp1ItjLD3Su39aP0Yt3tc3Y-DPesidw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEdward L. “Whitey” Feightner was a man who caught the flying bug in college and just wanted to keep flying. He joined the U.S. Navy and shot down at least nine airplanes during World War II. After the war, the Navy made him a test pilot. He ended up flying and even developing many of the Navy’s newest designs (including helicopters) until his retirement in 1974.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQxWQEmq2aEGnmr6ibRIZD4RGYVM2gQBznoYSLwJiNp1ItjLD3Su39aP0Yt3tc3Y-DPesidw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFeightner was born October 14, 1919, in Lima, Ohio. He attended Findlay College in nearby Findlay, Ohio and learned to fly, earning his private pilot’s license in 1940.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhen he graduated from college in 1941, he really just wanted to keep flying. Expecting to be drafted soon, he initially tried to join the U.S. Army Air Corps, but faced a six-month wait to begin training. While hanging around the Findlay airport one day, he saw a Naval Aviator land his North American SNJ, change into his crisp white uniform in the hangar, meet up with an attractive woman, and leave with her in a nice convertible. Observing the same events, his flight instructor suggested he check out the Navy flight training program.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQxWQEmq2aEGnmr6ibRIZD4RGYVM2gQBznoYSLwJiNp1ItjLD3Su39aP0Yt3tc3Y-DPesidw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Navy could take him straight away, so he enlisted in U.S. Naval Reserve on June 16, 1941 (just hours after graduating college), and entered the Naval Aviation Cadet Training Program. Feightner completed his primary training on April 3, 1942, earning his commission as an ensign and his Naval Aviator’s wings. He then went through advanced flight training and carrier qualifications at NAS Norfolk.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S1OFK2TllinQGYh1tSqOwFpgl6awTboJf2rCrZBoH2U-OZa68u6UXyF_4SDXtyrCMeAZP7Dg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWWII combat\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Navy assigned him to fly F4F Wildcats with VF-3 aboard USS Yorktown (CV-5), but Yorktown sunk (June 7, 1942) following the Battle of Midway before he could report. The survivors of VF-3 regrouped in Hawaii under their new commander, Lt. Cmdr. Edward “Butch” O’Hare, who had just become the Navy’s first fighter ace. VF-3 was effectively a training/refresher squadron while ashore, and Feightner learned much about how to fly in combat from O’Hare and the other veterans.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S1OFK2TllinQGYh1tSqOwFpgl6awTboJf2rCrZBoH2U-OZa68u6UXyF_4SDXtyrCMeAZP7Dg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDuring this time, O’Hare noticed that, as the rest of the squadron developed deep tans in the Hawaiian sun, Feightner never tanned but only burned, leaving him as white as before once he recovered. As a result, O’Hare nicknamed him “Whitey.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S1OFK2TllinQGYh1tSqOwFpgl6awTboJf2rCrZBoH2U-OZa68u6UXyF_4SDXtyrCMeAZP7Dg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFeightner was reassigned to VF-10, the “Grim Reapers,” aboard USS Enterprise (CV-6) when the carrier came through Hawaii. His first combat experience was the Battle of Santa Cruz (October 25-27, 1942) in which the two remaining Japanese fleet carriers (Shokaku and Zuikaku) sought to finish off the two remaining American carriers, Enterprise and USS Hornet (CV-8). Feightner shot down a Japanese dive bomber on his first combat mission, then, low on fuel, had to land aboard Enterprise after it had taken damage from two bomb hits and a near-miss. VF-10 operated from Guadalcanal for a time (while Enterprise left for repairs.). Feightner claimed to have shot down nine aircraft while stationed there, but the records never made it into his official tally.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R0y19hZw5qxzI76nalJ4ZL6XexNDJEfAFJntQDtDsstrvHvnviT3RJr9fRzfgobQrtCr4Y",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn May 1943 he returned to the U.S. and began transitioning to the Grumman F6F Hellcat with VF-8. In March 1944, Carrier Air Group 8 (to which VF-8 belonged) transferred to USS Bunker Hill (CV-17), part of the Fast Carrier Task Force (whose designation was alternately TF-38 or TF-58 depending on whether 3rd Fleet or 5th Fleet was in command). Feightner finally got credit for shooting down his fifth airplane on March 30, 1944, making him an ace. His official tally reached nine before the Bunker Hill rotated back to the U.S. for overhaul in November 1944. Subsequent assignments kept him out of combat in Korea and Vietnam, so he never had a chance to increase his victory total.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TzbEUL5Bp9rD3YaiVqSY1pRvT76u6WwS0bMjeiFHr2au0Fo25mhuUcn7T2jeW8X_dti3bimEU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTest pilot\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn his return to the States, the Navy assigned Feightner as an instructor pilot in Fighter Training, a role he held through the end of the war. After the war, he spent several years in staff jobs before being assigned to the second class at the Naval Test Pilot School. Following his graduation in 1949, Feightner became a member of the Navy’s Flight Test Division. From then until 1953, he flew all manner of Navy aircraft, not just fighters — he learned to fly (and tested) many of the Navy’s helicopters, seaplanes like the Martin P5M Mariner, and even the largest airplane the Navy has ever operated: Lockheed’s massive double-decker R6V Constitution.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs a test pilot, Feightner was also in on the ground floor for the new jet airplanes being developed. He was the Navy’s project pilot for Vought’s radical-looking F7U Cutlass. In the late summer of 1951, he performed carrier suitability tests with the F7U-1. The -1 was severely underpowered, and the tailless design required an extreme nose-up attitude when landing that made it difficult to see the carrier. Feightner’s tests demonstrated the -1 was definitely not safe for carrier operations: he was the only pilot ever to fly one on or off a carrier. The improved F7U-3 eventually served in the Fleet, but the “Gutless Cutlass” retained a reputation as a dangerous airplane to fly.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QEf_tn4JC8ZkttSrSvaacXpD7n9xDb90JKuYSOsJVM36awa0P-xIq0M5ox3u6pfvVJaf0BFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFlying with the Blue Angels\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn January 1952, the Navy wanted the F7U to start flying with the Blue Angels (despite its problems) and ordered Feightner to join the flight demonstration team. In addition to the underpowered and unreliable engines, the Cutlass also had a new hydraulic system. This came with its own problems, and made the Cutlass unsuited to close formation flying. The Blue Angels’ solution was to have two Cutlasses fly independently of the four Grumman F9F Panthers the team was already flying. This introduced the two “solo” aircraft that continue to be part of Blue Angels performances today.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn one flight to an air show in Chicago, both he and his wingman suffered engine losses in their Cutlasses. Then, near their destination, the wingman had a fire in his second engine. While he landed safely, his plane blocked the only runway. Feightner ended up landing on a just-completed runway at a nearby civilian airport, becoming the first pilot to land at O’Hare, the airport named after the long-ago commanding officer who had christened him “Whitey.”\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn September 1952, Feightner reported to Developmental Test Squadron 3 (VX-3) in New Jersey, where he flew even more of the Navy’s newest jets, developing tactics and operational doctrine for them, including flying simulated nuclear attack missions. Feightner was also the pilot for the first public demonstration of the Navy’s new steam catapult technology.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RtpforPltzANSYtdwQ4TIyH2LbDlr3-d7b_uCh3eUgSkTLtRdQ9Acd7oQ0pRt-L90H6x6ZCpo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRising to senior leadership\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom VX-3, he went on to command his own squadron, command a carrier air group, and serve on the staff of another carrier air group before reporting to the Naval War College. When he graduated in 1961, he was assigned as the project officer for the McDonnell F4H Phantom II and then the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) project that became the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark. In 1962 the Navy made him head of Navy Fighter Design, where he oversaw development of the Vought F8U Crusader, North American FJ-4 Fury, and the Grumman E-2 Hawkeye. The E-2 came out of the Fighter Design office because of its role in guiding fighters to incoming targets.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFeightner’s next responsibilities were at sea, including a year as captain of the USS Okinawa (LPH-3), a helicopter carrier. Following this, Feightner returned to shore, serving in aviation-related positions at the Pentagon, and then as director of the Naval Aviation Weapons Systems Analysis Group. He completed his Navy career leading different offices in Naval Air Systems Command. In these varying roles, he influenced development of Grumman’s F-14 Tomcat and EA-6B Prowler, Lockheed’s S-3 Viking, McDonnell Douglas’ F/A-18 Hornet, and numerous aerial weapons systems. By the time he retired in 1974 as a two-star admiral, Feightner had 8,610 flight hours in over 100 different Navy aircraft. Following his retirement, he co-founded a military consulting company, and continued flying, tallying a total of nearly 2,400 hours in civilian aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQxWQEmq2aEGnmr6ibRIZD4RGYVM2gQBznoYSLwJiNp1ItjLD3Su39aP0Yt3tc3Y-DPesidw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFeightner married Violet Volz in 1948, but they never had children. After she died in 2015, Feightner moved in with his nephew in Coeur d’Alene, Idaho. His last flight was on his 97th birthday, flying a floatplane around Lake Coeur d’Alene. He died on April 1, 2020, leaving a legacy as a successful combat pilot and a man who helped shape several generations of U.S. Navy aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","A Conversation with WWII Veteran Thomas McFadden","The Triple Nickel and WWII Smokejumper shares his story","//i1.ytimg.com/vi/TPw9HhfPPlE/hqdefault.jpg","/asset/a-conversation-with-wwii-veteran-thomas-mcfadden/7gFeA4zZtCOcbg",21,null,null,null,null,["7gFeA4zZtCOcbg",1.7777778,null,null,["//i1.ytimg.com/vi/TPw9HhfPPlE/hqdefault.jpg","TPw9HhfPPlE","A Conversation with WWII Veteran Thomas McFadden",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum"],null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"7gFeA4zZtCOcbg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,null,"https://airandspace.si.edu","INDEPENDENCE AVE AT 6TH ST, SW\nWashington, DC, 20560\nUnited States",38.88781,-77.019905,"Washington, DC, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4",1524,725,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum"]]]],null,null,null,null,"pilots",null,null,null,9,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:5aa5f7b8-bdf7-484b-8ffd-10dbd0d82248"],["stella.edit.sect",["The Tuskegee Airmen","The African American aviators breaking barriers while fighting for their country",null,null,null,1],41,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Who Were The Tuskegee Airmen?","Discover how they made a pioneering contribution to the war and the end of racial segregation in the American armed forces","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RolQ17VuGOiJNhWCh9Rm3_CQiHg65LN69PyldR7GZOtwq_ovhsLosh7HKXJu6YDBLFiJnIv_Y","/story/EAVBtIoEaIs0JQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Read",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d7a8a885-1524-440e-b015-84a81de4aff1","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RolQ17VuGOiJNhWCh9Rm3_CQiHg65LN69PyldR7GZOtwq_ovhsLosh7HKXJu6YDBLFiJnIv_Y","o54wpuVVP9IMJG_WkcdsV26eG0Q",[0.47004828,0.49324208,0,0.44873106,0.35779357],null,null,null,[3767,2732]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"EAVBtIoEaIs0JQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TK1EhVmVWcN09C8dVF6fm5G9x_3utAP83lju3DQINLja5V8lWRN3XHp_q4YmIAsYcdPT-80w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDavis led the Tuskegee airmen during World War II in air combat over North Africa and Italy and long-range bomber escort missions over Nazi Germany.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter the war, Davis continued his military career in the newly independent and integrated U.S. Air Force. He achieved the rank of lieutenant general and played a key leadership role during the Korean and Vietnam wars.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["",null,null,null,[null,"ZEs4ooL5pj4"]]]]]]],null,null,null,1,null,null,null,null,10,"SmallBanner","EditorialSection:691e81ff-aeb4-43f4-9353-78457f0bbd67"],["stella.edit.sect",null,8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","A Pattern of Resistance","The men who risked their careers to stand up against systemic racism","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QWXnDw_v4z-Yl1HC3820gnbARYpp6dz2IbLXTfKvagYmtUiWdijTlesihStghXtLGBMrWJm1wB","/story/bQXxBkmTIlWvJA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d00964b2-0d29-4691-a3a0-d9bfad9daee2","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QWXnDw_v4z-Yl1HC3820gnbARYpp6dz2IbLXTfKvagYmtUiWdijTlesihStghXtLGBMrWJm1wB","0SnJCWGDl6UvzWivHzie6sivMRM",[0.5596154,0.3796576,0,0.88076925,0.6283988],null,null,null,[1300,993]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"bQXxBkmTIlWvJA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tdq_L6Z54KTeCE63KEm4vE4_jg2D_-MuAwbRwX2DiSUY-0Gykz4wGLYUJR-sGDIYo_pbhMv7M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFor many years, the story of the Tuskegee Airmen—a group of African American airmen who flew combat missions in racially segregated units in World War II—was not well known to the American public. Although much research remains to be done, the story of these men has become somewhat famous in recent years, thanks not only to memoirs and scholarly histories, but also to several motional pictures, books, television shows, documentaries, and other pop culture references. Their story is usually presented as one of triumph, in which their exemplary performance helped pave the way for the integration of the United States armed services in 1948. While this narrative is not wrong, it is, as always, more complicated than that. It took a lot more than combat effectiveness to prove to some military leaders that African Americans could and should be able to fly and fight for their country. Racism was deeply entrenched in the American military and has not been completely removed even 75 years later. The Tuskegee Airmen’s fight for equality involved more than their skills in the air. It required coordinated, collective actions of civil disobedience in which 162 officers risked their careers and their lives to stand up against systemic racism in the US Army Air Forces (AAF). The largest of these incidents became known as the Freeman Field Mutiny.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S74MdOPiyOCDFUL4FEs0HvZl13Vr3RYgCykgNCA4BhuM86rk2ugpsDBnPRbQbGjdv-Uj_uaCj7",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAlthough some white officers welcomed and supported the creation of African American units, such as Captain Noel Parrish, many AAF leaders resisted allowing African Americans to fly American aircraft. It was only possible at all thanks to organized, collective lobbying and public pressure. The two most impactful groups were the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and African American press outlets, particularly the Pittsburgh Courier. These groups placed considerable pressure on politicians in Congress and on President Franklin Roosevelt, who in turn demanded the AAF begin to accept African Americans as combat pilots. This combination of organized activism that threatened the reelection chances of politicians led to top-down demands and spurred the creation of the Tuskegee Airmen, so named for their training location in Tuskegee, Alabama.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tbx4i_ZBzzHCtOqXw7yn8zOJStNR_pE7awhM4kBZ3gffCBsP_uPwfUKfhVlgIEUyyyQK4x",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFighter achievements\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe first African American unit to fly in combat was the 99th Pursuit Squadron, flying P-40 Warhawks with the 33rd Fighter Group. The 33rd’s commander, Col. William Momyer, tried to get the 99th removed from combat duty, claiming that the group was ineffective and had not performed well in air-to-air combat. This ignored the fact that Momyer himself ordered the squadron primarily to a ground attack role. A subsequent investigation showed that the 99th performed equally to other Warhawk squadrons. This was not the last time that AAF commanders tried to subvert what they considered the Tuskegee “experiment” based on false assumptions about African American abilities.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TBqM5U0bdlLK6X5LXpiK0ZSHbD7PimEOgJOUpNApp10ltG8_fJobHuHNMnFKcvXD6yclVtebc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe 99th was not alone. The AAF also stood up the 332nd Fighter Group, consisting of three more squadrons of African American pilots: the 100th, 301st, and 302nd, flying P-39 Airacobras and P-40 Warhawks. Later, the 99th FS joined the 332nd FG, all flying combat missions based out of Italy. During the summer of 1944, they began flying P-47 Thunderbolts and P-51 Mustangs, including long-range escort missions of bombers deep into Berlin. The 332nd FG performed well in air-to-air combat, shooting down 94 enemy aircraft. Three of those aerial victories were against German Me-262 jet aircraft. This was far from the highest in the Fifteenth Air Force, but it did beat the records of the all-white 1st FG (72) and 14th FG (85). None of the Tuskegee Airmen reached ace status, but 1st Lt Lee Archer came close with four kills. Tuskegee Airmen also succeeded at escorting bombers to their targets. The all-white units of the Fifteenth Air Force lost an average of 46 bombers on escort duty during the war, but the African American pilots of the 332nd lost only 27.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Su2-A9OayASKfFfGGtrMf6lIBlhzB9o_2CsiHqRXF432hOm8SExyBPiUdaVL7E4Zg97EA1kw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBlack bombers\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDespite all that the 332nd FG accomplished, one of the Tuskegee Airmen’s most significant moments involved a unit that did not get a chance to fly in combat: the 477th Bombardment Group. Activated in January 1944, the 477th consisted of four squadrons of B-25 Mitchell aircraft. The AAF was committed to segregation and lacked the resources to create a new separate training facility for navigators and bombardiers. Thus, the group used an existing training facility at Selfridge Field, Michigan, and added segregated facilities to it. The group was commanded by Col. Robert Selway and attached to the First Air Force. Selway was not happy with the concept of African American crews, and worked actively to prevent them from being promoted to command positions, regardless of competency or number of flight hours. Yet the bigger opposition to the Tuskegee Airmen came from the Selfridge base commander Col. William Boyd and the commander of the First Air Force, Maj. Gen. Frank Hunter. Hunter had become a decorated ace fighter pilot during World War I, and preferred the racial policies of that era, arguing that African Americans should be concentrated on as few bases as possible to handle what he called “the Negro problem.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QIEwpNI1yhByyvxSwBhU_eoT7jIkioiqJqYFL7nCo2hF0gO5EYLtN2ueM91WF-k-Rpu3ifcA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHunter and Boyd established a history of discrimination at Selfridge early in 1944 when he banned African American officers from entering the base officers’ club. Lt. Milton Henry, an African American pilot and officer who had already faced punishment for his refusal to abide by Jim Crow regulations on Montgomery busses, entered the club and demanded service. When refused, he issued a complaint. Further investigation resulted in a formal reprimand to Boyd and Hunter from the War Department. Gen. Benjamin Davis Sr. (the first African American General, who at the time served in the Office of the Inspector General) recommended that Boyd and Hunter both be removed from command and court-martialed. The AAF ignored this and instead court-martialed and discharged Henry, who had issued the complaint. At the same time, Lt. Gen. Barney Giles, the chief of the Air Staff at AAF Headquarters, apologized to Boyd and Hunter for the reprimand, saying that the Air Staff “backed them 100% on this thing,” and that Hunter’s discrimination policies had the approval of Gen. Henry “Hap” Arnold, the commander of the AAF.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tdq_L6Z54KTeCE63KEm4vE4_jg2D_-MuAwbRwX2DiSUY-0Gykz4wGLYUJR-sGDIYo_pbhMv7M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRepeated resistance\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe AAF argued that the cause of racial tension at Selfridge was due not to the discriminatory policies of its commanders, but to outside agitators in nearby Detroit, the press, and communists. The AAF used that as justification to move the 477th to Godman Field near Fort Knox, Kentucky, citing that it was a better place to conduct flying training. That claim bordered on ludicrous: Godman not only had less than 25% of the space and facilities available at Selfridge, but its runways could not handle bombers, there was no air-to-ground gunnery range, and it did not have enough housing to hold the group. The atmosphere in the South also proved challenging. For example, in one incident, a white private refused to salute Capt. Clarence Southall, an African American officer. The private explained that “he was from the South and did not salute Negroes.” Southall attempted to court martial the man, but instead his commanders transferred the private to another base with no punishment and threatened to charge Southall with inciting a riot.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sam-grXMWA0gZr3bYV5up-NoHnPIZhQW61o86qC7Ll7NYMNKd53moho6sF3gizbHmk3jMd4A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBecause of the limitations on facilities and personnel, the 477th was not being trained together. Some people assigned to the 477th were spread at other bases around the country where they experienced similar discriminatory policies. For example, African American officers at Midland Army Air Base in Texas were prohibited from using the officers’ club when it scheduled a dance that planned for white women to attend. African American officers such as Lt. Coleman Young submitted formal complaints and were again labelled communist agitators by their superiors.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sam-grXMWA0gZr3bYV5up-NoHnPIZhQW61o86qC7Ll7NYMNKd53moho6sF3gizbHmk3jMd4A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe inadequacies in training procedures and facilities, combined with racial discrimination policies and practices, began to pile up. In an attempt to solve the facilities problem, the AAF moved the 477th yet again, this time to Freeman Field, just outside the town of Seymour in southern Indiana. Although the training facilities there were far better than at Godman, the local population were less than welcoming. Restaurants and grocery stores refused service to African Americans. Already strained by discriminatory policies, hostile commanders, and training inadequacies, Selway’s and Hunter’s attempt to circumvent AAF regulations and segregate the facilities at Freeman pushed the African American officers of the 477th to the point of a major collective action of civil disobedience.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRead more in the follow-up exhibit \u0026quot;Mutiny at Freeman Field: The Tuskegee Airmen on Trial, Part 2.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Mutiny at Freeman Field","How the airmen led a campaign civil disobedience against segregation","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SyhxRU7xSwskJT1WCkzGFDN5X1uJkZx1oG8E-nl9Ga969GFpx_h0uCQCeVlvyx6evL0TjxE04M","/story/RgUx62NwH-9_Ig",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:2a0e16b2-1f3a-492b-836e-7a3dbd7c29b8","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SyhxRU7xSwskJT1WCkzGFDN5X1uJkZx1oG8E-nl9Ga969GFpx_h0uCQCeVlvyx6evL0TjxE04M","ts8kEpK-aZerN_tZyXMBN7pRGd0",[0.5,0.5,0,0.95416665,0.74285716],null,null,null,[1200,840]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"RgUx62NwH-9_Ig"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RGEfJokJ4-cNZqvw9jwwdEg7JR2qQRbJjCx7jny5iXq2KdNFZufXqom0WcF6MjiJD1Xi-s_w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Tuskegee Airmen have become popular symbols of increasing diversity and representation in the U.S. armed forces, but the extent to which they had to fight to establish themselves, risking their careers and lives not only against enemy fire but against their own leaders, is not as well known. No group made that more clear than the 477th Bombardment Group. Although they never saw combat, they fought for freedom as hard as anyone of their generation through their actions of collective resistance at Freeman Field, Indiana.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TBqM5U0bdlLK6X5LXpiK0ZSHbD7PimEOgJOUpNApp10ltG8_fJobHuHNMnFKcvXD6yclVtebc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSegregation On and Off Base\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe 477th had already endured a long history of racial discrimination, inadequate training, and major blows to morale caused by their own leaders (as documented in the previous entry in this series). The group’s arrival at Freeman Field was marked with tension. The local town’s businesses refused to serve African American officers, while white officers on the post bristled at suddenly being in the minority. Commander of the First Air Force Maj. Gen. Frank Hunter, who himself had been responsible for many of the discriminatory policies against the 477th, sent an intelligence agent to get a sense of the situation. The report included several statements taken from white AAF officers who expressed their contempt for having to serve alongside African Americans. Some complained about the smell of African Americans and were offended at the thought of equality. Others displayed an eagerness for violence against their fellow officers, as one said: “If one of them makes a crack at my wife, laughs or whistles at her, like I saw them do to some white girls downtown, so help me, I’ll kill him.” Another bragged about taking part in lynching, saying “I killed two of them in my hometown, and it wouldn’t bother me to do it again.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTwTrL1GnwMqRAf-M93dPSVdAWSfOME8jz1rueyFOiUmMjXwG2t5uS0a-CNhy1OShr9y9x5hI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe group’s commander, Col. Robert Selway, upon arrival at Freeman in March 1945, ordered the creation of two separate officers’ clubs. Segregating the clubs by race would have been a direct violation of AAF regulations that demanded officers’ facilities be open to all officers. Selway indicated that one of the clubs was designated for “trainees,” and the other for “instructors.” It just so happened that all the trainees were African American and all the instructors were white, despite the fact that many of the African American “trainees” already had logged significant combat hours and outranked some of the white officers. Furthermore, transcripts of telephone calls with Selway and Hunter revealed that the trainee/instructor scheme was merely a cover for race, as both of them repeatedly referred to the instructor club as the “white” club, making sure that the official orders “don’t say anything about color, race, or creed.” Hunter hoped that the growing resentment would give him a pretext for further action, telling Selway “I’d be delighted for them [the African American officers] to commit enough actions that way so I can court-martial some of them.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTwTrL1GnwMqRAf-M93dPSVdAWSfOME8jz1rueyFOiUmMjXwG2t5uS0a-CNhy1OShr9y9x5hI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCivil disobedience\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn April 5, 1945, the African American officers began a pre-planned display of resistance. In small groups of just a few officers at a time, they began entering the white “instructor” club, 36 of them getting arrested in the process. The next night the same tactic played out again, with another 25 arrested. The club was then closed, and 110 officers wrote to the Army Inspector General to request an investigation into the arrests. The complaint specifically noted the inherent hypocrisy of U.S. racial policies in the context of the struggles of World War II, stating: “The continuance of this policy can hardly be reconciled with the world wide struggle for freedom for which we are asked, and are willing, to lay down our lives.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSelway and Hunter, under the advice of the Judge Advocate, released all the arrested officers except three, who they claimed had used physical force to push their way into the club. Selway then drafted a new regulation outlining his policy of assigning trainees and instructors to different facilities and assigning those designations by race—against the objection of the First Air Force Inspector General, who noted that approximately 20 of the African American officers were not trainees in any sense. Selway, working with Hunter, then ordered all of the officers to read the new regulation and sign a statement certifying that they understood it, under penalty of the 64th Article of War, which directed that refusal to obey a direct order would result in punishment up to death. Of the 422 African American officers assigned to the 477th, 101 of them refused to sign and were arrested.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMany of these officers drafted and signed separate statements outlining their reasons for refusing to sign the racially discriminatory order, most of which are stark and powerful. One officer wrote that obedience “would have done violence to the conscience of the undersigned; it would have constituted moral conduct less than that required of an officer and a gentleman in the Army of the United States.” Another stated: “The undersigned wishes to indicate over his signature his unshakable belief that racial bias is Fascistic, un-American, and directly contrary to the ideals for which he is willing to fight and die.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUnder pressure\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe 101 officers who refused to sign were sent back to Godman Field, Kentucky, and the rest of the 477th followed shortly thereafter. This was a brazen attempt to eliminate the program of African American pilots altogether. In a phone conversation to the First Air Force’s chief of training, General William Welsh, the chief of staff of the Air Force for training said of the move: “If we can stave it off in some way for a period of time… maybe we can eliminate the program gradually and accomplish our end.” But the officers of the 477th had planned carefully. Not only did they write formal complaints through official channels to their command structures, but they had communicated with organizations like the NAACP and tipped off a local reporter so that the incidents were documented in the public press. This, combined with Selway and Hunter’s transparent actions, drew the attention of the highest authorities in the nation.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T2r3JfmOsm6eO3f8a8eFnuK-twL-eNvCMauIWj6Jc_MOHsoDL8t4K5Q8EzTZYZLketesW9or4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePresident Harry Truman was informed of the occurrences at Freeman and Godman fields. Shortly after, the Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, Gen. George Marshall, ordered that the 101 arrested officers be released at once. Hunter complied but insisted that a letter of reprimand be added to their permanent records. Under pressure from the War Department, AAF commander Gen. Henry “Hap” Arnold replaced Selway with Col. Benjamin O. Davis Jr., who took command of the 477th and of Godman Field. Displaying the pettiness typical of institutional racism, Hunter refused to attend the change of command ceremony.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCourts-Martial\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eNevertheless, after significant debate, the AAF Chief of Justice Col. R.E. Kunkel, who argued for the release of all the arrested officers, compromised with Hunter, who wanted them all tried, settling on courts martial for the three officers accused of a physical altercation with the white officer blocking the door when they had entered the club. Lt. Marsden Thompson and Lt. Shirley Clinton were tried together while Lt. Roger Terry was tried separately. The NAACP sent a legal team led by Ted Barry, president of the organization’s Cincinnati branch. The board judging over the trial consisted of six African American officers, whom every single white officer called to testify refused to salute. In each case the proceedings came to a halt so each white officer could be reminded that a salute was the military custom.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe testimonies revealed inconsistencies in how admittance to the club was allowed. It became quickly obvious that skin color was the determining factor. Selway’s testimony was the most dramatic, as he objected to every question, arguing that they were “irrelevant and immaterial.” After being repeatedly reminded that witnesses do not have the right to object to questions, Selway was labelled a hostile witness. His testimony also contradicted what had been recorded in his own telephone transcripts. In the final verdict, Thompson and Clinton were both acquitted. Terry was found not guilty of disobeying an order, but guilty of “jostling a superior officer.” The prosecution had asked for the death penalty. Instead, Terry was fined $150. The fee was paid via a collection from his fellow officers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Su2-A9OayASKfFfGGtrMf6lIBlhzB9o_2CsiHqRXF432hOm8SExyBPiUdaVL7E4Zg97EA1kw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLegacy\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Freeman Field Mutiny, as it became known, led to drastic change for the time. Davis was able to remove the promotional log jams in the 477th, allowing African Americans into the command positions they had earned. The AAF convinced the War Department to pass a new regulation prohibiting racial segregation in base facilities, as well as conduct a thorough review of discriminatory policies throughout the military. Despite this progress, racial bias in the air arm was far from eliminated and Davis encountered heavy resistance. For example, the post commander at Fort Knox near Godman Field complained to the First Air Force headquarters, saying: “We have four General Officers living here… by God, they just don’t want a bunch of coons moving in next door to them.” The 477th never saw combat, largely because the war soon came to an end, but also because Gen. George Kenney, air force commander in the Pacific, worked to prevent the 477th from being sent to the theater, against the recommendations of Gen. Douglas MacArthur and Lt. Gen. Ira Eaker.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sam-grXMWA0gZr3bYV5up-NoHnPIZhQW61o86qC7Ll7NYMNKd53moho6sF3gizbHmk3jMd4A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn spite of this, the AAF, soon to become the independent U.S. Air Force, gradually became more racially inclusive. The Air Force ordered an end to its segregation policies before President Truman issued his executive order that officially integrated all the armed services. Although full racial integration of the armed services took three more years of hard work, the fallout from the Mutiny at Freeman Field set the services firmly on that path. Exactly 50 years after the mutiny, in 1995, the US Air Force exonerated those who had been arrested, finally removing Hunter’s reprimand letters from their records and expunging Terry’s conviction.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RDfjFVN6VoBjk-UTh7Ku6ZWFDZFKORKCRPo8Um_he_AR-t5ypWX0IZKVuLq7eMXgG9bYE6a9c",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAlthough many of the Tuskegee Airmen made remarkable combat achievements, their greatest victories were against systemic racial injustice, forcing the nation to hold closer to the ideals of liberty and equality enshrined in its founding documents. Seventy-five years later, that fight is far from over. The tactics used by the 477th of peaceful civil disobedience combined with forging connections to activist organizations and press outlets to put political pressure on national leaders all served to further their cause. Those efforts serve as a powerful example of how meaningful change can still be achieved. As Col. Benjamin Davis Jr. said: “The privileges of being an American belong to those brave enough to fight for them.”\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","An Interview with Charles McGee","The Tuskegee Airman and WWII veteran on how they dispelled racial bias","//i3.ytimg.com/vi/ZEs4ooL5pj4/hqdefault.jpg","/asset/charles-mcgee-s-role-as-a-tuskegee-airman-in-wwii/MAEYsNDaEtw-sw",21,null,null,null,null,["MAEYsNDaEtw-sw",1.7777778,null,null,["//i3.ytimg.com/vi/ZEs4ooL5pj4/hqdefault.jpg","ZEs4ooL5pj4","Charles McGee's Role as a Tuskegee Airman in WWII",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum"],null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"MAEYsNDaEtw-sw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,null,"https://airandspace.si.edu","INDEPENDENCE AVE AT 6TH ST, SW\nWashington, DC, 20560\nUnited States",38.88781,-77.019905,"Washington, DC, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4",1524,725,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum"]],["stella.common.cobject","A Memorial to a Fallen Hero","Lt. James L. McCullin Jr was one of the first African American pilots lost in combat","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SHIix9TgFsvybK0YjrT-zKdf6v7ueTW6liwBGd1jB1xdD9mf2MRZ9IeztLqSQjVvewXjVHJcZS","/story/MAUhp_pZIHtIKw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d80bda1a-1bf1-430a-b358-0799ce46d55e","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SHIix9TgFsvybK0YjrT-zKdf6v7ueTW6liwBGd1jB1xdD9mf2MRZ9IeztLqSQjVvewXjVHJcZS","fX85vXVWxt0smRDLV8g6_KSgJJE",[0.5563569,0.49,0,0.8859029,0.5383161],null,null,null,[4853,5000]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"MAUhp_pZIHtIKw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ","A memorial quilt",[null,"\u003cp\u003eSince the 19th century, recording memories and creating memorial quilts have been ways for families to honor and remember lost loved ones. For Vivian L. McCullin, a memorial quilt was a way to keep the memory of her deceased brother, James L. McCullin Jr, alive. On July 2, 1943, after escorting B-25 bombers on a raid over southwestern Sicily, Tuskegee Airmen 2nd Lt. James L. McCullin Jr. and 1st Lt. Sherman W. White Jr. failed to return to base, becoming the first two African American pilots lost in combat while flying for the United States. Lieutenants McCullin and White were presumably shot down by enemy fighters over Sicily, but no crash sites were ever found. This unfinished quilt cover, donated to the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture by McCullin’s nephew, tells the story of Lieutenant McCullin from his time in college and training at Tuskegee Institute to serving with the 99th Fighter Squadron in the Mediterranean and his post-death legacy.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eJames Lawrence McCullin Jr. was born on November 25, 1918, in St. Louis, Missouri, to James and Bessie McCullin.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMcCullin attended Kentucky State College (now University) where he played football, basketball, and joined the Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMcCullin graduated from Kentucky State in 1942 with a bachelor’s degree in sociology and economics. After graduating, McCullin enlisted in the Army Air Corps at Jefferson Barracks outside of St. Louis. Shortly thereafter McCullin was sent to Tuskegee, Alabama, to train as a pilot.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R92NSltaInw3ESpohj2XJCc0VXNdQtpmmx7LSXPdu7dcxx2ufFM3if07yzYVkS0I_FJsBMGbSe","Training the Tuskegee Airmen",[null,"\u003cp\u003eBefore World War II, African Americans were barred from flying for the U.S. military. Due to intense pressure from civil rights groups and the African American media, in 1941, the Army Air Corps formed an all-African American pursuit squadron with a training base at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. In addition to training pilots, the program at Tuskegee trained support personnel including mechanics, navigators, nurses, and others who kept the more than 900 Tuskegee pilots airborne throughout the war. Thirteen African American men volunteered for the first flight training program and many more followed. They were determined to serve their country and show skeptical military leaders that African Americans could be top fighter pilots. Graduates eventually joined the 99th Pursuit Squadron (later the 99th Fighter Squadron) or the newly formed 332nd Fighter Group under Col. Benjamin O. Davis Jr. (one of the first graduates of the program and later the first African American Air Force general). The Tuskegee Airmen were recognized for their record of safely escorting bombers on their missions, putting to rest any doubts about the abilities of African American pilots.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R92NSltaInw3ESpohj2XJCc0VXNdQtpmmx7LSXPdu7dcxx2ufFM3if07yzYVkS0I_FJsBMGbSe",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis PT-13 Stearman Kaydet was one of the planes used to train airmen at Moton Field in Tuskegee, Alabama.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University) was the ideal place to train African American pilots. Founded in 1881, Tuskegee Institute, under the direction of Booker T. Washington, was dedicated to training African American students in both academic subjects and practical skills. Steeped in a long history of training African Americans, Tuskegee had everything the Army Air Corps was looking for: facilities, technical instructors, and an ideal climate for year-round flying.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn March 1941, the new pilot training program at Tuskegee received national attention when First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt took to the skies in a plane piloted by chief civilian instructor at Tuskegee, C. Alfred “Chief” Anderson. When the first lady said to Chief Anderson that she’d “heard colored people couldn’t fly airplanes,” he responded, “Well, we’re not having any problems here.” Chief Anderson and Mrs. Roosevelt spent more than a half hour in the air. After landing, she announced, “Well, you can fly all right.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePhotographs and stories of the first lady flying with a black pilot demonstrated Mrs. Roosevelt’s support of the training program at Tuskegee. The ensuing press coverage helped promote the program and validated the capabilities of African American pilots.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eJames McCullin graduated from the pilot training program at Tuskegee on September 6, 1942. His diploma states that “James Lawrence McCullin has satisfactorily completed the course of instruction prescribed for Pilot Training at the Tuskegee Army Flying School.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLieutenant McCullin and eight other African American men were part of graduating class 42-H (pictured here). Lieutenant McCullin is standing far left. Pictured directly directly in the center (fourth from the left) is Lt. Robert W. Diez, who was featured in a popular War Bonds poster during the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QInIH381QcyZ-TCTW6elneJ29XfBFVKxtFbThfI7eQHGm-NyXgkmSEqNiaPlruV-mgczHf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLieutenant McCullin’s classmate, Lt. Robert Diez, is featured on this famous War Bonds poster created for the United States Department of the Treasury in 1943 by artist Betsy Graves Reyneau. Heroic images of Tuskegee Airmen such as this poster helped recruit new servicemen and build support for the war in African American communities.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ","Tuskegee Airmen enter the war",[null,"\u003cp\u003eNine days after Lieutenant McCullin received his pilot’s wings, the 99th\u003cbr\u003eFighter Squadron was declared combat ready. The group was deployed in April 1943 and arrived in North Africa on April 24. The 99th Fighter Squadron joined the 33rd Fighter Group under commander Col. William W. Momyer and had their first mission on June 2, 1943. According to the official squadron history, “Pilots of the 99th Fighter Squadron had an average of two missions daily from June 2 to June 9, 1943. The missions were varied; some were to bomb gun positions on Pantelleria Island, others to serve as escorts for A-20s and B-25s.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUpon their arrival in the Mediterranean, pilots of the 99th Fighter Squadron, including Lieutenant McCullin, were assigned to pilot Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighter-bomber aircraft. The P-40 was a single-seat, single-engine fighter that first flew in 1938. The P-40 was used by most of the Allied powers and remained in service throughout the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn July 2, 1943, Lieutenant McCullin took part in a mission escorting a dozen B-25 bombers to their target. Over the coast of Sicily, the group was attacked by German fighters. Lt. Charles B. Hall shot down a Focke-Wulf 190, becoming the first African American pilot in the U.S. military to shoot down an enemy fighter. However, when the fighters returned to their base, Lieutenant McCullin and another pilot, Lt. Sherman H. White, were missing. A search patrol was sent out, hoping to find evidence that the pilots had been forced to land along the coast of Sicily. In a report to the Baltimore Afro-American a correspondent with the 99th Fighter Squadron wrote, “One day they were eating and playing games and talking of postwar plans back home—then they went on a mission—and never came back.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn his autobiography, Col. Benjamin O. Davis Jr., who led the mission, described the day: “On 2 July I led a 12-plane escort of 12 B-25s to Castelvetrano in southwest Sicily. It was on this mission that I saw my first enemy aircraft, an element of two FW-190s and a flight of four Me-109s, far above my part of our formation, which was flying close escort to the B-25s. When the enemy planes dove on the bombers, our top cover turned into them and kept them out of range. During this mission we had our first pilot losses: Lts. Sherman White and James McCullin. We believed at the time that both these pilots had made a forced landing along the Sicilian coast, but regrettable, it did not turn out that way. The loss of fighter pilots was like a loss in the family.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ","Lieutenant McCullin's legacy",[null,"\u003cp\u003eNo traces of Lieutenant McCullin, Lieutenant White, or their planes were ever discovered. Lieutenant McCullin and Lieutenant White were legally declared dead on July 3, 1944, per Army regulations, one year and one day after they went missing, making them the first black pilots ever killed in combat for the United States. Lieutenant McCullin is listed among the Tablets of the Missing at the North African American Cemetery in Tunis, Tunisia, and has a headstone at Jefferson Barracks National Cemetery in St. Louis County, Missouri.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLieutenant McCullin was posthumously awarded the Air Medal for “heroic or meritorious achievement while participating in aerial flight” and the Purple Heart “for military merit and wounds received in action.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q-UCoqYVC1TfnA3j_TEUeNMfKVPJ7-Qb-hZuNPNvC61wbdC9R0q5yQyrnyJa1fJ6YG0rltxz8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis Purple Heart was posthumously awarded to 2nd Lieutenant James L. McCullin Jr. on October 12, 1944.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn 1948, Kentucky State University named its new dormitory in honor of Lieutenant McCullin. McCullin Hall still stands on the KSU campus today. A plaque inside McCullin Hall reads, “Lt. James L. McCullin was a gentleman, a scholar, and a true thoroughbred, who entered Kentucky State College in 1938. … Lt. McCullin was killed by anti-aircraft fire in action over Sicily on July 3, 1943 [sic], thus becoming the first KSU graduate killed during World War II.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBetween 1942 and 1946, 992 pilots were trained at Tuskegee and 355 were deployed overseas. By the end of the war 84 pilots had lost their lives, including 68 pilots killed in action or accidents. Through this memorial quilt and other objects donated to the National Museum of African American History and Culture by his family, Lieutenant McCullin’s story and the story of the Tuskegee Airmen will be told for generations to come.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,11,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:4403b4fb-9634-4a34-9395-ea0c59d1584d"],["stella.edit.sect",["The women who made waves","The essential role played by women, from pilot WASPs to Navy WAVEs",null,null,null,1],47,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Making WAVES","A brief overview of the women in the United States Naval Reserve during World War II","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QH-voSjBpVPVhIEYFzyI2Nl8cdqwUqUvCtVE66Tn5Nk6dl_oja5mcERuUO09ySrBnPotTAej8","/story/TgXRjwNH8CUaIw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"The Yeomanettes",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:60af3ff2-32f4-462a-8840-5fecdcdccf47","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QH-voSjBpVPVhIEYFzyI2Nl8cdqwUqUvCtVE66Tn5Nk6dl_oja5mcERuUO09ySrBnPotTAej8","5z5OqwdR4TaHm2hUKwhucSnW-EU",[0.5,0.51,0,1.1619086,0.50521064],null,null,null,[6359,8975]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"TgXRjwNH8CUaIw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QIUW-Ega6W1zkc_z9xN2bdLYBO9WbwF5gxnRHUQ6fgljSA9zIoA4qqX3xZFlYR_pfp0jRQvw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn World War I, the US Navy for the first time employed women in uniform large numbers outside of the medical fields. As the Naval Reserve Act of 1916 had conspicuously omitted mention of gender as a condition for service, women were able to enlist in mid-March 1917 prior to American entry in the war. By war\u0026#39;s end, over 11,000 Yeomen (Female), or \u0026quot;Yeoman (F)\u0026quot; were serving in the Navy in an array of enlisted clerical, secretarial and other non-combat roles in the United States.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRecruiting posters did not portray the Yeoman (F), also known as “Yeomanettes,” in a professional fashion. In this 1917 recruiting poster painted by Howard Chandler Christy, a model in a navy uniform is portrayed as a pin-up, a wholesome, youthful appearance with clear implications that serious service was a masculine profession.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QCH0AHq2EwPXyS59nfKoMEep5mfEMd2yYPWvfKNLZjvB32_yFKJHZE3BLTDoxJhnrVVATSVg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Yeomen (F) program ended after World War I, but prior to American entry in World War II a movement began to bring women back into naval service. After considerable discussion and debate, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed legislation on July 30, 1942 establishing the Women’s Reserve of the U.S. Naval Reserve. Known by the acronym WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service), the Women’s Reserve allowed women to serve as officers and as enlisted ratings. Although restricted to service in the continental United States with prohibitions aboard warships or combat aircraft, the WAVES shared a common purpose with the pioneers of World War I: free up men for overseas service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qv7FwS7Wys1pXf77CWHfMgL1JmPFbvarswP7qW7cBGI3WL0BrwgXyrwW7cycJdUqmjRn48Dhs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMildred H. McAfee, president of Wellesley College, took a leave of absence to serve as director of the WAVES. Commissioned as a lieutenant commander – the first female officer in the history of the Naval Reserve – she oversaw the growth and direction of the WAVES with an emphasis on professionalism and equality with male counterparts. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eUnder McAfee’s leadership, the advertising campaign for the WAVES emphasized ladylike, professional appearances to appeal to American organizations as well as women themselves. The Navy desired women with college education and professional experience and noted opportunities for advancement within the ranks.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T9-pwYsJXrCm5ko6USC8gFoDVuh-q_PMai8c-d7zkcDnxOWDs25E8ActjSbt0Q5GCYbrcFAw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn stark contrast with the World War I poster featured previously, the WAVES advertising cut a professional uniform appearance of women in uniform.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SV1BXs5Wyu2Gze6c_jflkW8TCUhjJU5-cBHQDIdBkrFSPY23jsiTtWdyLkXPn_EJ6H0oECzD3s",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAlthough forbidden to serve aboard warships or in combat aircraft, imagery of both appeared in posters. As men fought overseas, women served at home.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHp2ddAsNFkxFhnE00v8kCHCtcZUFgbwqipDX4wPxHetVFI2bv03m2h1C9z8F3K5LvNolnDI8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUniforms provided the WAVES with a powerful recruitment tool. Thanks to the influence of Josephine Forrestal, a former fashion editor for Vogue and the wife of James Forrestal, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the New York fashion house of Mainbocher designed the Women’s Reserve uniforms for free. For thousands of women, the WAVES offered a stylish, professional uniform appearance. Women received a similar color scheme as male counterparts, with a summer while uniform and a winter navy blue wool uniform.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNNLvY6UPdGcwuSy2pU7Yk_9_K89OTRY5A0sX2ewJpO2KBehnkk176wq9wt9csJpHLMFDR",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs with advertising for men, WAVES recruiting posters emphasized the patriotic element of service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RXotToSO9tNj7tb7bdhtuK8SVM4FI10XhoSSYnhtasCRfbzslonE8ZsmmPs7r-wmOeGC0D-Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePatriotism took many forms in WAVES advertising, with the element of family appearing several times in the work of artist John Falter.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tg8mnKXmpkZoJcTgm-5ftRi-ScACPvHdWH7Y5U8IQN2OCKfCkCu7Ffs5Z5XUlbwLB7B8MTCpdC",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn contrast with the loving hug between a male sailor and his female partner, here the male companion, \u0026quot;Dan,\u0026quot; is abstractly portrayed by a telegram informing his female partner of being wounded in action. The implication here is that his female partner enlisted in familial unity and obligation to do her part and honor his sacrifice to the nation.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_THwFVV8tLOYoP39o6w_3TYxcU0yYwNm9KoQSiPD8US82HLOtpc1BN90xdhFZzxYsnQ-cTBRu8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAlmost 90,000 women served in the WAVES during World War II from every state in the nation. The vast majority of women were white and middle class, presenting a degree of class uniformity. African Americans were unable to join the WAVES until December 1944, and the war ended before many women completed their recruit training.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Su9wAka2Xm2Wo6-yDFtYZarCLKM0K1T-pFYr-in8gyZq6aBZXA_g7_nNhqGe-zNClfrff6_4w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCountless women who joined the WAVES received local recognition in the form of small window cards displayed in local post offices, libraries, even department stores.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QFak56mXRFKl_TsFQLLtIrwiTmvRloRv9_t1BAVDLYoqcUjPPFpMKI100A1nGjsafaC7vwwNw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs with World War I, the Navy demobilized women in uniform. But the success and accomplishments of the WAVES, together with the service of women in the Army, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard convinced senior military and political leaders that women had earned a permanent place in the nation’s military. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn July 30, 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed the Women\u0026#39;s Armed Services Integration Act into law allowing the women to serve in the regular Army or Navy on a permanent basis. The law, however, retained prohibitions on women serving in combat roles which were only lifted during the War on Terrorism. Nevertheless, the WAVES served as an inspiration during World War II, and continue to do so today.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Cracking Codes","Cryptologists in the Navy WAVEs","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qi5sHGmb__2nb1EwPNNRwTWK3lrWTdIdQHXG4gj7fcAMO7rHU8TuerosXiNaRkfoP6oeJ98zg","/story/SgWBd8JZ6LxWIw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Cryptologists",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:0e46660e-4189-423a-a069-e7039fceceda","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qi5sHGmb__2nb1EwPNNRwTWK3lrWTdIdQHXG4gj7fcAMO7rHU8TuerosXiNaRkfoP6oeJ98zg","UzM1157rl7pUC6_vRZX2MJjKWhU",[0.4495363,0.5194805,0,0.8990726,0.6875902],null,null,null,[1833,1386]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"SgWBd8JZ6LxWIw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RkrroxMDUhVC-tTDnF8bVlPKlqN_kqV3oTQewphzXFvvPmxFEjL2fyxbO7tlkrHA8FcdIBnMo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCryptology, the study of code making and code breaking, has been around since man could scrape images on cave walls. (Well, maybe not the study, but certainly the practice.) Through thousands of years, cryptologic secrets were trusted to only a few, which were almost always men. Much of that changed after the First World War, however, and became a necessity during World War II.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TomLxUXiyGJJ1u6Xy4mpJJ41-9cH6jDaDcsh_5o6hcvjykm0PosPxiVOAyyG98OEl__GkUb0jX",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhile many women entered the field of cryptology during World War I, some of \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/museum/exhibits/#women_in_cryptology\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ethe best known women cryptologists\u003c/a\u003e entered the profession post-war and were followed by thousands more during WWII. These women made history by serving our nation behind the veil of secrecy in the United States Army’s Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) and in the United States Navy as Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES). President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the bill establishing the WAAC in May 1942 and another bill later that year creating the WAVES.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RPvB2ou-S6YJV0CdUqsoL8DIwQwHPJhpC6ompx1_NAZTNHiONNAbdvjE7p0Au4GDdbum5UyGRV",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThousands of women served as cryptologists or in positions supporting cryptologic operations in the Army and Navy during WWII, either as civilians or in uniform. Women across the United States were eager to do their part for their country.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOnly women meeting higher qualifications were admitted into cryptologic work. Women in the Army were required to meet officer qualifications and possess strong mathematics or language skills. With the Army and Navy competing for women with similar qualifications, the Navy offered officer status for cryptographers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SI8LFEs_l2ps_PMtxDIZxiqle12O5xhQuO2pA8x4Vs3Bofu0g2n0mK2D0FSRfgQsuly-By9lI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWomen accepted into the cryptologic field were sworn to secrecy. They took their oath and were told the penalty for discussing their work outside approved channels could be death, since it was considered treason during a time of war. The Army and Navy placed a higher value on integrity than skills brought to the job, believing that women who met the qualifications but were untrained in cryptography could learn the skills they needed. Women who loyalty was in question, however, were disqualified from what would be highly classified work.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S7B_0LLKGAff8R-CRYZ2jpuftEcXy42lwSBLpWDghjHbpj1YHj5Eb9Nr48mnRu9YeCkiuJ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWomen accepted to serve in the Army and Navy underwent extensive training. Those selected to support cryptologic operations in the WAAC program went to Arlington Hall Station in Virginia, where they learned about cryptology and code, from theory to practice.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eSignal and cryptologic operations at Arlington Hall and the Naval Communications Annex were top secret. Neither the Army nor the Navy told the women how their work fit into the whole. Cryptanalysts knew how their achievements aided the men overseas, but the WACs (women serving in the WAAC) intercepting coded messages in the Army’s 2nd Signal Service Battalion and the WAVES operating the cryptanalytic machines rarely learned the results of their efforts.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RkrroxMDUhVC-tTDnF8bVlPKlqN_kqV3oTQewphzXFvvPmxFEjL2fyxbO7tlkrHA8FcdIBnMo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA major part of the WAVES’ job was building and operating the Navy Cryptanalytic Bombe, a 2.5 - ton electromechanical device developed to break the four-rotor enigma messages from German U-boats. Six hundred WAVES worked three eight-hour shifts, seven days a week at the National Cash Register Company (NCR) in Dayton, Ohio, where they learned how to solder and connect wires, read electrical diagrams, assemble rotors, and build 121 of these machines with no idea what they were building or why. It was tiresome, tedious work that allowed no room for error. After the first successful Bombe run in May 1943, the WAVES traveled with their Bombes by rail back to the Navy Annex in Washington, DC, where they operated the machines through the end of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QDqhyWU_W48RkIES2rMR5NVyoi3wUNcmgQleX-QM1FsgwZ7SWtJ9IGw5r-_iqZTl-6pFwm2_w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLife was physically, emotionally, and mentally challenging for the Army WACs and Navy WAVES. Many lived in barracks with 84 women to a floor until improvements were made. These conditions allowed for very little privacy or sleep. Also, there was the daily stress resulting from the unforgiving environment that left no room for mistakes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QgerAvmG9MZtDsPvp3i9ntcP2la-acVg40jOWBPE4_xfXUXL_5sr7N1DbUMWTD-zLHvb4F86zN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDespite the challenges that came with the job, women in cryptology performed their work assiduously and were proud to serve in the military. WAVE Lt. Sylvia Rosenwasse recalled, “They were very devoted and very caring and [had] a wonderful esprit de corps. They were proud of their uniforms and proud of being in the Navy.”\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe same, of course, could be said of the WACs. A WAC commander reported, “When demobilization came, my women swore they would never come back to the War Department or to shift work, but about 25 percent eventually did–as civilians.”\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Flying Planes","The stories of the WASPs","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TvvM7_eAhIGhL-bEH3QAT7X8l5vsXBom2_orabt4d02bQYIhXI6r1Bq0AfNPfY-_aKgEI6px4-","/story/lwWh1GPltixRKg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Pilots",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:aa454bbd-9963-4a0a-8851-b5b1a1295733","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TvvM7_eAhIGhL-bEH3QAT7X8l5vsXBom2_orabt4d02bQYIhXI6r1Bq0AfNPfY-_aKgEI6px4-","OhePtWFLJCRcQBl0KI0M3Rs0isc",[0.5193094,0.43750256,0,0.9613812,0.8750051],null,null,null,[3000,2052]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"lwWh1GPltixRKg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZ7EQXEc50zzLCmOMaDzbKTLIcHDpV249pwUjIvl9Z7K5nIaN5CN30UG571jj3a7fEXsw0FQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhile giving a flying lesson in her Piper Cub on Oahu near Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, flight instructor Cornelia Fort witnessed the attack of the Japanese air fleet. She was the first American pilot to do so, and she decided right then and there that she wanted to help her country. And she was not the only woman to feel that way. When some enlightened military leaders agreed and approved the creation of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP), about 25,000 American women applied to be an auxiliary part of the home-front army. A fraction of the applicants — 1,820 in total —were accepted into the program, and 1,074 graduated.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe WASP flew 60 million miles in all types of military aircraft, including fighters and B-17 and B-29 bombers, and paved the way for today’s fully vested female military pilots. These women ferried aircraft, cargo and personnel; tested aircraft; and towed targets throughout the 48 states, filling in gaps left by male pilots who had been sent to war. \u003ci\u003e“We had to deliver the goods,” \u003c/i\u003e Fort said, \u003ci\u003e“or else there wouldn’t ever be another chance for women pilots in any part of the service.\u0026quot;\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQVpxhqXE0xYSJJozEb-krEV6FDb5zxlXcmk9t2P2u1wNGJXIWwmtwYPnCHigBHbo0MPgLHeE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe WASP origin story\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWith the approach of World War II, two experienced women pilots recognized the coming shortage of military pilots as the men would be sent off to fly in the war. They separately petitioned the military to consider using women as ferry pilots. In 1941, racing pilot Jacqueline Cochran, who had the ear of General of the Army Air Corps, Henry “Hap” Arnold, selected a group of 24 women pilots to ferry military aircraft in Great Britain for its Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA). This would be a prelude to such ferrying in the U.S. At the same time, working with the Army Air Corps Air Transport Command, experienced business pilot Nancy Love identified similarly qualified women as prospective ferry pilots. Cochran and Love had very different strategies but the same goal – to create a women’s air corps.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T44dgrSS6XFRbsOgs6-uq0qyG1lX9kTCtHYyUEjLNWOxmpGeCVYJ8GHe4227tdYSiMlCLteQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn September 1942, the Army Air Force’s Air Transport Command approved the creation of a temporary, civilian women\u0026#39;s flying corps, the Women\u0026#39;s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS), under the direction of Nancy Love. As head of the WAFS, Love initially recruited 27 highly-experienced women pilots between the ages of 21 and 35 with high school diplomas, a commercial pilot’s license, and a minimum of 500 hours of flight time. After their flight checks, the WAFS immediately began repositioning military aircraft from manufacturing plants to bases and demarcation depots.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qiyn1MkQ5X-I-CE9G3nGxtiUw51Q0KCxZSlH4b8oqdSQ0p0Pq4kikcRqC0eNF_QMGi3sWgW64",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, Jackie Cochran ran the Women’s Ferrying Training Detachment (WFTD), recruiting female pilots with as little as 35 hours and sending them off to a 23-week flight training program, the same as male cadets and with military instructors. The first WFTD class graduated in December 1942 and initially, these classes graduated into the WAFS. However, on August 5, 1943, General Arnold combined these two organizations under the title of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) and selected Cochran as the overall director; Love remained in charge of the initial WAFS unit, although under Cochran.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Svh483bIn0obNw2q5GSHmiwkiUYM9QuG0cI2Py0UpQkrS5g6oPokQyVGRFSGlzhDpJkY5X",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWASP contributions\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eTheir flight training took place in a segregated group at Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas (after a brief stint in Houston), where the women followed strict military procedures including drilling and taking an oath of allegiance. They wore ill-fitting male mechanics suits, known as Zoot suits, or pants and A-2 leather jackets until Cochran oversaw the design of official WASP uniforms in a color known as Santiago Blue, onto which they could pin their silver WASP wings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R_av9nP3SrCsTR_aXH_HnS7TE6TYxdkb54g0L0IJid6fv-jvfoobzXebt0uE2OrWzUnlV4fAY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe important difference was that the women were civilians; the idea of militarizing them was too controversial at the time.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TsNlExCoP76DlbhhgveJ4hWpxaMb80zZTZ1AiXCuiJ4lwtozzk-IkSfHfEfBmw-J_d8SmANw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUltimately the WASP delivered 12,650 aircraft representing 78 different types. They flew every aircraft in USAAF inventory, including high-performance pursuit aircraft, such as the P-51 Mustang, and large four-engine B-17 and B-29 bombers. In addition, they towed targets for cadet fighter training, transported military personnel and cargo, and flew engineering tests flights, including one in America’s first jet, the Bell YP-59. WASP also flew target planes for air gunnery practice, flight tested repaired aircraft, and became flight instructors in aircraft or Link trainers/simulators. They flew whatever was asked of them.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TsRhFhEqLVwkJgCgRlzSs-XyIYDkyque_zvpMazCxaF8mnj7K-w2TdoENwvdhpSmUPa_hbtQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThroughout the program, the women’s accident and fatality rates were the same as men. Thirty-eight women gave their lives in the course of duty to their country but because they were civilians, their families, and in some cases their fellow WASP, had to pay the funeral expenses. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAlthough originally told they would become part of the military, a move supported by some in the Air Transport Command and by General Arnold, the WASP instead were disbanded in December 1944, a casualty of rancor over assimilation, jobs, and gender roles. With the end of the war in sight, perceptions were that women were no longer needed or even wanted—military pilots (men) would return to reclaim flying jobs. In addition, Cochran, who wanted to continue as commander of an independent women’s flying unit, was at the center of complications that prevented the group from being efficiently transferred as experienced military pilots into the either USAAF at large or the Women’s Army Corps (WAC). The issue was hotly debated in the press and in Congress. Ultimately, Congress voted against inclusion. They were abruptly sent home.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RCrDu5Me974IUHMG4PiFCV1lYak9q282yz-aY0jQjB1BgLs_bO_hB_dTwPqi6ysdn6jDa4ZpL4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eStill, Gen. Hap Arnold stated, \u003ci\u003e“If ever there were a doubt in anyone’s mind that women can become skillful pilots, the WASPs have dispelled that doubt.”\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNnr9rUyqy6Bnz9ju0E4RJFKbtiRlHfB5x8ciBTMz-kyKzedYh5z3pTkjU-s08Lr09yodSW3w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFighting for recognition\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe dreams of the individual WASP to serve as military pilots for their country were over. Most WASP married and raised families; many continued to fly but only a few established real aviation careers. At their 1972 reunion, attendees, officially the Order of Fifinella, resolved to restore their legacy by applying for official veteran recognition. From 1972 to 1976, several bills went nowhere on Capitol Hill. At the same time, the first women allowed into military flight training were being heralded as the first American women to fly military aircraft, and the WASP countered, “Not so!” Aided by Bruce Arnold, General Arnold’s son, and Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater, the WASP persevered and fought for recognition.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNnr9rUyqy6Bnz9ju0E4RJFKbtiRlHfB5x8ciBTMz-kyKzedYh5z3pTkjU-s08Lr09yodSW3w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe first installment of the nation’s debt to the WASP was paid in 1977 with a bill authorizing retroactive partial veteran status. Since then, with continuing World War II anniversary celebrations including this year’s 75th, the WASP have received acknowledgment and gratitude for their service. In 2009, President Barack Obama signed legislation, first drafted by Lt. Col. Nicole Malachowski (USAF), awarding the WASP the Congressional Gold Medal, the nation’s highest civilian honor. Following the award ceremony at the US Capitol in March 2010, I had the honor of carrying this original Gold Medal to the Museum where it is displayed at the Udvar-Hazy Center.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SqQEU0cqx1BBdill4VzVgatxCUijuzpUPjQCYWh0qEditKfrnBpd_ZKe8w4AJnxFajUGBldY0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLet’s be clear: the Women Airforce Service Pilots of World War II proved that women could safely and adeptly fly all military aircraft. Still, it took more than 30 years of social, cultural, and legal changes to even begin to allow American women to train as military pilots. After anti-discrimination and civil rights laws were passed in the 1960s and directives were enacted to allow women to fly non-combat military aircraft in the 1970s, and eventually all military aircraft in 1993, women finally gained the right to equal military flight training and equal opportunities to be as successful as male pilots. However, it is important that we remember and acknowledge the other half of the story — the long road to acceptance by society and the military, marked by virulent prejudice. In fact, women have only recently been widely accepted as fully vested military pilots. By employing the same perseverance as the WASP and armed with the WASP record and the law, military women pilots now serve full careers and have achieved leadership command and flag officer positions. Thanks to the WASP, they didn’t have to prove again that women, as a gender, can fly.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Guiding The Way","Navigators and Instructors in the WAVEs","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuqqvcPw-20yHAbeFc5tmC2atgW0vFqVjp-qvZ_vyJ7yt7EZQume2570vO9bdmjojcb4d0TKI","/story/ggVxCVD9FVK4Lw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Navigators"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"ggVxCVD9FVK4Lw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TeVqDVo_eI0L0338I9rHJYX0P-zq2R1Sw5E9krrU2Lp2bwy8T5WKFtGvQjZDqq0zOLRYon70w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThough American women had a long history of service in wartime, the World War II years offered women greater access to technical positions that had once been closed to them by in peacetime. Air navigation was one of the most prominent examples. While in the years preceding World War II, several women, including \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/anne-morrow-lindbergh\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAnne Morrow Lindbergh\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/amy-johnson\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAmy Johnson\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated a degree of proficiency in air navigation that was matched by only a handful of their male peers, none had the degree of professional success enjoyed by the cadre of professional air navigators like \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/harold-gatty-0\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eHarold Gatty\u003c/a\u003e or \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/fred-noonan\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFred Noonan\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R6ecHUOoH67tgqKGunJ5KEUs1lUTchOY7nFRu_dSoGKkEU0BgQJGdlUGKnZcGLqrN8cTWlOA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWartime opened the door slightly for women in the field, including civilians like \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/mary-tornich\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMary Tornich\u003c/a\u003e, who taught basic navigation to Army aviators, and for a segment of the women in the new Navy auxiliary service – the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.womenofwwii.com/navywaves.html\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWAVES\u003c/a\u003e. Unlike the Army’s \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.womenofwwii.com/armywasps.html\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWASPs\u003c/a\u003e (Women’s Airforce Service Pilots), the WAVES did not ferry aircraft as pilots, but they did take on a variety of aviation roles to “free” males for overseas combat service (interestingly, the WASPs in turn, did not serve as air navigators). These included serving as aircraft maintainers, technical instructors, and as air navigators on “homefront”’ Naval Air Transport Service flights. However, if WAVE navigators did not have the opportunity to demonstrate their skills in the most challenging operational environments, they did have the pride of operating one of the most sophisticated training devices developed up to that point – the Link Celestial Navigation Trainer (CNT). The \u003ca href\u003d\"https://books.google.com/books?id\u003d2ykDAAAAMBAJ\u0026amp;pg\u003dPA2\u0026amp;lpg\u003dPA2\u0026amp;dq\u003dpopular+science+april+1944\u0026amp;source\u003dbl\u0026amp;ots\u003dtQuyxvfrTW\u0026amp;sig\u003dBZoNudxnm5lL94tD54sLrxXkFxc\u0026amp;hl\u003den\u0026amp;sa\u003dX\u0026amp;ved\u003d0ahUKEwigyqKPku_SAhUERyYKHREMDnkQ6AEIGjAA#v\u003dsnippet\u0026amp;q\u003d%22by%20simulated%22\u0026amp;f\u003dfalse\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eApril 1944 issue of Popular Science\u003c/a\u003e contains an excellent depiction of how this complex device functioned.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S-MMIur28m_BydlafgO7pI9D0-OQzWRZMgXPsEHGeCt_6uOakKNfzn4xeZVMuvI4BNUW9Ju5c",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Link Celestial Navigation Trainer came out of an Army Air Forces requirement for a realistic crew trainer for long-range bombers and transports. Given that the Army Air Corps had a mere 50 or so dedicated air navigators on hand in 1940, the rapidly changing geopolitical situation (aggressive Japanese deployments and the German invasion of the Soviet Union) of the following year quickly made Air Corps leaders realize that their force was not only inadequate for operations, but that it was unable to even provide a core cadre for the training schools needed for the anticipated tens of thousands of specialist air navigators. Attempts to use civilian schools, notably the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/clipper-pilots-train-cadets-in-navigation-run-time-055\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ePan American Airways School of Navigation\u003c/a\u003e at Dinner Key in Miami, were found to be quickly inadequate, especially as the British also began sending their navigation students to America and Canada for training. Even if there had been enough instructors, then there still were not enough airplanes to use for the complex process of training celestial air navigators. Those planes, even if available, would then consume valuable fuel and maintenance resources.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RKKP7y_7VzeJzRCozjmANj0wXCFN1V20mpWHeORBJvCu3XxqRWICXPJevn3iqsws5cj-P3Hwc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn November 27, 1941, the Army Air Forces addressed the problem by contracting with Link Aviation Devices for a sophisticated “Combat Crew Trainer.” Link had already begun design on such a trainer for a British contract the previous year, but the idea was still largely on paper. Link Aviation Devices founder Ed Link worked with air navigation maestro P.V.H. Weems to develop the trainer for the full range of celestial navigation techniques employed in aircraft. The trainers began appearing at American bases in 1943 with the Navy requesting them as well. The trainer was a milestone in the history of flight simulation. Although Ed Link had been an important pioneer in early instrument flight training with the venerable “blue box” trainer, designed to teach novice pilots to trust their instrument more than their inner ear, flight simulators did little to prepare airmen and naval aviators for the rigors of combat missions. The “Combat Crew Trainer,” which soon became the Celestial Navigation Trainer changed that. It was a technical marvel that provided an excellent trainer for a broad range of equipment and procedures ranging from sextants to bombsights.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QBq7P3Khp2M9V5In967p2p8oDAWD-yWjOfhbZYI7_z-m5neMEF7Y8DxkQwV2eX-NO3lKqLAQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe CNT consisted of a simulated cockpit with room for a navigator, pilot, copilot, and radio operator or instructor. It sat elevated in a silo structure on a giant turntable. Although the cockpit lacked the freedom of movement of the “blue box,” it could bank gently on its axis. Above the cockpit was a rotating, tilting star field that consisted of lights mounted on a chicken-wire hemisphere. Though most of the stars were simple light bulbs, the key navigational stars used for sextant sightings were collimated with a system of lenses so that parallax issues from having the stars on a nearby two dimensional surface could be avoided. The height of the silo was needed for a projection system that displayed real-world photo strips below the cockpit to train the crew in pilotage (navigation by visual reference to the ground) and dead reckoning (navigation by logging direction and airspeed over time with adjustments for weather conditions).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TVnkJj7Be7d30_3GQv4c8kMJKc0v1IRl37p_hOLi-BqTj1-YKd1Wgi16nRsJ3i3LuaVA7YVA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA system of lights and smoke generators also simulated bomb impacts so that bomb runs could be demonstrated. The simulator also included realistic radio compass signals. The CNT was much more than merely a navigation trainer; it was the first effective cockpit resource trainer for multi-crew aircraft. Navigators, pilots, bombardiers, and radio operators could learn to work together without some of the distractions and confusion present on real flights. Of course, the simulator was itself not a substitute for real world training, just a more effective and focused training aid that smoothed the transition to real aircraft, so that valuable time in the air could be used to the greatest effect.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R3ljbx8LWGOqFUqgJth5_K6qZ4ux_tAihStKKjONbO2KKWm6f3WT1NbRBwXPsXs9nsTqQUrA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAgainst this background, the WAVES began taking over the responsibility for operation of the CNTs on naval installations in 1943. The WAVES performed a critical wartime function that enabled higher quality training and reduced resource requirements to produce competent aircrews. Without the WAVES and the CNT, the training of nearly 100,000 air navigators would have been slower, more expensive, and come at the cost of badly needed resources, including aircraft and fuel.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,12,"Clusters","EditorialSection:e62d52f4-4db8-4ccb-9cff-d65a11ad1bf0"],["stella.edit.sect",["Native words, Native warriors","Discover the incredible stories of the Native American Code Talkers of World War II",null,null,null,1],17,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","How Traditional Tribal Languages Were Turned into Life-Saving Codes","Learn of the essential roles played by Native Americans in the military","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SvJZCIZbhbS3V9g_KK441NNxFcximdvsoaAzsj6MWRtgPWOTz1Za8wetVB6Noe8QSAC_Phfg","/story/yAXBAYZ9wwV7Jw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:658e5570-bda2-43c2-9175-94d9f9aea9d5","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SvJZCIZbhbS3V9g_KK441NNxFcximdvsoaAzsj6MWRtgPWOTz1Za8wetVB6Noe8QSAC_Phfg","hSxggndC0cpkT3_p8jIOuHywJN0",[0.5057143,0.36549798,0,0.932,0.66981816],null,null,null,[1750,1375]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"yAXBAYZ9wwV7Jw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TUWejOJYXcmG7TanUfSghXzfTopNc5aXl9YHMzk7VU8-c2EsiYmh8eU2LclUjgnpOVpUV72lQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDuring World War I and World War II, hundreds of American Indians joined the United States armed forces and used words from their traditional tribal languages as weapons. Some tribes were recruited by the United States military to develop secret battle communications using their languages. Other Native people found one another during the war and informally used their languages to subvert the enemy. “Code Talkers,” as they came to be known after World War II, are twentieth-century American Indian warriors and heroes who significantly aided the victories of the United States and its allies.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SGmYf2ePugKx7FBeMjRw8iFpjjU8n_PKlqqV00q_a3woKwYFvCNoWXugVBC-x7MTrLBWvVSRo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAmerican Indian nations have always fought to defend themselves. Their history includes numerous wars with enemies, such as the United States. Leading up to the world wars, the U.S. government had also spent years trying to erase American Indian cultures and ways of life, including the use of native languages.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SRXApFwx_V8O-YNzU-npM32YWUNtE9o5AQF4rveX715vu45BqclejMdW6QzahaJJbcMuE_aSo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBeginning in the late nineteenth century, many American Indian families were forced to send their children to boarding schools, where they were forbidden to speak their Native languages. Many Code Talkers attended boarding schools and as adults found it puzzling that the same government that had tried to take away their languages in schools later gave them a critical role speaking their languages in military service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sgv_SH8fA-QMGULqrxsS0o8UtbKvTUycUdWK4vDKWUEihfaitfAC_N_oOQubh0aqvvhAq3",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDespite everything that American Indians had endured in the past, American Indian men and women have served in all branches of the military. In many conflicts and wars, including World War I and World War II, American Indians honorably defended their homelands and the United States.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sgv_SH8fA-QMGULqrxsS0o8UtbKvTUycUdWK4vDKWUEihfaitfAC_N_oOQubh0aqvvhAq3",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn World War I, Choctaw and other American Indians transmitted battle messages in their tribal languages by telephone. Although not used extensively, the World War I telephone squads played a key role in helping the United States Army win several battles in France that brought about the end of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TA2WFHSZvBZ8zJvt2D8eme_oSGw5CkDbllKQmiGVdU5DH7NsT6MzMRpBKbyopc80GCH4VjZg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBeginning in 1940, the army recruited Comanche, Meskwaki, Chippewa, Oneida, and later, Hopi, people to transmit messages in code during World War II. Then in 1941 and 1942, the Marine Corps recruited Navajo Code Talkers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TA2WFHSZvBZ8zJvt2D8eme_oSGw5CkDbllKQmiGVdU5DH7NsT6MzMRpBKbyopc80GCH4VjZg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn 1942, Philip Johnston, who was not American Indian but had grown up on the Navajo reservation and had heard about the successes of the Choctaw telephone squad, suggested to the Marine Corps that Navajos and other tribes could be very helpful in maintaining communications secrecy. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter viewing a demonstration of messages sent in the Navajo language, the Marine Corps recruited 29 Navajos to develop a code within their language. The Marine Corps established a Code Talking school once the Navajo code was created.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TVGrTIOLzLEdQfHLvhUDnapCXTLekDuWAMrAjAxIFcMggduIC7gsBEAsg75c7jYEHsD4KI5zs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTo develop their Type One Code, the original 29 Navajo Code Talkers first came up with English words for each letter of the English alphabet. Since they had to memorize all the words, they used things that were familiar to them, such as kinds of animals. Then, they translated those words into Navajo.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qyh57GOS3hmcgQhaP_yazPZSRskxtJaE7-NgYyRjHVALT1t1VUSOOt0ObNKoHh6t4FLerrlZuf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs the war progressed, more than 400 Navajos were eventually recruited as Code Talkers. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eUltimately, there were Code Talkers from at least 16 tribes who served in the Army, the Marines, and the Navy.* Some Code Talkers enlisted, others were drafted\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eTheir training was intense. Following basic training, the Code Talkers completed extensive training in communications and memorizing the code.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SG2md9E41jFODXrn5k7dgfPt3O06e1kCR4cenTb_bP4vOqS3ecpH-tNmhY-XbwcvWWeRz9JMI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne such Code Talker was Carl Gorman, who joined the United States Marine Corps in 1942 when he learned they were recruiting Navajos. He went through all of the difficult training and was one of the original 29 Navajos who were given the secret mission of developing the Navajo code. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eMr. Gorman served in four important Pacific battles: Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Tinian, and Saipan. In 1942, he was stricken by Malaria, a severe tropical disease, yet he continued to fight. In 1944, Mr. Gorman was evacuated from Saipan suffering both from the effects of Malaria and post-traumatic stress. He had to be hospitalized and took many months to recover.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TA2WFHSZvBZ8zJvt2D8eme_oSGw5CkDbllKQmiGVdU5DH7NsT6MzMRpBKbyopc80GCH4VjZg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Native American Code Talkers were fluent in their tribe’s language, and they operated both wire and radio equipment, and often had to carry it on their backs. They had to set up and maintain the electronic communication wires or lines. Sometimes their messages were broadcast over a wide area, helping to direct bigger operations. At other times, messages related to a smaller group, such as a platoon.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TA2WFHSZvBZ8zJvt2D8eme_oSGw5CkDbllKQmiGVdU5DH7NsT6MzMRpBKbyopc80GCH4VjZg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThey provided an invaluable service by using their language to create special codes and are credited with saving thousands of American and Allied lives. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eMore than 12,000 American Indians served in World War I—about 25 percent of the male American Indian population at that time. During World War II, when the total American Indian population was less than 400,000, an estimated 44,000 Indian men and 800 women served.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SvF5-wKA0S8sHWm_GKdLJiPKS-yRiCVRLB_xY9xyCnIJcgvOpmqgbvwwQVC4fmkA70ExmTEHY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter World War II, most American Indian Code Talkers returned to communities that were having difficult economic times. Racism toward American Indian people was common and even though they had served their country with distinction, American Indian veterans could not eat or drink in some establishments—or even vote in some national or state elections.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePartly due to the secrecy of the program, in the military and non-Indian world, recognition for the Code Talkers was slow to develop. They were not acknowledged for many years despite their sacrifices and important roles in winning the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TftHLpqyDiXDrfK4VqFzl2LoCzFYdYO5teqLqb2qi8Z-Grvj8wepYIR3yk7MPNasxVoEAubg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e Recognition \u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1989, the French government awarded the Comanche Code Talkers the Chevalier of the National Order of Merit, a very high honor. Finally, in 2000, the United States Congress passed legislation to honor the Navajo Code Talkers and provided them with special gold and silver Congressional Medals. The gold medals were for the original 29 Navajos that developed the code, and the silver medals for those that served later in the program. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eA statement in the Navajo language on the back of the medals translates to: “With the Navajo language they defeated the enemy.” \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eCongress passed the Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 to officially recognize all American Indians who served as Code Talkers during World Wars I and II. Beyond Washington, DC, tribal governments, some state and local governments, and a variety of organizations have acknowledged the importance of the Code Talkers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RfzyGXkWwSuugsvl6CpNn9pDeMfsrPXuY1m5ormWqYexoR_OauEwWpQx4SngFPckO4J4zzo18",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Code Talkers’ achievements are many. They overcame the difficulties imposed on Native peoples. They served their families, their communities, and their country by helping to win the two major wars of the twentieth century. They demonstrated the importance of their tribal languages to the world and helped preserve them for the future. They are respected and admired by younger generations of American Indian people. For all of these accomplishments, the National Museum of the American Indian thanks and honors the Code Talkers and Native Warriors of the twentieth century.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,13,"Stories","EditorialSection:c5761d92-efc3-4739-a88e-14334a0e23ca"],["stella.edit.sect",["The aircraft that made history","Discover the different types of planes that skimmed the skies in WWII",null,null,null,1],15,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","The Vought OS2U Kingfisher","Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuVq9y-_tNEbQEAYWbcW359JmBVAKCmQWIJ6LPh7YS7_np8o3wFVGumumYybHVB79um2w4iGLC","/story/eAWxR13igw4KKQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:2a7e79c8-67d5-409c-8c12-9370b7dd6a68","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuVq9y-_tNEbQEAYWbcW359JmBVAKCmQWIJ6LPh7YS7_np8o3wFVGumumYybHVB79um2w4iGLC","mdSIsvyE1Tt1Cdo_o-LyoS7Kdw0",[0.57,0.32909554,0,0.77017796,0.6581911],null,null,null,[4895,3120]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"eAWxR13igw4KKQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qrl_rkrxBQwQSbvTiQrf_LDsdvqY3pbuBghDcmUvTpfvo99d9NGyNUMNf1eTZF7va2pzSgXGc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDuring World War II, carrier-based aircraft came to symbolize Naval Aviation, especially in combat. But some airplanes filled other roles that were also essential to naval combat. One of these was the ship’s spotter plane, a job done throughout the war mainly by the Vought OS2U Kingfisher.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SLMs9UYakvBn2CznYAcN8cEuzqd0vuo4lsvdaHpdiYyr9_f_c6V73CNDq3Bl9roSg95GgftA95",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs a ship’s spotter, the Kingfisher ably filled one of the original roles envisioned for aviation in the United States Navy: finding targets for ships’ guns and helping them hit the target at ranges much greater than the ship itself could see. (A spotter atop a battleship’s mast could see about 10,000 yards, whereas the 16-inch guns on an Iowa-class battleship had a range of 42,000 yards!)\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TLRTHozu3L_ZMG0aaXS1K4YcF1_kpPKQVPgh9V5t12fYvDWt3mlsSHGyapPr2eulzdb8ZQqWk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Kingfisher was a small, single-engine, two-seat floatplane designed to operate from battleships and cruisers rather than aircraft carriers. It would be launched from a roughly fifty-foot-long catapult on a turntable that allowed it to be pointed into the wind (and away from the ship). On cruisers, these were often located in the middle of the ship and powered by compressed air at 1200 psi. Battleship catapults were located on the stern with the launching impulse provided by a “blank” round for a 5-inch gun. In both cases, the motive force drove a piston connected to the launch cradle via a long cable strung through numerous pulleys to turn the otherwise fast piston stroke into a slow but powerful pull on the cradle.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SLMs9UYakvBn2CznYAcN8cEuzqd0vuo4lsvdaHpdiYyr9_f_c6V73CNDq3Bl9roSg95GgftA95",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOnce the airplane launched, the 450 hp Wasp Junior radial engine drove it at 70-100 mph. The pilot would take the plane to where it could see the target. They would then try to keep the airplane in a good position while keeping an eye out for enemy planes. Meanwhile, the observer, in the large rear cockpit, would keep their eye on the target and call corrections back to the ship over the radio. For defense, the Kingfisher had a single .30 caliber machine gun in the nose (firing in between two cylinder heads), while the observer had either a single or twin .30 caliber flexible mount. Despite this light armament, at least two Kingfishers succeeded in shooting down Japanese Zeros over Iwo Jima in 1945 (certainly an unusual outcome!), although the OS2U generally depended on fighter aircraft to protect it.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QOuk42zC1Qp2NcfVxj15gskI9rMxDsypEBe0BCZS5BktJZnkHt0AdLG3Wg-YieQA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Kingfisher could also be sent on long scouting missions to augment the carrier-based scouts or when there was no carrier available. In this case, the aircrew would typically fly a designated course directly from the ship to a given distance, turn and fly a bit, then turn directly back to the ship, resulting in a long, narrow triangular course, reporting anything seen along the way. Usually, multiple aircraft would be sent out to cover more area – battleships could carry three Kingfishers and cruisers typically had two each. The courses of these multiple planes would be spaced so that their visual fields completely covered a wider sector of a circle centered on the ship or task force.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QOuk42zC1Qp2NcfVxj15gskI9rMxDsypEBe0BCZS5BktJZnkHt0AdLG3Wg-YieQA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAt the end of its mission, the crew would fly back to their ship. The ship would make a wide turn, leaving an area of smooth water in its wake where the airplane could set down. Then the crew would taxi up alongside, where the ship would trail a “recovery sled” – a rectangular net with square holes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RJbzCzz2WP_E4WTxmPqO64KKmMjrCwr6yIvJWdlqwk4sr9wA7wr6HkZ0Rr0armkOg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Kingfisher’s main float had a spring-loaded hook on the bottom near the front and this would catch in the mat, allowing the pilot to turn off the engine and keep plane and ship at exactly the same speed. The aircrew would then attach a hook from the ship’s crane to a fitting behind the pilot, and airplane and crew would be lifted back aboard the ship.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Kingfisher could also be fitted with fixed-wheel landing gear for operating from shore bases, either for training or as part of the Inshore Patrol anti-submarine operations. For this latter role, the airplane also had bomb racks under each wing and could carry either two 100-lb bombs or two 325-lb depth charges.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q0QNaSozUZTznuqGmd9afu_M6GCcRPhhFtTf7T8zQirD2B_WRHKX_0Ims-RHAyvm5FmPNIXgc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOver 1500 Kingfishers were built between 1938 and 1942. Most numerous were the OS2U-3 variant, with over a thousand made by Vought and another three hundred by the Naval Aircraft Factory as the OS2N. (This permitted Vought to concentrate on producing the much-needed F4U Corsair.) Most served with the U.S. Navy, but one hundred went to the British Royal Navy, with handfuls of aircraft going to another half-dozen minor allies, including two in the Soviet Navy. The Kingfisher finally began to be replaced in service by the Curtiss SC Seahawk in late 1944, but there were still Kingfishers serving aboard ships when the Japanese surrendered in September 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SzayWw_edMOzpBMTJgzL2jFqqwWLRTn3EHXMR7-iFYveSBYQeLAuedo-ILxYDCW5DeOwqQp30",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAir/Sea Rescue\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn addition to spotting, scouting, and sub-hunting, the Kingfisher also found a use rescuing aircrew downed at sea. One of its most famous rescues was of World War I ace Eddie Rickenbacker, who had been a passenger on a B-17 that went off-course and ran out of gas in the South Pacific in October 1942. After more than three weeks adrift, a patrolling Kingfisher spotted the first of the survivors’ three rafts, this one with one man aboard, who was able to give general directions to Rickenbacker’s raft. About the same time, the three men in the second raft were found on a nearby island.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SzyJNCpOaAMBWfwwt0ISHC9kJcY7hZbkg7n6_UP5GLstXJ_qnjwYQQPe8lUZERYRSIIr3fMKEU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe next day, the same Kingfisher that had rescued the first man (albeit with a different pilot) was also the one to spot Rickenbacker’s raft. The aircrew helped a seriously-injured survivor into the rear cockpit, lashed Rickenbacker and the third occupant onto the wings, and taxied to meet a PT-boat to complete the rescue.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn April 30, 1944, during a carrier raid on the Japanese stronghold of Truk, two Kingfishers were sent out to rescue a carrier pilot who had gone down in Truk’s lagoon. The first plane landed but was damaged while plucking the downed pilot from the water and began sinking. The second plane, piloted by John Burns, landed, recovered all three aviators, and, unable to take off with all the weight, taxied to a nearby submarine, USS Tang, which had been unable to enter the lagoon.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SzyJNCpOaAMBWfwwt0ISHC9kJcY7hZbkg7n6_UP5GLstXJ_qnjwYQQPe8lUZERYRSIIr3fMKEU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Kingfisher was then sent after another downed aviator. While recovering him, two damaged TBM Avengers ditched nearby, and the Kingfisher picked up each of their three-man crews. Carrying seven rescuees distributed along the wings, the airplane taxied back toward Tang, which had gone off to rescue yet another airman. The effort damaged the plane enough that it could not take off again and Burns and his observer had to board Tang as well. The sub then sank the heroic airplane with gunfire to keep it out of Japanese hands. Lieutenant Burns earned the Navy Cross for his actions.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TUkVd5-egNUrZzY0Ye0gcpAbBihaI9in3sDCe_VEKR0wEmzRwzK55uKh1yO61K7FjJzb5UOcM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThomas Oxendine (a Lumbee Indian from North Carolina), was the U.S. Navy’s first Native American Naval Aviator. He earned his wings in December 1942 and spent much of the war flying a Kingfisher off the light cruiser USS Mobile(CL-63). Thomas and his observer, F.P. Appleton, earned the Distinguished Flying Cross for rescuing downed airmen off Yap Island in July 1944 while dodging gunfire from Japanese shore batteries.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Twa-t-wkoD1wDUqWnVvABmVfnEDcHjTsf7yUucFfWsLo0oRiDKLX6NrfzoBwcZ8MuoJvXtjsb_",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOur Kingfisher and a Silver Star\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Museum’s Kingfisher has an interesting history that includes its own dramatic rescue story. Vought delivered the OS2U-3 with Bureau of Aeronautics number 5909 to the Navy in March 1942. It was soon assigned to the newly commissioned battleship USS Indiana (BB-58), followed by assignment to a shore-based patrol squadron in New Caledonia in December 1942. 5909 spent late 1943 and early 1944 in overhaul at NAS Alameda in California, after which the Navy once again assigned it to the Indiana.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Twa-t-wkoD1wDUqWnVvABmVfnEDcHjTsf7yUucFfWsLo0oRiDKLX6NrfzoBwcZ8MuoJvXtjsb_",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn July 4, 1944, Indiana was supporting naval strikes on Rota and Guam. 5909’s pilot, Rollin M. Batten Jr., accompanied by his observer, were on rescue duty. They spotted two airmen in the water near Guam. Despite heavy fire from Japanese shore batteries, Batten chose to land near the men and rescue them, earning himself the Silver Star.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThat August, 5909 was assigned to another shore-based unit as a utility aircraft, then returned to Alameda in December 1944 for another overhaul. It remained in the United States when the war ended, doing very little flying until it was prepped for storage in 1947. Though earmarked for the Smithsonian in 1948, it remained in Navy storage until 1960. The airplane was loaned to the USS Massachusetts Memorial at Battleship Cove, Massachusetts from 1968 to 1980 and is now on display at our Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Sikorsky JRS-1","Not just a \"Flying Pickup Truck\"","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TOrxXfMAK7zhpo2RiBQttjlvBGwJsF9Yc0b8R2On5Pb-OrKBRLeJdiB4OT_a5qRdMyzHwiFw","/story/DQUx6cjop-3dLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:7dd2bb0a-6feb-476a-bec7-b323fc6416a7","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TOrxXfMAK7zhpo2RiBQttjlvBGwJsF9Yc0b8R2On5Pb-OrKBRLeJdiB4OT_a5qRdMyzHwiFw","J84zBsy7_DLmdp-_Jzf1ZVs07gw",[0.5062912,0.517,0,0.98741764,0.4765],null,null,null,[1669,2000]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"DQUx6cjop-3dLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZEpqc4-XCi9rYXkw-V5XurmqpOhoLf-pQCR9sYyfeP6PaljEtJITATLzQPiC9etQEJKsXsAU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe historic importance of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/sikorsky-jrs-1\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eSikorsky JRS-1\u003c/a\u003e — a weathered blue-gray airplane now on display at our Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia—is not because of the type of airplane it is. As curator of U.S. naval aviation Larry Burke describes it, “in many ways, it was a flying pickup truck,” part of a noncombat utility squadron that did things like take aerial photographs and deliver mail to Navy troops on the Hawaiian Islands. Its importance lies in one of the places the JRS-1 has been and survived: Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TXcuzkpcHL8NEOjpn5CtKze4m4xa25zJJ0m_uZizoW5Tw_lPdCsvJA-qYzkydLZUs6UO02",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe JRS-1 is one of only three airplanes still in existence that were at Pearl Harbor during the attack, and the only airplane in the Museum’s collection that was there during the attack. Utility Squadron 1 (VJ-1), including the Museum’s JRS-1, was assigned to Hawaii in the summer of 1940 to be used for the noncombat day-to-day activities that kept the Navy running.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RRJ4g9m5ouvjyjolWU04sNXLGZxZDO0OmwabmqaASMcW-6T0WM4wOOlKeqtbRCAMRPJh5lIsIx",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eVJ-1’s area of Ford Island was not damaged during the attack on Pearl Harbor, so all of its planes survived. Soon after the attack, the Navy ordered VJ-1’s airplanes and crews into action despite being untrained and unequipped for combat. “We have stories of enlisted men picked up to be extra eyes, sitting at the doors at the back of the plane, with their rifles or machine guns, to act as last-ditch defense. Basically, they were hoping to spot something [of the Japanese attack force] and be able to radio it back before they were shot down,” Burke said. In addition to these desperate searches for the Japanese, which continued for several days after the attack, most of the aerial photography of the attack’s aftermath we see in history textbooks today was likely taken by the squadron’s JRS-1s.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZEpqc4-XCi9rYXkw-V5XurmqpOhoLf-pQCR9sYyfeP6PaljEtJITATLzQPiC9etQEJKsXsAU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter surviving and recording the aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor, our JRS-1 continued its unique service record. It remained at Pearl Harbor until 1943, when it was given an overhaul and returned to service as a personal aircraft assigned to the commander of Fleet Airship Wing 31, based at Moffett Field in California. After the war, it was reconfigured as part of a research project conducted by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the predecessor to NASA. After the NACA experiment, which focused on improving seaplane hull design, was completed, the JRS-1 was sent to storage at Bush Field in Georgia.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q_TCYh4z2ein1xTL5V_mwc3ig4_kxGXtYWg1DG_eZGfmDu3W6Gkatjatg9TZwD1jrnxmahqw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIt was by luck, though, that our JRS-1’s winding path from Pearl Harbor, out of military service and then back again, ended with the National Air and Space Museum. When the plane was dormant at Bush Field, a ferry pilot happened to be flipping through the entries in the plane’s logbook, which marked the JRS-1’s flights and its history. While looking back through the book’s many entries, one date in particular caught the pilot’s eye—December 7, 1941. After that, the Museum was contacted and it was delivered to the Smithsonian in 1960.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHWHbSVqx-TY9JVsALzx28d_HoswI5b-2RCyxc54ODMaqaul9wdHtP_MmjtESDhC5Xr_LCrA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eYou don’t need to read the logbook to see the long, exciting history of the JRS-1, however. Now that the plane is on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center, you just need to know what to look for.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe multiple layers of paint you can see today offer a look into the JRS-1’s past. Underneath the airplane’s blue-gray top-coat (applied in the weeks after Pearl Harbor), you can see glimpses into what it would have looked like during the attack.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHWHbSVqx-TY9JVsALzx28d_HoswI5b-2RCyxc54ODMaqaul9wdHtP_MmjtESDhC5Xr_LCrA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e“If we restored its inter-war paint job, it would be one of the more colorful aircraft we have,” Burke said. The Navy preferred a colorfully-painted airplane for a number of reasons. If it were forced down, for example, it would be easier for a search and rescue aircraft to find it at sea.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe paint also helped communicate what the plane did and who was on it—particularly important because radios were not yet standard-issue by World War II, Burke said. Larger airplanes would have a full radio set, but a fighter plane probably only had a short-range radio at best. So, the colors on the plane were meant to describe practical information: the plane’s duties, what squadron it was a part of, and who might be on it.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T1fpecB3LDdjFl8NZU5hMIV_skUv5LTBazq9IW2E0_OS5teWWd15WvILspCVwZDHVhjjMy0A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn its earliest days, the JRS-1 was painted silver with bright chrome yellow upper wings, and a black hull. A willow green tail identified it as belonging to Utility Squadron 1. The numbers on the side of the plane would have read 1-J-1, with “J” designating a utility squadron. So, 1-J-1 told the other pilots that the plane was the first airplane of Utility Squadron 1. A big red stripe near the back doors of the airplane, which you can still see today, meant that this was a commander’s airplane. Speed rings around the cowlings would have told you the aircraft’s position within the squadron, depending on the color and formation of the stripes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RIzXqOb9PDew8aRa4GxKzg4SfzMTenf3n2EP3JnrlkPetjOjVaGE9UXCs578-WTnwOBenvHw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIf you look for the flat, diamond shape near the pilot’s windows, you’ll find the most unique part of the JRS-1’s pre-war paint job—its squadron logo. Painted on the diamond is a flying pelican, holding different objects representing its day-to-day duties: a mail bag, a target practice sock, and a photographer caught in its beak.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe logo only tells part of the JRS-1 story, though—one that changed both at Pearl Harbor and in its wake, and ends with the aircraft as a key piece of our collection.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter","Unmatched in the skies","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TC_AGDiXp8cKNiaJrz886dBHmE1hObpoTGvvuuAccKuYlmapuOycoISaKLMZFVSf9cO6jaJMVy","/story/rwXRw09550EMKA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"rwXRw09550EMKA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QJqajN-sJMCIU05TlXtwL7zL8AHX8DjtTTbyDWYCUrzE2ycwHrAPvX5DuW6Cqh7HLOdFO21HE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFew American fighter pilots on their own survived a turning, twisting, close-in dogfight against a capable Japanese pilot flying a Mitsubishi A6M Zero during World War II. Innovative tactics devised by U.S. Navy Commander John S. “Jimmy” Thach in 1942 returned the advantage to American pilots but the Zero remained a deadly adversary until the war ended. The Japanese official designation was Rei Shiki Sento Ki (Type 0 Fighter). Type 0 referred to the year of the emperor’s reign when production of Zero fighters began in 2600 on the imperial calendar (Julian calendar year 1940). Pilots called it the Zero even after the official codename became ‘Zeke’ in 1942. This exhibit will explore why the Zero remained one of the world’s most maneuverable fighters to the end of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S98jELuVD2vqTZ1uyMT_2_xrKktKJHbqNgkyuOLwfvW-n2P5I69usVHx3GXOY6SIgQpdTN-Fs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eZero chief designer Jiro Horikoshi assembled a team in 1937 to design a new fighter for the Imperial Japanese Navy with two primary goals in mind: to make the aircraft as maneuverable as possible and to provide it with enough range to escort Japanese bombers all the way to distant targets in China and back. Navy leadership set these requirements based on missions against Chinese targets during the Second Sino-Japanese War that began in July of that year. When Horikoshi and his team began working on the aircraft in October, they already knew that making the fighter as lightweight as possible would benefit both maneuverability and range.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RKlaIckdF7GGKywnX_Rn-y7kDbwqVUHQYEsO1cu8w7LplCA0THrV8c6fRR5cAedlJMmfDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaking the Zero lightweight\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eHorikoshi’s team designed lightness into the Zero’s airframe by paying close attention to many small details. As explained in a 1945 article about the Zero published in Aviation, “Nothing has been spared to keep weight down, neither excessive man-hours to manufacture complex units nor increasing maintenance difficulties for ground crews.” An example is the bracket made of sheet aluminum pierced with large lightening holes and riveted together to support the aileron control tube. Crafts persons could have made this subassembly more easily using fewer and larger metal pieces, but at the cost of increased weight. Workers cut lightening holes in many parts, and in several areas they used plywood instead of aluminum or steel as backing to reinforce the metal canopy frame and to reinforce the false spar that supported the ailerons and flaps in the wings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLzsXy3hXc4MXO4IlxhdQIFvHCD1W8jUUFw5CtDgilnXJcBNq0pk61N3dtpyADmX3McHd0_DY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFor heavier solid parts of the airframe, the team used “extra super duralumin,” which was developed in 1935 by Sumitomo Metal. By alloying zinc with aluminum, metallurgists made a strong lightweight metal that resisted fatigue. Horikoshi used it to build solid pieces such as the two main wing spars that brace the wing much like the keel braces a ship. The Alcoa company began using a similar aluminum alloy in 1943 called “7075.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sj1b96Q3TY1b4il5C9aghAxObkcE7nqOfIzeGKyCYwvL-NbT9vRaCsD3YNIZd3vV37CgVxGQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAirplanes are built in subassemblies. Wings, fuselage, tail, engine, and landing gear follow separate paths around a factory before workers join them together during final assembly. The fittings that attach the wings and fuselage together are strong and heavy. To make these parts smaller and reduce their weight, Horikoshi’s team permanently joined the wings to the Zero fuselage and designed the aft fuselage including the tail to more easily mount to the forward fuselage at a point just behind the cockpit. Each wing half-mounted the guns, the landing gear, and the fuel tanks, making the wings significantly heavier than the tail. The fittings needed to join the tail could be smaller and lighter because they only had to support the weight of the tail. The gross weight of the A6M2 Zero (5,555 lb.) was 1,871 lbs less than its primary adversary in spring 1942, the Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat (7,426 lb.).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R0UNf4yJg2kz-ip2H3gox62Z7uMvOI3dn9Q1xaUFeWXGtXCO9XHHM3djXVP9__fs867wTV1b8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaking the Zero maneuverable\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eLocating the engine close to the cockpit didn’t just save weight, it made the Zero more maneuverable as well. The centers of gravity and the aerodynamic center of lift lie at points very near the cockpit and serve as the fulcrum through which the empennage acts as a lever. Keeping the engine close to the fulcrum allowed the aft fuselage to be shorter and save a bit more weight. The elevator retained enough leverage to push the Zero into a tight turn or loop when the pilot hauled back the stick.Wing loading, the weight supported by each square foot of an aircraft’s wing in level flight, also impacts maneuverability. Less wing loading generally means quicker maneuvering because there is less inertia to overcome when the pilot moves the controls to pitch, roll, and yaw the aircraft. At 24.3 lb/ft², the A6M2 Zero had a lower wing loading than the Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat at 28.6 lb/ft². The Zero design team used an engine that made around 300 horsepower less than the Pratt \u0026amp; Whitney R-1840 Twin Wasp powering the F4F-4 Wildcat. Newer American fighters more than doubled the Zero’s horsepower with a commensurate increase in wing loading and performance.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R0UNf4yJg2kz-ip2H3gox62Z7uMvOI3dn9Q1xaUFeWXGtXCO9XHHM3djXVP9__fs867wTV1b8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe American pilots refused to attack Zeros unless they held a clear advantage in height or speed. When they did attack, they made one pass and hopefully “boomed” a Zero and continued right on going past, avoiding a dogfight. Once they were out of range, they regained the altitude or speed advantage and attacked again if possible and necessary, again one pass, boom, zoom away at speed or to regain altitude above the target.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rs4UIeTQbuiIUQ3ICeVO7kdh_xuin-pMRbYGRLeFm5tW8sGEo7fvZfAzJWsaVQ2VbmrR2yfg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAccounts of fighter operations during the Pacific war vary on how often Zeros carried radios. All the Zeros flying during the Midway operation in June 1942 had them, but whether a Zero had a radio or not varied depending on the operational needs of a particular mission. Those Zeros not equipped with radios would have been tens of pounds lighter with a corresponding slight decrease in wing loading. The Japanese were slow to develop and use self-sealing fuel tanks but eventually did so later in the war. That they did not begin the war with self-sealing tanks and armor plate to protect the pilot was a result of several factors including an intense and pervasive focus on offensive operations driven by strategic necessity and cultural inclination. The absence of this protective equipment was less costly at the start of the war and even contributed to the Zero’s agility in combat, but American tactics and technology rapidly improved and the Japanese eventually lost many pilots flying Zeros that lacked this protection.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QJqajN-sJMCIU05TlXtwL7zL8AHX8DjtTTbyDWYCUrzE2ycwHrAPvX5DuW6Cqh7HLOdFO21HE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWith the extra fuel from a droppable tank carried on the belly, a Zero could fly over 1,600 miles, more than 300 miles farther than the F4F-4 carrying two drop tanks. As the war continued, weight increases due to armor and self-sealing fuel tanks reduced the Zero’s impressive flight range. All the characteristics that comprise the aircraft design process such as structures, aerodynamics, propulsion, and accommodation, act in unison. Changes to one usually affect the other. Horikoshi’s team successfully balanced these characteristics to make the Zero as light as possible and highly maneuverable. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs the war progressed, the Zero continued to operate without significant improvements, suggesting that Horikoshi’s team had already extracted all possible performance from the Zero design.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q2LY6pyJXnpry8rTGD7GUZbocgkh2qQSxeGheAIXEi21o2US3525kmw7Hi9OoNVunP6PMdJQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWe believe that the A6M5 Zero Model 52 on display in the National Air and Space Museum came from a group of Japanese aircraft captured on Saipan Island in April 1944. Navy personnel removed 12 late-model Zeros from the island and sent them to the United States for evaluation. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis photo shows Japanese aircraft from the Pacific theater tied down to the deck of the escort aircraft carrier USS Copahee as it sails toward the West Coast. The ship may have carried the National Air and Space Museum’s Zero.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Curtiss P-40E","The incredible story of Lope's Hope","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SFsM8NaKPDu5YLsnNZ4m1dD-VPX6zIGWEAmOzVzWAyFuCFrPm3fPBEHBAMYpDu71J20MuyHg","/story/vwXRjGksAG-FIw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:f486e80a-548c-471d-bf47-29a2b7556b6a","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SFsM8NaKPDu5YLsnNZ4m1dD-VPX6zIGWEAmOzVzWAyFuCFrPm3fPBEHBAMYpDu71J20MuyHg","o7cpiaWhnQUWa2dEGLGhnzILfAI",[0.575,0.45837837,0,0.85,0.91675675],null,null,null,[1500,925]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"vwXRjGksAG-FIw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S6lIW2B_zfmd0Zld1E7J5gIjaigaRgZQ2v13ytOSfLwo0jA4-QhnaFQ0se4l9PyPqgEr2MlNQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn 2016, chief curator \u003ca href\u003d\"https://airandspace.si.edu/people/staff/peter-jakab\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ePeter Jakab\u003c/a\u003e forwarded me an intriguing email which began “Good Morning. My name is Karen Abel. I am the granddaughter of F/L Robert W. Lynch, of the RCAF (Royal Canadian Air Force) 111F Squadron. I believe my grandfather actually flew the P-40 you have hanging in the Air and Space Museum.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rk7Iqub1X0KkvwOZC6IwD9oGaEsoS4WO4c200GR64k_619aWPItwN1MVGvTfKLiDJivVwZPjU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eVisitors can see the Curtiss P-40E \u003ci\u003eLope’s Hope\u003c/i\u003e (formerly the AK875 flown by F/L Robert W. Lynch) above the entranceway overlook at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R0UvjRmXxbPtWr85bouUM5jlTDz-FuqiIbJMQ42SH_GbO958jjFXCwyxbrI841Pv9556Eb5g",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eI contacted Abel and what followed was a bounty of previously unknown information and photographs about the early operational history of our P-40. According to Peter Bowers, author of \u003ci\u003eCurtiss Aircraft 1907-1947\u003c/i\u003e (Naval Institute Press, 1979), Curtiss had named the version of the P-40 earmarked for sales overseas, like the aircraft in our collection, the Kittyhawk IA. When the RCAF accepted this Kittyhawk IA in March 1941, they assigned to it the military with the serial number AK875.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TncWnhPmnHUK8XktSlOMm1tUJGMuMUbs64KRWi-txvR3MKXFpEJLeEh7Jwn2mgT60ccLpGBA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAbel explained how her grandfather had “actually crashed on landing (ground looped)” during a fuel stop in Naknek, Alaska on July 13, 1942, “en route to Cold Bay [Alaska] and ultimately Umnak Island in the Aleutians.” The crash may have saved his life. While his P-40 was undergoing repairs the next day, five of the seven Kittyhawks in his squadron flew on and encountered heavy fog. Of the five, four fatally crashed into Unalaska Mountain and one pilot disappeared. These events are documented in the official crash report contained in Lynch’s service file, flight logbooks he saved, and the squadron’s daily diary that Abel examined at the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/Pages/home.aspx\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eLibrary and Archives Canada.\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Txj18hMIlFpVWQHtkNcXPc-M_rFprCAT2mqm-A-162eAcLj4djRwJjcCd7mfCrj6LXAQaV-Js",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLynch’s squadron, RCAF 111F, was attached to the 343rd Fighter Group, U.S. Army Air Forces, and pilots and airplanes from both units participated in the first combined U.S.-Canadian joint mission of the Alaska War, Abel said. The squadron was commanded by Lt. Col. John ‘Jack’ Chennault, the son of General Claire Chennault of Flying Tigers fame. Lynch was chosen as one of four Canadian pilots to participate in the joint mission.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R65cSwCAa8x2pMwmNuQbcXGTXF_zStocAIMGD2vovGx-usQ5xx7r4bXFRUCfrjE4o8TgRBMTQb",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter the Japanese threat to the Aleutian Islands diminished, the 111 Squadron returned to Canada and eventually transferred to England without its P-40s. The RCAF declared the Kittyhawk IA, known as AK875, surplus on July 27, 1946, and eventually returned the airplane to the United States. Several people owned the P-40 after its return, and itwas eventually donated to the Smithsonian’s National Aeronautical Collection in 1964 by the Explorer Scouts youth group in Meridian, Mississippi.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sk2shTVMdu478GC-v-BpDUZbA9Ek7ovMiRtQABRM_95gcLZdDOlbMf68Rw6w-uMmZtasRAew",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA U.S. Air Force Reserve crew airlifted the fighter to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, on March 13, 1964. Air Force personnel at Andrews restored the airplane in 1975 and painted it to represent a fighter in the 75th Fighter Squadron, 23rd Fighter Group, and 14th Air Force. Museum staff painted \u003ci\u003eLope’s Hope\u003c/i\u003e on the nose to honor its Deputy Director Col. Donald S. Lopez (USAF Ret.). Colonel Lopez had flown a P-40 as a member of the 23rd Fighter Group in China during World War II (WWII).\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Ilyushin Il-2","The Soviet Union's \"flying tank\"","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R5ec-4PiLS8WNuOqExdd-dpJw9g45EQbzib7wcsI-VAQDeoc-pIAW0ACMs5GRlQvhR67DxEcYY","/story/5wXh3e3K0CcTLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"5wXh3e3K0CcTLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZsDyouwnpF0rIJcGUFCQCg-YgCZbEhguSg4l6oXaqK6cj7eiVso0X2y7Ehb3OW2oDUkfrJjE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhen the Nazi Army attacked the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, the Soviet government was thrown into confusion and disbelief; they had not anticipated or actively prepared for this act. At the time of the attack, the Soviet Air Force was undergoing a major modernization program to upgrade its capabilities with a variety of new warplanes. But delivery and integration of these new aircraft into the Air Force was slow; and only a small number of the new bomber, fighter, and attack aircraft had made it to front-line air force units. One of the most important of these new types was the Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik, a rugged single-engine ground attack aircraft. Its origins date back to the mid-1930s, when Soviet military specialists realized that the country needed a dedicated aircraft with dive-bombing capabilities, capable of independently attacking and disabling enemy ground forces and targets, including tanks and other armored vehicles.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZsDyouwnpF0rIJcGUFCQCg-YgCZbEhguSg4l6oXaqK6cj7eiVso0X2y7Ehb3OW2oDUkfrJjE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn early 1938, Sergei Ilyushin, head of the legendary Ilyushin aircraft design bureau, suggested to Soviet leader Joseph Stalin the idea of a “flying tank,” and asked that his bureau be allowed to design and construct such an aircraft. Somewhat unusually for the normal Soviet aircraft acquisition process, there was no design competition or request for proposals from other Soviet aircraft design bureaus. Ilyushin’s idea was approved, and two prototype Il-2s were ordered, with the first flying in October 1939. Originally conceived as a two-seater, the Il-2 was redesigned as a single-seater to achieve better flying characteristics. After an Il-2 pilot wrote directly to Stalin, suggesting that a gunner behind the pilot was needed to fend-off Nazi fighters seeking to shoot-down the aircraft, the Il-2 was designed as a two-seater once again. Following successful flight tests, the type was ordered into production. About 249 Il-2s were built by the time Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. But of these, a mere 70 were actually in service at that time. Even worse: Only 20 of them were in service with the frontier military districts. Their pilots had only undergone a minimum training, and operational air tactics that ultimately would made the Il-2 so successful were not in existence yet. Indeed, the Il-2’s combat initiation came on June 27, 1941, just five days after Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union, when five Il-2s attacked a German convoy of tanks and mechanized infantry.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R-LINdm8OIXcbahEIEcVozeM3I68F7FfkzSjamNPzJceEbCp33k6S8v9lf-KnMMxqB-iy6BwY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTo achieve the IL-2\u0026#39;s full potential, production needed to be sharply ramped up. This was not an easy task, since the German invasion had dislocated most of the production facilities. Stalin did not conceal his rage at this disruption of production. In a telegram to the directors of one of the troubled Il-2 plants, he wrote, “You have let down our country and our Red Army. You have the nerve not to manufacture Il-2s until now. Our Red Army now needs Il-2 aircraft like the air it breathes, like the bread it eats. (This plant) now produces one Il-2 a day….It is a mockery of the Red Army….I ask you not to try the government’s patience, and demand that you manufacture more Il-2s. This is my final warning. Stalin.” Not surprisingly, Il-2 production increased sharply within weeks.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QsFVa_epoOYfxFDbcEuYiFQG7rODQAK1H5Ijt6dzQ2Fx8Dv-c5WAaiEuNEpwQODA4xiKCGeUw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOver the course of the war, a total of between 31,000 and about 36,000 Il-2s were to be produced — more than any other combat aircraft in WWII. The Il-2 was anything but advanced in its mixed wood-and-metal construction, which was relatively easy to manufacture in significant numbers using relatively unskilled workers. But for an aircraft, it was an amazing achievement. Among the Shturmovik’s most important assets were its strength and robustness in combat. The forward fuselage section — protecting the aircraft’s fuel system, radiators and crew station — was built entirely of armor plate. Thus, the Il-2 could, and often did, absorb extraordinary battle damage and survive to fight another day. The protective armor shell employed a special alloy developed for the Il-2; its thickness varied by location on the airframe. Special consideration had been given to a technology that would allow maintenance personnel to stamp the armor steel in the field, thus providing flexibility in the design, especially when Soviet units were forced to operate from primitive forward battle areas.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QwZUn9qhFpfPXuHvp1nIHY8UPbRBoFHKeGggZit96xhM1SESJmUzggfhj1AqwCax1H64_apDI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe heavy armor of the Il-2 led to its German nickname, “Betonflugzeug” (“concrete plane”), since it was basically impossible to shoot down an Il-2 with a machine gun or a 20 mm cannon. Early combat experience, however, quickly revealed the single-seat Il-2’s great vulnerability to German attack from behind. This was compounded by the inability of escorting Russian fighters, which operated at much higher altitudes than the Shturmoviks, to protect their charges. The Il-2s, of course, had to operate at extremely low heights to strike their ground targets successfully. The response was development of a two-seat Il-2, with the second crew-member operating rearward-firing machineguns. This new version quickly supplanted the single-seat version on Il-2 production lines.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QsFVa_epoOYfxFDbcEuYiFQG7rODQAK1H5Ijt6dzQ2Fx8Dv-c5WAaiEuNEpwQODA4xiKCGeUw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn the website \u003ca href\u003d\"about:invalid#zGuavaz\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eI remember. Soviet World War II Veteran Memoirs\u003c/a\u003e, Il-2 pilot Yurii Khukhrikov recalls: “It was an excellent aircraft for those times! We carried 600 kilograms of bombs, 8 rockets, 300 23 mm shells for the cannon (150 rounds for each gun), and 1800 rounds” for the machine guns. According to Khukhrikov, the engine was the most vulnerable part of the Il-2: “The wings were fine, more or less. If a fuel tank was hit, that wasn’t bad either, why? When we approached the target, we opened carbon dioxide canisters, which filled the empty space of the fuel tanks. If a bullet pierced the body and hit a fuel tank, the sealer would fill the hole, fuel would not leak out, there would be no vapor, and consequently, no combustion.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_REljcY7TrEPqULi2ot9-19_XuTavaoJb-hZkdEiSEVckvG81zACDy0Im2C1eG8pOfOIlYetA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Il-2, however, was not a wonder weapon. One of its major problems was the inaccuracy of its attacks. Although massive numbers of Shturmoviks began to support main offensives of the ground troops, the aircrafts’ effect was often rather psychological, especially against targets that were dug-in or armored. Additionally, the heavy weight of the Il-2’s armor meant that Shturmoviks could not carry heavy bomb loads. Nevertheless, Shturmoviks played a critical role in the massive Soviet counteroffensives against the German forces. The Il-2 was particularly effective against transport and logistical equipment, including fuel transport, personnel, and supplies. In late November 1942, hundreds of Il-2s were deployed to provide close air support for Soviet ground troops encircling German Panzer forces near Stalingrad. Escorted by fighter aircraft, Il-2s achieved great success during the strike on the airfield at Salsk, a primitive airstrip used by the Germans for \u003ci\u003eLuftwaffe\u003c/i\u003e operations. In January 1943, the Germans had based up to 150 aircraft there, parked close together and vulnerable to attack. They were an ideal target for Il-2s, which flew at near-treetop altitude, hoping to avoid detection by German fighters and anti-aircraft artillery. The Russian planes executed seven lightning-quick strafing runs over the German base. The Germans were caught completely by surprise; 72 German aircraft were destroyed. In an attack during the Kursk Battle in summer 1943, Il-2s destroyed 70 tanks of the German 9th Panzer Division within 20 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQ-Ahf2TwpGKaDwaEgcr0c5v5GeH0-9pHgm-Suo5WXiykUmPlMH_QA1OoNScsdSz9GL-mC",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA number of Il-2 pilots became highly successful. Among them were also women, like Senior Lieutenant Anna Yegorowa who flew 243 missions in Il-2 and received the Gold Star of the Hero of the Soviet Union in late 1944, after she was taken prisoner by the German troops. Lieutenant Colonel Nelson Stepayan, according to Soviet sources, apparently shot down or destroyed in 239 combat sorties no less than 53 ships, 80 tanks, 600 armored vehicles and 27 aircraft. In December 1944, when his plane was hit by anti-aircraft fire and he was seriously wounded, Stepanyan steered his plane into a German warship and sank it.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SDDkYbi0nRcEZe9BazdqTuhW5_xwtAiq29lA--loCcxg5e2Am_HLJyPzBdndfhzA-RRo_orw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSquadron commander Leonid Beda, decorated as a Hero of the Soviet Union, made more than 100 combat sorties in an Il-2. In Famous Russian Aircraft, he describes how he led a group of Il-2s supporting Soviet ground troops assaulting Sapun Hill, in a crucial area near Sevastopol at the Crimea. Flying 6-9 meters (20-30 feet) above the ground, they masked their approach in the valleys surrounding the German gun emplacements on the hill, and were able to inflict considerable damage. To facilitate their escape, Beda and his group took refuge in the valleys again, flying extremely low. Later, Beda and his fellow Il-2 pilots participated in strafing attacks on German vessels in Sevastopol’s bays and against German airbases nearby. Despite the presence of significant anti-aircraft artillery, Beda and his squadron mates succeeded in sinking several ships in the harbor and destroying a number of German aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RoFI4hgjoYa4p_fKgyLXOk0PaG47ar1rR0WOC61yodi1rtsYDXeRIyfNNPzdT_GY9mUZPCYko",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLack of available Russian fighter protection, however, for the vulnerable and slow-moving Il-2s often led to severe losses in combat. In the spring and summer of 1942, for example, Il-2s were being lost at the very high rate of one for every 24 combat sorties; during the Battle of Stalingrad, that ratio increased to one aircraft per 10-12 combat missions. Luftwaffe fighters and anti-aircraft units claimed 6,900 victories over Il-2s in 1943, and 7,300 in 1944. These numbers might be exaggerated, but on the other hand, the Soviet numbers of losses might not be correct either: According to Soviet records, the total wartime Il-2 losses amounted to nearly 11,570 aircraft, or about 30 percent of the Soviet Union’s total combat aircraft losses.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZsDyouwnpF0rIJcGUFCQCg-YgCZbEhguSg4l6oXaqK6cj7eiVso0X2y7Ehb3OW2oDUkfrJjE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, by the end of World War II, the Il-2 was widely regarded as one of the best and most effective weapons deployed by the Soviet forces. Oleg Rastrenin, a highly regarded expert on Soviet airpower, notes that, during World War II, “it was precisely the Il-2 that was the most useful aircraft for our infantry and the aircraft most feared by the German infantry.” According to Rastrenin, at the beginning of the war, Il-2s comprised less than 0.2% of the inventory of the Soviet Air Force. But soon this number rose, and stayed at about 30% of all Soviet combat tactical aircraft for the duration of the war. For World War II, the Ilyushin Il-2 is an iconic aircraft, as iconic as the T-34 tank or the Katyusha rocket system - an aircraft that contributed significantly to the Allied victory in World War II.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The C-49 Control Car","From WWII to sports stadiums","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qr9J9zIb_jk9dfuT86jjMkgG4ClTRBY5Nq47bOJmse-atO3LA45OyBoZCpypWG3Iutjg65XxA","/story/PAXhMdkzDf9hJQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:f1794ac6-9ded-49ef-a2bd-5f07b875c9bd","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qr9J9zIb_jk9dfuT86jjMkgG4ClTRBY5Nq47bOJmse-atO3LA45OyBoZCpypWG3Iutjg65XxA","nhbQBJjhwbDHisFdG3i9vZ1tsLY",[0.5,0.5,0,0.4847059,0.3781746],null,null,null,[3400,2520]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"PAXhMdkzDf9hJQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SEWVk5jVkZdZMMkj3Q07L69wT60DBJQ7kyXj28o9ObNik18txYSvZwpzwv2JJp2AhkjlsE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEvery year, thousands of visitors pass the Goodyear C-49 control car at our Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. They see the control car as it looked through the 1980s, when it provided stunning aerial visuals above numerous events, including Worlds Series games, Super Bowls, and the 1980 Olympic Games.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SMjbjSApi23TSN_GG5tEGvIHNIr696BuwIY_GygmJ69j9PR7qwXIVEoSlBhP13Ry1K6U6IUg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhat you may not realize, however, is that beneath the colorful exterior and television camera equipment lies a veteran of World War II. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe C-49 control car took its first flight on August 23, 1934, under the name Enterprise (NC-16A). It flew in the skies above Washington, DC, and in the New York area during the years before the war, but once the United States entered the conflict, the C-49 control car took flight to Akron, Ohio, to begin its wartime service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SK5b8-lOSV25bkc5GipAIVxx6N61-skBakTXawoWVigqufL3T-n7s4DS5Ff-7pgViEcDoBbA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBefore World War II, the lighter-than-air arm of the U.S. Navy was practically nonexistent. It consisted of only a handful of varied types of airships, including three L-type training crafts. Once the United States entered the war, it needed to rapidly expand aircraft capabilities to contest the growing threats to its shores. In January 1942, the German Navy launched numerous attacks against U.S. commercial shipping from U-boats stationed along the coast. Although land-based aircraft and ships were useful for patrolling against such threats, airships proved to be the best resource for the task. The new K-type airship could stay aloft for over 24 hours, could carry radar and other equipment for hunting for German submarines, and could move fast enough to keep up with vulnerable shipping convoys. But the aircraft would not be enough: pilots were needed to help patrol the skies. In order to rapidly augment the number of training airships available to the service, the U.S. Navy purchased C-49 from Goodyear, along with several other advertising blimps within Goodyear’s fleet, to help prepare future lighter-than-air pilots. The L-type airship was smaller than the patrol airships in the Navy fleet, at 148 feet long by 54 feet high and 48 feet wide. They could fly for about 475 miles and provided an excellent platform for teaching new pilots the art of flying a lighter-than-air craft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rfo5S_lSOFQAIGfidz8qy-hbZaa4PCc7B-GwN7qDeOSkfJlg5BjiDE5PLWpAc5myqaJ-azQAY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter C-49 was purchased by the U.S. Navy, it was renamed L-5 and flown to Akron, Ohio, to provide pilot training at the Wingfoot Lake facility owned by Goodyear. Pilots flew training missions over northern Ohio, gaining critical experience which would prove essential to later anti-submarine patrols. L-5 even flew some missions ensuring the areas throughout northern Ohio were abiding by blackout regulations.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ra06svPGy_IC1hwkDgXZunlXFEVhezqwgI1M9_7gGQUzrYROgvgsbI7VJHuIZyicXvRf_wK3M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn January 1942, L-5 was deflated and the control car and envelope were shipped to Moffett Field, California. Moffett Field had been the base for the rigid airship USS Macon before its loss in February 1935. L-5 served at both Moffett Field, California, and Lakehurst, New Jersey, for the remainder of the war, operating as a training craft to hundreds of pilots. One of the many pilots that came to fly L-5 was John F. Lutz.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R4yapWb7I1SGsU5bAQqnN78jKy9eYJ-8gNLte3LVyBCdeV4vrVG1oN2A9lUO82aa2vcdQJVGU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eJohn F. Lutz began his Navy career during the spring of 1942 when he started Naval Flight Ground School at Chapel Hill, North Carolina. From November 1942 until March 1943, Lutz flew numerous L-Type ships while training to become a pilot. He first flew L-5 on February 5, 1943, and flew L-5 again for three days in March 1943.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TZWY0mseF-Yjg4wa0h0tuB5LgMkJLVvJwXEfnEvyNhnGY1at-KCFPVNLYgOGyXRQHWdkMd0js",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFollowing his flight training in the L-Type airships, in April 1943, Ensign Lutz served aboard K-Type airships flying out of Florida and bases throughout the Caribbean. Lutz performed important anti-submarine patrols throughout the area, protecting the shipping of critical war materials, including oil, exiting from the Gulf of Mexico. When submarines were spotted, K-Type airships could call in other aircraft or surface ships to make an attack, or even strike at the submarine with four depth bombs carried aboard the craft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RatozakrNGVW19rQp26nfTTYAMVSGOW4pFJjIKaTcpU0TGd5JxzlCfKtFQhTpTo6JskvZx",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eK-Type airships proved to be critical components of naval aviation throughout World War II. They proved to be excellent at search and rescue operations, often dropping life rafts and survival supplies to those found at sea and calling in other craft to pick them up. K-Type airships provided essential anti-submarine warfare patrols and convoy protection to merchants and shipping along the Eastern seaboard of the United States, throughout the Caribbean, and along the east coast of South America. K-Type airships were even sent to patrol the Straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea. Convoys under the protection of K-Type airships rarely came under attack, as submarines were often spotted before any attack could be made. The many tasks assigned to K-Type airships, however, could never have been accomplished without the brave crews who constantly surveyed the seas, flown by pilots like John F. Lutz.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The P-38 Lightning and the SR-71 Blackbird.","A shared history and connection","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QfvoUYhh5_tvXJxwNTTsNbXj04myzTgT97itCq4d5-giYpbzwWD9QBtxM9Tc9WILLD4V6QJw","/story/PQXRSTonSh5ELA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:8ec3eedd-a3a2-4d5e-9c67-79442c4aca5e","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QfvoUYhh5_tvXJxwNTTsNbXj04myzTgT97itCq4d5-giYpbzwWD9QBtxM9Tc9WILLD4V6QJw","Xoe_ThVN-SYfZQyCu9hGJll0Nm0",[0.42,0.6234254,0,0.81482357,0.6237338],null,null,null,[6137,4922]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"PQXRSTonSh5ELA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjuwTcjTbVFLgjRV_6cHAOo0T9iNBs396BqogrSp4wRQxgRD1gtLil37Cjsv0AvddiRITf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhen walking around the museum, it’s easy to think of the aircraft of different eras as existing almost in different worlds from each other. But when Museum curator Michael Hankins talks to visitors about one of Air and Space\u0026#39;s most popular aircraft, the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, they are always amazed to find that it is deeply connected to one of the greatest World War II fighter planes, the P-38 Lightning.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuyH1Sb3f0lMOJmsuqttQcV8xPstYp1L6KRQ43myhtapyC_nIMLCeRrABadhrMtb5qveWw0nI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe SR-71 Blackbird is one of the most awe-inspiring aircraft to ever fly in the United States’ inventory. Though its design can be traced back to concepts as early as the late 1950s, its combination of sleek curves and sharp angles looks futuristic even 60 years later. The Blackbird is known for its high-altitude (well over 80,000 feet) and extremely high speeds (over three times the speed of sound, over 2,000 miles per hour). It still holds many world records for top speeds of piloted, air-breathing airplanes. The lead designer behind this technological marvel was Lockheed engineer Clarence “Kelly” Johnson.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q6-xZD9Lkz1G_e_MOsroSsqErkDaLgtOl_fCG7Lxgylh-sC6XjjvvvFjVRhMOBL0H_XzfF1nc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBut long before the Blackbird was a gleam in Johnson’s eye, he co-led design efforts on another high-speed, high-altitude airplane that became one of the most effective U.S. fighters of World War II. The Germans allegedly called it the “Fork-Tailed Devil,” American ace fighter pilot Major Jack Ilfrey called it “a beautiful monster.” The U.S. Army Air Forces called it the P-38 Lightning.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TYgPRM2shDzY0NnVHDWasNUZs_df8_wGJR46vCnSCAguztsfPM1ynjtK6re7B1DBqODbtM91Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe art of interception\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJohnson made a name for himself as early as 1933 when, as a student at the University of Michigan, he improved the aerodynamic design of the Lockheed Model 10 Electra by incorporating a twin-tail design—a feature that became a hallmark of Lockheed products for decades after. Around the same time, in 1934, 1st Lt. Benjamin Kelsey became the project officer for fighter aircraft development in the Army Air Corps. Interested in the contemporary concept of a bomber-destroyer aircraft, Kelsey’s office issued a proposal for a high-speed, heavily armed fighter with the primary mission of intercepting and destroying high-altitude enemy bombers. Lockheed submitted a design—primarily done by Johnson—which just barely lost to Bell’s entry, the XFM-1 (Fighter-Multiplace) Airacuda. Although one squadron of Airacudas eventually became operational, the five-crew dual-engine pusher aircraft experienced a myriad of technical problems. Its failure was one factor among others that convinced Kelsey, who was fond of Johnson’s proposal, that smaller, single-seat fighter designs might be more effective for the mission of intercepting enemy bombers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T8HG9NWP7SpPiff47b7UBx8PDj_coUsildOS8LdsGmikkvUiXQ6UPVcS-yqAr0KnauA11avg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eKelsey worked with Lieutenant Gordon Saville, who was on the Army Board for aircraft procurement. Both men desired a fighter with more engine power (up to 1,500 horsepower, well beyond that of the XFM-1) and up to 1,000 pounds of armament, which was significantly higher than the 500 pounds called for by American pursuit planes of the mid-to-late 1930s. In February 1937, Kelsey issued a circular proposal for a single-seat version of his interceptor concept. Keeping to that ideal, the proposal called for a minimum speed of 360 miles per hour and specified the use of the powerful Allison V-1710C engines incorporating new General Electric turbosuperchargers for high-altitude performance.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjuwTcjTbVFLgjRV_6cHAOo0T9iNBs396BqogrSp4wRQxgRD1gtLil37Cjsv0AvddiRITf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvolving designs\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eSix companies were invited to submit designs: Boeing, Consolidated, Curtiss, Douglass, Vultee, and Lockheed. With most of Lockheed’s small engineering staff focused on other projects, the new fighter, referred to as the Model 22, was co-designed by Johnson and the company’s chief engineer Hall Hibbard, with additional help from Willis Hawkins and James Gerschler. Johnson considered six potential designs, including pusher engines, a dual pusher-puller concept, a twin fuselage with the cockpit on the left side, and a design placing the engines in the center with extended shafts leading to wing-mounted propellers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjuwTcjTbVFLgjRV_6cHAOo0T9iNBs396BqogrSp4wRQxgRD1gtLil37Cjsv0AvddiRITf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLooking back years later, Johnson recalled that the design process had been a simple “logical evolution” driven by the proposal’s requirements. The Allison 1710 engines plus the turbosuperchargers made for long assemblies, and the proposal also called for a retractable tricycle landing gear. As Johnson described, “By the time we had strung all of that together we were almost back to where the tail should be. So we faired it back another five feet and added the tail. . . . [T]hat produced the characteristic twin-tailed airplane.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLbuxZGpQjhravlQ3cBxXOD5eWM7xa9TPtKB4wtqyKLtpSE7CrzY39voJlGyP8AFqsn0ZfH5M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis simple approach of evolving a design logically from essential mission requirements marked Johnson’s career, including the later process of designing the dual-engine twin-tailed A-12 that evolved into the SR-71 Blackbird. That plane, also known for pushing the boundaries of speed and altitude to new limits, was the result of twelve iterations of evolved designs and the only one that maximized all the requirements of speed, altitude, range, and stealth characteristics. Both the Model 22 and SR-71 design processes also pointed to what Johnson’s successor and close friend Ben Rich recalled as Johnson’s “fanatical” belief “that an airplane that looked beautiful would fly the same way.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tab7nT-4FZ13s5Na8-Ii72C0caKDUZQT4HE2MZ0GTMsU4SiZiYYDncy4sBc9uVtOKnSdQACqc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLightning in the sky\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe first flights of the XP-38 were anything but beautiful. Kelsey himself took the controls, but before it even got off the ground, the brakes failed, and on the first flight, the flaps failed. After addressing these issues and other minor setbacks, on February 11, 1939, Kelsey flew the plane from March Field in Riverside, California, to Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio, after a refueling stop in Amarillo, Texas. The XP-38’s airspeed on that flight averaged 360 miles per hour. In contrast, two years prior, Howard Hughes had set a cross-country speed record of seven hours, twenty-five minutes, averaging 327 miles per hour in an H-1 racer. After landing in Ohio, the XP-38 looked poised to beat that record. Meeting Kelsey at Wright Field, Army Air Corps Major General Henry “Hap” Arnold instructed Kelsey to continue to Mitchell Field in New York to go for the record.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TGCVJEzdeL9cTodcp-imTO80FasNLt-jTBfNEXrmxLtDSDOfMqe-IkmEuCEqwLSohk_PNU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhile approaching Mitchell Field, the XP-38’s engines experienced icing and lost power. Despite Kelsey’s efforts, the prototype crashed into treetops before skidding through a golf course. Kelsey was unharmed but the plane was destroyed. Despite missing the runway by about 2,000 feet, he had still made the record time of seven hours and two minutes. An impromptu speed record attempt in a prototype had beaten Hughes’ carefully planned record with his highly calibrated racing plane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q6-xZD9Lkz1G_e_MOsroSsqErkDaLgtOl_fCG7Lxgylh-sC6XjjvvvFjVRhMOBL0H_XzfF1nc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePushing the boundaries of speed and setting records was a hallmark of Johnson’s work at Lockheed. Similar to the XP-38, the A-12—which later evolved into the SR-71 Blackbird—experienced similar issues in its early days. The first test flight of the A-12 in 1962 experienced dangerous wobbling before test pilot Lou Schalk brought it down into a dry lakebed. The SR-71 later set its own cross-country record in 1990, shooting from Los Angeles to Washington, DC, in one hour and four minutes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjI8Jh3HzABj047QUPb7slD24GWK_UGpf226igbgE9QSwKYm2tR4oqbxgiCSDINHU0DkDZDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLightning legacy\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe P-38 became one of the most versatile aircraft of World War II. The top two highest scoring American ace pilots of all time, Majors Richard Bong and Thomas McGuire, achieved all of their aerial victories in P-38s. Of the top eight highest scoring U.S. Army Air Forces aces in the Pacific Theater (those with 20 or more victories), seven flew P-38s. The Lightning was the third highest-scoring aircraft in the war in terms of aerial victories (only the P-51 Mustang and F6F Hellcat had higher totals).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R_Ti_XCrVGr-VCj_Ew2j-8vh5reFcb0mYhP_84zZxeaHJizL5B6mnLOFgsuOwYKwe2PssNbyKH",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe P-38’s high speed, exceeding 400 miles per hour, combined with its long range (up to 2,500 miles with extra fuel tanks) and its ability to take damage and stay in the air made it especially useful in the mission of photoreconnaissance. Trading out the guns for cameras, the photo-recon model of the P-38 was named the F-5. Although Johnson had not set out to make the P-38 a reconnaissance plane, his emphasis on pushing the boundaries of speed and altitude made him adept at designing planes for that role. In that sense, the SR-71 Blackbird, his crowning achievement in a long tradition of high-speed reconnaissance planes, dated back to his work on the P-38.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qsmz30c3sQHQlyl6CjpxsE7GG7axCGpc3RIdSVRvGl_eabLFmRoSwnI2ZcncRq0ZGVbTZD7A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOf course, no aircraft is the work of one person. Both the P-38 and the Blackbird, as well as all the other aircraft created under Johnson’s tenure, were collaborative efforts with teams of engineers, designers, manufacturers, scientists, and test pilots. But Johnson did leave his fingerprints on these planes, creating a legacy of twin-tailed airplanes that earned a powerful place in aviation history and memory.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Kawanishi N1K2-J Shiden Kai","A notable Japanese naval plane","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TJt5F1UxQZJouH-F4FoUhPd3Y2CESSPyLTirZNyEHQmyP18kbL9xSBHSUl3gPK8XKYDs_FCfzO","/story/twUxI-HGAo_AJw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"twUxI-HGAo_AJw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RGLkjjw1aXp60l2Gc3TZDKLQbdR73bWvFmQ0JNQkUtbyLLTS0UHjTrKFP0FYqyEmLGumsyzDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMany people know the Mitsubishi Zero fighter that Japanese pilots flew throughout World War II. Less well-known is that Japan developed another exceptionally good fighter airplane: the N1K2-J \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e (‘sheeden-kie’ or Violent Lightning Modified; Allied codename GEORGE). This fighter did not enter operational service until 1944, but its superb abilities helped make it a notable part of Japanese aerial history.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TndHPO4Xx58xaq9m1F4EVOw4KCG4wHY9XLpGrPw38EVbhPJBwt_SHS-fREr4V8orT5vMjawgAA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDevelopment\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e story begins in December 1941 when a team of designers at the Kawanishi Aircraft Company proposed a land-based version of the float-equipped fighter called the Kawanishi N1K1 \u003ci\u003eKyofu\u003c/i\u003e (Mighty Wind, Allied codename REX).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eA few of the major changes made to transform the floatplane to fly from land bases include:\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e• Removing the main float and two wingtip floats\u003cbr\u003e• Upgrading the 14-cylinder Kasei engine to an 18-cylinder Homare\u003cbr\u003e• Installing a bigger propeller to absorb the extra power from the more powerful engine\u003cbr\u003e• Installing retractable landing gear with long gear legs to keep the propeller off the ground\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SrVjzmB2tpf7HYSOqOIaMw1LkxnuB0N8H1gBBAZ9uxaJeNwZyS8YFDgK9gFoqZuki1VKycCpo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Japanese navy named the new fighter N1K1-J \u003ci\u003eShiden\u003c/i\u003e, and a test pilot made the first flight on December 27, 1942. Kawanishi spent the next year resolving various problems with the design before navy pilots took the first \u003ci\u003eShidens\u003c/i\u003e into combat early in 1944. The factory delivered a total of 1,007. Meanwhile, Kawanishi had begun revising the design less than a week after the first \u003ci\u003eShiden\u003c/i\u003e flew. Designers moved the wing to the bottom of the fuselage, shortened the landing gear, lengthened the fuselage, redesigned the tail, and removed 550 lb (250 kg) of superfluous weight. They kept the powerful but temperamental 2,050 hp (1,529 kW) Homare engine and named the new aircraft \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e (Violet Lightning Modified). A test pilot made the first flight on January 1, 1944, and the navy rushed the fighter to operational squadrons less than four months later.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis new fighter’s impressive capabilities motivated the navy to get the aircraft into combat as soon as possible. Capable of rolling at 82° per second at 240 mph (386 km/h) and having a maximum speed of about 370 mph (595 km/h) at 18,000 ft (5,480 m), the \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e was maneuverable and fast and mounted a formidable array of four 20mm cannons in the wings. Japanese pilots with skill and experience could hold their own in combat with American pilots flying F6F Hellcats and F4U Corsairs.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOne system unique to the \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e enhanced its maneuverability: The landing flaps doubled as combat flaps that automatically deployed up to 30 degrees when triggered by a tube holding a mercury switch linked to the aircraft’s pitot-static air system. The system detected the amount of G-force and airspeed, for example during a tight loop or steep turn, and deployed the flaps without pilot intervention. The flaps increased lift and lowered the fighter’s stall speed. Once the pilot stopped turning, the system automatically retracted the flaps, easing workload on the pilot. No other fighter during World War II used a similar system.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QWmbSOL0revuetFSdSM0nzruqOGx8uHwQ5svZXut1HPrNPIbD-BTFgxCl7kv5RSit5jjzJKcY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOperational history\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Japanese navy gathered a group of experienced fighter pilots, formed them into the 343rd Kokutai (air group), and assigned them to fly \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e fighters. The group was led by Minoru Genda, who helped Admiral Yamamoto plan the Pearl Harbor attack in December 1941. Over the Inland Sea in March 1945, 343rd pilots fought U. S. Navy pilots of Fighter-Bomber Squadron VBF-17 flying Grumman F6F Hellcats. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn June 2, 1945, over Kagoshima Bay, 343rd pilots battled pilots of VBF-85 flying Vought F4U Corsairs from the aircraft carrier USS \u003ci\u003eShangri La\u003c/i\u003e. Visitors can see a part of this history firsthand, as the National Air and Space Museum displays an F6F and a Corsair at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S6wcJm2GHZ-9FTZu_jlZEP6MBXFu9Gcw8EUkzpwWKcHUgZcfimw3fhy-dkHbMGuwGV_TdToRxr",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Museum’s \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e is one of four on display at museums in the USA and Japan. Staff at the Champlin Fighter Museum painted the fighter in the color and markings of an airplane assigned to the 343rd Kokutai when they restored the airplane for the Museum in 1991.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Curtiss SB2C Helldiver","The \"Big-tailed beast\"","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TUeodiMwK4-i-bqESJ_2a0H0Al0Rr15BhotndEJSOxtW1Zmffwz4EqXX-PynP9_0UhgCmhBjU","/story/uAUhPCXqDwCVIA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d379caf4-99dc-4aa2-83af-2eba1a1e9aef","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TUeodiMwK4-i-bqESJ_2a0H0Al0Rr15BhotndEJSOxtW1Zmffwz4EqXX-PynP9_0UhgCmhBjU","Se3V_OPX-zlGvbDJi_ApCcKtvnk",[0.53487664,0.49,0,0.8998463,0.37825093],null,null,null,[7581,9890]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"uAUhPCXqDwCVIA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9XApksd-kxYixLve97ZZDncpzk6wCfAPajulzjK2dwqQwouOiTY3VWsFLaLyXk__dFFcmFhY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Curtiss SB2C Helldiver would have been the U.S. Navy’s frontline carrier-based dive bomber for much of WWII, but problems with its development delayed its introduction and saddled it with a bad reputation. By the end of the war, changes in technology meant other aircraft could deliver an equal or greater amount of ordnance with comparable accuracy, eliminating the need for a specialized dive bomber. Thus, the SB2C was the last dive bomber in the Navy’s inventory.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rct1cH-jeY61IDO5v8Je7C_91PwK7_BkrvWxhZ3jKawB0HLvQRJJBON0hxNmdQVzwErc0z",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOrigins\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe SB2C Helldiver has connections to Curtiss’ previous Navy dive bomber, the SBC, also called the Helldiver (the Curtiss company seemed fond of the name). The SBC was a biplane design that began in 1933 as a two-seat fighter with dive bombing capabilities (XF11C) and was subsequently revised to scout-bomber specifications. The SBC-3 entered Navy service in 1937 and was the last biplane combat aircraft to see Navy service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SCcqLmG2UKVj4vjVZZ6bO1Zxm3XhyswMg8htdrVkQBgbENQsubv-sGBIIDgVxmZfCMt0YTu-w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEven as the Navy placed its first orders for the biplane SBC in 1936, the Navy was already looking for a monoplane to replace it. They saw an opportunity to improve a plane that had competed with the SBC for the Navy contract: the monoplane Northrop BT-1. Suitably modified, the aircraft was reclassed as a scout-bomber (SB) around the time Northrop had become Douglas’ El Segundo division. Accordingly, the new airplane was designated SBD, the Dauntless. The Navy, however, only expected it to be a stopgap for what would come next.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SYu7OBQVevylbje4-6Pk2497NZgNUpiVkrs5vnbL66_H9nSyDqpFruazra9CkHlvLESglEmA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn 1938, just a year after the first deliveries of SBC-3s, the Navy issued a specification for a new monoplane dive bomber that would result in the SB2C, the third Curtiss plane to carry the name “Helldiver” but the first to carry it as an official service nickname. The Navy’s requirements for this new monoplane dive bomber were challenging: it had to be able to carry a significant weight of weaponry internally while incorporating specific equipment and structural features within an airframe small enough to fit two on the elevators of the Essex class carriers. None of the SB2C’s features were entirely new, only the Pratt \u0026amp; Whitney R-2800 engine had yet to be proven on other aircraft, but some of features had not previously appeared on a Curtiss design, and some of the internal systems pushed the state-of-the-art.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SYu7OBQVevylbje4-6Pk2497NZgNUpiVkrs5vnbL66_H9nSyDqpFruazra9CkHlvLESglEmA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eNavy practice at this time was to wait until a prototype had been tested before placing any orders. In the case of the new Helldiver, the Navy was watching the gathering war clouds and was eager to replace the “stopgap” SBD with a better aircraft. The Navy also may have been lulled into taking a chance based on design studies and wind tunnel tests. Whatever the reasons, the Navy broke with practice and ordered 370 SB2Cs from Curtiss on November 29, 1940, before the first prototype had flown.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RCuIQbRE6wFD_9jdRHjlJx9171xyQFyvzm-NV4_-BeNjmp8m7lv3R4VO1f6HzAg5xiaNaqcYzQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDevelopment and production problems\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eUnfortunately, the Navy’s gamble did not pay off; Curtiss’ Helldiver faced a long developmental road. The lone XSB2C-1 prototype’s maiden flight was December 18, 1940, but it crashed in February 1941 and had to be rebuilt. In December that year, it suffered an in-flight wing failure that destroyed it without ever being turned over to the Navy for testing. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAmong its problems was that it was “stubby.” Its wingspan was eight feet wider than the Dauntless, with a wing area almost 25% greater to support an empty weight of 7,122 lbs – roughly a thousand pounds heavier than the Dauntless. But while the Helldiver could fold its wings to save space, little could be done about the length: it was only two feet, four inches longer than the Dauntless. This meant the Helldiver’s tail had less directional authority than the Dauntless despite needing more to control a bigger, heavier airplane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RCuIQbRE6wFD_9jdRHjlJx9171xyQFyvzm-NV4_-BeNjmp8m7lv3R4VO1f6HzAg5xiaNaqcYzQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs a result, the XSB2C-1 suffered from poor handling , directional instability, and bad stall characteristics. The prototype also revealed structural weaknesses, while the R-2800 engine and its 3-bladed hydraulic propeller suffered their own teething problems. The Navy ordered nearly 900 internal and external changes to the design before clearing it for production. These changes, along with necessary adaptations to the production line, significantly delayed deliveries to the Navy. To make matters worse, Curtiss was producing the Helldiver at a brand-new plant, which caused its own delays.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tzm_90Zob1WqKo5PzvmhMSkOIA8jtHO2Jj4FmNaYnDb9wCUPOoq6sOGG5mflYpYNyBIYjJdt8k",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe first production SB2C-1 Helldiver did not fly until June 1942, with the first deliveries to fleet squadrons at the end of that year. Though Curtiss had made numerous changes, the -1 production model still suffered from a number of difficulties. It had aerodynamic problems, while the changes added another three thousand pounds to the airplane’s weight. Once assigned to carriers, it had tailwheel and hook failures that limited it to service ashore until the problems were addressed. In addition, the electrical and hydraulic systems required a lot of maintenance on parts that were difficult to access. Overall, the Helldiver made a poor first impression among both aircrew and maintainers, earning it the pejorative nicknames “The Big-Tailed Beast” (often shortened to just “The Beast”) and “Son of a Bitch, 2nd Class” (a play on the SB2C designation and the Navy’s enlisted rank abbreviations). \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDespite the problems, some of which only emerged well after it entered service, initial demand for the Helldiver was high, leading the Navy to assign additional construction to Fairchild Aircraft’s Canadian branch (with these aircraft designated the SBF) and the Canadian Car \u0026amp; Foundry Company (designated the SBW). Though the U.S. Navy was the primary customer, both the British navy and the Australian air force placed orders for Helldivers. The U.S. Army Air Forces ordered some three thousand as the A-25 Shrike (which omitted the wing fold and tailhook, along with other minor differences from the SB2C). Nevertheless, the Helldiver’s problems proved too much trouble for these additional customers. The Army took delivery of only about 900 A-25s before deciding it did not need a dedicated dive bomber, while both the Australians and the British quickly decided the Helldiver was unsuited to service and canceled their orders.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rp6Nz0-p-GsDg5D1dLq1BswLYBtDRjTOVPurxKJZko23rI6RjX7oC7qzXmhWPYM4CaengzWCE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCombat at last\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eModified again, Helldivers returned to carriers in May 1943, but performance was still poor. Embarked aboard the new USS Yorktown (CV-10), the ship’s commanding officer, Captain J.J. “Jocko” Clark, recommended scrapping the entire Helldiver program. The Helldiver did not make its combat debut until November 1943, in a raid on the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rp6Nz0-p-GsDg5D1dLq1BswLYBtDRjTOVPurxKJZko23rI6RjX7oC7qzXmhWPYM4CaengzWCE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHelldivers were still only slowly replacing Dauntlesses in June 1944 when a defining moment highlighted the aircraft’s weaknesses. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Adm. Marc Mitscher launched a strike force against the Japanese carriers that included 51 SB2C-1C Helldivers and 26 Dauntlesses. The entire strike was launched at extreme range, and this distance significantly affected the Helldivers due to their smaller fuel load: only five returned to land safely on the carriers. Of the 46 lost, 32 ran out of gas and crashed or ditched. Tellingly, only two Dauntlesses were lost: one was shot down and one crashed on landing.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rl1BieDDPIE3-yUWrxriS9zEg_qDdUy4q-wN3NCH4rozkH733RQUX5jokvpF00FOT98-12Tjc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn early 1944, deliveries of the SB2C-3 brought great improvements (with some pilots using “The Beast” nickname affectionately), but the airplane was unable to completely shed its bad reputation. Vice-Adm. John McCain, who commanded the fast carrier task force (TF 38) for the last year of the war, declared that there was “no place for a plane with the performance of the SB2C” on the carriers. In his opinion, the F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair fighter-bombers were better suited to the job. The fighter-bombers could carry almost as large a bomb load as the Helldiver and, with the introduction of air-to-ground rockets, could deliver that payload as accurately as the Helldiver. At the same time, the Grumman TBF / Eastern Division TBM Avenger torpedo bomber proved itself equally capable as a level bomber. The Avenger had a somewhat shorter range than the Helldiver but offered a similar payload and slightly more speed. It was also easier to fly and did not have the Helldiver’s maintenance problems. Subsequently, while further improved SB2C-4 and -5 models (deliveries beginning late 1944 and early 1945, respectively) began living up to the promise of the Helldiver’s design, the era of the dedicated dive-bomber was coming to an end.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RO1ZT0rClNVtTLZcsYlsfo9a0PtQgS-xg31GbsC87HzJX1stUXLwhfsKNoW5XZEuMzhoP8L10",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Helldiver would remain in Navy and Marine Corps service until 1950, but after the war, the U.S. sold surplus Helldivers to the navies of Italy, Portugal, Thailand, Greece, and France. The French navy kept them in service until 1958, and Helldivers saw their last combat in the third phase (1946-1949) of the Greek civil war and with the French in the First Indochina War (1951-1954).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tt4ZmXmwvqatVd9E4hJfJlJKpvdb8ZIZKIIdK1DW63qRQsA9HBKZIBmi9oVduGc10-JI8tVd0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eA Helldiver at the Udvar-Hazy Center\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOne can see history in the Museum’s Helldiver (BuNo 83479), which is on display at our Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. It is an SB2C-5, which featured additional fuel tanks and replaced the older ASB surface-search radar with the new APS-4 radar as standard equipment. The -5 also carried over changes from earlier models such as a more powerful engine (1900 hp / 1417 kw vs. 1500 hp / 1119 kw in the -1), a four-bladed electric propeller, perforated dive brakes to improve handling, and wing racks for additional bombs or rockets. The Navy accepted BuNo 83479 in May 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S99r3CTE0s4dN6eeevhnjT0uONQMjAek1HU08X_SbxogOKEe7ujEWz5TAJenDNTH8pO76o7JI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFrom September through December 1945, this aircraft was assigned to Bombing Squadron (VB) 92, the “Battling Beasts,” aboard the U.S.S. Lexington (CV-16). It just missed the end of the war but saw service in the western Pacific and occupied Japan, its only carrier deployment. In 1946, 83479 was assigned to shore-based bomber and attack squadrons for brief periods. Following an overhaul at the beginning of 1947, the airplane served in Aviation Training Unit #4 (VA-ATU #4) at Naval Air Station Jacksonville in Florida until 1948, when the Navy removed it from active service and set it aside for the Smithsonian. It was finally delivered to the Smithsonian in 1960. In 1975, we loaned the airplane to the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida, where it was restored and put on display until 2003. The Museum began another restoration in 2010 and put 83479 on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center in 2014, wearing its VB-92 markings.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,1,"planes",null,null,null,14,"TilesRibbon","EditorialSection:3056c72b-7b38-4ea5-9b29-5c88e6491186"],["stella.edit.sect",null,17,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Discover What Made B-17 A Flying Fortress","It was big, slow and loud. So how did it defend itself?","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXsc2dTf5mSfz9rhpUhyxVNZuwsZHmxIMGP45m2fU9fUm6TmLH9ZLDUmodipuJKVTVjApiug","/asset/a-look-at-the-b-17-flying-fortress-bomber/YwGknhtnxFCNgQ",21,null,null,null,null,["YwGknhtnxFCNgQ",1.7777778,null,null,["//i4.ytimg.com/vi/kOl6tyP92UY/hqdefault.jpg","kOl6tyP92UY","A Look at the B-17 \"Flying Fortress\" Bomber",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum"],null,null,null,null,null,"Watch",[2],null,null,null,[1,"YwGknhtnxFCNgQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,null,"https://airandspace.si.edu","INDEPENDENCE AVE AT 6TH ST, SW\nWashington, DC, 20560\nUnited States",38.88781,-77.019905,"Washington, DC, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4",1524,725,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum"]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,15,"Stories","EditorialSection:51d6fff0-dd78-417d-9931-00d0f3d5d3c2"],["stella.edit.sect",["Engineering built to last","The incredible story of how an Air Force Martin B-26 Marauder became an icon",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","How Flak-Bait Survived 200 Missions and 1,000 Holes","A closer look at its history, achievements, and graffiti","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SgpukOwA33nxpAF_s6ebmW0SY6xb6SCQDSenT8U9TILUz9CUmwQt5EVUgJbp0SWWxqK1pSP-A","/story/tQURsL5ybe_kIQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:bf518e33-3193-4535-8feb-559745d189a5","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SgpukOwA33nxpAF_s6ebmW0SY6xb6SCQDSenT8U9TILUz9CUmwQt5EVUgJbp0SWWxqK1pSP-A","cvukHWM6PVbeRGV-yV3mLudR5ZY",[0.44,0.51215726,0,0.87161905,0.8468643],null,null,null,[6000,3866]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"tQURsL5ybe_kIQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ts9fx3uLc8CWO6Kjdvu-I4bRg34Iif9E95B47h-bJT0IiaL7nR5cBzwxzd7YJ985aLkY0qmw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn April 17, 1945, an Army Air Forces crew in a bomber named Flak-Bait led the 322nd Bombardment Group of the Ninth Air Force against Magdeburg, Germany, a “defended area” on the Elbe River in Saxony. The next day, the soldiers of the American Ninth Army occupied the city. Americans had been flying Flak-Bait, a Martin B-26 Marauder, in combat against Nazi Germany since August 16, 1943.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TGbUXFm8_tYDtj1CPpctu8cg0MiKHOuNxMvqoqxXaRjmwwyS4HQVKNV1dk_GBDo0hZ5V5X6ls",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOver the course of that year and nine months, Flak-Bait and its bomber boys flew over 200 missions. They attacked cities; airfields; road, rail, and canal junctions; bridges; supply depots; fuel and ammunition dumps; gun emplacements; and even V-1 flying bomb launch sites as they prepared for the Allied invasion of France and supported the armies on the ground as they pushed east toward Berlin, the German capital. By spring 1945, Flak-Bait’s ground crew had repaired over 1,000 holes on the aircraft caused by Nazi shrapnel, cannon shells, and machine gun bullets. (Hence the name Flak-Bait!)\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QdD96Oo0RgJ3j8kqd7F_IWyHUhTXJ7L_RrvhaLLImOCqvdQbQCdPF_SnrVVGh8YHPEWCoMMBw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFlak-Bait is one of the iconic objects of World War II held by the Museum. It was a weapon, much like the M-1 Garand battle rifle and the Sherman tank, that young Americans used to help free occupied-Europe from Nazi Germany. Alongside two other icons with incredible provenance, the Pearl Harbor-survivor Sikorsky JRS-1 amphibian and the Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay bomber that helped end the war, Flak-Bait presents Smithsonian visitors the beginning, the middle, and the end of American involvement in World War II.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SECbHSzcVRcbe9lBk5nz_xLhadXEjTCkn8s_jMfqiuQd2GPQwQTKbXf80mf5vkwDXIcGUrVw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs an artifact, Flak-Bait is providing our staff an unprecedented opportunity to interpret and preserve a survivor of a long and bitter air war. Since starting a project to preserve Flak-Bait in late 2014, we’ve reached important treatment milestones, including the pioneering work to save the doped fabric control surfaces and interior fabric panels. Work continues as restoration and conservation staff expand their meticulous and state-of-the-art work to the rest of the fuselage and the wings, including a detailed investigation into the remnants of the world’s only surviving D-Day invasion stripes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q0msm-0ExDcLQAHTv4Bpa7svEeKO7jl0bQ9OGXCVcrXiA8DCDAg-gPD0glPw8V7JTunG_pYh6G",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn the coming years, we are looking forward to our goal: the display of the reassembled Flak-Bait , in the Boeing Aviation Hangar of the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, all back together since being taken apart all those years ago in 1946 for shipment back to the United States.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RxHi609U78LUh5__zRU1soFpQj5oTfPMdoGP7Lw8wQdDEd3yo8573lXmeAJ0urDJtA0bBSElsH",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn the meantime, we continue to work on the project, especially research into its history. We’ve shared with visitors our take on how to spell Flak-Bait, a look at what the bomber and its crews experienced during its three missions on D-Day, and a behind-the-scenes tour.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rq-rOHM5L8CLIknqkt0LSH61IFwLkXqQBdozG67geXWFXSP64hiu-Qd4eBeQuNe9IDtdXKj9U",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne thing we want to know more about is the people behind Flak-Bait. From 1943 to 1946, 358 individual Army Air Forces aircrew flew in Flak-Bait over the course of 219 flights, 202 of which were combat missions. How do we know those numbers? A three-person team from the B-26 Marauder Historical Society, Ron Bolesta, Roberta Faulkenberry, and Brian Gibbons, dedicated over 600 hours combing through various records, including the 59,000 page operational records of the 322nd Bombardment Group held by the US. Air Force Historical Agency. Their effort to document every mission flown by the medium bomber ensures that our curators have all the relevant information available to share with visitors, and especially to those who have a family connection to Flak-Bait. They provided their results to the Museum last summer and we have been enjoying working with their findings in addition to those generated by Museum volunteer, Joe Romito, who also authored a blog discussing Flak-Bait’s missions based on his research.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SpeZqGlNSeUJMMF8LNosZwlIXjsE_8Uz0U9N5YbLYjKGXi3nUrD5Nu3ZIKowhFQVS0JM9Fkmw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOver the entire lower half of Flak-Bait’s fuselage are hundreds of signatures from another group of people connected to the bomber. Because of its special history, General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold selected Flak-Bait for inclusion in a collection of World War II aircraft set aside for what would become the Smithsonian’s National Aeronautical Collection. As Flak-Bait sat in open storage at airfields in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany at war’s end, Army Air Forces maintenance personnel and some civilians, including children, decided they would leave their mark on history by signing their names, current location, and hometowns in pencil and ink, with some even scratching their names into the paint.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RKm39EhJqQoQUoiCGMaXL289jGZc2rrSgPkgXs2DMusMyJhHhT9jdtAOnHz1AJHAU2yJblLxl5",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne of our upcoming projects is to map and document that graffiti to expand our understanding of the people that interacted with Flak-Bait as it transitioned from a weapon of war to an artifact of one of the greatest conflicts in human history.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QdD96Oo0RgJ3j8kqd7F_IWyHUhTXJ7L_RrvhaLLImOCqvdQbQCdPF_SnrVVGh8YHPEWCoMMBw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs we recognize the 75th anniversary of Flak-Bait successfully surviving the air war over Europe, we must reflect that its treatment project has been a tremendous experience for the Museum so far. It is a once-in-a-career opportunity to interpret, to treat, to display, and to reach out to the public with an amazing story of survival and resolve from World War II, which presents itself in the form of Flak-Bait.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Preserving Flak-Bait: Reversing a 1970s Restoration","Keeping Flak-Bait in fighting shape for years to come","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QlW5uItK9nwkhU5Wj8KfwPBSxMfN58XhIGBV9Nd2IAqU5mPxDSLausXrmvzR9D4Tk96mQizQ","/story/vQVx-IGeLxy0IA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:a8cd5790-f626-45c8-a71b-4d0656a89ebf","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QlW5uItK9nwkhU5Wj8KfwPBSxMfN58XhIGBV9Nd2IAqU5mPxDSLausXrmvzR9D4Tk96mQizQ","LI7X4rhrYK1LUaaGG5ybOEBXHJQ",[0.49320784,0.43685865,0,0.94750565,0.6699405],null,null,null,[3000,2380]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"vQVx-IGeLxy0IA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7iM5ws1upPJEbC83DyRQ467imFeS_MzI7EyLlG_JDK6KulLuJ4KF2hB1BW1QK3nZL8M0yug",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Martin B-26B Marauder Flak-Bait is an iconic artifact of World War II. This medium bomber and its crews survived over 200 missions over Europe, which was more than any other American combat aircraft in World War II. The nose section went on display when we opened in 1976, but the remainder of the aircraft has been in storage since the 1940s. Thankfully, with plans for exhibition at the Udvar-Hazy Center, where there is room to display the full aircraft, the entire artifact is now together and has been undergoing preservation treatment in our Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TxOjEQSd_fGhdWiPJUxvkKRyt_lFJaHSY7f4fxjVnTRPmQ4Ehl_1Cvos0lyl3tOI9TwoGB",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne aspect of this preservation effort is undoing a previous restoration. In the 1970s, the nose section of Flak-Bait had layers of paint applied over the original factory applied paint. This over-painting was done to the top and bottom three quarters of the nose section in an effort to cover up areas of corrosion and peeling paint and areas where the bare aluminum alloy was exposed from its operational history.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn this photo, the areas of the nose section that were over-painted are highlighted green with photo-editing software.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QdD96Oo0RgJ3j8kqd7F_IWyHUhTXJ7L_RrvhaLLImOCqvdQbQCdPF_SnrVVGh8YHPEWCoMMBw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn the 1970s the predominate aesthetic for interpreting technological artifacts favored the look of “new” and “undamaged.” We believe this is one of the reasons why paint was applied to the battle-scarred nose section of Flak-Bait before it went on display in 1976. Our current philosophy for the interpretation of Flak-Bait is one of celebration of its battle damage and the wear and tear of use. By highlighting the damage and revealing the original paint layers, we are returning this aircraft to a more honest and authentic state of preservation. The Museum’s conservation department has been developing techniques to reverse the 1970s overpainting to reveal the original paint layers and previously obscured markings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qk9odbLW4vfJ1gVCuvz5D4kIJzG3DwhUSBhA61q9cExZzAVQxwNoaxlksKdfax3g3Kw6sGdnQt",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBefore we could attempt to reverse the overpainting, we needed to fully understand the paint layers, their thickness, and their solubility. We first embarked on a project to carry out diagnostic imaging with with help of a Museum photographer to better understand the complex painted surface. We used ultraviolet light (UV) photography and infrared (IR) reflectography.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHd_J4fv8YyVs9gFnZlml48QkQfDuliXGMt_ACq9sICH-p-n0nHndRqpd51TKJQQeUcJvgzA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUV photography allows us to distinguish organic materials, such as oils, resins, paint binders, and pigments from one another based on how they absorb UV light and become fluorescent.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFlak-Bait is shown here photographed in UV light. Notice how the lower row of bombs is fluorescing a pale yellow while the rest are varying shades of red. This suggests that a different type of paint was used here. Some areas of overpainting appear as a milky yellow green between the second and bottom rows of bombs.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qk9odbLW4vfJ1gVCuvz5D4kIJzG3DwhUSBhA61q9cExZzAVQxwNoaxlksKdfax3g3Kw6sGdnQt",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis detail photo of Flak-Bait shows the “Flak-Bait” design and 200th mission bomb on the pilot’s side in UV light. Notice how the 200th mission bomb fluoresces a different color red than the smaller bombs—again suggesting a different type of paint was used. Overpaint can be seen in UV where there are pale and hazy blue fluorescence is located on the left of the image, below the F and L.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_StuOptVUhaK_xIIHQuZAhd5zbVkTqSzXO_qw4Hkx3Dv5NhGjNNGeVP5G498I22S0PUd7s3MQ8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe co-plot’s side of the aircraft is not often seen in historical photographs of \u003ci\u003eFlak-Bait\u003c/i\u003e, though it is equally compelling, with a large patch located just aft of the bombardiers’ station.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S0K6SOGFMycj293O0fHtt87LfA3rpST1MLqzQDFCCPng_VWpDxUQjHw2z1gqMqcSKd7QpN57A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn UV light, the bright yellow drips located forward of the windscreen are quite pronounced. In many other areas of the exterior, we have various oil and grease stains that relate to the operational history of the aircraft. We aim to keep these types of surface stains as part of the narrative of the aircraft’s operational history. Distinguishing historic versus post-historic damage has been an important step in determining our treatment approach. The oil drips seen below are post-historic and likely came from the aircraft hanging above \u003ci\u003eFlak-Bait\u003c/i\u003e while it was on display at the National Mall building. Therefore, it was decided that these oil stains should be removed.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TqB6vlfpGrwK3X0f3naVvm1QRm_q4iFG4qdIV5Su7E5l5GOQuAmoRwNl0279iHUs58GHBb6Krd",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eInfrared reflectography (IR) is a technique commonly employed by our colleagues in paintings conservation to see through paint layers, revealing an artist’s graphite drawings. We borrowed this technique to determine if there were signatures of the servicemen buried under the overpainting. The image below shows several IR photographs digitally stitched together. Graphite from the pencils preferentially absorbs IR light, enhancing the legibility of signatures that were otherwise obscured.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjWdwmoKvSZbeS_4Kc0I4RTGk6N6HdI6JSchPhi4E8sbvLVgLxTlJaql7rg1TPx76iZKkFrpc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn many locations along the fuselage, a combination of overpainting and soiling obscured the handwriting, which was made legible with the IR photography.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SR7VSjI8n4pBT3GMX8Yqi0npP76YFT7z6wxsioGJWCdImmQPiE77uNXAFexyRor96w3MnUrk5p",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOnce the diagnostic imaging was complete, we had a good understanding of the overpaint and original paint characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S5VgE7FHKLby-OHne7ROtpnP-7WfGkDQI7JTL60WK9avxbdLHTM6iPEHL6pnYF6LQEK1qW1A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUtilizing the IR and UV images helped greatly in determining areas where the overpaint removal technique needed to be modified to not disturb the fragile graphite markings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QwZVWoVR_JYZv3eOvKocfAwbr6SziqaLaDs8yl8miDabrz195Rr4KPL5sA2AiWNZevY4ETwdu1",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWe developed a process for safely removing the overpaint, which began with extensive solubility testing of the paint layers. In the image below, Malcolm Collum is seen carefully applying an organic solvent to the overpaint layers to determine its solubility. Once we completed extensive material analysis and solubility testing, we began removing the overpaint layers from the top surface of the nose section.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RYIZWIHm61Szye7627gt7aoe4Ixkzlf39he7r1536nBp_eTV6WlsZCe2A2_Qmf50EdCkvchw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWe discovered an intact layer of original olive drab paint and original zinc chromate painted scab patches underneath a lighter green overpaint. The area indicated as “original” in the image below reveals the dark colored olive drab paint layer which is the original, factory applied paint. We also see the evidence of use and wear to the paint – particularly on raised rivet heads and along the paths where the maintenance crews walked.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SVVQItAUTj98UkniqEktjmXyfLsXtVECWIEKI2mLlVlyUCFWZW-4eRp3HlSAmkMJ_F5XMY0LfQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOnce the top of the nose section was complete, we began on the underside surfaces. The image below shows the underside of the bombardier’s section before and after the overpaint removal had begun. On the right is the bombardiers’ section with a square of original paint revealed in the center of the image. Note the water streaking caused when \u003ci\u003eFlak-Bait\u003c/i\u003e was left in the rain on the tarmac.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ThLF-mwNcFCu62_LYeBrhxzAF_5QrkG8yhaKx3et1Wkw2ZxUd_uzsX35csJQCZ_dVZyUNm9Mc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAreas where signatures were covered with overpaint were handled with great care to not disrupt the markings. This example shows the signature of Alfred McBee, written between the gun blister locations on the co-pilot’s side. The areas of light blue haze that obscure most of the top and bottom of his signature is the overpaint applied in the 1970s. After the overpaint was removed, his signature has greater legibility and it’s possible to see that there are areas of loss paint. This loss is likely due to the interface of the machine gun blisters abrading the paint during firing and removal for maintenance. These losses are part of the authentic look that we want to reveal and celebrate.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QBrDwn0hBUniKylbWNjjYCQMiBzf5Co71RtQOUIHEF6Sw3RZg1_pA5HktfZoecLhYVvlwChzQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn the pilot’s side of the aircraft, the overpaint removal did not reveal any new signatures but did bring out the original paint color. The image below shows the progress once overpaint removal began on the pilot\u0026#39;s side, beginning from the aft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RvAYvSo9N2f9E97FDZD5udD6yzN6axL4XWbkISQqq4UXxkqMPJvU7KqjzuKjzj47HB9AxcuQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThrough this process we have ensured that \u003ci\u003eFlak-Bait\u003c/i\u003e will continue to be regarded as a truly unique and incredibly authentic survivor from World War II. This treatment is much more involved than we can discuss here, but it represents the level of commitment that Museum staff have towards ensuring the preservation of our nation’s aerospace heritage.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,16,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:87d9641f-62f1-418a-baea-a33a93c40e0e"],["stella.edit.sect",["Flying to new heights","How World War II led to new technological breakthroughs",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Farewell to the Flying Boat","The birth of commercial air travel as we know it","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QeGLeSqMWo0CXgcDsgU-AEqizDlQDi5ltefNCUYoU4dxEc71DGnGi0mBKhH_BLc-Bgg3FyPBw","/story/MAUB811LhYCkKw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:aa9db126-f858-46fd-9ff6-f6bf0a17532c","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QeGLeSqMWo0CXgcDsgU-AEqizDlQDi5ltefNCUYoU4dxEc71DGnGi0mBKhH_BLc-Bgg3FyPBw","HWcohstCjOrhz9d7pzzFO1-Van0",[0.4,0.494,0,0.66296595,0.51548326],null,null,null,[6118,4830]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"MAUB811LhYCkKw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SNKjsP0_H96qY-jqajsqjgKO0i-zfBs6Q4XMPED6y0T7KxjxBDIxRu6yAvp4KDijAv8Z6F8eg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn the late 1930s, Pan American Airways opened air travel across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Earlier, Juan Trippe’s legendary airline blazed new routes from the United States throughout Latin America. With Charles Lindbergh as his friend and technical advisor, Trippe developed a series of magnificent flying ocean liners from Sikorsky, Consolidated, Martin, and Boeing. These graceful flying boats flew air mail, businessmen, and the extremely wealthy to romantic spots around the globe.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SNKjsP0_H96qY-jqajsqjgKO0i-zfBs6Q4XMPED6y0T7KxjxBDIxRu6yAvp4KDijAv8Z6F8eg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePan Am’s Sikorsky S-42s and Consolidated Commodores plied the airways around the coast of South America, connecting Miami with cities like Caracas, Rio de Janeiro, and Buenos Aires. In the Pacific, the legendary Martin M-130 “China Clipper” began passenger service to the Far East in 1936, opening Hawaii, the Philippines, and Hong Kong to adventurous travelers. By 1939, Pan American flew directly from New York to Europe in the magnificent Boeing 314.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOther nations opened the world to air travel using flying boats, such as Great Britain, with the beautiful Shorts C-class, and France, with the graceful Latécoère series, connecting the cities of Europe to their colonies in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tkm4VETawIwVOzDV4xwiahjj1wfGW6wSzla_jDsMMnPsStrmmfeeFxD6uXhyZlfhnfi4NGeA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFor long distance overseas flight, the flying boat was the obvious solution. As most of the world’s major cities lie along coastlines and have port facilities, expensive conventional airfields were not necessary. Furthermore, large flying boats required long takeoff distances. With the open water, flying boasts had unlimited distances in which to get airborne. As a result, by 1939 flying boats dominated long distance international air travel.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tkm4VETawIwVOzDV4xwiahjj1wfGW6wSzla_jDsMMnPsStrmmfeeFxD6uXhyZlfhnfi4NGeA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAnd then they were gone.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAviation technology advanced by leaps and bounds during the 1930s. Despite the Great Depression, new breakthroughs in design, materials, and construction brought a new generation of all metal airliners, capable of dramatic improvements in range, speed, and capacity than the wood and fabric machines of an earlier time. With more powerful engines, aircraft grew dramatically in size and weight. Unfortunately, the landing fields of most existing airports were either open grass or made from compacted gravel. As late as 1938, the only concrete runway in the U.S. was at Floyd Bennett Field on Long Island, New York. The first generation of modern twin-engine airliners such as the Boeing 247, the Douglas DC-2, and DC-3s could handle these fields, but the next generation of four-engine airliners would be too heavy.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTAjhUFBSJYmcgnqtCOAVYQ9x6N-g6nRhHohsNTlKv_TcRfgAD26ODyv0VDzPFku81SXJpRtzi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTowards the end of the 1930s, the aviation industry was reluctant to confront this problem. Building hard surface concrete runways was the solution to the problem but pouring new runways at airports across the country and around the world was prohibitively expensive.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWorld War II changed that. The pressing needs of the military outweighed peacetime cost concerns as the nation needed to move people, materiel, and supplies around the world as fast as possible in order to confront the Axis enemy and reinforce our Allies. Wherever America’s forces went, hard runways of concrete and asphalt followed. In the Pacific, the U.S. Navy’s famous “Sea Bees,” construction battalions, paved over countless islands on their relentless drive to Japan. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and engineer aviation battalions built hardened runways all over Great Britain, Europe, and across the North Atlantic. Working with Pan American, the Army built airports with concrete runways across the Caribbean, across the northern part of South America, across the South Atlantic, and across north and central Africa to the Middle East and on towards India to bases in China. Domestically, the military built hundreds of new airports while the government upgraded and paved existing municipals airfields.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RXsY4Gl8H_TjJ4EAuoglx4vIMpX1eQScG8chWpnRJFVSncdDbG_1YuyGAtG4r558fPdzRcOOPo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDuring the war, newer, larger aircraft, fitted with tri-cycle landing gear, rather than the traditional “tail dragger” designs, appeared in great numbers. The United States produced thousands of four-engine Boeing B-29 bombers and Douglas DC-4s and Lockheed Constellation transports that were too heavy for grass or gravel. With hundreds of new concrete and asphalt runways constructed around the globe, these latest bombers and transports could now fly virtually anywhere, unrestricted by grass field and inadequate facilities. Immediately after the war in 1945, the DC-4, and its pressurized big brother, the DC-6, and the Lockheed Constellation and Super Constellation came to dominate international air travel.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9tkdFY870YSexj30VlR-po2JcJMsU_FJP9YQQQd5uiZYdQw5KBJfXALSZw8ASu0p-KvZGUjM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAnd flying boats were then forgotten. With adequate runways the world over, there was little need for the bulky, inefficient flying boat with its high-drag fuselage. Some remained in service, but only on limited niche routes operated by secondary airlines. By 1951 the last of the Boeing 314s sank beneath the waters of Baltimore harbor. The age of the flying boat was over.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Blimps vs. Boats","Searching for submarines from the skies","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R1FB14iAcYJ2HSv2_Bziiv2J7w575ttKMNddB9fQdCjNiHIHikhj7D9P3pkgEOMuupK4KJxA","/story/xQWRUEghqqVULA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:b356703c-eea4-4696-b3bf-33cbc902e193","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R1FB14iAcYJ2HSv2_Bziiv2J7w575ttKMNddB9fQdCjNiHIHikhj7D9P3pkgEOMuupK4KJxA","z6bscrOpU7pugGIXW--2KBG05Bs",[0.5,0.49829698,0,1.271697,0.99659395],null,null,null,[2676,2096]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"xQWRUEghqqVULA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R421cyJGTl3ryQ-qm7bM5tZBSn3fZhjwD62XrcmLNP3r7-OepIQD9zCBgaM1uwXq8s44nDhw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn January 1942, the war that had been raging in Europe arrived in the waters along the east coast of the United States. Although the United States had already experienced World War II in the Pacific with the attack on Pearl Harbor and other U.S. territories in December 1941, the start of the war in the Atlantic caught many military leaders by surprise. In mid-January, the German navy officially launched Operation Paukenschlag, a campaign of five submarines (often referred to as U-boats) to sink merchant ships carrying vital war supplies to Allied armies in Great Britain, Russia, and North Africa. In only a few short weeks, German U-boats sunk over 20 merchant vessels carrying thousands of tons of war material. The U-boats returned to their ports only after they expended all their torpedoes. To counter this new threat to maritime security, the U.S. Navy unleashed a new weapon to provide anti-submarine warfare: the K-Type blimp.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TCsiKwK1y2ij9I_bxWguzMgUe4yIvfWXRpWRCoN-RaSLmMTlPLHezeMbAzn6DhkZhuZuVg0nmG",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhen the United States entered World War II, it only had six lighter-than-air vehicles available for use to hunt U-boats. The four completed K-Type blimps, or K-ships, in the Navy’s arsenal were in the air almost immediately after the U-boat attacks started in January 1942. The K-ship K-3 was sent to patrol the waters off Long Island, New York shortly after a U.S. tanker was sunk in that area on the night of January 14. K-3 patrolled the region, looking for oil slicks and other signs of a possible submarine. As the crew of the K-3 searched the seas, they learned from a nearby airplane that survivors had been found from the sunken tanker. Once at the location, K-3 lowered water and food to the survivors and flew in the area until surface ships could arrive. K-ships continued to serve as search-and-rescue craft during their long patrols for the length of the war. They often carried extra supplies, medical equipment, and inflatable lifeboats that could be lowered to crews from sunken ships or downed aircraft. It was difficult for K-ships to pick up these survivors, but they would ensure their rescue by directing other aircraft and surface ships to areas where survivors were located. Although the K-ship’s low-speed, long flight duration, and excellent visibility allowed their crews to be proficient in search-and-rescue operations, it also allowed them to be highly proficient in the art of anti-submarine warfare.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QrlHrADkwTmyqq4nKs0OrClcnUJ1mL3a-8ikWgGMgJBnLT1i1hojIr07KPNddciRevemmYHQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProtecting convoys and engaging U-Boats\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eK-ships were not only designed to find survivors of ships sunk by German U-boats. These blimps were also able to protect convoy shipping by locating submarines and attacking them when possible. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDue to their ability to hover and fly at low altitudes and speeds, K-ships could easily stay with convoys, and the numerous windows located throughout the control car provided excellent visibility, allowing crews to keep a lookout for everything from periscopes to oil slicks on the surface of the water. They could also operate in conditions that grounded other aircraft, such as fog or low cloud cover, allowing them to conduct anti-submarine warfare missions that otherwise would have been impossible. Noted for exceptional endurance, K-ships carried a crew of 10 and could operate for 26 hours at cruising speed, allowing them to constantly patrol the shipping lanes, waiting outU-boats that needed to surface. The combination of these unique characteristics and many more made K-ships a crucial element of anti-submarine warfare.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QrlHrADkwTmyqq4nKs0OrClcnUJ1mL3a-8ikWgGMgJBnLT1i1hojIr07KPNddciRevemmYHQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCombining K-ships with specialized equipment allowed them to find U-boats even if they were located out of sight below the ocean’s surface. Each crew consisted of two radiomen who were responsible for operating long range radio communications, allowing K-ships to alert convoys, surface ships, and attack aircraft to the presence of U-boats. They also operated radar that could detect surfaced submarines at night and in low visibility conditions. One of the most important pieces of equipment, however, was known as Magnetic Anomaly Detectors, or MAD equipment. MAD could detect distortions in Earth’s magnetic field caused by a large metal object, such as a submerged U-boat. It had a range of about 400 feet, making the low flying K-ships ideal operators. But this equipment was not flawless and it could not separate magnetic distortions caused by possible enemy craft from those caused by miscellaneous debris, including sunken wrecks. To fix this problem, K-ships would often use MAD equipment in combination with sonobuoys, which were dropped from the air to produce sonar contacts. Once a submarine was located, K-ships would call in surface ships and land-based aircraft to attack. The combination of these various pieces of equipment allowed K-ships to effectively hunt submarines and protect convoy ships.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qyk2ETc4td72GhnTZLlZgDgFT6DNtODjXBKvJ7eq8iLhq6_D6F4qFkQ1c76ZRYWHRIIn3oJKdj",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eK-ships were also able to launch attacks. They were often loaded with a variety of ordnance, and what they carried changed throughout the war as new weapons systems became available. K-ships could carry up to four weapons, varying from 350-pound Mk 47 depth bombs, Mk 17 depth charges, or Mk 24 mines/acoustic torpedoes. Two of these could be located within an internal bomb bay and two could be located externally on the control car. They were also armed with a 50-caliber machine gun located in a turret located in the front of the control car that had a wide range of movement. If a K-ship located evidence that a submarine was in the area, it could drop its ordnance to damage the submarine, or at least make it surface, until reinforcements arrived. The K-ship’s ability to make these attacks allowed them to defend convoy ships, and several managed to damage submarines or assist in sinking them. It was dangerous work and similar attacks led to the downing of one K-ship by enemy fire.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rd2Ujw_1EZ_KG89936-mkiNFJVYwQ5IaAGMZMxMzn38KLzAhwW5_icqlV1eDj4Gp8xG0GbOg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe loss of K-74\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOnly one K-ship was destroyed due to enemy contact during World War II. On the night of July 18, 1943, the K-74 was protecting ships through the Florida Straits. The crew picked up a contact on K-74’s radar and began searching the area for a U-boat. They quickly found the U-134 silhouetted against the water by moonlight. Although still 20 miles from the convoy, command pilot Lt. Nelson G. Grills determined that the submarine did pose a threat. They maneuvered the K-74 into a position to make an attack run with the ship’s depth charges before the U-134 opened fire with machine guns and its deck gun. Although it suffered some damage, the K-74 flew over the U-134 only to have its depth charge fail to drop. It managed to fire 100 rounds of .50-caliber machine gun bullets at the submarine, but the machine gun fire the K-74 sustained from the submarine took a significant toll. The K-74’s starboard engine caught fire, though it was quickly extinguished, and holes in the blimp caused it to quickly lose altitude. It plunged into the sea shortly before midnight.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rd2Ujw_1EZ_KG89936-mkiNFJVYwQ5IaAGMZMxMzn38KLzAhwW5_icqlV1eDj4Gp8xG0GbOg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe crew bailed out and floated near the wreck for eight hours. In the morning, a Grumman JRF amphibian located the crew and landed to rescue them. Unfortunately, one crewman, Isadore Stessel, was attacked by a shark shortly before the crew was rescued, marking one of the few deaths of a K-ship crewman in combat. The U-134 left the area, only reporting minor damage caused by gunfire from the K-74. It continued its patrol until it was eventually sunk off the coast of Spain in August 1943. Although the K-74 did not sink a U-boat during its last mission, K-ships assisted in some of the final attacks on U-boats of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RTS5DpGefthnXDuhoWbLWKl4ZJJUhxXM9621Bb-YriW2iqwdqLJPYsTFdP_fEQBp7EJEhC_oK0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe destruction of U-853 and capture of U-858\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn May 5, 1945, the U.S. collier Black Point was sunk off the coast of Rhode Island. Several ships, including the destroyer Ericsson, Coast Guard frigate Moberly, and destroyer escorts Atherton and Amick, quickly arrived at the area in order to hunt down the U-boat responsible for the attack. The K-16 and K-58 were dispatched to the area on May 6 to help with the search for the submerged submarine. After arriving on the scene, the K-16 used its MAD equipment and located a target below the water. Following depth charge attacks by the surface ships, the K-16 deployed a sonobuoy, and detected sounds below the surface. It proceeded to drop its depth charges on the submarine’s suspected location. The K-58 then used MAD equipment to mark possible locations and dropped two depth charges of its own. After several more rounds of depth charge attacks from the surface ships, the K-ships noted numerous pieces of debris floating on the surface, marking the last destruction of an enemy U-boat in American waters.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TllSTd9DXjwzBOtan4gOykJwi0Zn5Cjju9gE1zYbjb7VRvcP0rEkx4OyTaykucFMLYc-ZF5Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe last World War II contribution of K-ships in the Atlantic occurred shortly after the war ended. On May 14, 1945, the captain of U-858 surrendered to the U.S. Navy. A K-ship helped escort the submarine into port, marking the end of anti-submarine warfare duties for K-ships in the battle of the Atlantic. \u003cbr\u003eK-ships provided critical protection to convoys carrying the vital supplies needed to win World War II. In his work, Blimps and U-Boats, J. Gordon Vaeth explained:\u003cbr\u003eThe blimp stayed with the convoy, flying low and throttling back to keep a slow pace. To the men of the freighters and tankers, the protection provided by an airship was a personalized thing. Airship crews and merchant ship crews waved to each other, the airship looking all the while majestic and overwhelmingly powerful and reassuring as it threaded its way through a convoy or kept station abreast and ahead of it. The men in the blimps reciprocated this feeling of camaraderie. The same merchant ships plying the same coastal routes became familiar sights (pg. 69).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTmA4KqOhlieHxV1hehepG33hX0TLivJwG_rKdbstnoPmLKl5Y33qO31odvzxy_JkKgBhS",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Navy’s lighter-than-air forces, including K-ships, flying over both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, completed almost 36,000 flights totaling 412,000 flight hours. The destruction to convoys feared early in the war caused by marauding U-boats diminished dramatically once K-ships started keeping a constant vigil overhead and while searching for the enemy below. By the end of the war, 72 members of the Navy’s lighter-than-air forces paid the ultimate price to safeguard the merchant fleet and protect the lifeline they provided to hundreds of thousands of men, women and children.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIf you would like to read more about the role of lighter-than-aircraft in World War II, please read “Blimps and U-boats: U.S. Navy Airships in the Battle of the Atlantic” by J. Gordon Vaeth.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Sleeker, Faster, and More Aerodynamic","How the NACA Full Scale Wind Tunnel advanced the design of planes","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RwqUaJgjObkXC9T9fWKSe9ydEq3q0p07Ic3zWMkhH5KYGm5QoEFc6uBJYfxHbQzcn9ikRoS7w","/story/RAUB4vQWTLRfLQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:10d8d7d2-dbb7-4d64-a440-28d86915c01e","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RwqUaJgjObkXC9T9fWKSe9ydEq3q0p07Ic3zWMkhH5KYGm5QoEFc6uBJYfxHbQzcn9ikRoS7w","mchoRKTmuZtGdoy5Z_VT9sQGtRI",[0.51,0.41263568,0,0.84800845,0.66330016],null,null,null,[3041,2432]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"RAUB4vQWTLRfLQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RcMRGFhM6XR0innrA60NVupaF18EpZCci2VT7_4N-UnCUvqLk_KzUt_kql0iS4sASDdSx1_4I",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis story begins in 1929, a full 12 years before the United States was plunged into the maelstrom of World War II. That year, the air just north of the tidewater town of Hampton, Virginia, was filled with the sound of saws, loud hammering, and heavy construction equipment. In 1929, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) authorized the construction of a massive wind tunnel to be located at the NACA Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in Hampton. Becoming operational in May 1931, this wind tunnel had a test section 60 feet in width and 30 feet high, large enough to mount not just a model of an airplane but rather the whole airplane itself. For this reason, the tunnel was called the NACA Full Scale Wind Tunnel (FST). At the time, the FST was the largest wind tunnel in the world – a stunning facility for aerodynamic testing.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RcMRGFhM6XR0innrA60NVupaF18EpZCci2VT7_4N-UnCUvqLk_KzUt_kql0iS4sASDdSx1_4I",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBut why a wind tunnel of this huge size? Wind tunnels had existed since 1870, when the English inventor Francis Wenham designed and built the first wind tunnel in history at Greenwich. By 1929, scores of wind tunnels had been built world-wide for aerodynamic testing, including one by the Wright brothers. However, all these tunnels were small and were limited to testing relatively small models. The NACA’s Full Scale Tunnel was the first facility large enough to test a whole airplane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SGoDzJP-Df-VlOdZdKSskFqIYExvxR2eokyqza9m4KVqGeOvO87OMNLohfnfBP3FxeqFtEJg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBut why was the testing of a whole airplane in a wind tunnel so important as opposed to testing a smaller model? There are scale effects in applying aerodynamic data obtained on small models that compromise the data when applied to the “real thing.” This is especially true with the data for aerodynamic drag, an important datapoint to measure. Everything else being equal, the maximum velocity of a given airplane in level flight depends strongly on drag – the lower the drag, the faster the maximum speed of the airplane. In particular, for new airplanes coming off the drawing boards at the beginning of World War II, the maximum speed of a combat fighter aircraft became a major design criterion. Therefore, the accurate prediction of aerodynamic drag was critical to the success of these new designs.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SGoDzJP-Df-VlOdZdKSskFqIYExvxR2eokyqza9m4KVqGeOvO87OMNLohfnfBP3FxeqFtEJg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHowever, as any design engineer knows, many compromises go into the design of a given airplane. In terms of drag, there are necessary appendages, accessory equipment, protuberances, holes, etc., on the surface of an operational aircraft that tend to destroy the sleekness of an otherwise low-drag streamlined configuration. The identification of how much extra drag was created by these “blemishes” became important, with an eye towards decreasing this drag. The question became just how to carry out this identification.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgZXbAkTp6jIvRWOfRLGnDWhPH2QEY_mOQXQQNgAwmNzPuNlq9WcZFefM09Hjv9sV0vTnfNw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe answer surfaced rather abruptly in April 1938, when the Navy was having a major problem with a new fighter design, the Brewster XF2A Buffalo. The 250 mile-per-hour speed of this fighter was disappointingly low, and yet it was already starting to come off the production line. The Navy needed help immediately, and it came in the form of the NACA Full Scale Tunnel and its engineering staff. The Navy Bureau of Aeronautics quickly arranged to have the Buffalo tested in the Full Scale Tunnel at Langley. Even before the ink was dry on the paperwork, the Navy flew an XF2A-1 to Langley, and within days the NACA engineers mounted the airplane on the stilt-like balance in the FST.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgZXbAkTp6jIvRWOfRLGnDWhPH2QEY_mOQXQQNgAwmNzPuNlq9WcZFefM09Hjv9sV0vTnfNw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eRecognizing that the deficit in top speed for the Buffalo was most likely due to a higher than expected aerodynamic drag, the FST team conceived a brilliant and perfectly logical test procedure to identify the sources of the extra drag. They removed protuberances like the radio antenna, smoothed irregular surfaces like the cockpit canopy, used putty or tape to cover holes, and smoothed the bays for storing the retracted landing gear. Attention was paid to the exhaust stacks, machine gun installation, and gun sights that projected into the airflow outside the airplane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q9pHmDdmY5-rn5Y8JR_rJU8vIhtn4GTrAuyiw4L8i_ioyM_TYV3fKUueMSw6ncJp7IM5eu_oc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhen the airplane was perfectly smooth and aerodynamically clean, the drag of this faired and sealed airplane was then measured in the FST. This was the baseline drag measurement. Next, one of the protuberances was added back to the smooth configuration, and the drag was measured again, thus identifying the increase in drag due just to this addition. The tests continued by adding one-by-one each of the drag-causing items, measuring the airplane drag after each addition, until the airplane configuration was fully restored to its original condition. In this fashion, a detailed test base was acquired, identifying which items increased drag, and by how much. The design of airplanes was not the primary role of the NACA, so these test results were then reported to the manufacturer, giving Brewster the necessary information to modify the design of the airplane in order to reduce its drag. Amazingly, the top speed of the modified Buffalo was increased from 250 to 281 miles per hour, a meaningful 10 percent increase.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QVMp0lejp9dDdL5cbrZeqjDMAPi8puk6OXj87-W18xFfYTLr8vgadck1zwX3S6VGQ-dF0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhat a wake-up call to the airplane industry! The Army and Navy suddenly stood in line for such drag testing in the Full Scale Tunnel on other new aircraft designs. The pioneering test procedure developed by the NACA engineers was labeled drag cleanup. Over the next two-and-a-half years, 18 new prototype military airplanes were thoroughly run through this drag cleanup test procedure, each design benefiting to a greater or lesser extent by the tests.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sfzk7IjjGFAkTp4QJwiFrCHAZYmUjD7wFkoNh5g2c5LGbPTjFUE75EnBTf1MqyBdkPHkg-",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the more telling stories that came out of the drag cleanup program was its effect on the P-39, a beautifully sleek but somewhat unconventional airplane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sfzk7IjjGFAkTp4QJwiFrCHAZYmUjD7wFkoNh5g2c5LGbPTjFUE75EnBTf1MqyBdkPHkg-",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe P-39 Airacobra had its engine mounted behind the cockpit at the airplane’s center of gravity (note the air scoop at the back of the cockpit windshield), and a cannon in the nose. Designed by Bell Aircraft, the Army had expectations for the P-39 to be its first fighter to exceed 400 miles per hour in level flight. Indeed, the prototype XP-39 had reached 390 miles per hour during early tests at the Army’s Wright Field near Dayton, Ohio.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qu4BCQrjZ2GB2D5U4zrOdV1QVmNT8SDNx76mHlTdVgqQ0JCmahe8RWiBKoiFe5KpFl8uqqNq8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eProduction airplanes, however, were expected to weigh about 2000 pounds more than the 5550-pounds prototype, a weight increase that was predicted to bring its top speed to barely 340 miles per hour. This did not make General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold, the iconic commander of the U.S. Army Air Corps, happy, and certainly did not satisfy the Bell aircraft designers. So the P-39 was quickly inserted into the NACA Full Scale Tunnel Drag Cleanup program and testing began on June 8, 1939.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SdnMzRr5i8Rl2rqg4dHoKBEozQcOH4zBqNfYjmxbi6qC_ja7rRnfaSDa1wbh3n9J2hMIeXMA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe tests showed that the completely faired P-39 had a drag that was about 50% that of the original value, a dramatic decrease. In addition to these drag cleanup tests, the P-39 also went through a series of flight tests at Langley. Ultimately, the heavier production models of the P-39 never achieved the desired 400 mile-per-hour maximum speed, and the Army seemed to accept this situation. The Airacobra went on to become a successful ground attack aircraft, with over 700 sent to Great Britain and the Soviet Union under the Lend-Lease agreement. The ultimate success of the P-39 would not have been possible without the benefit of the Langley FST Drag Cleanup tests.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TKXA7TAmezPCd7gKHVbHJ3FXnG3ZZaoDgD-lp26PvCY-i2s4YYlKJYQlL8tPDZ2gEj1zWmh9I",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe FST continued its contributions to America’s aerospace industry for the next half-century, testing such modern jet fighters as the F-22, until it was finally decommissioned in 2010. The drag cleanup studies from World War II, however, remain one of its finest hours.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFor additional reading on this subject, check out the following books: Engineer in Charge by James R. Hansen (NASA SP-4305, 1987) and The Airplane: A History of its Technology by John D. Anderson Jr. (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2002).\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Myth of the German “Wonder Weapons”","A race between the Allies and the Axis","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7oBuNXziNSvMz8KAnkRz0pXu0tZdSty8LzHZRxBbuGwOrhsVvE7csq-HibLTM7JTC30IfduQ","/story/_wVR8zpg9UmgLg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:c58f7ba1-2a4e-4142-a4d4-ebd38ed883ce","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7oBuNXziNSvMz8KAnkRz0pXu0tZdSty8LzHZRxBbuGwOrhsVvE7csq-HibLTM7JTC30IfduQ","MvULsWS0eOEvOYPAqLc7-41uXNQ",[0.47,0.42404136,0,0.78947264,0.8055499],null,null,null,[6465,3964]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"_wVR8zpg9UmgLg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TxR0BKV6EE-CyATgnLwwADKmlZthj69BhgO7KN5-eHa0gd79tMfcgHTzvXwUI8R5MnA9hDmQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLast fall, as I was standing next to the V-2, the German World War II ballistic missile on display in our Space Race gallery, I heard a man tell his companion how lucky we were that the Nazis had not had it sooner, or they might have won the war. It is one of the most beloved and entrenched stories, especially in the English-speaking world, about the V-2 and other advanced weapons the Third Reich deployed at the end of that war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TF7487cxl_U5uzUYK9cwzT8S5mP8pdy9uUr4ErOYAwA3tRrGn-KfMi_1k5Q7qgiROEmbMygw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn the face of it, that assertion makes a lot of sense. The Germans introduced the world’s first operational rocket fighter, jet fighter, cruise missile, and ballistic missile, all between the spring and fall of 1944. If they had fielded the Messerschmitt Me 163 and Me 262 fighters sooner, could they have greatly impeded the daylight strategic bomber offensive?\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tsmy__QUcV5H4PSmwZeIBVTYhWjA7Itue8O7i4nKxR_rhrtlRtXaNxIyxaiqcYf4PwRut_HbZ9",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eU.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) leadership certainly were concerned. If the Nazis had begun firing V-1 cruise missiles and V-2 rockets at Britain earlier, could they have disrupted the D-Day invasion preparations or caused mass panic, derailing the British war economy? Key Allied leaders like Gen. Dwight Eisenhower and Prime Minister Winston Churchill had discussed those very scenarios. From the Nazi side, Propaganda Minister Josef Goebbels stoked fear with claims, beginning in 1943, of coming Wunderwaffen (wonder or miracle weapons) that would turn the tide and exact Vergeltung (vengeance or revenge) for the indiscriminate Allied bombing of German cities. After the war, the feeling in the West that we had experienced a close call was reinforced by the memoirs of German ex-generals, who blamed Hitler for holding these weapons up. As a result, the new fighters and missiles allegedly came “too late” to change the course of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TJh4G9MimxBQfhV92BUfWNgfzRdjvk_6UYukB4ezf2wyHOKJg7EvbmxyLvj28uGglugLzOrWM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFear of Germany’s advanced technology had been a constant since the 1930s. It led directly to the U.S.-British-Canadian atomic bomb project, after German physicists first detected nuclear fission in Berlin at the end of 1938. Hitler himself made vague threats of coming superweapons in 1939, perhaps thinking of the Army’s ultra-secret rocket project that would yield the V-2. When British intelligence detected that program in spring 1943, Churchill ordered a special air raid on the Peenemünde rocket center on the Baltic. Carried out in August, it was designed to kill the rocket engineers and disrupt the project, but was only a partial success. In late 1943 and early 1944, the construction of missile launch and storage sites in northern France led the Allies to divert strategic bombers to try to put the sites out of operation.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tl4I9gjyRkGorGbSyNFE3vQ2qF2mMAIF_RyrWfgjTxgRumzPwUUUkuwj6pvyPwYiSV9MMPP80",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn spring 1944, USAAF concern peaked regarding the imminent appearance of German reaction-propelled fighters. The Me 163 rocket interceptor first entered combat in May, zooming through bomber formations at high speed. In late July, the first Me 262 turbojet aircraft were deployed as well. Yet there was no crisis. The Me 163 flew so fast that it was challenging to carry out a gunnery run on an American bomber and it exhausted its propellants in five minutes, at which point the pilot would glide back to base. U.S. fighter pilots soon learned to intercept them during the glide phase or lurk about the landing fields to shoot them down, which was feasible because of growing Allied air superiority.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RmFgYAnYXAZlnRCZBVv7q2eD5Ui9i4OaoHBsaTHHd9JEDe1MbwobWiTEY9XC8qR7ejXaQu1g",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Me 262 was more effective because it had more conventional flying characteristics and a speed advantage over piston-engine opponents. But it was also vulnerable to being attacked on landing. In any case, the Me 262’s jet engines, being brand-new technology, had to be overhauled every few flight hours, or they would catastrophically fail.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QtNMSc-qbJXqVfvKIC1ud7Zz5_odsU8Vj1FQIG81ofFFqwjqOfrTqHg99aW6ODAFxzwYIQKg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBetween the combat appearance of the two fighters, the Luftwaffe also began launching its Fieseler Fi 103 “flying bomb”—what we would now call a cruise missile. Days after its debut against London on June 13, Goebbels finally hit upon a propaganda name he liked: V-1 for Vergeltungswaffe Eins (Vengeance Weapon One). It made the biggest impression of any “wonder weapon.” Launched off steam catapults in northeastern France, dozens of V-1s soon began penetrating British airspace day and night, causing a mass exodus of children and families from London. Churchill was so concerned he tried to talk Allied leaders into dropping poison gas on German cities.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QtNMSc-qbJXqVfvKIC1ud7Zz5_odsU8Vj1FQIG81ofFFqwjqOfrTqHg99aW6ODAFxzwYIQKg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eYet that crisis soon passed too. By August, the reorganization of British anti-aircraft defenses greatly increased the number of missiles shot down, and at the end of the month, Allied forces overran the Channel coast after the breakout from Normandy. Thereafter, only small numbers of V-1s were launched against southeast England from Heinkel He 111 bombers based in the Netherlands. Hitler ordered a shift in focus to the newly liberated Belgian port of Antwerp, which was needed by the Allies to supply its armies.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHyeWJjjTzrEZtGVdz5d92rdM8NoLYe8s2pPVl8JBREiSw6-8sG-ys5r1gqCs8Rh_2s0gPfwM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eArmy crews first successfully fired the V-2 against Paris and London on September 8, but Goebbels held off announcing it for two months, as the Ministry’s exaggerated V-1 propaganda had led to disillusionment inside the Reich. Arriving supersonically, the V-2 could not be shot down with 1944 technology, and its ton of high explosives, when combined with its impact velocity, created a massive crater. It was the most advanced and exotic weapon deployed in World War II—until the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Japan eleven months later.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHyeWJjjTzrEZtGVdz5d92rdM8NoLYe8s2pPVl8JBREiSw6-8sG-ys5r1gqCs8Rh_2s0gPfwM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eYet again the actual results of the V-2 were a lot less impressive than expected. Like its cruise missile predecessor, it was so inaccurate that it could only be aimed a large urban area and many failed during flight or exploded in the countryside. Manufacturing the V-2 cost at least ten times more than the V-1, and as result it was launched in much smaller numbers (about 3,000, as opposed to 22,000 V-1s). The very fact that there was no defense against the ballistic missile, other than futile attempts to try to find and bomb the mobile launch crews, meant that the Allies diverted fewer resources to stop it.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R6dS0-Xj97kVGsK-71oqjKKOZZH8CZOARmFzCFOxgPjjHW0p5WlFBc96DX_cAYgJkzrw0rYAJk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Third Reich had earlier deployed the first air-launched, anti-shipping missile and the first precision-guided bomb in 1943, and it expended a lot of effort on developing anti-aircraft and air-to-air missiles for home defense, none of which it deployed. (The Henschel Hx 293, Fritz-X, Rheintochter R-1, the Ruhrstahl X-4 and other missiles are on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center.) The net result of all these weapons, deployed or otherwise, was that the Reich wasted a lot of money and technical expertise (and killed a lot of forced and slave laborers) in developing and producing exotic devices that yielded little or no tactical and strategic advantage. As for the one true superweapon of World War II, the atomic bomb, the Germans made only limited progress in nuclear technology. Arguments about the reasons for that failure have raged since 1945, but even if German physicists had created a nuclear reactor and a bomb design, it was very unlikely that the Reich could have built the huge isotope separation plants needed, given relentless Allied bombing.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SU18ScPJUY5wYIkeQZrg8iy12CAPD0G6_C1AFLiq8T6Vio5JoQf2vbML0hg1zSxW4KVrNGnoY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDid the “wonder weapons” come “too late”? Quite the opposite: they came too early. Jet engine technology was still too new and temperamental, as were many of the component technologies of the new weapons. The V-1 and V-2 attacks, almost entirely on London and Antwerp, had no strategic result because the missiles lacked accurate guidance systems and nuclear warheads. Anglo-American conventional, four-engine aircraft were far more effective at strategic bombing. In any case, Hitler had lost the war in 1941 when he attacked the Soviet Union and declared war on the United States, with the result that Germany was arrayed against not just one great power (the British Commonwealth), but three. It took until late 1942 for the manpower and production imbalance to manifest itself on the battlefield, but thereafter the Third Reich was bludgeoned into submission by Allied superiority. So, when you next visit our location in Washington, DC, or the Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia, you may admire our world-class collection of advanced German aircraft and missiles, but please do not tell your companions that if they had only come sooner, the Nazis might have won the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The History of LORAN Navigation","A new top secret system to navigate the seas","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TribkiQCfeM28Vlryts1GxJerrHJZSQ_cZIOkTHKFkYsIic2vdjilsYuY-BPPTSk9EYRkOgg","/asset/history-of-the-loran-system/FgGmxd65E0K8qQ",21,null,null,null,null,["FgGmxd65E0K8qQ",1.7777778,null,null,["//i2.ytimg.com/vi/1POohDe5q5c/hqdefault.jpg","1POohDe5q5c","History of the LORAN System",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Smithsonian's National Air and Space 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waste","","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_STz24ZW6C1kRQvcFukpIfeNnkybs9OPFNQsMGwxgoEmRINBzsY0BJqfc3rGBVOJbXZm7B-Rg","/asset/we-want-your-kitchen-waste-keep-it-dry-free-from-glass-bones-tins/RAGdChDjc86E1g",8,null,null,"#e1bfb8",null,["RAGdChDjc86E1g",0.66150755,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Smithsonian's National Museum of American History"],null,[null,null,"Great Britain"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"RAGdChDjc86E1g"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,"https://www.google.com/maps/dir//1300+Constitution+Ave+NW%0AWashington,+20560%0AUnited+States/data\u003d!4m8!4m7!1m0!1m5!1m1!1s0x89b7b798ecb5b2c7:0x32b2170679e71dea!2m2!1d-77.03005089999999!2d38.8912793?hl\u003den\u0026gl\u003dUS","http://americanhistory.si.edu/","1300 Constitution Ave NW\nWashington, 20560\nUnited States",38.89127930000001,-77.03005089999999,"Washington, United 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History"],null,[null,null,"France"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"AAFtYMH_rMvL2g"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,"https://www.google.com/maps/dir//1300+Constitution+Ave+NW%0AWashington,+20560%0AUnited+States/data\u003d!4m8!4m7!1m0!1m5!1m1!1s0x89b7b798ecb5b2c7:0x32b2170679e71dea!2m2!1d-77.03005089999999!2d38.8912793?hl\u003den\u0026gl\u003dUS","http://americanhistory.si.edu/","1300 Constitution Ave NW\nWashington, 20560\nUnited States",38.89127930000001,-77.03005089999999,"Washington, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QDnbwr-cfV4tcog8cAOy_zZIF922stQzpNlAf_8sBOMxVMPpTQesyMyKtF83d77O_UFXr_ag\u003dfcrop64\u003d1,0c5a0ac8f337f536",542,413,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-museum-of-american-history"]]]],null,null,null,null,"art",null,null,null,18,"SimpleStack","EditorialSection:e344de7b-eb27-47f6-bcb0-35bb7e54a028"],["stella.edit.sect",null,41,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Explore the poster collections by color","","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SbVzFxr55RLT_dYVDYy1ip_YJ3Y7PZUIPBtJoXxzkkI2j0VH4FtIm7Yux--3_EAy_gqlfzOwM","/color?project\u003dworld-war-ii-posters",null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Pick a color"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[1]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,19,"SmallBanner","EditorialSection:72dc42b9-7d06-44f8-a4cf-04813d327165"],["stella.edit.sect",["Paintbrushes, posters, and politics","The contributions of artists, designers, animators, and more to the war effort",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Remembering World War II Through Art","Learning from Air Force veteran Robert Jordan's painting \"November 1944\"","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S4YEV6L3q7eOhqMdrh9QGHM1bWjSJLsKXTkQf23x-C3X8o-AlyBTqgxvikryaMKJs_g-D3Ffwq","/story/wgVhZV_xAOhiLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"wgVhZV_xAOhiLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u0026quot;November 1944\u0026quot; by Robert Jordan (1925–1993) is a massive oil painting representing an American aircrew. In 1976, the artist donated the painting to the National Air and Space Museum’s art collection while teaching art history at the Washington University in St. Louis. Jordan’s donation letter to the Museum reveals that his impetus for the painting came from an admiration of group portraits by the seventeenth-century painters Frans Hals and Rembrandt van Rijn. Rembrandt was notorious for his chiaroscuro technique, in which subjects are rendered in strong contrasts of light and shadow—this painting certainly reflects those characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWith the chiaroscuro technique, Jordan painted the crew members in the duality of light and shade in front of an aircraft hidden in shadow. Jordan also stated in his letter, “The painting by no means is a true group portrait. I was working from a twenty-two-year-old memory of faces, and really wanted it to be general for any crew.” In a modest tone, the artist also shared his experience as a B-24 tail gunner in the 8th Air Force during World War II. His crew was shot down on their fourth mission near Hanover, Germany, and they were imprisoned in Stalag Luft IV Prison of War (POW) camp. At the end of the war, the crew was forced to march to avoid the advancing Russians. The artist refers to the painting as a “memory myth,” but a little research tells otherwise.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe group portrait\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn a style reminiscent of the American artist Edward Hopper (1882–1967), Jordan presents a crew of nine men positioned in front their aircraft along with the U.S. star insignia on the fuselage. Some of the men wear fleece-lined brown bomber jackets or flight suits, while others wear parachute harnesses, goggles, or have flying helmets on their heads. Others wear yellow rectangular life vests (also known as “Mae Wests”). The life vests are the brightest color in the painting and shine like beacons in the otherwise solemn color palette of dark blue, green, and brown. The attire worn by these men is the standard flight gear from the WWII era.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T9kKGsCo_FJCEu_y6i45p6MlPM19Hy8iezewOziHxeX-ljExxCxsHkAPRKIRMSFRFS3zKV7aEG",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCrew members stand with slightly drooped shoulders with arms crossed or hands in their pockets while others crouch or kneel. The gazes of the figures are downturned and are not engaged with the viewer. Instead, their facial expressions are introspective as if in deep thought. Unlike typical smiling or boastful crew members often seen in WWII photographs, the overall body language of this group evokes a quiet sense of shared despair. Stillness overwhelms the atmosphere of this hauntingly beautiful rendering of an aircrew. Details of this painting as described above suggest that November 1944 is based on “memory truth” rather than “memory myth” as the artist suggests.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rjyhx9itDCR9QQMgT9RMAZGpzVw6h-28Ao_byBVX0lVNoQN_TYOty46r35fgjILy4Ym8RLFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMissing air crew report # 11217\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRobert Jordan was a nineteen-year-old when he and his aircrew were shot down on November 26, 1944. Stationed at the Tibenham Royal Air Force Base near Norfolk, England, the young airman was with the 445th Group and assigned to the 703rd Squadron as the tail gunner of a Consolidated Liberator B-24J bomber aircraft. The B-24 was sometimes referred to as a “Flying Boxcar” or “Flying Coffin” because of its large, squarish fuselage. Furthermore, bailing out was also problematic and a challenge for crewmembers to reach their respective hatches in order to jump out. Piloted by 2nd Lt. Daniel Snow, the plane was nicknamed “Snow Ball from Hell.” Under weather conditions noted as haze with one-tenth cloud cover, the crew was in the midst of a bombing mission over Misburg, Germany, when their plane was hit by enemy anti-aircraft fire and they had to parachute out. At approximately 12:40 pm, the plane went down about 15 miles southeast of Hanover, Germany and all nine members of the crew were captured. That November day, four other planes from the 445th Group were also shot down and a total of 45 crewmen were on board the other lost aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rjyhx9itDCR9QQMgT9RMAZGpzVw6h-28Ao_byBVX0lVNoQN_TYOty46r35fgjILy4Ym8RLFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe sketchbook\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJordan recorded some of the experiences that day through a series of drawings, now located in the collection of the New Hampshire Historical Society. A sketch captioned “No Fox Holes in the Sky” depicts two men wearing oxygen masks tumbling inside of the B-24 aircraft cabin. A large gaping hole in the side of the aircraft confirms one of the places they were hit. A spread of empty ammunition shells from the waist gunner’s position covers the floor of the aircraft. In “Just Before Bail Out,” two crew members prepare to bail out of the plane. “Watching the Boys Going Home” is a scene with Jordan crouching on the ground in an empty field after parachuting to the ground. Above him in the sky is a formation of bombers from his squadron flying safely back to England. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eShortly after reaching the ground, the sketches reveal that the teenage tail gunner was captured by an armed farmer and turned over to the German authorities. “KAPUT!, I’d Had It!” shows a sequence of events related to the squadron’s immediate capture such as U.S. airmen escorted by German soldiers to the railroad station while local townspeople kicked, punched, and threw things at them. One of the injured servicemen was supported by two of his crewmates. Another quick sketch is of a young boy in uniform captioned “Little Nazi,” with a side note that says, “I didn’t last more than 10 minutes as a free man in Germany.” Those few sketches are merely of his first few hours in Germany.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rjyhx9itDCR9QQMgT9RMAZGpzVw6h-28Ao_byBVX0lVNoQN_TYOty46r35fgjILy4Ym8RLFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePOW drawings\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJordan also made sketches of his solitary confinement at the Luft IV POW camp and of “The March” also known as “The Long March” or “The Death March.” Under Hitler’s orders, Allied POWs were forced to march hundreds of miles to escape the advancing Soviets as the Germans wanted to use the POWs as bargaining chips at the end of the war. In loose pencil marks, the drawings show emaciated servicemen knocked to the ground or struggling to walk or the miserable sleeping conditions in the bitter cold—the winter of 1945 was one of the coldest on record. Other sketches depict efforts to procure water from the Germans (which was sometimes impossible to get) or delousing routines to get rid of lice. Whereas Jordan’s sketches of the earlier aircraft and bail out experiences are detailed, the depictions of the POW experiences are incomplete. His memories as a POW seemed harder to reach, as if pushed away instead of easily resurfacing through his pencil onto the paper—and justifiably so. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAccounts from other servicemen’s experiences at Luft IV described their brutal treatment and the deplorable living conditions of “The March.” Airmen from the Luft IV were not fed and sanitation was non-existent. Men remained in the same clothing they bailed out in for the duration of their imprisonment and were given only one blanket to make it through the winter months. Jordan was “skin and bones” when liberated that spring by Allied troops. During his three-month hospital stay in England, a Red Cross nurse gave him a sketchbook and pencils to help with the physical and mental healing process. The aforementioned drawings were made during his hospital recovery in 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RpyniSkaZ-bGCGgHHkHTZmE3OOXsPXaz8KV6BhZ6XMeZ2rFhkL233W1k62dLMuzuFHhRIdJw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMemory truth\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter the war, Jordan received degrees from Dartmouth College and Columbia University, and became both a successful painter and art historian. In his recollection about \u0026quot;November 1944,\u0026quot; in a letter to the Museum he says, “…I still feel some sense of ambiguity I had when I painted it, and which I felt in 1944—the sense of adventure as well as the possibility of death—the necessity of the task as well as the madness of it all. Nothing new there, for men at war, but at least the necessity part was far more clear cut than today.” It’s not a coincidence that he chose to paint \u0026quot;November 1944\u0026quot; in the 1960s during the height of the Vietnam War. Jordan remarked the painting was a search of his own experience, “for some occasion where men are bound tighter in a meaningful association.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u0026quot;November 1944\u0026quot; suggests a truthful reflection of the artist’s experiences in WWII, rather than a painting inspired by the Great Dutch Masters or a memory-myth. Nine men in the painting are the same number of members in Jordan’s aircrew that were shot down. Painterly expressions of gaunt facial features and defeated body language exude the notion—these men have been through hell and back.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA non-detailed B-24 aircraft serves as a backdrop for the men and is the same type of plane Jordan’s crew flew that unforgettable day in November. The plane recedes into the darkness of the background and is symbolic for the lost aircraft. Bright yellow life vests serve as signs of hope in the otherwise solemn painting—representing the survival of the entire crew. Although the depicted details of this aircrew may not replicate an exact likeness to Jordan’s actual crew, their faces reveal a shared expression having lived through a POW experience. November 1944 is a testament to the courage and honorable service like Robert Jordan’s crew and others during WWII—and gives hope that life endures after unprecedented circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","How Mickey Mouse Raised Morale","Disney dives into WWII","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QaM4SnwMIm-jGqM2Jd6-yUmk0B6rOcEgxj9kiwC1lLcoORxgj8qbwIB6lIWEbZJj3ABTEZG1E","/story/BQXhuqy5geSMLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d8b06f26-05a7-41cf-9f34-fa84902059c8","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QaM4SnwMIm-jGqM2Jd6-yUmk0B6rOcEgxj9kiwC1lLcoORxgj8qbwIB6lIWEbZJj3ABTEZG1E","HgyUDIcJr4Ei8y-VDpGKWeJhyr8",[0.5017912,0.48040885,0,0.42169908,0.16235094],null,null,null,[3908,5870]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"BQXhuqy5geSMLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TEZvSETUXcpLmui0qDQXjL2DkpwNb8XH9hEFAKOeHScuQVN7Ww7i8yt8ZX0ofNRKZTIuktT_nU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn December 7, 1941, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, drawing the United States into World War II. The ext day U.S. Army troops requisitioned half of Walt Disney’s Burbank, California, studio for their use. But space was not all that Disney would provide the troops. Artists, animators, and Walt Disney himself pitched in, enlisting Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, and other beloved Disney characters in the war effort.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TvqTLgJFzrJaB-9S-hITJ6mW6OpPqBOBmr3dZirumAyfBGTJQlSlbeG1b8SpE58Bycucpqmg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDisney partnered with several government programs to educate citizens and encourage them to do their part on the home front. Disney characters appeared on posters, in books, and even on war bonds.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ThwGONxiw4n4e6rNW6G8h8lAJhqc-emn6q096WcpleRIEKqHmC0xxinmH-fyiECOJakPV-CSo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe use of Disney’s characters in war-related work helped to strengthen the perception of the Disney brand as a symbol of the United States and its values.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ThwGONxiw4n4e6rNW6G8h8lAJhqc-emn6q096WcpleRIEKqHmC0xxinmH-fyiECOJakPV-CSo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA set of three posters aimed at educating civilians working war-related jobs on the importance of proper nutrition for optimum output was created by Disney for the California War Council\u0026#39;s Food and Nutrition Committee. Advertisements show that other groups could purchase them for 5 cents each to hang in their own work spaces.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q_hL6pwCp5DzqZ8GlMS5_iByJXlH4CX2jJMmAu9cnNH0bIp_yTHv2BFkd8NQRCN8rQO1dmGw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDisney’s animation studio created educational shorts, training films, and patriotic entertainment. Most famously, Walt Disney was asked to go to South America as part of the Good Neighbor Program promoting cordial relations between North and South America during the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qwlv3Ev_OxRXahCjgE6aFVgUSVPkWmQM404yTzNG98pUA58Cg6uvaY2tT13gsL25-tEvC2MUU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDisney and his research team, dubbed \u0026quot;El Grupo,\u0026quot; traveled and took in the sights both as ambassadors of goodwill, and as research for planned South American cartoons.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TvFwYZ4nSkACrR-NgFBiBuWo0u3dIZsLK_4nASJ2vuRVUTpnpJj6yxPtGMuJphiA8pr_Ib4w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe most famous results of that trip were the films \u0026quot;Saludos Amigos\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;The Three Caballeros,\u0026quot; both starring Donald Duck. In 1943 The New York Times praised Donald as an “ambassador-at-large, a salesman of the American Way” for his representation of the United States both at home and abroad.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RtRHTqzCG0ZGg7DaV2kKi0y2bNSU_B7iBP8bjj016EP1l0-WUFRbdmUMtpOrE6DYiRFL1JMv0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDisney was most prolific during the war as a morale booster for the troops. Company artists created images of Disney characters for unit patches, eventually providing insignia to almost 1,300 units in the U.S. armed forces.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T072rpTEvUxqLzXqUk6c3shQsY1_RjESiH6lhdI0bFrFw9glrm_wdRJgMOtLv5fCJrrzglLA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFifinella was a female gremlin designed by Walt Disney based on Roald Dahl\u0026#39;s book \u0026quot;The Gremlins.\u0026quot; She was used as the official mascot and insignia of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPS).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QPvviRRq_AZXEqB56IV5jHX8Sbz3IpMDzI7T2w_PoWNDyMM0Oc9G996xrFOvmLNLIj5HIbC5w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMany Disney characters ended up as nose art on military aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QufLPlR_dnzFc2KuvDwGPArMC6pnxAHeV3S4IaUo2X19uYsVt0nXVk0LTeRpVF2Gw9W9myCCk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Studio’s work was not just instrumental in the United States’ war effort; using Disney characters to speak on behalf of the U.S. government also solidified the idea—building since Disney’s 1930s cartoon work—that the brand was associated with patriotism and a symbol for America writ large.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Strike Hard, Strike Sure","Poster-sized education for the public","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TbTWRQOd9Opgvmw_3sy2s37tI1h9Z_inyA-hvvKc1Hrqpm8iWLgpsqK2afDonjQhXVEOr0-ghS","/story/tgWh1RI-J9l4Kg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:1e91b5ad-bf23-4d1d-abc8-d7107c1ffd73","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TbTWRQOd9Opgvmw_3sy2s37tI1h9Z_inyA-hvvKc1Hrqpm8iWLgpsqK2afDonjQhXVEOr0-ghS","niEYwPYiMe2AT4BeJYxajdCtuuU",[0.5,0.5,0,0.609017,0.22029589],null,null,null,[2706,4326]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"tgWh1RI-J9l4Kg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ReO2ccLgfG8XIMomUmMEeF2mcceUwKCfzsoaYBs6YERVeyIsFkzj9Lk87IswQgSwbCyDwGwLSH",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBeginning in July 1940, the German Air Force, or Luftwaffe, launched a sustained campaign against Great Britain\u0026#39;s Royal Air Force (RAF)\u0026#39;s Fighter Command to achieve air superiority. By October the RAF had emerged victorious. The Luftwaffe thereafter focused on night bombing raids on the Britain in what became known as \u0026quot;The Blitz.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rwq3M2k51ueybZLUcNPRwu5HYyOfslYrLQtZSJqg_YR0z6HLHEP2ZsEF6xf0LHg_8SBVssbyI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn August 20, 1940 in a speech to the House of Commons, Prime Minister Winston Churchill honored the pilots of Fighter Command, remarking \u0026quot;Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few . . .\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXar1h3DYqh39UDlVoj5t37OkQQh0s37DHbaPke-Z1m8GzeRlCKOuaUAajNkuMkqNMf6PM1os",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEven as the Battle of Britain raged over the nation\u0026#39;s coastal areas, this 1940 poster lets the British people know of RAF Bomber Command\u0026#39;s counter blows against the then-formidable might of the German Luftwaffe.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RdWmMX5abZwq9F81puTaKZcIS5SVvONg2AQ6Vvw5IpRIYE2WxbnOSRIvtK-p91VuNn5SPqNA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe early operations of Bomber Command proved bloody. On August 12, 1941, 54 Bristol Blenheim light bombers attacked power stations at Knapsack and Quadrath near Cologne. Twelve bombers were lost but the raid heavily damaged the plants. This painting by James Gardner captures the courage and ferocity of the attack.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TlqlwsyGcBv5OQTov5PMOzdLIncimlAkAKlXQLK_-gDM02B8N5UcjFkLRUVIIu783FV2Nbrg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs Bomber Command grew in number of aircraft, larger bombers capable of carrying greater bomb loads entered operational service. Foremost among these was the Avro Lancaster introduced in February 1942. The \u0026quot;Lanc\u0026quot; could carry up to 14,000 pounds with a range of over 2,500 miles.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sc0hfGa42nWzNKfxri1T-QCn46GhWbpOaTmIoH79OvVsoUD25R65WnEKvrQaiNjBtrSRY623U",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn February 1942, Bomber Command received orders to make targets in Germany - including civilian cities - its top priority. Bombers began launching large nighttime raids, with the bombing of Lübeck one of the first such attacks. On the night of March 28, 1942, 234 Stirling and Wellington heavy and medium bombers dropped approximately 400 tons of high explosive and incendiary bombers, creating a terrible firestorm as depicted in the poster.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RshDb7FfnnlJK7BRLmVhJZ782eCVsv-KcXFCO6vmxtS7M9wMvl0NADSiEsZvgRWNELNzk2",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBy mid-1942, Bomber Command\u0026#39;s raids on Germany dwarfed those of the Luftwaffe against Great Britain from September 1940 to May 1941 (\u0026quot;The Blitz\u0026quot;).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rd9Rj5l6cLr7ApbBehhkIjd8L6YZv2sqmxM1KnvxtZB1v4lB4qWv5z3EOXIzh-j-MwZhP5V4eq",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThree times between May and June 1942, Bomber Command flew \u0026quot;thousand-bomber raids\u0026quot; which relied on the sheer number of aircraft and bombers with fire bombs to overwhelm German defenses and attack cities. While limited in destruction of military targets, the raids terrorized German civilians while demonstrating the increasing strength of Bomber Command to the British people.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SD5UK9IXJ_qLiSZhRuE4ORkCF5lL8BBOjDn6tq9ZG80qcIq4FAZFijrzcApI29cj53xICf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWith a switch to area bombing, Bomber Command increased the scale of its raids on cities in Germany. This post mentions the 26-27 July 1942 raid on Hamburg when 403 aircraft hit the city, destroying 823 houses, damaging over 5,000 more. A year later, almost twice as many bombers returned and created massive firestorm which would kill over 42,000 civilians.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SxpVQTy41tHefJtww6YGqJgAeNeqWUKs1BmMuZyuce1XgVKcHwavJ2vUzvJN8013-mbaEhHME",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBy late 1942, Bomber Command was launching nighttime raids with regularity on targets in Germany and German-occupied Western Europe. While ostensibly seeking to destroy military targets, indiscriminate area bombing killed countless civilians and destroyed thousands of private homes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S8640xGAVOeMGxcdBH2b9XfAWdVdvWdrliufI8nYW-XLWpt8C_0icU87sCQhoLB3eW8KCYEQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn 30 January 1943, a flight of de Havilland Mosquito light bombers flew a daring daylight raid into Berlin. As Luftwaffe chief, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring gave a speech celebrating the tenth anniversary of the Nazis\u0026#39; seizure of power, British bombs knocked out the main Berlin radio station, silencing the broadcast. The tide of war was undeniably turning.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QrBbUZqWLZJfsI9L4qbn-PG9h27AKO7xQ54pgzV7bDK8Dzom5gVZ_-CZR5CEFykOKpTPdH-A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePrinted in French, this 1943 poster reads \u0026quot;The R.A.F. relentlessly bombs German war industries. THE VICTORY OF THE ALLIES IS ENSURED.\u0026quot; As a target burns below and searchlights and antiaircraft artillery fire (\u0026quot;flak\u0026quot;) dance across the skies, Lancasters of Bomber Command soar overhead, part of a seemingly endless processing of aircraft determined to bring Nazi Germany to her knees.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,20,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:120692bb-f4fa-4deb-8643-ef18fb6cf0c8"],["stella.edit.sect",["Photos from the front","The photographic legacy of WWII",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","World War II in Color","Rare color photographs reveal new aspects of life in WWII","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwD4-rcJCrQcKIb5r8PVfPksZOfL_kuJ9IALqyR_eNjfW_stIXXI0EdDsOqKuA_emwohBNyw","/story/5wVxlUkSrbrHKg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"5wVxlUkSrbrHKg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SPAqz6LTimPYgdhHqXixyLheS5pnw7VRX2-Itl9w6sBlnFBVCyDWTRd-Fn4xwifjoYyAG0Kw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWorld War II is one of the best documented conflicts in history. Millions of photos and miles of motion picture film stock provide a rich visual documentation of the conflict in both its brutal violence and celebration of martial purpose. Color photography, though not new, had only just become widely available when the war began. Existing color images of the war are not hard to come by, but they are considerably rarer than black and white images.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qq6Iu_EPggZvhA0t9R7KzA20iB23m0Fu4N1H1oSq5muJaE0Drl-N9LpXr2rrJDWhkwI1qlCMc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs the lived experience of World War ll fades away, the use of original color imagery provides a sense of immediacy for younger generations for whom the war is often a vague and distant event from the last century. As part of the National Air and Space Museum’s renovation, which involves exciting new exhibits in our flagship location on the National Mall in Washington, DC, Museum staff and volunteers are scanning World War II color photography that will be used in a vibrant display of Americans at war in the air. Large high-resolution images of both new and known moments of the war will give visitors a chance to experience this conflict in a new light.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SSYCOFlxd_GiJCN2xNQHTdrhRshWkaT7YxAz8br10wqZcK4-yrWps5lMRwHLNz3tL9-5MYSDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis project is not without its challenges. The color transparencies are exceptionally fragile, and the Museum’s Archives have to limit access to them, which in turn limits their broader use in exhibits and books. Another challenge is that much of the photography is grainy. Government photographers with professional labs tended to have the best results, but they were not often shooting from the front. This means that photos of the front were often taken by amateurs in less-than-ideal conditions and with poor equipment.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RVuPCUQap1IZKjhkIc0-uYshCZvKJrWMaZ0dHAd-odPG8pIs-PgFve2dlmzePcxZiep-8jJw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe following images are only a small number of the thousands being scanned, but they give an idea of the range of wartime experiences documented. They come from the National Air and Space Museum Archives collection, National Archives and Records Administration, and the Library of Congress. For those images not already available digitally at high resolution (such as those at the Library of Congress), the exhibit team will make them available over time.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S7iI_PgdC-jt3l70en7kVfL7jIdtc8OyY3ILyhOybow61eCjL2IaOiFoQc2R1wxGaDAaJ0eEt8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eArmy Air Forces recruits arrive at the San Antonio Aviation Cadet Training Center in preparation for basic training.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T5ZJX2RrElBASazjyJOtNQ1ZxQDCtUc-GSBzoE5d8-CRKp1L73QU6W0IC5_-eXbf9U8Vlxeow",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe XPB2M-1 prototype for the Martin Mars flying boat sits on the ground at the Martin Aircraft Factory, Martin State Airport in Baltimore, Maryland ,in late 1942 with a Piper J-3 Cub parked on its right wing to convey its massive size.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SemUPhrzL4Cl0gzXO4gjUd8qy4xUIunI_TIf0mcOU5MzF2lZSi4tS5-hONH8t2ZjfO3dyFfw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAn Army Air Forces engineer examines a B-17 model undergoing wind tunnel testing.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZN2Lm7gjE56zRSXw5J0bus3eW0nJzfYeW-z7CPEzUZ9GDi9s8-3QRwT719TRhBzp1TSGT_mI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eNaval aviation cadets check the morning roster for their primary training flights in N2S “Yellow Perils,” 1942/43.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SkrgqSJC1SCWT987yviWfJUnkZKMQW0H9M2EFslb4OSWS2o28NirTPAeNg-k0Z-rwy-C8tQA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA Navy JRF Goose in flight over Alaska, winter 1942/43.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWlMNvKCSOv7sstEpi19R1YY1Uwj_BPXZRvViPX5I4I-Pfyj2fXvUj-OLrkeD9tL567aBk4Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA riveter works on a wing panel of a Vultee A-31 Vengance dive bomber at Vultee’s Nashville, Tennessee, plant in February 1943.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tbx4i_ZBzzHCtOqXw7yn8zOJStNR_pE7awhM4kBZ3gffCBsP_uPwfUKfhVlgIEUyyyQK4x",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAviation cadets in Tuskegee, Alabama, undergoing advanced training in AT-6s.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q1f6e4jTAzK5cJoNHIy6vb5SmqnYY_edWGHV4nmihc_WsjjKvopnlzp88xPVdiESQOYwmb9Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCapt. Jack Westward of Lewiston, Idaho, instructs combat fliers on the fine points of B-17 formation flying at an Eighth Air Force base in England.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RRr3dcUGAv4izRcGFxRBzsAyDa9Hjc6QYUVItJ9xmR0ebo05Jm1aYufvLn_J-H_IW-UbeHp0A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eARM3C Robert L. Brown of Denver, Colorado, poses in the cockpit of an F6F Hellcat aboard the USS Yorktown (CV-10) with “Scrappy,” the ship’s mascot, November-December 1943.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TYjoNWrtRv60iiTi0EFIITxg5y2NhSfZNrz9rstTxEB3Vhpf7pBRZqBhyVlO6pIktKIZnzq10",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWreckage burns from two Marine F4U Corsairs that collided at what appears to be Barakoma airfield on Vella Lavella Island in the Solomons, late 1943 or early 1944.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QsySvBdomob8mMRvX_tHXVsvBCG0il8yfx9fhUQwKA2SHCTuKGnDwlSh7xgAvCZ8ljLaEV",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePilots of Marine Torpedo Bombing Squadron 232 (VMTB-232) stand by their squadron scorecard in 1943/44. The squadron played an important role in the Guadalcanal.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Quk61E_-Rvn8wiCkn_I71kOmBe5ppn86lYK5Mj9_fNLtIGcZmppH6vTsSfWkimVZ2RpvyN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAn intelligence officer briefs pilots for “Operation Strangle” in spring 1944. They were to attack key supply lines keeping German forces operating in Italy.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SSYCOFlxd_GiJCN2xNQHTdrhRshWkaT7YxAz8br10wqZcK4-yrWps5lMRwHLNz3tL9-5MYSDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEnglish women watch an Eighth Air Force maintenance crew work on a B-24 engine.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R-46iSuFiPFgIOuXJzPcyFcVWjuLGe1dArvUrYWvOM8pP9yP2tXEs1NXUwJzxoEO2Xp5f1rOc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCommander Frank Erickson, U.S. Coast Guard, demonstrates air-sea rescue with a Sikorsky HNS-1 helicopter operating from Floyd Bennett Field, 1944/45.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RVuPCUQap1IZKjhkIc0-uYshCZvKJrWMaZ0dHAd-odPG8pIs-PgFve2dlmzePcxZiep-8jJw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSgt. Manuel Goulart Ferreira from Rio de Janeiro proudly polishes the Brazilian national insignia of a 1st Brazilian Fighter Squadron P-47 Thunderbolt in Italy. The squadron flew in combat from November 1944 to May 1945 as part of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force. Brazil was the principal South American nation participating in Allied operations against Germany.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qq6Iu_EPggZvhA0t9R7KzA20iB23m0Fu4N1H1oSq5muJaE0Drl-N9LpXr2rrJDWhkwI1qlCMc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe USS Midway (CVB-41) is launched on March 20, 1945, in Newport News, Virginia.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R4gbSdQhPx0DVQ8OvYK8qNSIOGKH1PZidRSwEV8zKDizk3-9D4oXypsT3Awbh56M3uWCGjnIs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn Spring 1945, a group of Navy flight nurses walks from their Douglas R5D (C-54) transport. They are (l-r): Lt. JG Lydia Masserine, Lt. Stella Makar, Lt. JG Dorothy Wood, Lt. JG Hope Toone, Lt. JG Mae Hanson, and Ens. Winnifred Jennings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SpB2IAfnLfeyP1ZzzeVvfS6Kepgom0tHo4pGnnenl1Ip-Brx-yhKaM9ni3lKu9qdcVqLy1dA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMarines on Okinawa look over an abandoned Japanese Kawasaki Ki-61 “Tony” on April 9, 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLCjWS1e1QebJv2me272u0Oa292F-Byq4lqIucflRUEwbklBcbbLLxhEP2EX3U4r1sGVKU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn April 22, 1945, 1st Lt. Jeremiah O’Keefe shot down five Japanese kamikaze aircraft off Okinawa in his F4U Corsair and then brought down another two six days later.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QH-pj_tXerVembaUWHKlfnRvOgGXYAPWgmdaoTT6XZC3-nmDT_GWnzCwOfQxLs5lQhC0Tw-jE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePresident Franklin Roosevelt’s casket proceeds down Constitution Avenue toward the White House during his funeral procession on April 14, 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RM6WhAZ63sPfDle-mSh9FrZRlipGUw4jm3-3UWUup--q5WBa4IRVHWsGmAC-RJNPu5qwvt",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLt. Clifford Allen of Chicago, Illinois, stands in front of a C-47 preparing to drop the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion. The 555th was the only African American parachute unit and was not ready in time to deploy to Europe. Instead, as incendiary Japanese balloon bombs were launched towards the U.S. in mid-1945 in hopes of starting large fires in the Pacific Northwest, the 555th was assigned to jump on fires to extinguish them as part of “Operation Fire Fly.” The unit made 15 such jumps. Note the 150-foot rope for descending from tall trees; the plastic helmet and catcher\u0026#39;s mask were protection against branches and brambles.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SPAqz6LTimPYgdhHqXixyLheS5pnw7VRX2-Itl9w6sBlnFBVCyDWTRd-Fn4xwifjoYyAG0Kw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA Naval Air Station boneyard shortly after the end of the war contains numerous catapult-launched OS2U Kingfighers (foreground), along with JM-1 (B-26) target tugs in yellow, and a R4D (C-47) transport.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R413BdLXxVCG4jzy-zovr7iMwRfGo6TYcR7E5tg-QhhxrMqbhJiUyCZzp6OBZpTnpUlPYHHw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eGerman civilians salvaging their possessions in bombed-out Berlin after the surrender of Germany.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SiXUTKvYs5wLtFtmLv3OngE8c35P51eS6wZikyM8qQLgBi6TTnxsstkX-LMFrLkL5tV6H1uow",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMarine flamethrowing Sherman tanks set fire to Japanese aircraft in Sasebo, Japan, on November 2, 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Women Pilots of WWII","Newly digitized photos shine a spotlight on the lives of women pilots","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rp_MYsNfJua2TNoQKk5nR7HmbpsI3ji89Mu3opelrpN-sjrKDtNsy7UFTuM-ky2xDVSHBesOc","/story/zgWxN3jnPUdkKQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"zgWxN3jnPUdkKQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qsf0ADE9YUTpOfHHhmKHIRZdW0TKdR6zQHEhJu0_z94Ei7eK5RWtP7WH7jFvki0WqvJ4NJpw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eArchives serve an incredibly valuable function for historical interpretation. Photographic archives, in particular, present a unique visual reading of the past, and they are a vital resource in the early stages of gallery formation.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;WASP Ann McClellan adjusts her earphones in the cockpit of a BT-13 while Anne Johnson stands on the wing of the plane.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tt45OGqcTkBQjvCbuWVwpDAJ2iSMzThXfFR4xiP-Y66MONfFCZDiiPJ7dQTIfNgp6ucQB9xg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe United States Air Force Collection, now at the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.archives.gov/college-park\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Archives and Records Administration at College Park, Maryland\u003c/a\u003e, contains a range of color transparencies featuring the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R8Fk6JUdl1QjMab-0Oc9iticuJAfZDeuFMg-dk1D_CIHaOAMfKbzYDoNyXiTcxhloO9Ccfalc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFounded in 1943 with the merging of the Women Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) and the Women’s Flying Training Detachment (WFTD), the WASPs flew 60 million miles during World War II, piloting military aircraft on domestic missions.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;WASPS and instructor having a talk before take-off for a ferrying mission.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T8L0Vih6O36DeYlZVKkQXUtNgAEJ2MKDlg8772K94xLK_nHxHD428xKjnuOqYZrLNGecnlwFAU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTheir director, \u003ca href\u003d\"https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/women-in-aviation/cochran.cfm\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJacqueline Cochran\u003c/a\u003e, became the first female aviator to break the sound barrier in 1953.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qde65iHZIhhEGhAYf8bG_fLAckEDblO0ww2XgpcsNjGB2B_6JjPe8T5JywlMo6dK6DgfWtfg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThough they performed a wide variety of tasks, the Women Airforce Service Pilots often carried out ferrying missions to transport aircraft for the war effort.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;WAFs and Army Pilot. The girls pilot the P-51s and other airplanes from factory to airbases within the United States.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RHKw_UZqNX8eIvhdL6gHR8LVYLn8US-rZyoWbIHYdamkiDuSv9arjAl5OeshfqFUMWG3OGpHY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWASPs flew the entire range of aircraft manufactured for World War II. 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Thank You. Douglas Aircraft Company.","Douglas Aircraft Company. 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The first generation of modern twin-engine airliners such as the Boeing 247, the Douglas DC-2, and DC-3s could handle these fields, but the next generation of four-engine airliners would be too heavy.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTAjhUFBSJYmcgnqtCOAVYQ9x6N-g6nRhHohsNTlKv_TcRfgAD26ODyv0VDzPFku81SXJpRtzi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTowards the end of the 1930s, the aviation industry was reluctant to confront this problem. Building hard surface concrete runways was the solution to the problem but pouring new runways at airports across the country and around the world was prohibitively expensive.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWorld War II changed that. The pressing needs of the military outweighed peacetime cost concerns as the nation needed to move people, materiel, and supplies around the world as fast as possible in order to confront the Axis enemy and reinforce our Allies. Wherever America’s forces went, hard runways of concrete and asphalt followed. In the Pacific, the U.S. Navy’s famous “Sea Bees,” construction battalions, paved over countless islands on their relentless drive to Japan. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and engineer aviation battalions built hardened runways all over Great Britain, Europe, and across the North Atlantic. Working with Pan American, the Army built airports with concrete runways across the Caribbean, across the northern part of South America, across the South Atlantic, and across north and central Africa to the Middle East and on towards India to bases in China. Domestically, the military built hundreds of new airports while the government upgraded and paved existing municipals airfields.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RXsY4Gl8H_TjJ4EAuoglx4vIMpX1eQScG8chWpnRJFVSncdDbG_1YuyGAtG4r558fPdzRcOOPo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDuring the war, newer, larger aircraft, fitted with tri-cycle landing gear, rather than the traditional “tail dragger” designs, appeared in great numbers. The United States produced thousands of four-engine Boeing B-29 bombers and Douglas DC-4s and Lockheed Constellation transports that were too heavy for grass or gravel. With hundreds of new concrete and asphalt runways constructed around the globe, these latest bombers and transports could now fly virtually anywhere, unrestricted by grass field and inadequate facilities. Immediately after the war in 1945, the DC-4, and its pressurized big brother, the DC-6, and the Lockheed Constellation and Super Constellation came to dominate international air travel.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9tkdFY870YSexj30VlR-po2JcJMsU_FJP9YQQQd5uiZYdQw5KBJfXALSZw8ASu0p-KvZGUjM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAnd flying boats were then forgotten. With adequate runways the world over, there was little need for the bulky, inefficient flying boat with its high-drag fuselage. Some remained in service, but only on limited niche routes operated by secondary airlines. By 1951 the last of the Boeing 314s sank beneath the waters of Baltimore harbor. The age of the flying boat was over.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Blimps vs. Boats","Searching for submarines from the skies","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R1FB14iAcYJ2HSv2_Bziiv2J7w575ttKMNddB9fQdCjNiHIHikhj7D9P3pkgEOMuupK4KJxA","/story/xQWRUEghqqVULA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:b356703c-eea4-4696-b3bf-33cbc902e193","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R1FB14iAcYJ2HSv2_Bziiv2J7w575ttKMNddB9fQdCjNiHIHikhj7D9P3pkgEOMuupK4KJxA","z6bscrOpU7pugGIXW--2KBG05Bs",[0.5,0.49829698,0,1.271697,0.99659395],null,null,null,[2676,2096]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"xQWRUEghqqVULA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R421cyJGTl3ryQ-qm7bM5tZBSn3fZhjwD62XrcmLNP3r7-OepIQD9zCBgaM1uwXq8s44nDhw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn January 1942, the war that had been raging in Europe arrived in the waters along the east coast of the United States. Although the United States had already experienced World War II in the Pacific with the attack on Pearl Harbor and other U.S. territories in December 1941, the start of the war in the Atlantic caught many military leaders by surprise. In mid-January, the German navy officially launched Operation Paukenschlag, a campaign of five submarines (often referred to as U-boats) to sink merchant ships carrying vital war supplies to Allied armies in Great Britain, Russia, and North Africa. In only a few short weeks, German U-boats sunk over 20 merchant vessels carrying thousands of tons of war material. The U-boats returned to their ports only after they expended all their torpedoes. To counter this new threat to maritime security, the U.S. Navy unleashed a new weapon to provide anti-submarine warfare: the K-Type blimp.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TCsiKwK1y2ij9I_bxWguzMgUe4yIvfWXRpWRCoN-RaSLmMTlPLHezeMbAzn6DhkZhuZuVg0nmG",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhen the United States entered World War II, it only had six lighter-than-air vehicles available for use to hunt U-boats. The four completed K-Type blimps, or K-ships, in the Navy’s arsenal were in the air almost immediately after the U-boat attacks started in January 1942. The K-ship K-3 was sent to patrol the waters off Long Island, New York shortly after a U.S. tanker was sunk in that area on the night of January 14. K-3 patrolled the region, looking for oil slicks and other signs of a possible submarine. As the crew of the K-3 searched the seas, they learned from a nearby airplane that survivors had been found from the sunken tanker. Once at the location, K-3 lowered water and food to the survivors and flew in the area until surface ships could arrive. K-ships continued to serve as search-and-rescue craft during their long patrols for the length of the war. They often carried extra supplies, medical equipment, and inflatable lifeboats that could be lowered to crews from sunken ships or downed aircraft. It was difficult for K-ships to pick up these survivors, but they would ensure their rescue by directing other aircraft and surface ships to areas where survivors were located. Although the K-ship’s low-speed, long flight duration, and excellent visibility allowed their crews to be proficient in search-and-rescue operations, it also allowed them to be highly proficient in the art of anti-submarine warfare.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QrlHrADkwTmyqq4nKs0OrClcnUJ1mL3a-8ikWgGMgJBnLT1i1hojIr07KPNddciRevemmYHQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eProtecting convoys and engaging U-Boats\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eK-ships were not only designed to find survivors of ships sunk by German U-boats. These blimps were also able to protect convoy shipping by locating submarines and attacking them when possible. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDue to their ability to hover and fly at low altitudes and speeds, K-ships could easily stay with convoys, and the numerous windows located throughout the control car provided excellent visibility, allowing crews to keep a lookout for everything from periscopes to oil slicks on the surface of the water. They could also operate in conditions that grounded other aircraft, such as fog or low cloud cover, allowing them to conduct anti-submarine warfare missions that otherwise would have been impossible. Noted for exceptional endurance, K-ships carried a crew of 10 and could operate for 26 hours at cruising speed, allowing them to constantly patrol the shipping lanes, waiting outU-boats that needed to surface. The combination of these unique characteristics and many more made K-ships a crucial element of anti-submarine warfare.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QrlHrADkwTmyqq4nKs0OrClcnUJ1mL3a-8ikWgGMgJBnLT1i1hojIr07KPNddciRevemmYHQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCombining K-ships with specialized equipment allowed them to find U-boats even if they were located out of sight below the ocean’s surface. Each crew consisted of two radiomen who were responsible for operating long range radio communications, allowing K-ships to alert convoys, surface ships, and attack aircraft to the presence of U-boats. They also operated radar that could detect surfaced submarines at night and in low visibility conditions. One of the most important pieces of equipment, however, was known as Magnetic Anomaly Detectors, or MAD equipment. MAD could detect distortions in Earth’s magnetic field caused by a large metal object, such as a submerged U-boat. It had a range of about 400 feet, making the low flying K-ships ideal operators. But this equipment was not flawless and it could not separate magnetic distortions caused by possible enemy craft from those caused by miscellaneous debris, including sunken wrecks. To fix this problem, K-ships would often use MAD equipment in combination with sonobuoys, which were dropped from the air to produce sonar contacts. Once a submarine was located, K-ships would call in surface ships and land-based aircraft to attack. The combination of these various pieces of equipment allowed K-ships to effectively hunt submarines and protect convoy ships.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qyk2ETc4td72GhnTZLlZgDgFT6DNtODjXBKvJ7eq8iLhq6_D6F4qFkQ1c76ZRYWHRIIn3oJKdj",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eK-ships were also able to launch attacks. They were often loaded with a variety of ordnance, and what they carried changed throughout the war as new weapons systems became available. K-ships could carry up to four weapons, varying from 350-pound Mk 47 depth bombs, Mk 17 depth charges, or Mk 24 mines/acoustic torpedoes. Two of these could be located within an internal bomb bay and two could be located externally on the control car. They were also armed with a 50-caliber machine gun located in a turret located in the front of the control car that had a wide range of movement. If a K-ship located evidence that a submarine was in the area, it could drop its ordnance to damage the submarine, or at least make it surface, until reinforcements arrived. The K-ship’s ability to make these attacks allowed them to defend convoy ships, and several managed to damage submarines or assist in sinking them. It was dangerous work and similar attacks led to the downing of one K-ship by enemy fire.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rd2Ujw_1EZ_KG89936-mkiNFJVYwQ5IaAGMZMxMzn38KLzAhwW5_icqlV1eDj4Gp8xG0GbOg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe loss of K-74\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOnly one K-ship was destroyed due to enemy contact during World War II. On the night of July 18, 1943, the K-74 was protecting ships through the Florida Straits. The crew picked up a contact on K-74’s radar and began searching the area for a U-boat. They quickly found the U-134 silhouetted against the water by moonlight. Although still 20 miles from the convoy, command pilot Lt. Nelson G. Grills determined that the submarine did pose a threat. They maneuvered the K-74 into a position to make an attack run with the ship’s depth charges before the U-134 opened fire with machine guns and its deck gun. Although it suffered some damage, the K-74 flew over the U-134 only to have its depth charge fail to drop. It managed to fire 100 rounds of .50-caliber machine gun bullets at the submarine, but the machine gun fire the K-74 sustained from the submarine took a significant toll. The K-74’s starboard engine caught fire, though it was quickly extinguished, and holes in the blimp caused it to quickly lose altitude. It plunged into the sea shortly before midnight.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rd2Ujw_1EZ_KG89936-mkiNFJVYwQ5IaAGMZMxMzn38KLzAhwW5_icqlV1eDj4Gp8xG0GbOg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe crew bailed out and floated near the wreck for eight hours. In the morning, a Grumman JRF amphibian located the crew and landed to rescue them. Unfortunately, one crewman, Isadore Stessel, was attacked by a shark shortly before the crew was rescued, marking one of the few deaths of a K-ship crewman in combat. The U-134 left the area, only reporting minor damage caused by gunfire from the K-74. It continued its patrol until it was eventually sunk off the coast of Spain in August 1943. Although the K-74 did not sink a U-boat during its last mission, K-ships assisted in some of the final attacks on U-boats of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RTS5DpGefthnXDuhoWbLWKl4ZJJUhxXM9621Bb-YriW2iqwdqLJPYsTFdP_fEQBp7EJEhC_oK0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe destruction of U-853 and capture of U-858\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn May 5, 1945, the U.S. collier Black Point was sunk off the coast of Rhode Island. Several ships, including the destroyer Ericsson, Coast Guard frigate Moberly, and destroyer escorts Atherton and Amick, quickly arrived at the area in order to hunt down the U-boat responsible for the attack. The K-16 and K-58 were dispatched to the area on May 6 to help with the search for the submerged submarine. After arriving on the scene, the K-16 used its MAD equipment and located a target below the water. Following depth charge attacks by the surface ships, the K-16 deployed a sonobuoy, and detected sounds below the surface. It proceeded to drop its depth charges on the submarine’s suspected location. The K-58 then used MAD equipment to mark possible locations and dropped two depth charges of its own. After several more rounds of depth charge attacks from the surface ships, the K-ships noted numerous pieces of debris floating on the surface, marking the last destruction of an enemy U-boat in American waters.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TllSTd9DXjwzBOtan4gOykJwi0Zn5Cjju9gE1zYbjb7VRvcP0rEkx4OyTaykucFMLYc-ZF5Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe last World War II contribution of K-ships in the Atlantic occurred shortly after the war ended. On May 14, 1945, the captain of U-858 surrendered to the U.S. Navy. A K-ship helped escort the submarine into port, marking the end of anti-submarine warfare duties for K-ships in the battle of the Atlantic. \u003cbr\u003eK-ships provided critical protection to convoys carrying the vital supplies needed to win World War II. In his work, Blimps and U-Boats, J. Gordon Vaeth explained:\u003cbr\u003eThe blimp stayed with the convoy, flying low and throttling back to keep a slow pace. To the men of the freighters and tankers, the protection provided by an airship was a personalized thing. Airship crews and merchant ship crews waved to each other, the airship looking all the while majestic and overwhelmingly powerful and reassuring as it threaded its way through a convoy or kept station abreast and ahead of it. The men in the blimps reciprocated this feeling of camaraderie. The same merchant ships plying the same coastal routes became familiar sights (pg. 69).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTmA4KqOhlieHxV1hehepG33hX0TLivJwG_rKdbstnoPmLKl5Y33qO31odvzxy_JkKgBhS",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Navy’s lighter-than-air forces, including K-ships, flying over both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, completed almost 36,000 flights totaling 412,000 flight hours. The destruction to convoys feared early in the war caused by marauding U-boats diminished dramatically once K-ships started keeping a constant vigil overhead and while searching for the enemy below. By the end of the war, 72 members of the Navy’s lighter-than-air forces paid the ultimate price to safeguard the merchant fleet and protect the lifeline they provided to hundreds of thousands of men, women and children.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIf you would like to read more about the role of lighter-than-aircraft in World War II, please read “Blimps and U-boats: U.S. Navy Airships in the Battle of the Atlantic” by J. Gordon Vaeth.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Sleeker, Faster, and More Aerodynamic","How the NACA Full Scale Wind Tunnel advanced the design of planes","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RwqUaJgjObkXC9T9fWKSe9ydEq3q0p07Ic3zWMkhH5KYGm5QoEFc6uBJYfxHbQzcn9ikRoS7w","/story/RAUB4vQWTLRfLQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:10d8d7d2-dbb7-4d64-a440-28d86915c01e","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RwqUaJgjObkXC9T9fWKSe9ydEq3q0p07Ic3zWMkhH5KYGm5QoEFc6uBJYfxHbQzcn9ikRoS7w","mchoRKTmuZtGdoy5Z_VT9sQGtRI",[0.51,0.41263568,0,0.84800845,0.66330016],null,null,null,[3041,2432]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"RAUB4vQWTLRfLQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RcMRGFhM6XR0innrA60NVupaF18EpZCci2VT7_4N-UnCUvqLk_KzUt_kql0iS4sASDdSx1_4I",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis story begins in 1929, a full 12 years before the United States was plunged into the maelstrom of World War II. That year, the air just north of the tidewater town of Hampton, Virginia, was filled with the sound of saws, loud hammering, and heavy construction equipment. In 1929, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) authorized the construction of a massive wind tunnel to be located at the NACA Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in Hampton. Becoming operational in May 1931, this wind tunnel had a test section 60 feet in width and 30 feet high, large enough to mount not just a model of an airplane but rather the whole airplane itself. For this reason, the tunnel was called the NACA Full Scale Wind Tunnel (FST). At the time, the FST was the largest wind tunnel in the world – a stunning facility for aerodynamic testing.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RcMRGFhM6XR0innrA60NVupaF18EpZCci2VT7_4N-UnCUvqLk_KzUt_kql0iS4sASDdSx1_4I",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBut why a wind tunnel of this huge size? Wind tunnels had existed since 1870, when the English inventor Francis Wenham designed and built the first wind tunnel in history at Greenwich. By 1929, scores of wind tunnels had been built world-wide for aerodynamic testing, including one by the Wright brothers. However, all these tunnels were small and were limited to testing relatively small models. The NACA’s Full Scale Tunnel was the first facility large enough to test a whole airplane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SGoDzJP-Df-VlOdZdKSskFqIYExvxR2eokyqza9m4KVqGeOvO87OMNLohfnfBP3FxeqFtEJg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBut why was the testing of a whole airplane in a wind tunnel so important as opposed to testing a smaller model? There are scale effects in applying aerodynamic data obtained on small models that compromise the data when applied to the “real thing.” This is especially true with the data for aerodynamic drag, an important datapoint to measure. Everything else being equal, the maximum velocity of a given airplane in level flight depends strongly on drag – the lower the drag, the faster the maximum speed of the airplane. In particular, for new airplanes coming off the drawing boards at the beginning of World War II, the maximum speed of a combat fighter aircraft became a major design criterion. Therefore, the accurate prediction of aerodynamic drag was critical to the success of these new designs.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SGoDzJP-Df-VlOdZdKSskFqIYExvxR2eokyqza9m4KVqGeOvO87OMNLohfnfBP3FxeqFtEJg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHowever, as any design engineer knows, many compromises go into the design of a given airplane. In terms of drag, there are necessary appendages, accessory equipment, protuberances, holes, etc., on the surface of an operational aircraft that tend to destroy the sleekness of an otherwise low-drag streamlined configuration. The identification of how much extra drag was created by these “blemishes” became important, with an eye towards decreasing this drag. The question became just how to carry out this identification.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgZXbAkTp6jIvRWOfRLGnDWhPH2QEY_mOQXQQNgAwmNzPuNlq9WcZFefM09Hjv9sV0vTnfNw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe answer surfaced rather abruptly in April 1938, when the Navy was having a major problem with a new fighter design, the Brewster XF2A Buffalo. The 250 mile-per-hour speed of this fighter was disappointingly low, and yet it was already starting to come off the production line. The Navy needed help immediately, and it came in the form of the NACA Full Scale Tunnel and its engineering staff. The Navy Bureau of Aeronautics quickly arranged to have the Buffalo tested in the Full Scale Tunnel at Langley. Even before the ink was dry on the paperwork, the Navy flew an XF2A-1 to Langley, and within days the NACA engineers mounted the airplane on the stilt-like balance in the FST.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgZXbAkTp6jIvRWOfRLGnDWhPH2QEY_mOQXQQNgAwmNzPuNlq9WcZFefM09Hjv9sV0vTnfNw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eRecognizing that the deficit in top speed for the Buffalo was most likely due to a higher than expected aerodynamic drag, the FST team conceived a brilliant and perfectly logical test procedure to identify the sources of the extra drag. They removed protuberances like the radio antenna, smoothed irregular surfaces like the cockpit canopy, used putty or tape to cover holes, and smoothed the bays for storing the retracted landing gear. Attention was paid to the exhaust stacks, machine gun installation, and gun sights that projected into the airflow outside the airplane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q9pHmDdmY5-rn5Y8JR_rJU8vIhtn4GTrAuyiw4L8i_ioyM_TYV3fKUueMSw6ncJp7IM5eu_oc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhen the airplane was perfectly smooth and aerodynamically clean, the drag of this faired and sealed airplane was then measured in the FST. This was the baseline drag measurement. Next, one of the protuberances was added back to the smooth configuration, and the drag was measured again, thus identifying the increase in drag due just to this addition. The tests continued by adding one-by-one each of the drag-causing items, measuring the airplane drag after each addition, until the airplane configuration was fully restored to its original condition. In this fashion, a detailed test base was acquired, identifying which items increased drag, and by how much. The design of airplanes was not the primary role of the NACA, so these test results were then reported to the manufacturer, giving Brewster the necessary information to modify the design of the airplane in order to reduce its drag. Amazingly, the top speed of the modified Buffalo was increased from 250 to 281 miles per hour, a meaningful 10 percent increase.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QVMp0lejp9dDdL5cbrZeqjDMAPi8puk6OXj87-W18xFfYTLr8vgadck1zwX3S6VGQ-dF0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhat a wake-up call to the airplane industry! The Army and Navy suddenly stood in line for such drag testing in the Full Scale Tunnel on other new aircraft designs. The pioneering test procedure developed by the NACA engineers was labeled drag cleanup. Over the next two-and-a-half years, 18 new prototype military airplanes were thoroughly run through this drag cleanup test procedure, each design benefiting to a greater or lesser extent by the tests.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sfzk7IjjGFAkTp4QJwiFrCHAZYmUjD7wFkoNh5g2c5LGbPTjFUE75EnBTf1MqyBdkPHkg-",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the more telling stories that came out of the drag cleanup program was its effect on the P-39, a beautifully sleek but somewhat unconventional airplane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sfzk7IjjGFAkTp4QJwiFrCHAZYmUjD7wFkoNh5g2c5LGbPTjFUE75EnBTf1MqyBdkPHkg-",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe P-39 Airacobra had its engine mounted behind the cockpit at the airplane’s center of gravity (note the air scoop at the back of the cockpit windshield), and a cannon in the nose. Designed by Bell Aircraft, the Army had expectations for the P-39 to be its first fighter to exceed 400 miles per hour in level flight. Indeed, the prototype XP-39 had reached 390 miles per hour during early tests at the Army’s Wright Field near Dayton, Ohio.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qu4BCQrjZ2GB2D5U4zrOdV1QVmNT8SDNx76mHlTdVgqQ0JCmahe8RWiBKoiFe5KpFl8uqqNq8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eProduction airplanes, however, were expected to weigh about 2000 pounds more than the 5550-pounds prototype, a weight increase that was predicted to bring its top speed to barely 340 miles per hour. This did not make General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold, the iconic commander of the U.S. Army Air Corps, happy, and certainly did not satisfy the Bell aircraft designers. So the P-39 was quickly inserted into the NACA Full Scale Tunnel Drag Cleanup program and testing began on June 8, 1939.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SdnMzRr5i8Rl2rqg4dHoKBEozQcOH4zBqNfYjmxbi6qC_ja7rRnfaSDa1wbh3n9J2hMIeXMA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe tests showed that the completely faired P-39 had a drag that was about 50% that of the original value, a dramatic decrease. In addition to these drag cleanup tests, the P-39 also went through a series of flight tests at Langley. Ultimately, the heavier production models of the P-39 never achieved the desired 400 mile-per-hour maximum speed, and the Army seemed to accept this situation. The Airacobra went on to become a successful ground attack aircraft, with over 700 sent to Great Britain and the Soviet Union under the Lend-Lease agreement. The ultimate success of the P-39 would not have been possible without the benefit of the Langley FST Drag Cleanup tests.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TKXA7TAmezPCd7gKHVbHJ3FXnG3ZZaoDgD-lp26PvCY-i2s4YYlKJYQlL8tPDZ2gEj1zWmh9I",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe FST continued its contributions to America’s aerospace industry for the next half-century, testing such modern jet fighters as the F-22, until it was finally decommissioned in 2010. The drag cleanup studies from World War II, however, remain one of its finest hours.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFor additional reading on this subject, check out the following books: Engineer in Charge by James R. Hansen (NASA SP-4305, 1987) and The Airplane: A History of its Technology by John D. Anderson Jr. (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2002).\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Myth of the German “Wonder Weapons”","A race between the Allies and the Axis","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7oBuNXziNSvMz8KAnkRz0pXu0tZdSty8LzHZRxBbuGwOrhsVvE7csq-HibLTM7JTC30IfduQ","/story/_wVR8zpg9UmgLg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:c58f7ba1-2a4e-4142-a4d4-ebd38ed883ce","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7oBuNXziNSvMz8KAnkRz0pXu0tZdSty8LzHZRxBbuGwOrhsVvE7csq-HibLTM7JTC30IfduQ","MvULsWS0eOEvOYPAqLc7-41uXNQ",[0.47,0.42404136,0,0.78947264,0.8055499],null,null,null,[6465,3964]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"_wVR8zpg9UmgLg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TxR0BKV6EE-CyATgnLwwADKmlZthj69BhgO7KN5-eHa0gd79tMfcgHTzvXwUI8R5MnA9hDmQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLast fall, as I was standing next to the V-2, the German World War II ballistic missile on display in our Space Race gallery, I heard a man tell his companion how lucky we were that the Nazis had not had it sooner, or they might have won the war. It is one of the most beloved and entrenched stories, especially in the English-speaking world, about the V-2 and other advanced weapons the Third Reich deployed at the end of that war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TF7487cxl_U5uzUYK9cwzT8S5mP8pdy9uUr4ErOYAwA3tRrGn-KfMi_1k5Q7qgiROEmbMygw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn the face of it, that assertion makes a lot of sense. The Germans introduced the world’s first operational rocket fighter, jet fighter, cruise missile, and ballistic missile, all between the spring and fall of 1944. If they had fielded the Messerschmitt Me 163 and Me 262 fighters sooner, could they have greatly impeded the daylight strategic bomber offensive?\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tsmy__QUcV5H4PSmwZeIBVTYhWjA7Itue8O7i4nKxR_rhrtlRtXaNxIyxaiqcYf4PwRut_HbZ9",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eU.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) leadership certainly were concerned. If the Nazis had begun firing V-1 cruise missiles and V-2 rockets at Britain earlier, could they have disrupted the D-Day invasion preparations or caused mass panic, derailing the British war economy? Key Allied leaders like Gen. Dwight Eisenhower and Prime Minister Winston Churchill had discussed those very scenarios. From the Nazi side, Propaganda Minister Josef Goebbels stoked fear with claims, beginning in 1943, of coming Wunderwaffen (wonder or miracle weapons) that would turn the tide and exact Vergeltung (vengeance or revenge) for the indiscriminate Allied bombing of German cities. After the war, the feeling in the West that we had experienced a close call was reinforced by the memoirs of German ex-generals, who blamed Hitler for holding these weapons up. As a result, the new fighters and missiles allegedly came “too late” to change the course of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TJh4G9MimxBQfhV92BUfWNgfzRdjvk_6UYukB4ezf2wyHOKJg7EvbmxyLvj28uGglugLzOrWM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFear of Germany’s advanced technology had been a constant since the 1930s. It led directly to the U.S.-British-Canadian atomic bomb project, after German physicists first detected nuclear fission in Berlin at the end of 1938. Hitler himself made vague threats of coming superweapons in 1939, perhaps thinking of the Army’s ultra-secret rocket project that would yield the V-2. When British intelligence detected that program in spring 1943, Churchill ordered a special air raid on the Peenemünde rocket center on the Baltic. Carried out in August, it was designed to kill the rocket engineers and disrupt the project, but was only a partial success. In late 1943 and early 1944, the construction of missile launch and storage sites in northern France led the Allies to divert strategic bombers to try to put the sites out of operation.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tl4I9gjyRkGorGbSyNFE3vQ2qF2mMAIF_RyrWfgjTxgRumzPwUUUkuwj6pvyPwYiSV9MMPP80",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn spring 1944, USAAF concern peaked regarding the imminent appearance of German reaction-propelled fighters. The Me 163 rocket interceptor first entered combat in May, zooming through bomber formations at high speed. In late July, the first Me 262 turbojet aircraft were deployed as well. Yet there was no crisis. The Me 163 flew so fast that it was challenging to carry out a gunnery run on an American bomber and it exhausted its propellants in five minutes, at which point the pilot would glide back to base. U.S. fighter pilots soon learned to intercept them during the glide phase or lurk about the landing fields to shoot them down, which was feasible because of growing Allied air superiority.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RmFgYAnYXAZlnRCZBVv7q2eD5Ui9i4OaoHBsaTHHd9JEDe1MbwobWiTEY9XC8qR7ejXaQu1g",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Me 262 was more effective because it had more conventional flying characteristics and a speed advantage over piston-engine opponents. But it was also vulnerable to being attacked on landing. In any case, the Me 262’s jet engines, being brand-new technology, had to be overhauled every few flight hours, or they would catastrophically fail.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QtNMSc-qbJXqVfvKIC1ud7Zz5_odsU8Vj1FQIG81ofFFqwjqOfrTqHg99aW6ODAFxzwYIQKg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBetween the combat appearance of the two fighters, the Luftwaffe also began launching its Fieseler Fi 103 “flying bomb”—what we would now call a cruise missile. Days after its debut against London on June 13, Goebbels finally hit upon a propaganda name he liked: V-1 for Vergeltungswaffe Eins (Vengeance Weapon One). It made the biggest impression of any “wonder weapon.” Launched off steam catapults in northeastern France, dozens of V-1s soon began penetrating British airspace day and night, causing a mass exodus of children and families from London. Churchill was so concerned he tried to talk Allied leaders into dropping poison gas on German cities.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QtNMSc-qbJXqVfvKIC1ud7Zz5_odsU8Vj1FQIG81ofFFqwjqOfrTqHg99aW6ODAFxzwYIQKg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eYet that crisis soon passed too. By August, the reorganization of British anti-aircraft defenses greatly increased the number of missiles shot down, and at the end of the month, Allied forces overran the Channel coast after the breakout from Normandy. Thereafter, only small numbers of V-1s were launched against southeast England from Heinkel He 111 bombers based in the Netherlands. Hitler ordered a shift in focus to the newly liberated Belgian port of Antwerp, which was needed by the Allies to supply its armies.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHyeWJjjTzrEZtGVdz5d92rdM8NoLYe8s2pPVl8JBREiSw6-8sG-ys5r1gqCs8Rh_2s0gPfwM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eArmy crews first successfully fired the V-2 against Paris and London on September 8, but Goebbels held off announcing it for two months, as the Ministry’s exaggerated V-1 propaganda had led to disillusionment inside the Reich. Arriving supersonically, the V-2 could not be shot down with 1944 technology, and its ton of high explosives, when combined with its impact velocity, created a massive crater. It was the most advanced and exotic weapon deployed in World War II—until the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Japan eleven months later.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHyeWJjjTzrEZtGVdz5d92rdM8NoLYe8s2pPVl8JBREiSw6-8sG-ys5r1gqCs8Rh_2s0gPfwM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eYet again the actual results of the V-2 were a lot less impressive than expected. Like its cruise missile predecessor, it was so inaccurate that it could only be aimed a large urban area and many failed during flight or exploded in the countryside. Manufacturing the V-2 cost at least ten times more than the V-1, and as result it was launched in much smaller numbers (about 3,000, as opposed to 22,000 V-1s). The very fact that there was no defense against the ballistic missile, other than futile attempts to try to find and bomb the mobile launch crews, meant that the Allies diverted fewer resources to stop it.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R6dS0-Xj97kVGsK-71oqjKKOZZH8CZOARmFzCFOxgPjjHW0p5WlFBc96DX_cAYgJkzrw0rYAJk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Third Reich had earlier deployed the first air-launched, anti-shipping missile and the first precision-guided bomb in 1943, and it expended a lot of effort on developing anti-aircraft and air-to-air missiles for home defense, none of which it deployed. (The Henschel Hx 293, Fritz-X, Rheintochter R-1, the Ruhrstahl X-4 and other missiles are on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center.) The net result of all these weapons, deployed or otherwise, was that the Reich wasted a lot of money and technical expertise (and killed a lot of forced and slave laborers) in developing and producing exotic devices that yielded little or no tactical and strategic advantage. As for the one true superweapon of World War II, the atomic bomb, the Germans made only limited progress in nuclear technology. Arguments about the reasons for that failure have raged since 1945, but even if German physicists had created a nuclear reactor and a bomb design, it was very unlikely that the Reich could have built the huge isotope separation plants needed, given relentless Allied bombing.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SU18ScPJUY5wYIkeQZrg8iy12CAPD0G6_C1AFLiq8T6Vio5JoQf2vbML0hg1zSxW4KVrNGnoY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDid the “wonder weapons” come “too late”? Quite the opposite: they came too early. Jet engine technology was still too new and temperamental, as were many of the component technologies of the new weapons. The V-1 and V-2 attacks, almost entirely on London and Antwerp, had no strategic result because the missiles lacked accurate guidance systems and nuclear warheads. Anglo-American conventional, four-engine aircraft were far more effective at strategic bombing. In any case, Hitler had lost the war in 1941 when he attacked the Soviet Union and declared war on the United States, with the result that Germany was arrayed against not just one great power (the British Commonwealth), but three. It took until late 1942 for the manpower and production imbalance to manifest itself on the battlefield, but thereafter the Third Reich was bludgeoned into submission by Allied superiority. So, when you next visit our location in Washington, DC, or the Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia, you may admire our world-class collection of advanced German aircraft and missiles, but please do not tell your companions that if they had only come sooner, the Nazis might have won the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The History of LORAN Navigation","A new top secret system to navigate the seas","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TribkiQCfeM28Vlryts1GxJerrHJZSQ_cZIOkTHKFkYsIic2vdjilsYuY-BPPTSk9EYRkOgg","/asset/history-of-the-loran-system/FgGmxd65E0K8qQ",21,null,null,null,null,["FgGmxd65E0K8qQ",1.7777778,null,null,["//i2.ytimg.com/vi/1POohDe5q5c/hqdefault.jpg","1POohDe5q5c","History of the LORAN System",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum"],null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:930d8887-4ecb-444b-9909-b2bdc05f0116","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TribkiQCfeM28Vlryts1GxJerrHJZSQ_cZIOkTHKFkYsIic2vdjilsYuY-BPPTSk9EYRkOgg","tq4A-_5p13iA_zdimI8ucWkxoMo",[0.5,0.5,0,1.0451492,0.768994],null,null,null,[10984,8637]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"FgGmxd65E0K8qQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,null,"https://airandspace.si.edu","INDEPENDENCE AVE AT 6TH ST, SW\nWashington, DC, 20560\nUnited States",38.88781,-77.019905,"Washington, DC, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4",1524,725,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum"]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,17,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:2e1c9677-5b28-4b11-a3cb-9d99e1afd9e1"];window.INIT_data['MicroscopeImage:2a0e16b2-1f3a-492b-836e-7a3dbd7c29b8'] = ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:2a0e16b2-1f3a-492b-836e-7a3dbd7c29b8","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SyhxRU7xSwskJT1WCkzGFDN5X1uJkZx1oG8E-nl9Ga969GFpx_h0uCQCeVlvyx6evL0TjxE04M","ts8kEpK-aZerN_tZyXMBN7pRGd0",[0.5,0.5,0,0.95416665,0.74285716],null,null,null,[1200,840]];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:e62d52f4-4db8-4ccb-9cff-d65a11ad1bf0'] = ["stella.edit.sect",["The women who made waves","The essential role played by women, from pilot WASPs to Navy WAVEs",null,null,null,1],47,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Making WAVES","A brief overview of the women in the United States Naval Reserve during World War II","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QH-voSjBpVPVhIEYFzyI2Nl8cdqwUqUvCtVE66Tn5Nk6dl_oja5mcERuUO09ySrBnPotTAej8","/story/TgXRjwNH8CUaIw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"The Yeomanettes",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:60af3ff2-32f4-462a-8840-5fecdcdccf47","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QH-voSjBpVPVhIEYFzyI2Nl8cdqwUqUvCtVE66Tn5Nk6dl_oja5mcERuUO09ySrBnPotTAej8","5z5OqwdR4TaHm2hUKwhucSnW-EU",[0.5,0.51,0,1.1619086,0.50521064],null,null,null,[6359,8975]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"TgXRjwNH8CUaIw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QIUW-Ega6W1zkc_z9xN2bdLYBO9WbwF5gxnRHUQ6fgljSA9zIoA4qqX3xZFlYR_pfp0jRQvw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn World War I, the US Navy for the first time employed women in uniform large numbers outside of the medical fields. As the Naval Reserve Act of 1916 had conspicuously omitted mention of gender as a condition for service, women were able to enlist in mid-March 1917 prior to American entry in the war. By war\u0026#39;s end, over 11,000 Yeomen (Female), or \u0026quot;Yeoman (F)\u0026quot; were serving in the Navy in an array of enlisted clerical, secretarial and other non-combat roles in the United States.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRecruiting posters did not portray the Yeoman (F), also known as “Yeomanettes,” in a professional fashion. In this 1917 recruiting poster painted by Howard Chandler Christy, a model in a navy uniform is portrayed as a pin-up, a wholesome, youthful appearance with clear implications that serious service was a masculine profession.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QCH0AHq2EwPXyS59nfKoMEep5mfEMd2yYPWvfKNLZjvB32_yFKJHZE3BLTDoxJhnrVVATSVg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Yeomen (F) program ended after World War I, but prior to American entry in World War II a movement began to bring women back into naval service. After considerable discussion and debate, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed legislation on July 30, 1942 establishing the Women’s Reserve of the U.S. Naval Reserve. Known by the acronym WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service), the Women’s Reserve allowed women to serve as officers and as enlisted ratings. Although restricted to service in the continental United States with prohibitions aboard warships or combat aircraft, the WAVES shared a common purpose with the pioneers of World War I: free up men for overseas service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qv7FwS7Wys1pXf77CWHfMgL1JmPFbvarswP7qW7cBGI3WL0BrwgXyrwW7cycJdUqmjRn48Dhs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMildred H. McAfee, president of Wellesley College, took a leave of absence to serve as director of the WAVES. Commissioned as a lieutenant commander – the first female officer in the history of the Naval Reserve – she oversaw the growth and direction of the WAVES with an emphasis on professionalism and equality with male counterparts. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eUnder McAfee’s leadership, the advertising campaign for the WAVES emphasized ladylike, professional appearances to appeal to American organizations as well as women themselves. The Navy desired women with college education and professional experience and noted opportunities for advancement within the ranks.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T9-pwYsJXrCm5ko6USC8gFoDVuh-q_PMai8c-d7zkcDnxOWDs25E8ActjSbt0Q5GCYbrcFAw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn stark contrast with the World War I poster featured previously, the WAVES advertising cut a professional uniform appearance of women in uniform.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SV1BXs5Wyu2Gze6c_jflkW8TCUhjJU5-cBHQDIdBkrFSPY23jsiTtWdyLkXPn_EJ6H0oECzD3s",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAlthough forbidden to serve aboard warships or in combat aircraft, imagery of both appeared in posters. As men fought overseas, women served at home.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHp2ddAsNFkxFhnE00v8kCHCtcZUFgbwqipDX4wPxHetVFI2bv03m2h1C9z8F3K5LvNolnDI8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUniforms provided the WAVES with a powerful recruitment tool. Thanks to the influence of Josephine Forrestal, a former fashion editor for Vogue and the wife of James Forrestal, Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the New York fashion house of Mainbocher designed the Women’s Reserve uniforms for free. For thousands of women, the WAVES offered a stylish, professional uniform appearance. Women received a similar color scheme as male counterparts, with a summer while uniform and a winter navy blue wool uniform.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNNLvY6UPdGcwuSy2pU7Yk_9_K89OTRY5A0sX2ewJpO2KBehnkk176wq9wt9csJpHLMFDR",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs with advertising for men, WAVES recruiting posters emphasized the patriotic element of service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RXotToSO9tNj7tb7bdhtuK8SVM4FI10XhoSSYnhtasCRfbzslonE8ZsmmPs7r-wmOeGC0D-Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePatriotism took many forms in WAVES advertising, with the element of family appearing several times in the work of artist John Falter.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tg8mnKXmpkZoJcTgm-5ftRi-ScACPvHdWH7Y5U8IQN2OCKfCkCu7Ffs5Z5XUlbwLB7B8MTCpdC",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn contrast with the loving hug between a male sailor and his female partner, here the male companion, \u0026quot;Dan,\u0026quot; is abstractly portrayed by a telegram informing his female partner of being wounded in action. The implication here is that his female partner enlisted in familial unity and obligation to do her part and honor his sacrifice to the nation.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_THwFVV8tLOYoP39o6w_3TYxcU0yYwNm9KoQSiPD8US82HLOtpc1BN90xdhFZzxYsnQ-cTBRu8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAlmost 90,000 women served in the WAVES during World War II from every state in the nation. The vast majority of women were white and middle class, presenting a degree of class uniformity. African Americans were unable to join the WAVES until December 1944, and the war ended before many women completed their recruit training.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Su9wAka2Xm2Wo6-yDFtYZarCLKM0K1T-pFYr-in8gyZq6aBZXA_g7_nNhqGe-zNClfrff6_4w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCountless women who joined the WAVES received local recognition in the form of small window cards displayed in local post offices, libraries, even department stores.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QFak56mXRFKl_TsFQLLtIrwiTmvRloRv9_t1BAVDLYoqcUjPPFpMKI100A1nGjsafaC7vwwNw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs with World War I, the Navy demobilized women in uniform. But the success and accomplishments of the WAVES, together with the service of women in the Army, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard convinced senior military and political leaders that women had earned a permanent place in the nation’s military. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn July 30, 1948, President Harry S. Truman signed the Women\u0026#39;s Armed Services Integration Act into law allowing the women to serve in the regular Army or Navy on a permanent basis. The law, however, retained prohibitions on women serving in combat roles which were only lifted during the War on Terrorism. Nevertheless, the WAVES served as an inspiration during World War II, and continue to do so today.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Cracking Codes","Cryptologists in the Navy WAVEs","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qi5sHGmb__2nb1EwPNNRwTWK3lrWTdIdQHXG4gj7fcAMO7rHU8TuerosXiNaRkfoP6oeJ98zg","/story/SgWBd8JZ6LxWIw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Cryptologists",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:0e46660e-4189-423a-a069-e7039fceceda","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qi5sHGmb__2nb1EwPNNRwTWK3lrWTdIdQHXG4gj7fcAMO7rHU8TuerosXiNaRkfoP6oeJ98zg","UzM1157rl7pUC6_vRZX2MJjKWhU",[0.4495363,0.5194805,0,0.8990726,0.6875902],null,null,null,[1833,1386]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"SgWBd8JZ6LxWIw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RkrroxMDUhVC-tTDnF8bVlPKlqN_kqV3oTQewphzXFvvPmxFEjL2fyxbO7tlkrHA8FcdIBnMo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCryptology, the study of code making and code breaking, has been around since man could scrape images on cave walls. (Well, maybe not the study, but certainly the practice.) Through thousands of years, cryptologic secrets were trusted to only a few, which were almost always men. Much of that changed after the First World War, however, and became a necessity during World War II.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TomLxUXiyGJJ1u6Xy4mpJJ41-9cH6jDaDcsh_5o6hcvjykm0PosPxiVOAyyG98OEl__GkUb0jX",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhile many women entered the field of cryptology during World War I, some of \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/museum/exhibits/#women_in_cryptology\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ethe best known women cryptologists\u003c/a\u003e entered the profession post-war and were followed by thousands more during WWII. These women made history by serving our nation behind the veil of secrecy in the United States Army’s Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) and in the United States Navy as Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES). President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the bill establishing the WAAC in May 1942 and another bill later that year creating the WAVES.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RPvB2ou-S6YJV0CdUqsoL8DIwQwHPJhpC6ompx1_NAZTNHiONNAbdvjE7p0Au4GDdbum5UyGRV",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThousands of women served as cryptologists or in positions supporting cryptologic operations in the Army and Navy during WWII, either as civilians or in uniform. Women across the United States were eager to do their part for their country.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOnly women meeting higher qualifications were admitted into cryptologic work. Women in the Army were required to meet officer qualifications and possess strong mathematics or language skills. With the Army and Navy competing for women with similar qualifications, the Navy offered officer status for cryptographers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SI8LFEs_l2ps_PMtxDIZxiqle12O5xhQuO2pA8x4Vs3Bofu0g2n0mK2D0FSRfgQsuly-By9lI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWomen accepted into the cryptologic field were sworn to secrecy. They took their oath and were told the penalty for discussing their work outside approved channels could be death, since it was considered treason during a time of war. The Army and Navy placed a higher value on integrity than skills brought to the job, believing that women who met the qualifications but were untrained in cryptography could learn the skills they needed. Women who loyalty was in question, however, were disqualified from what would be highly classified work.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S7B_0LLKGAff8R-CRYZ2jpuftEcXy42lwSBLpWDghjHbpj1YHj5Eb9Nr48mnRu9YeCkiuJ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWomen accepted to serve in the Army and Navy underwent extensive training. Those selected to support cryptologic operations in the WAAC program went to Arlington Hall Station in Virginia, where they learned about cryptology and code, from theory to practice.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eSignal and cryptologic operations at Arlington Hall and the Naval Communications Annex were top secret. Neither the Army nor the Navy told the women how their work fit into the whole. Cryptanalysts knew how their achievements aided the men overseas, but the WACs (women serving in the WAAC) intercepting coded messages in the Army’s 2nd Signal Service Battalion and the WAVES operating the cryptanalytic machines rarely learned the results of their efforts.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RkrroxMDUhVC-tTDnF8bVlPKlqN_kqV3oTQewphzXFvvPmxFEjL2fyxbO7tlkrHA8FcdIBnMo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA major part of the WAVES’ job was building and operating the Navy Cryptanalytic Bombe, a 2.5 - ton electromechanical device developed to break the four-rotor enigma messages from German U-boats. Six hundred WAVES worked three eight-hour shifts, seven days a week at the National Cash Register Company (NCR) in Dayton, Ohio, where they learned how to solder and connect wires, read electrical diagrams, assemble rotors, and build 121 of these machines with no idea what they were building or why. It was tiresome, tedious work that allowed no room for error. After the first successful Bombe run in May 1943, the WAVES traveled with their Bombes by rail back to the Navy Annex in Washington, DC, where they operated the machines through the end of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QDqhyWU_W48RkIES2rMR5NVyoi3wUNcmgQleX-QM1FsgwZ7SWtJ9IGw5r-_iqZTl-6pFwm2_w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLife was physically, emotionally, and mentally challenging for the Army WACs and Navy WAVES. Many lived in barracks with 84 women to a floor until improvements were made. These conditions allowed for very little privacy or sleep. Also, there was the daily stress resulting from the unforgiving environment that left no room for mistakes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QgerAvmG9MZtDsPvp3i9ntcP2la-acVg40jOWBPE4_xfXUXL_5sr7N1DbUMWTD-zLHvb4F86zN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDespite the challenges that came with the job, women in cryptology performed their work assiduously and were proud to serve in the military. WAVE Lt. Sylvia Rosenwasse recalled, “They were very devoted and very caring and [had] a wonderful esprit de corps. They were proud of their uniforms and proud of being in the Navy.”\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe same, of course, could be said of the WACs. A WAC commander reported, “When demobilization came, my women swore they would never come back to the War Department or to shift work, but about 25 percent eventually did–as civilians.”\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Flying Planes","The stories of the WASPs","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TvvM7_eAhIGhL-bEH3QAT7X8l5vsXBom2_orabt4d02bQYIhXI6r1Bq0AfNPfY-_aKgEI6px4-","/story/lwWh1GPltixRKg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Pilots",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:aa454bbd-9963-4a0a-8851-b5b1a1295733","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TvvM7_eAhIGhL-bEH3QAT7X8l5vsXBom2_orabt4d02bQYIhXI6r1Bq0AfNPfY-_aKgEI6px4-","OhePtWFLJCRcQBl0KI0M3Rs0isc",[0.5193094,0.43750256,0,0.9613812,0.8750051],null,null,null,[3000,2052]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"lwWh1GPltixRKg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZ7EQXEc50zzLCmOMaDzbKTLIcHDpV249pwUjIvl9Z7K5nIaN5CN30UG571jj3a7fEXsw0FQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhile giving a flying lesson in her Piper Cub on Oahu near Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, flight instructor Cornelia Fort witnessed the attack of the Japanese air fleet. She was the first American pilot to do so, and she decided right then and there that she wanted to help her country. And she was not the only woman to feel that way. When some enlightened military leaders agreed and approved the creation of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP), about 25,000 American women applied to be an auxiliary part of the home-front army. A fraction of the applicants — 1,820 in total —were accepted into the program, and 1,074 graduated.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe WASP flew 60 million miles in all types of military aircraft, including fighters and B-17 and B-29 bombers, and paved the way for today’s fully vested female military pilots. These women ferried aircraft, cargo and personnel; tested aircraft; and towed targets throughout the 48 states, filling in gaps left by male pilots who had been sent to war. \u003ci\u003e“We had to deliver the goods,” \u003c/i\u003e Fort said, \u003ci\u003e“or else there wouldn’t ever be another chance for women pilots in any part of the service.\u0026quot;\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQVpxhqXE0xYSJJozEb-krEV6FDb5zxlXcmk9t2P2u1wNGJXIWwmtwYPnCHigBHbo0MPgLHeE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe WASP origin story\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWith the approach of World War II, two experienced women pilots recognized the coming shortage of military pilots as the men would be sent off to fly in the war. They separately petitioned the military to consider using women as ferry pilots. In 1941, racing pilot Jacqueline Cochran, who had the ear of General of the Army Air Corps, Henry “Hap” Arnold, selected a group of 24 women pilots to ferry military aircraft in Great Britain for its Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA). This would be a prelude to such ferrying in the U.S. At the same time, working with the Army Air Corps Air Transport Command, experienced business pilot Nancy Love identified similarly qualified women as prospective ferry pilots. Cochran and Love had very different strategies but the same goal – to create a women’s air corps.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T44dgrSS6XFRbsOgs6-uq0qyG1lX9kTCtHYyUEjLNWOxmpGeCVYJ8GHe4227tdYSiMlCLteQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn September 1942, the Army Air Force’s Air Transport Command approved the creation of a temporary, civilian women\u0026#39;s flying corps, the Women\u0026#39;s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS), under the direction of Nancy Love. As head of the WAFS, Love initially recruited 27 highly-experienced women pilots between the ages of 21 and 35 with high school diplomas, a commercial pilot’s license, and a minimum of 500 hours of flight time. After their flight checks, the WAFS immediately began repositioning military aircraft from manufacturing plants to bases and demarcation depots.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qiyn1MkQ5X-I-CE9G3nGxtiUw51Q0KCxZSlH4b8oqdSQ0p0Pq4kikcRqC0eNF_QMGi3sWgW64",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, Jackie Cochran ran the Women’s Ferrying Training Detachment (WFTD), recruiting female pilots with as little as 35 hours and sending them off to a 23-week flight training program, the same as male cadets and with military instructors. The first WFTD class graduated in December 1942 and initially, these classes graduated into the WAFS. However, on August 5, 1943, General Arnold combined these two organizations under the title of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) and selected Cochran as the overall director; Love remained in charge of the initial WAFS unit, although under Cochran.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Svh483bIn0obNw2q5GSHmiwkiUYM9QuG0cI2Py0UpQkrS5g6oPokQyVGRFSGlzhDpJkY5X",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWASP contributions\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eTheir flight training took place in a segregated group at Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas (after a brief stint in Houston), where the women followed strict military procedures including drilling and taking an oath of allegiance. They wore ill-fitting male mechanics suits, known as Zoot suits, or pants and A-2 leather jackets until Cochran oversaw the design of official WASP uniforms in a color known as Santiago Blue, onto which they could pin their silver WASP wings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R_av9nP3SrCsTR_aXH_HnS7TE6TYxdkb54g0L0IJid6fv-jvfoobzXebt0uE2OrWzUnlV4fAY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe important difference was that the women were civilians; the idea of militarizing them was too controversial at the time.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TsNlExCoP76DlbhhgveJ4hWpxaMb80zZTZ1AiXCuiJ4lwtozzk-IkSfHfEfBmw-J_d8SmANw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUltimately the WASP delivered 12,650 aircraft representing 78 different types. They flew every aircraft in USAAF inventory, including high-performance pursuit aircraft, such as the P-51 Mustang, and large four-engine B-17 and B-29 bombers. In addition, they towed targets for cadet fighter training, transported military personnel and cargo, and flew engineering tests flights, including one in America’s first jet, the Bell YP-59. WASP also flew target planes for air gunnery practice, flight tested repaired aircraft, and became flight instructors in aircraft or Link trainers/simulators. They flew whatever was asked of them.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TsRhFhEqLVwkJgCgRlzSs-XyIYDkyque_zvpMazCxaF8mnj7K-w2TdoENwvdhpSmUPa_hbtQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThroughout the program, the women’s accident and fatality rates were the same as men. Thirty-eight women gave their lives in the course of duty to their country but because they were civilians, their families, and in some cases their fellow WASP, had to pay the funeral expenses. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAlthough originally told they would become part of the military, a move supported by some in the Air Transport Command and by General Arnold, the WASP instead were disbanded in December 1944, a casualty of rancor over assimilation, jobs, and gender roles. With the end of the war in sight, perceptions were that women were no longer needed or even wanted—military pilots (men) would return to reclaim flying jobs. In addition, Cochran, who wanted to continue as commander of an independent women’s flying unit, was at the center of complications that prevented the group from being efficiently transferred as experienced military pilots into the either USAAF at large or the Women’s Army Corps (WAC). The issue was hotly debated in the press and in Congress. Ultimately, Congress voted against inclusion. They were abruptly sent home.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RCrDu5Me974IUHMG4PiFCV1lYak9q282yz-aY0jQjB1BgLs_bO_hB_dTwPqi6ysdn6jDa4ZpL4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eStill, Gen. Hap Arnold stated, \u003ci\u003e“If ever there were a doubt in anyone’s mind that women can become skillful pilots, the WASPs have dispelled that doubt.”\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNnr9rUyqy6Bnz9ju0E4RJFKbtiRlHfB5x8ciBTMz-kyKzedYh5z3pTkjU-s08Lr09yodSW3w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFighting for recognition\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe dreams of the individual WASP to serve as military pilots for their country were over. Most WASP married and raised families; many continued to fly but only a few established real aviation careers. At their 1972 reunion, attendees, officially the Order of Fifinella, resolved to restore their legacy by applying for official veteran recognition. From 1972 to 1976, several bills went nowhere on Capitol Hill. At the same time, the first women allowed into military flight training were being heralded as the first American women to fly military aircraft, and the WASP countered, “Not so!” Aided by Bruce Arnold, General Arnold’s son, and Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater, the WASP persevered and fought for recognition.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNnr9rUyqy6Bnz9ju0E4RJFKbtiRlHfB5x8ciBTMz-kyKzedYh5z3pTkjU-s08Lr09yodSW3w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe first installment of the nation’s debt to the WASP was paid in 1977 with a bill authorizing retroactive partial veteran status. Since then, with continuing World War II anniversary celebrations including this year’s 75th, the WASP have received acknowledgment and gratitude for their service. In 2009, President Barack Obama signed legislation, first drafted by Lt. Col. Nicole Malachowski (USAF), awarding the WASP the Congressional Gold Medal, the nation’s highest civilian honor. Following the award ceremony at the US Capitol in March 2010, I had the honor of carrying this original Gold Medal to the Museum where it is displayed at the Udvar-Hazy Center.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SqQEU0cqx1BBdill4VzVgatxCUijuzpUPjQCYWh0qEditKfrnBpd_ZKe8w4AJnxFajUGBldY0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLet’s be clear: the Women Airforce Service Pilots of World War II proved that women could safely and adeptly fly all military aircraft. Still, it took more than 30 years of social, cultural, and legal changes to even begin to allow American women to train as military pilots. After anti-discrimination and civil rights laws were passed in the 1960s and directives were enacted to allow women to fly non-combat military aircraft in the 1970s, and eventually all military aircraft in 1993, women finally gained the right to equal military flight training and equal opportunities to be as successful as male pilots. However, it is important that we remember and acknowledge the other half of the story — the long road to acceptance by society and the military, marked by virulent prejudice. In fact, women have only recently been widely accepted as fully vested military pilots. By employing the same perseverance as the WASP and armed with the WASP record and the law, military women pilots now serve full careers and have achieved leadership command and flag officer positions. Thanks to the WASP, they didn’t have to prove again that women, as a gender, can fly.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Guiding The Way","Navigators and Instructors in the WAVEs","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuqqvcPw-20yHAbeFc5tmC2atgW0vFqVjp-qvZ_vyJ7yt7EZQume2570vO9bdmjojcb4d0TKI","/story/ggVxCVD9FVK4Lw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Navigators"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"ggVxCVD9FVK4Lw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TeVqDVo_eI0L0338I9rHJYX0P-zq2R1Sw5E9krrU2Lp2bwy8T5WKFtGvQjZDqq0zOLRYon70w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThough American women had a long history of service in wartime, the World War II years offered women greater access to technical positions that had once been closed to them by in peacetime. Air navigation was one of the most prominent examples. While in the years preceding World War II, several women, including \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/anne-morrow-lindbergh\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAnne Morrow Lindbergh\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/amy-johnson\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAmy Johnson\u003c/a\u003e, demonstrated a degree of proficiency in air navigation that was matched by only a handful of their male peers, none had the degree of professional success enjoyed by the cadre of professional air navigators like \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/harold-gatty-0\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eHarold Gatty\u003c/a\u003e or \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/fred-noonan\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFred Noonan\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R6ecHUOoH67tgqKGunJ5KEUs1lUTchOY7nFRu_dSoGKkEU0BgQJGdlUGKnZcGLqrN8cTWlOA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWartime opened the door slightly for women in the field, including civilians like \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/mary-tornich\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMary Tornich\u003c/a\u003e, who taught basic navigation to Army aviators, and for a segment of the women in the new Navy auxiliary service – the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.womenofwwii.com/navywaves.html\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWAVES\u003c/a\u003e. Unlike the Army’s \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.womenofwwii.com/armywasps.html\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWASPs\u003c/a\u003e (Women’s Airforce Service Pilots), the WAVES did not ferry aircraft as pilots, but they did take on a variety of aviation roles to “free” males for overseas combat service (interestingly, the WASPs in turn, did not serve as air navigators). These included serving as aircraft maintainers, technical instructors, and as air navigators on “homefront”’ Naval Air Transport Service flights. However, if WAVE navigators did not have the opportunity to demonstrate their skills in the most challenging operational environments, they did have the pride of operating one of the most sophisticated training devices developed up to that point – the Link Celestial Navigation Trainer (CNT). The \u003ca href\u003d\"https://books.google.com/books?id\u003d2ykDAAAAMBAJ\u0026amp;pg\u003dPA2\u0026amp;lpg\u003dPA2\u0026amp;dq\u003dpopular+science+april+1944\u0026amp;source\u003dbl\u0026amp;ots\u003dtQuyxvfrTW\u0026amp;sig\u003dBZoNudxnm5lL94tD54sLrxXkFxc\u0026amp;hl\u003den\u0026amp;sa\u003dX\u0026amp;ved\u003d0ahUKEwigyqKPku_SAhUERyYKHREMDnkQ6AEIGjAA#v\u003dsnippet\u0026amp;q\u003d%22by%20simulated%22\u0026amp;f\u003dfalse\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eApril 1944 issue of Popular Science\u003c/a\u003e contains an excellent depiction of how this complex device functioned.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S-MMIur28m_BydlafgO7pI9D0-OQzWRZMgXPsEHGeCt_6uOakKNfzn4xeZVMuvI4BNUW9Ju5c",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Link Celestial Navigation Trainer came out of an Army Air Forces requirement for a realistic crew trainer for long-range bombers and transports. Given that the Army Air Corps had a mere 50 or so dedicated air navigators on hand in 1940, the rapidly changing geopolitical situation (aggressive Japanese deployments and the German invasion of the Soviet Union) of the following year quickly made Air Corps leaders realize that their force was not only inadequate for operations, but that it was unable to even provide a core cadre for the training schools needed for the anticipated tens of thousands of specialist air navigators. Attempts to use civilian schools, notably the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://timeandnavigation.si.edu/multimedia-asset/clipper-pilots-train-cadets-in-navigation-run-time-055\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ePan American Airways School of Navigation\u003c/a\u003e at Dinner Key in Miami, were found to be quickly inadequate, especially as the British also began sending their navigation students to America and Canada for training. Even if there had been enough instructors, then there still were not enough airplanes to use for the complex process of training celestial air navigators. Those planes, even if available, would then consume valuable fuel and maintenance resources.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RKKP7y_7VzeJzRCozjmANj0wXCFN1V20mpWHeORBJvCu3XxqRWICXPJevn3iqsws5cj-P3Hwc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn November 27, 1941, the Army Air Forces addressed the problem by contracting with Link Aviation Devices for a sophisticated “Combat Crew Trainer.” Link had already begun design on such a trainer for a British contract the previous year, but the idea was still largely on paper. Link Aviation Devices founder Ed Link worked with air navigation maestro P.V.H. Weems to develop the trainer for the full range of celestial navigation techniques employed in aircraft. The trainers began appearing at American bases in 1943 with the Navy requesting them as well. The trainer was a milestone in the history of flight simulation. Although Ed Link had been an important pioneer in early instrument flight training with the venerable “blue box” trainer, designed to teach novice pilots to trust their instrument more than their inner ear, flight simulators did little to prepare airmen and naval aviators for the rigors of combat missions. The “Combat Crew Trainer,” which soon became the Celestial Navigation Trainer changed that. It was a technical marvel that provided an excellent trainer for a broad range of equipment and procedures ranging from sextants to bombsights.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QBq7P3Khp2M9V5In967p2p8oDAWD-yWjOfhbZYI7_z-m5neMEF7Y8DxkQwV2eX-NO3lKqLAQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe CNT consisted of a simulated cockpit with room for a navigator, pilot, copilot, and radio operator or instructor. It sat elevated in a silo structure on a giant turntable. Although the cockpit lacked the freedom of movement of the “blue box,” it could bank gently on its axis. Above the cockpit was a rotating, tilting star field that consisted of lights mounted on a chicken-wire hemisphere. Though most of the stars were simple light bulbs, the key navigational stars used for sextant sightings were collimated with a system of lenses so that parallax issues from having the stars on a nearby two dimensional surface could be avoided. 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(Washington, D.C.)","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T17tBSl8a73K6WgPCr8QVJf25VZSb44GZhGNaNbmwPQIGZzrG8JJdlcoWzSM_yy0OAaF3yWw","/asset/a-careless-word-a-needless-sinking-office-of-war-information-washington-d-c-and-fischer-anton-otto-artist/XgHwyTruIXG7iQ",8,null,null,"#ddc4bc",null,["XgHwyTruIXG7iQ",0.76637423,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,"6377,8321,4840,5518,3432,3916,4333,6025,3432,5851",0,null,"Smithsonian's National Museum of American History"],null,[null,null,"USA",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:a31bfb69-0ded-4b76-a127-929bd179b197","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T17tBSl8a73K6WgPCr8QVJf25VZSb44GZhGNaNbmwPQIGZzrG8JJdlcoWzSM_yy0OAaF3yWw","l8MVCH45R7VFMsBDAejZlmteQ3w",[0.5,0.2595005,0,1.103325,0.519001],null,null,null,[6377,8321]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"XgHwyTruIXG7iQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,"https://www.google.com/maps/dir//1300+Constitution+Ave+NW%0AWashington,+20560%0AUnited+States/data\u003d!4m8!4m7!1m0!1m5!1m1!1s0x89b7b798ecb5b2c7:0x32b2170679e71dea!2m2!1d-77.03005089999999!2d38.8912793?hl\u003den\u0026gl\u003dUS","http://americanhistory.si.edu/","1300 Constitution Ave NW\nWashington, 20560\nUnited States",38.89127930000001,-77.03005089999999,"Washington, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QDnbwr-cfV4tcog8cAOy_zZIF922stQzpNlAf_8sBOMxVMPpTQesyMyKtF83d77O_UFXr_ag\u003dfcrop64\u003d1,0c5a0ac8f337f536",542,413,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-museum-of-american-history"]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,22,"SimpleStack","EditorialSection:026eaa7b-652c-4f76-ac65-d6a19d8a39f1"];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:413c7496-fee1-4144-b061-3cc27464699c'] = ["stella.edit.sect",["Ending hostilities in Europe","Partners from around the world commemorate the final events on the Western front and finding peace",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","The Events That Led Up To D-Day","The operation that brought together 133,000 land, air, and sea forces","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RH7T502GzJJICcOJyFqdQmBAC6BqDmHefHvdhRnT-wKweazZrVqLyAp5gC2UJboNms2KHuEOc","/story/lQUxxY4nqwYA8A",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"U.S. National Archives"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"lQUxxY4nqwYA8A"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TqBcteSXf2hibTvCbcTL2O9lZItkmU-WTK0o7atDhYFoNn_KhR07eFKmx9e9G44RWT52eEFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs dawn broke on June 6, 1944, German soldiers defending the French coast at Normandy beheld an awe-inspiring sight—the largest amphibious invasion force in history massed in the waters of the English Channel. The long-awaited invasion of northwest Europe was underway.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TqBcteSXf2hibTvCbcTL2O9lZItkmU-WTK0o7atDhYFoNn_KhR07eFKmx9e9G44RWT52eEFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe massive armada included over 7,000 ships and landing craft manned by over 195,000 naval personnel from eight Allied countries. The troops consisted chiefly of Americans, Britons, and Canadians, but members of the Free French and many other nations also participated.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S7qYe_6br2nfo4KboZTZS22P54Cj-uCisVm-BfWiL_O7qxTet4YX0Snx4HaUbEnZ681eRFqg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eStretchers cover the deck of a Coast Guard boat. About 4,900 U.S. troops were killed on D-Day.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S7qYe_6br2nfo4KboZTZS22P54Cj-uCisVm-BfWiL_O7qxTet4YX0Snx4HaUbEnZ681eRFqg"]],"D-Day: The Largest Amphibious Invasion in History","The Allied invasion of Normandy, France, on June 6, 1944, was a turning point in World War II"]],["stella.common.cobject","Celebrating VE Day and Remembering Loved Ones","On 7 May 1945, the formal act of military surrender was signed, ending World War Two in Europe","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SdT-0dxDnvv28FDBexfDq_R_GW-eEQg8-AeQs-TWrVTD7XaIVH9UuKLOS7XB9nGtVTqYAp","/story/GAVRjTbYFW1zJw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Imperial War Museums"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"GAVRjTbYFW1zJw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZcqyYkCDZwmPjfHpL2mN4fXigeUPzvV5Fw4bwu0Gspjxu2wqT8Yq5kd5yJYTC011kFfqwvUM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn Britain, Winston Churchill declared 8 May a public holiday. Crowds gathered on Whitehall to hear Churchill speak.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RCSnCpopHE2J4mYLiSxc22jbgOZpebxf8-266OaSodmSHksP8Cx5xEGDs8-uYM1mMvQkrU4w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA colour photo of the crowd in front of the Ministry of Health building in Whitehall. Churchill addressed the crowd from the balcony.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SH0wYu2kfgyKdKi8tJf5kyqgcHMxNGqYpzlySOUJTCCllnxRlNL99ytX4ChztWHLplqViUjag",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHuge crowds gathered in Central London. People held parties, danced and sang in the streets. At Buckingham Palace, King George VI and the Royal Family appeared on the balcony.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis colour film was shot by RAF ground crew electrician R W Johnson and his father William Johnson. Together, they recorded VE Day celebrations on 8 May 1945 in Central London.\u003c/p\u003e"],null,[null,"l7LyNci93xs"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SSyBnKTffokem1b6FSoFHk2EaVEXS-sIYnLFRQMwi4ZI5fcOSUl7gutFVlg8XgMvSIFOzn",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSoldiers and civilians dance on a street near Berkeley Square in London.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwbpOlyN0fN20_1OCT-A5h_W1OggniE9XZs2DS7MImwC3s6ICxyD7JcGu5bWDSjx38UQ1a0i4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTwo British sailors and their girlfriends wade in the fountains in Trafalgar Square.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_So251LBct08Jpvc2pUHTOg_FCXxhIDt2rTM4muSMIBKFRgSZO4b0nn3trbTEAb4s372ud4rZQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMen and women dance the conga around a bonfire in East Acton, London on the evening of VE Day.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QN-rNrvwgZN3yaixYZw0zaF8gbKz9dqOwfWD4yZvlogdHctoZTx-kI0aSqYkKDM2llPD3vUg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFor many though, the celebrations were bitter-sweet. People mourned their lost friends and loved ones, while others were still engaged in combat, as the war in the Far East continued.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","See How The Crowds Came Together on VE DAY","People gathered together from all over London in the name of peace","//i1.ytimg.com/vi/l7LyNci93xs/hqdefault.jpg","/asset/ve-day-celebrations/MQFOE3zHGyWBdA",21,null,null,null,null,["MQFOE3zHGyWBdA",1.7777778,null,null,["//i1.ytimg.com/vi/l7LyNci93xs/hqdefault.jpg","l7LyNci93xs","VE Day Celebrations",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Imperial War Museums"],null,[null,null,"Imperial War Museums"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"MQFOE3zHGyWBdA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,"https://www.google.com/maps/dir//Lambeth+Rd%0ALondon%0A+SE1+6HZ%0AUnited+Kingdom/data\u003d!4m8!4m7!1m0!1m5!1m1!1s0x4876012c1f3ceed3:0xfed51d88d007b387!2m2!1d-0.10865839999999999!2d51.4958366?hl\u003den\u0026gl\u003dUS","http://www.iwm.org.uk/","Lambeth Rd\nLondon\n SE1 6HZ\nUnited Kingdom",51.4958366,-0.10865839999999996,"London, United Kingdom",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QbfA7hbCPk9nLxMfXSztsVnx0YtFpF1TsUvJMS4B6vNyFljQzylqMERWfB1dLsp45qHjsHHOs",531,337,0],"/partner/imperial-war-museums"]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,3,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:413c7496-fee1-4144-b061-3cc27464699c"];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:3056c72b-7b38-4ea5-9b29-5c88e6491186'] = ["stella.edit.sect",["The aircraft that made history","Discover the different types of planes that skimmed the skies in WWII",null,null,null,1],15,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","The Vought OS2U Kingfisher","Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuVq9y-_tNEbQEAYWbcW359JmBVAKCmQWIJ6LPh7YS7_np8o3wFVGumumYybHVB79um2w4iGLC","/story/eAWxR13igw4KKQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:2a7e79c8-67d5-409c-8c12-9370b7dd6a68","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuVq9y-_tNEbQEAYWbcW359JmBVAKCmQWIJ6LPh7YS7_np8o3wFVGumumYybHVB79um2w4iGLC","mdSIsvyE1Tt1Cdo_o-LyoS7Kdw0",[0.57,0.32909554,0,0.77017796,0.6581911],null,null,null,[4895,3120]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"eAWxR13igw4KKQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qrl_rkrxBQwQSbvTiQrf_LDsdvqY3pbuBghDcmUvTpfvo99d9NGyNUMNf1eTZF7va2pzSgXGc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDuring World War II, carrier-based aircraft came to symbolize Naval Aviation, especially in combat. But some airplanes filled other roles that were also essential to naval combat. One of these was the ship’s spotter plane, a job done throughout the war mainly by the Vought OS2U Kingfisher.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SLMs9UYakvBn2CznYAcN8cEuzqd0vuo4lsvdaHpdiYyr9_f_c6V73CNDq3Bl9roSg95GgftA95",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs a ship’s spotter, the Kingfisher ably filled one of the original roles envisioned for aviation in the United States Navy: finding targets for ships’ guns and helping them hit the target at ranges much greater than the ship itself could see. (A spotter atop a battleship’s mast could see about 10,000 yards, whereas the 16-inch guns on an Iowa-class battleship had a range of 42,000 yards!)\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TLRTHozu3L_ZMG0aaXS1K4YcF1_kpPKQVPgh9V5t12fYvDWt3mlsSHGyapPr2eulzdb8ZQqWk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Kingfisher was a small, single-engine, two-seat floatplane designed to operate from battleships and cruisers rather than aircraft carriers. It would be launched from a roughly fifty-foot-long catapult on a turntable that allowed it to be pointed into the wind (and away from the ship). On cruisers, these were often located in the middle of the ship and powered by compressed air at 1200 psi. Battleship catapults were located on the stern with the launching impulse provided by a “blank” round for a 5-inch gun. In both cases, the motive force drove a piston connected to the launch cradle via a long cable strung through numerous pulleys to turn the otherwise fast piston stroke into a slow but powerful pull on the cradle.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SLMs9UYakvBn2CznYAcN8cEuzqd0vuo4lsvdaHpdiYyr9_f_c6V73CNDq3Bl9roSg95GgftA95",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOnce the airplane launched, the 450 hp Wasp Junior radial engine drove it at 70-100 mph. The pilot would take the plane to where it could see the target. They would then try to keep the airplane in a good position while keeping an eye out for enemy planes. Meanwhile, the observer, in the large rear cockpit, would keep their eye on the target and call corrections back to the ship over the radio. For defense, the Kingfisher had a single .30 caliber machine gun in the nose (firing in between two cylinder heads), while the observer had either a single or twin .30 caliber flexible mount. Despite this light armament, at least two Kingfishers succeeded in shooting down Japanese Zeros over Iwo Jima in 1945 (certainly an unusual outcome!), although the OS2U generally depended on fighter aircraft to protect it.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QOuk42zC1Qp2NcfVxj15gskI9rMxDsypEBe0BCZS5BktJZnkHt0AdLG3Wg-YieQA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Kingfisher could also be sent on long scouting missions to augment the carrier-based scouts or when there was no carrier available. In this case, the aircrew would typically fly a designated course directly from the ship to a given distance, turn and fly a bit, then turn directly back to the ship, resulting in a long, narrow triangular course, reporting anything seen along the way. Usually, multiple aircraft would be sent out to cover more area – battleships could carry three Kingfishers and cruisers typically had two each. The courses of these multiple planes would be spaced so that their visual fields completely covered a wider sector of a circle centered on the ship or task force.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QOuk42zC1Qp2NcfVxj15gskI9rMxDsypEBe0BCZS5BktJZnkHt0AdLG3Wg-YieQA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAt the end of its mission, the crew would fly back to their ship. The ship would make a wide turn, leaving an area of smooth water in its wake where the airplane could set down. Then the crew would taxi up alongside, where the ship would trail a “recovery sled” – a rectangular net with square holes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RJbzCzz2WP_E4WTxmPqO64KKmMjrCwr6yIvJWdlqwk4sr9wA7wr6HkZ0Rr0armkOg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Kingfisher’s main float had a spring-loaded hook on the bottom near the front and this would catch in the mat, allowing the pilot to turn off the engine and keep plane and ship at exactly the same speed. The aircrew would then attach a hook from the ship’s crane to a fitting behind the pilot, and airplane and crew would be lifted back aboard the ship.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Kingfisher could also be fitted with fixed-wheel landing gear for operating from shore bases, either for training or as part of the Inshore Patrol anti-submarine operations. For this latter role, the airplane also had bomb racks under each wing and could carry either two 100-lb bombs or two 325-lb depth charges.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q0QNaSozUZTznuqGmd9afu_M6GCcRPhhFtTf7T8zQirD2B_WRHKX_0Ims-RHAyvm5FmPNIXgc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOver 1500 Kingfishers were built between 1938 and 1942. Most numerous were the OS2U-3 variant, with over a thousand made by Vought and another three hundred by the Naval Aircraft Factory as the OS2N. (This permitted Vought to concentrate on producing the much-needed F4U Corsair.) Most served with the U.S. Navy, but one hundred went to the British Royal Navy, with handfuls of aircraft going to another half-dozen minor allies, including two in the Soviet Navy. The Kingfisher finally began to be replaced in service by the Curtiss SC Seahawk in late 1944, but there were still Kingfishers serving aboard ships when the Japanese surrendered in September 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SzayWw_edMOzpBMTJgzL2jFqqwWLRTn3EHXMR7-iFYveSBYQeLAuedo-ILxYDCW5DeOwqQp30",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAir/Sea Rescue\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn addition to spotting, scouting, and sub-hunting, the Kingfisher also found a use rescuing aircrew downed at sea. One of its most famous rescues was of World War I ace Eddie Rickenbacker, who had been a passenger on a B-17 that went off-course and ran out of gas in the South Pacific in October 1942. After more than three weeks adrift, a patrolling Kingfisher spotted the first of the survivors’ three rafts, this one with one man aboard, who was able to give general directions to Rickenbacker’s raft. About the same time, the three men in the second raft were found on a nearby island.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SzyJNCpOaAMBWfwwt0ISHC9kJcY7hZbkg7n6_UP5GLstXJ_qnjwYQQPe8lUZERYRSIIr3fMKEU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe next day, the same Kingfisher that had rescued the first man (albeit with a different pilot) was also the one to spot Rickenbacker’s raft. The aircrew helped a seriously-injured survivor into the rear cockpit, lashed Rickenbacker and the third occupant onto the wings, and taxied to meet a PT-boat to complete the rescue.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn April 30, 1944, during a carrier raid on the Japanese stronghold of Truk, two Kingfishers were sent out to rescue a carrier pilot who had gone down in Truk’s lagoon. The first plane landed but was damaged while plucking the downed pilot from the water and began sinking. The second plane, piloted by John Burns, landed, recovered all three aviators, and, unable to take off with all the weight, taxied to a nearby submarine, USS Tang, which had been unable to enter the lagoon.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SzyJNCpOaAMBWfwwt0ISHC9kJcY7hZbkg7n6_UP5GLstXJ_qnjwYQQPe8lUZERYRSIIr3fMKEU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Kingfisher was then sent after another downed aviator. While recovering him, two damaged TBM Avengers ditched nearby, and the Kingfisher picked up each of their three-man crews. Carrying seven rescuees distributed along the wings, the airplane taxied back toward Tang, which had gone off to rescue yet another airman. The effort damaged the plane enough that it could not take off again and Burns and his observer had to board Tang as well. The sub then sank the heroic airplane with gunfire to keep it out of Japanese hands. Lieutenant Burns earned the Navy Cross for his actions.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TUkVd5-egNUrZzY0Ye0gcpAbBihaI9in3sDCe_VEKR0wEmzRwzK55uKh1yO61K7FjJzb5UOcM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThomas Oxendine (a Lumbee Indian from North Carolina), was the U.S. Navy’s first Native American Naval Aviator. He earned his wings in December 1942 and spent much of the war flying a Kingfisher off the light cruiser USS Mobile(CL-63). Thomas and his observer, F.P. Appleton, earned the Distinguished Flying Cross for rescuing downed airmen off Yap Island in July 1944 while dodging gunfire from Japanese shore batteries.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Twa-t-wkoD1wDUqWnVvABmVfnEDcHjTsf7yUucFfWsLo0oRiDKLX6NrfzoBwcZ8MuoJvXtjsb_",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOur Kingfisher and a Silver Star\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Museum’s Kingfisher has an interesting history that includes its own dramatic rescue story. Vought delivered the OS2U-3 with Bureau of Aeronautics number 5909 to the Navy in March 1942. It was soon assigned to the newly commissioned battleship USS Indiana (BB-58), followed by assignment to a shore-based patrol squadron in New Caledonia in December 1942. 5909 spent late 1943 and early 1944 in overhaul at NAS Alameda in California, after which the Navy once again assigned it to the Indiana.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Twa-t-wkoD1wDUqWnVvABmVfnEDcHjTsf7yUucFfWsLo0oRiDKLX6NrfzoBwcZ8MuoJvXtjsb_",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn July 4, 1944, Indiana was supporting naval strikes on Rota and Guam. 5909’s pilot, Rollin M. Batten Jr., accompanied by his observer, were on rescue duty. They spotted two airmen in the water near Guam. Despite heavy fire from Japanese shore batteries, Batten chose to land near the men and rescue them, earning himself the Silver Star.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThat August, 5909 was assigned to another shore-based unit as a utility aircraft, then returned to Alameda in December 1944 for another overhaul. It remained in the United States when the war ended, doing very little flying until it was prepped for storage in 1947. Though earmarked for the Smithsonian in 1948, it remained in Navy storage until 1960. The airplane was loaned to the USS Massachusetts Memorial at Battleship Cove, Massachusetts from 1968 to 1980 and is now on display at our Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Sikorsky JRS-1","Not just a \"Flying Pickup Truck\"","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TOrxXfMAK7zhpo2RiBQttjlvBGwJsF9Yc0b8R2On5Pb-OrKBRLeJdiB4OT_a5qRdMyzHwiFw","/story/DQUx6cjop-3dLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:7dd2bb0a-6feb-476a-bec7-b323fc6416a7","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TOrxXfMAK7zhpo2RiBQttjlvBGwJsF9Yc0b8R2On5Pb-OrKBRLeJdiB4OT_a5qRdMyzHwiFw","J84zBsy7_DLmdp-_Jzf1ZVs07gw",[0.5062912,0.517,0,0.98741764,0.4765],null,null,null,[1669,2000]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"DQUx6cjop-3dLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZEpqc4-XCi9rYXkw-V5XurmqpOhoLf-pQCR9sYyfeP6PaljEtJITATLzQPiC9etQEJKsXsAU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe historic importance of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/sikorsky-jrs-1\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eSikorsky JRS-1\u003c/a\u003e — a weathered blue-gray airplane now on display at our Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia—is not because of the type of airplane it is. As curator of U.S. naval aviation Larry Burke describes it, “in many ways, it was a flying pickup truck,” part of a noncombat utility squadron that did things like take aerial photographs and deliver mail to Navy troops on the Hawaiian Islands. Its importance lies in one of the places the JRS-1 has been and survived: Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TXcuzkpcHL8NEOjpn5CtKze4m4xa25zJJ0m_uZizoW5Tw_lPdCsvJA-qYzkydLZUs6UO02",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe JRS-1 is one of only three airplanes still in existence that were at Pearl Harbor during the attack, and the only airplane in the Museum’s collection that was there during the attack. Utility Squadron 1 (VJ-1), including the Museum’s JRS-1, was assigned to Hawaii in the summer of 1940 to be used for the noncombat day-to-day activities that kept the Navy running.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RRJ4g9m5ouvjyjolWU04sNXLGZxZDO0OmwabmqaASMcW-6T0WM4wOOlKeqtbRCAMRPJh5lIsIx",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eVJ-1’s area of Ford Island was not damaged during the attack on Pearl Harbor, so all of its planes survived. Soon after the attack, the Navy ordered VJ-1’s airplanes and crews into action despite being untrained and unequipped for combat. “We have stories of enlisted men picked up to be extra eyes, sitting at the doors at the back of the plane, with their rifles or machine guns, to act as last-ditch defense. Basically, they were hoping to spot something [of the Japanese attack force] and be able to radio it back before they were shot down,” Burke said. In addition to these desperate searches for the Japanese, which continued for several days after the attack, most of the aerial photography of the attack’s aftermath we see in history textbooks today was likely taken by the squadron’s JRS-1s.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZEpqc4-XCi9rYXkw-V5XurmqpOhoLf-pQCR9sYyfeP6PaljEtJITATLzQPiC9etQEJKsXsAU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter surviving and recording the aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor, our JRS-1 continued its unique service record. It remained at Pearl Harbor until 1943, when it was given an overhaul and returned to service as a personal aircraft assigned to the commander of Fleet Airship Wing 31, based at Moffett Field in California. After the war, it was reconfigured as part of a research project conducted by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the predecessor to NASA. After the NACA experiment, which focused on improving seaplane hull design, was completed, the JRS-1 was sent to storage at Bush Field in Georgia.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q_TCYh4z2ein1xTL5V_mwc3ig4_kxGXtYWg1DG_eZGfmDu3W6Gkatjatg9TZwD1jrnxmahqw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIt was by luck, though, that our JRS-1’s winding path from Pearl Harbor, out of military service and then back again, ended with the National Air and Space Museum. When the plane was dormant at Bush Field, a ferry pilot happened to be flipping through the entries in the plane’s logbook, which marked the JRS-1’s flights and its history. While looking back through the book’s many entries, one date in particular caught the pilot’s eye—December 7, 1941. After that, the Museum was contacted and it was delivered to the Smithsonian in 1960.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHWHbSVqx-TY9JVsALzx28d_HoswI5b-2RCyxc54ODMaqaul9wdHtP_MmjtESDhC5Xr_LCrA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eYou don’t need to read the logbook to see the long, exciting history of the JRS-1, however. Now that the plane is on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center, you just need to know what to look for.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe multiple layers of paint you can see today offer a look into the JRS-1’s past. Underneath the airplane’s blue-gray top-coat (applied in the weeks after Pearl Harbor), you can see glimpses into what it would have looked like during the attack.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHWHbSVqx-TY9JVsALzx28d_HoswI5b-2RCyxc54ODMaqaul9wdHtP_MmjtESDhC5Xr_LCrA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e“If we restored its inter-war paint job, it would be one of the more colorful aircraft we have,” Burke said. The Navy preferred a colorfully-painted airplane for a number of reasons. If it were forced down, for example, it would be easier for a search and rescue aircraft to find it at sea.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe paint also helped communicate what the plane did and who was on it—particularly important because radios were not yet standard-issue by World War II, Burke said. Larger airplanes would have a full radio set, but a fighter plane probably only had a short-range radio at best. So, the colors on the plane were meant to describe practical information: the plane’s duties, what squadron it was a part of, and who might be on it.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T1fpecB3LDdjFl8NZU5hMIV_skUv5LTBazq9IW2E0_OS5teWWd15WvILspCVwZDHVhjjMy0A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn its earliest days, the JRS-1 was painted silver with bright chrome yellow upper wings, and a black hull. A willow green tail identified it as belonging to Utility Squadron 1. The numbers on the side of the plane would have read 1-J-1, with “J” designating a utility squadron. So, 1-J-1 told the other pilots that the plane was the first airplane of Utility Squadron 1. A big red stripe near the back doors of the airplane, which you can still see today, meant that this was a commander’s airplane. Speed rings around the cowlings would have told you the aircraft’s position within the squadron, depending on the color and formation of the stripes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RIzXqOb9PDew8aRa4GxKzg4SfzMTenf3n2EP3JnrlkPetjOjVaGE9UXCs578-WTnwOBenvHw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIf you look for the flat, diamond shape near the pilot’s windows, you’ll find the most unique part of the JRS-1’s pre-war paint job—its squadron logo. Painted on the diamond is a flying pelican, holding different objects representing its day-to-day duties: a mail bag, a target practice sock, and a photographer caught in its beak.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe logo only tells part of the JRS-1 story, though—one that changed both at Pearl Harbor and in its wake, and ends with the aircraft as a key piece of our collection.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter","Unmatched in the skies","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TC_AGDiXp8cKNiaJrz886dBHmE1hObpoTGvvuuAccKuYlmapuOycoISaKLMZFVSf9cO6jaJMVy","/story/rwXRw09550EMKA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"rwXRw09550EMKA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QJqajN-sJMCIU05TlXtwL7zL8AHX8DjtTTbyDWYCUrzE2ycwHrAPvX5DuW6Cqh7HLOdFO21HE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFew American fighter pilots on their own survived a turning, twisting, close-in dogfight against a capable Japanese pilot flying a Mitsubishi A6M Zero during World War II. Innovative tactics devised by U.S. Navy Commander John S. “Jimmy” Thach in 1942 returned the advantage to American pilots but the Zero remained a deadly adversary until the war ended. The Japanese official designation was Rei Shiki Sento Ki (Type 0 Fighter). Type 0 referred to the year of the emperor’s reign when production of Zero fighters began in 2600 on the imperial calendar (Julian calendar year 1940). Pilots called it the Zero even after the official codename became ‘Zeke’ in 1942. This exhibit will explore why the Zero remained one of the world’s most maneuverable fighters to the end of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S98jELuVD2vqTZ1uyMT_2_xrKktKJHbqNgkyuOLwfvW-n2P5I69usVHx3GXOY6SIgQpdTN-Fs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eZero chief designer Jiro Horikoshi assembled a team in 1937 to design a new fighter for the Imperial Japanese Navy with two primary goals in mind: to make the aircraft as maneuverable as possible and to provide it with enough range to escort Japanese bombers all the way to distant targets in China and back. Navy leadership set these requirements based on missions against Chinese targets during the Second Sino-Japanese War that began in July of that year. When Horikoshi and his team began working on the aircraft in October, they already knew that making the fighter as lightweight as possible would benefit both maneuverability and range.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RKlaIckdF7GGKywnX_Rn-y7kDbwqVUHQYEsO1cu8w7LplCA0THrV8c6fRR5cAedlJMmfDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaking the Zero lightweight\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eHorikoshi’s team designed lightness into the Zero’s airframe by paying close attention to many small details. As explained in a 1945 article about the Zero published in Aviation, “Nothing has been spared to keep weight down, neither excessive man-hours to manufacture complex units nor increasing maintenance difficulties for ground crews.” An example is the bracket made of sheet aluminum pierced with large lightening holes and riveted together to support the aileron control tube. Crafts persons could have made this subassembly more easily using fewer and larger metal pieces, but at the cost of increased weight. Workers cut lightening holes in many parts, and in several areas they used plywood instead of aluminum or steel as backing to reinforce the metal canopy frame and to reinforce the false spar that supported the ailerons and flaps in the wings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLzsXy3hXc4MXO4IlxhdQIFvHCD1W8jUUFw5CtDgilnXJcBNq0pk61N3dtpyADmX3McHd0_DY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFor heavier solid parts of the airframe, the team used “extra super duralumin,” which was developed in 1935 by Sumitomo Metal. By alloying zinc with aluminum, metallurgists made a strong lightweight metal that resisted fatigue. Horikoshi used it to build solid pieces such as the two main wing spars that brace the wing much like the keel braces a ship. The Alcoa company began using a similar aluminum alloy in 1943 called “7075.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sj1b96Q3TY1b4il5C9aghAxObkcE7nqOfIzeGKyCYwvL-NbT9vRaCsD3YNIZd3vV37CgVxGQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAirplanes are built in subassemblies. Wings, fuselage, tail, engine, and landing gear follow separate paths around a factory before workers join them together during final assembly. The fittings that attach the wings and fuselage together are strong and heavy. To make these parts smaller and reduce their weight, Horikoshi’s team permanently joined the wings to the Zero fuselage and designed the aft fuselage including the tail to more easily mount to the forward fuselage at a point just behind the cockpit. Each wing half-mounted the guns, the landing gear, and the fuel tanks, making the wings significantly heavier than the tail. The fittings needed to join the tail could be smaller and lighter because they only had to support the weight of the tail. The gross weight of the A6M2 Zero (5,555 lb.) was 1,871 lbs less than its primary adversary in spring 1942, the Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat (7,426 lb.).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R0UNf4yJg2kz-ip2H3gox62Z7uMvOI3dn9Q1xaUFeWXGtXCO9XHHM3djXVP9__fs867wTV1b8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaking the Zero maneuverable\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eLocating the engine close to the cockpit didn’t just save weight, it made the Zero more maneuverable as well. The centers of gravity and the aerodynamic center of lift lie at points very near the cockpit and serve as the fulcrum through which the empennage acts as a lever. Keeping the engine close to the fulcrum allowed the aft fuselage to be shorter and save a bit more weight. The elevator retained enough leverage to push the Zero into a tight turn or loop when the pilot hauled back the stick.Wing loading, the weight supported by each square foot of an aircraft’s wing in level flight, also impacts maneuverability. Less wing loading generally means quicker maneuvering because there is less inertia to overcome when the pilot moves the controls to pitch, roll, and yaw the aircraft. At 24.3 lb/ft², the A6M2 Zero had a lower wing loading than the Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat at 28.6 lb/ft². The Zero design team used an engine that made around 300 horsepower less than the Pratt \u0026amp; Whitney R-1840 Twin Wasp powering the F4F-4 Wildcat. Newer American fighters more than doubled the Zero’s horsepower with a commensurate increase in wing loading and performance.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R0UNf4yJg2kz-ip2H3gox62Z7uMvOI3dn9Q1xaUFeWXGtXCO9XHHM3djXVP9__fs867wTV1b8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe American pilots refused to attack Zeros unless they held a clear advantage in height or speed. When they did attack, they made one pass and hopefully “boomed” a Zero and continued right on going past, avoiding a dogfight. Once they were out of range, they regained the altitude or speed advantage and attacked again if possible and necessary, again one pass, boom, zoom away at speed or to regain altitude above the target.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rs4UIeTQbuiIUQ3ICeVO7kdh_xuin-pMRbYGRLeFm5tW8sGEo7fvZfAzJWsaVQ2VbmrR2yfg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAccounts of fighter operations during the Pacific war vary on how often Zeros carried radios. All the Zeros flying during the Midway operation in June 1942 had them, but whether a Zero had a radio or not varied depending on the operational needs of a particular mission. Those Zeros not equipped with radios would have been tens of pounds lighter with a corresponding slight decrease in wing loading. The Japanese were slow to develop and use self-sealing fuel tanks but eventually did so later in the war. That they did not begin the war with self-sealing tanks and armor plate to protect the pilot was a result of several factors including an intense and pervasive focus on offensive operations driven by strategic necessity and cultural inclination. The absence of this protective equipment was less costly at the start of the war and even contributed to the Zero’s agility in combat, but American tactics and technology rapidly improved and the Japanese eventually lost many pilots flying Zeros that lacked this protection.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QJqajN-sJMCIU05TlXtwL7zL8AHX8DjtTTbyDWYCUrzE2ycwHrAPvX5DuW6Cqh7HLOdFO21HE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWith the extra fuel from a droppable tank carried on the belly, a Zero could fly over 1,600 miles, more than 300 miles farther than the F4F-4 carrying two drop tanks. As the war continued, weight increases due to armor and self-sealing fuel tanks reduced the Zero’s impressive flight range. All the characteristics that comprise the aircraft design process such as structures, aerodynamics, propulsion, and accommodation, act in unison. Changes to one usually affect the other. Horikoshi’s team successfully balanced these characteristics to make the Zero as light as possible and highly maneuverable. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs the war progressed, the Zero continued to operate without significant improvements, suggesting that Horikoshi’s team had already extracted all possible performance from the Zero design.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q2LY6pyJXnpry8rTGD7GUZbocgkh2qQSxeGheAIXEi21o2US3525kmw7Hi9OoNVunP6PMdJQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWe believe that the A6M5 Zero Model 52 on display in the National Air and Space Museum came from a group of Japanese aircraft captured on Saipan Island in April 1944. Navy personnel removed 12 late-model Zeros from the island and sent them to the United States for evaluation. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis photo shows Japanese aircraft from the Pacific theater tied down to the deck of the escort aircraft carrier USS Copahee as it sails toward the West Coast. The ship may have carried the National Air and Space Museum’s Zero.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Curtiss P-40E","The incredible story of Lope's Hope","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SFsM8NaKPDu5YLsnNZ4m1dD-VPX6zIGWEAmOzVzWAyFuCFrPm3fPBEHBAMYpDu71J20MuyHg","/story/vwXRjGksAG-FIw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:f486e80a-548c-471d-bf47-29a2b7556b6a","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SFsM8NaKPDu5YLsnNZ4m1dD-VPX6zIGWEAmOzVzWAyFuCFrPm3fPBEHBAMYpDu71J20MuyHg","o7cpiaWhnQUWa2dEGLGhnzILfAI",[0.575,0.45837837,0,0.85,0.91675675],null,null,null,[1500,925]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"vwXRjGksAG-FIw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S6lIW2B_zfmd0Zld1E7J5gIjaigaRgZQ2v13ytOSfLwo0jA4-QhnaFQ0se4l9PyPqgEr2MlNQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn 2016, chief curator \u003ca href\u003d\"https://airandspace.si.edu/people/staff/peter-jakab\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ePeter Jakab\u003c/a\u003e forwarded me an intriguing email which began “Good Morning. My name is Karen Abel. I am the granddaughter of F/L Robert W. Lynch, of the RCAF (Royal Canadian Air Force) 111F Squadron. I believe my grandfather actually flew the P-40 you have hanging in the Air and Space Museum.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rk7Iqub1X0KkvwOZC6IwD9oGaEsoS4WO4c200GR64k_619aWPItwN1MVGvTfKLiDJivVwZPjU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eVisitors can see the Curtiss P-40E \u003ci\u003eLope’s Hope\u003c/i\u003e (formerly the AK875 flown by F/L Robert W. Lynch) above the entranceway overlook at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R0UvjRmXxbPtWr85bouUM5jlTDz-FuqiIbJMQ42SH_GbO958jjFXCwyxbrI841Pv9556Eb5g",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eI contacted Abel and what followed was a bounty of previously unknown information and photographs about the early operational history of our P-40. According to Peter Bowers, author of \u003ci\u003eCurtiss Aircraft 1907-1947\u003c/i\u003e (Naval Institute Press, 1979), Curtiss had named the version of the P-40 earmarked for sales overseas, like the aircraft in our collection, the Kittyhawk IA. When the RCAF accepted this Kittyhawk IA in March 1941, they assigned to it the military with the serial number AK875.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TncWnhPmnHUK8XktSlOMm1tUJGMuMUbs64KRWi-txvR3MKXFpEJLeEh7Jwn2mgT60ccLpGBA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAbel explained how her grandfather had “actually crashed on landing (ground looped)” during a fuel stop in Naknek, Alaska on July 13, 1942, “en route to Cold Bay [Alaska] and ultimately Umnak Island in the Aleutians.” The crash may have saved his life. While his P-40 was undergoing repairs the next day, five of the seven Kittyhawks in his squadron flew on and encountered heavy fog. Of the five, four fatally crashed into Unalaska Mountain and one pilot disappeared. These events are documented in the official crash report contained in Lynch’s service file, flight logbooks he saved, and the squadron’s daily diary that Abel examined at the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/Pages/home.aspx\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eLibrary and Archives Canada.\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Txj18hMIlFpVWQHtkNcXPc-M_rFprCAT2mqm-A-162eAcLj4djRwJjcCd7mfCrj6LXAQaV-Js",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLynch’s squadron, RCAF 111F, was attached to the 343rd Fighter Group, U.S. Army Air Forces, and pilots and airplanes from both units participated in the first combined U.S.-Canadian joint mission of the Alaska War, Abel said. The squadron was commanded by Lt. Col. John ‘Jack’ Chennault, the son of General Claire Chennault of Flying Tigers fame. Lynch was chosen as one of four Canadian pilots to participate in the joint mission.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R65cSwCAa8x2pMwmNuQbcXGTXF_zStocAIMGD2vovGx-usQ5xx7r4bXFRUCfrjE4o8TgRBMTQb",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter the Japanese threat to the Aleutian Islands diminished, the 111 Squadron returned to Canada and eventually transferred to England without its P-40s. The RCAF declared the Kittyhawk IA, known as AK875, surplus on July 27, 1946, and eventually returned the airplane to the United States. Several people owned the P-40 after its return, and itwas eventually donated to the Smithsonian’s National Aeronautical Collection in 1964 by the Explorer Scouts youth group in Meridian, Mississippi.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sk2shTVMdu478GC-v-BpDUZbA9Ek7ovMiRtQABRM_95gcLZdDOlbMf68Rw6w-uMmZtasRAew",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA U.S. Air Force Reserve crew airlifted the fighter to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, on March 13, 1964. Air Force personnel at Andrews restored the airplane in 1975 and painted it to represent a fighter in the 75th Fighter Squadron, 23rd Fighter Group, and 14th Air Force. Museum staff painted \u003ci\u003eLope’s Hope\u003c/i\u003e on the nose to honor its Deputy Director Col. Donald S. Lopez (USAF Ret.). Colonel Lopez had flown a P-40 as a member of the 23rd Fighter Group in China during World War II (WWII).\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Ilyushin Il-2","The Soviet Union's \"flying tank\"","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R5ec-4PiLS8WNuOqExdd-dpJw9g45EQbzib7wcsI-VAQDeoc-pIAW0ACMs5GRlQvhR67DxEcYY","/story/5wXh3e3K0CcTLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"5wXh3e3K0CcTLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZsDyouwnpF0rIJcGUFCQCg-YgCZbEhguSg4l6oXaqK6cj7eiVso0X2y7Ehb3OW2oDUkfrJjE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhen the Nazi Army attacked the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, the Soviet government was thrown into confusion and disbelief; they had not anticipated or actively prepared for this act. At the time of the attack, the Soviet Air Force was undergoing a major modernization program to upgrade its capabilities with a variety of new warplanes. But delivery and integration of these new aircraft into the Air Force was slow; and only a small number of the new bomber, fighter, and attack aircraft had made it to front-line air force units. One of the most important of these new types was the Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik, a rugged single-engine ground attack aircraft. Its origins date back to the mid-1930s, when Soviet military specialists realized that the country needed a dedicated aircraft with dive-bombing capabilities, capable of independently attacking and disabling enemy ground forces and targets, including tanks and other armored vehicles.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZsDyouwnpF0rIJcGUFCQCg-YgCZbEhguSg4l6oXaqK6cj7eiVso0X2y7Ehb3OW2oDUkfrJjE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn early 1938, Sergei Ilyushin, head of the legendary Ilyushin aircraft design bureau, suggested to Soviet leader Joseph Stalin the idea of a “flying tank,” and asked that his bureau be allowed to design and construct such an aircraft. Somewhat unusually for the normal Soviet aircraft acquisition process, there was no design competition or request for proposals from other Soviet aircraft design bureaus. Ilyushin’s idea was approved, and two prototype Il-2s were ordered, with the first flying in October 1939. Originally conceived as a two-seater, the Il-2 was redesigned as a single-seater to achieve better flying characteristics. After an Il-2 pilot wrote directly to Stalin, suggesting that a gunner behind the pilot was needed to fend-off Nazi fighters seeking to shoot-down the aircraft, the Il-2 was designed as a two-seater once again. Following successful flight tests, the type was ordered into production. About 249 Il-2s were built by the time Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. But of these, a mere 70 were actually in service at that time. Even worse: Only 20 of them were in service with the frontier military districts. Their pilots had only undergone a minimum training, and operational air tactics that ultimately would made the Il-2 so successful were not in existence yet. Indeed, the Il-2’s combat initiation came on June 27, 1941, just five days after Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union, when five Il-2s attacked a German convoy of tanks and mechanized infantry.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R-LINdm8OIXcbahEIEcVozeM3I68F7FfkzSjamNPzJceEbCp33k6S8v9lf-KnMMxqB-iy6BwY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTo achieve the IL-2\u0026#39;s full potential, production needed to be sharply ramped up. This was not an easy task, since the German invasion had dislocated most of the production facilities. Stalin did not conceal his rage at this disruption of production. In a telegram to the directors of one of the troubled Il-2 plants, he wrote, “You have let down our country and our Red Army. You have the nerve not to manufacture Il-2s until now. Our Red Army now needs Il-2 aircraft like the air it breathes, like the bread it eats. (This plant) now produces one Il-2 a day….It is a mockery of the Red Army….I ask you not to try the government’s patience, and demand that you manufacture more Il-2s. This is my final warning. Stalin.” Not surprisingly, Il-2 production increased sharply within weeks.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QsFVa_epoOYfxFDbcEuYiFQG7rODQAK1H5Ijt6dzQ2Fx8Dv-c5WAaiEuNEpwQODA4xiKCGeUw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOver the course of the war, a total of between 31,000 and about 36,000 Il-2s were to be produced — more than any other combat aircraft in WWII. The Il-2 was anything but advanced in its mixed wood-and-metal construction, which was relatively easy to manufacture in significant numbers using relatively unskilled workers. But for an aircraft, it was an amazing achievement. Among the Shturmovik’s most important assets were its strength and robustness in combat. The forward fuselage section — protecting the aircraft’s fuel system, radiators and crew station — was built entirely of armor plate. Thus, the Il-2 could, and often did, absorb extraordinary battle damage and survive to fight another day. The protective armor shell employed a special alloy developed for the Il-2; its thickness varied by location on the airframe. Special consideration had been given to a technology that would allow maintenance personnel to stamp the armor steel in the field, thus providing flexibility in the design, especially when Soviet units were forced to operate from primitive forward battle areas.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QwZUn9qhFpfPXuHvp1nIHY8UPbRBoFHKeGggZit96xhM1SESJmUzggfhj1AqwCax1H64_apDI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe heavy armor of the Il-2 led to its German nickname, “Betonflugzeug” (“concrete plane”), since it was basically impossible to shoot down an Il-2 with a machine gun or a 20 mm cannon. Early combat experience, however, quickly revealed the single-seat Il-2’s great vulnerability to German attack from behind. This was compounded by the inability of escorting Russian fighters, which operated at much higher altitudes than the Shturmoviks, to protect their charges. The Il-2s, of course, had to operate at extremely low heights to strike their ground targets successfully. The response was development of a two-seat Il-2, with the second crew-member operating rearward-firing machineguns. This new version quickly supplanted the single-seat version on Il-2 production lines.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QsFVa_epoOYfxFDbcEuYiFQG7rODQAK1H5Ijt6dzQ2Fx8Dv-c5WAaiEuNEpwQODA4xiKCGeUw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn the website \u003ca href\u003d\"about:invalid#zGuavaz\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eI remember. Soviet World War II Veteran Memoirs\u003c/a\u003e, Il-2 pilot Yurii Khukhrikov recalls: “It was an excellent aircraft for those times! We carried 600 kilograms of bombs, 8 rockets, 300 23 mm shells for the cannon (150 rounds for each gun), and 1800 rounds” for the machine guns. According to Khukhrikov, the engine was the most vulnerable part of the Il-2: “The wings were fine, more or less. If a fuel tank was hit, that wasn’t bad either, why? When we approached the target, we opened carbon dioxide canisters, which filled the empty space of the fuel tanks. If a bullet pierced the body and hit a fuel tank, the sealer would fill the hole, fuel would not leak out, there would be no vapor, and consequently, no combustion.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_REljcY7TrEPqULi2ot9-19_XuTavaoJb-hZkdEiSEVckvG81zACDy0Im2C1eG8pOfOIlYetA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Il-2, however, was not a wonder weapon. One of its major problems was the inaccuracy of its attacks. Although massive numbers of Shturmoviks began to support main offensives of the ground troops, the aircrafts’ effect was often rather psychological, especially against targets that were dug-in or armored. Additionally, the heavy weight of the Il-2’s armor meant that Shturmoviks could not carry heavy bomb loads. Nevertheless, Shturmoviks played a critical role in the massive Soviet counteroffensives against the German forces. The Il-2 was particularly effective against transport and logistical equipment, including fuel transport, personnel, and supplies. In late November 1942, hundreds of Il-2s were deployed to provide close air support for Soviet ground troops encircling German Panzer forces near Stalingrad. Escorted by fighter aircraft, Il-2s achieved great success during the strike on the airfield at Salsk, a primitive airstrip used by the Germans for \u003ci\u003eLuftwaffe\u003c/i\u003e operations. In January 1943, the Germans had based up to 150 aircraft there, parked close together and vulnerable to attack. They were an ideal target for Il-2s, which flew at near-treetop altitude, hoping to avoid detection by German fighters and anti-aircraft artillery. The Russian planes executed seven lightning-quick strafing runs over the German base. The Germans were caught completely by surprise; 72 German aircraft were destroyed. In an attack during the Kursk Battle in summer 1943, Il-2s destroyed 70 tanks of the German 9th Panzer Division within 20 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQ-Ahf2TwpGKaDwaEgcr0c5v5GeH0-9pHgm-Suo5WXiykUmPlMH_QA1OoNScsdSz9GL-mC",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA number of Il-2 pilots became highly successful. Among them were also women, like Senior Lieutenant Anna Yegorowa who flew 243 missions in Il-2 and received the Gold Star of the Hero of the Soviet Union in late 1944, after she was taken prisoner by the German troops. Lieutenant Colonel Nelson Stepayan, according to Soviet sources, apparently shot down or destroyed in 239 combat sorties no less than 53 ships, 80 tanks, 600 armored vehicles and 27 aircraft. In December 1944, when his plane was hit by anti-aircraft fire and he was seriously wounded, Stepanyan steered his plane into a German warship and sank it.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SDDkYbi0nRcEZe9BazdqTuhW5_xwtAiq29lA--loCcxg5e2Am_HLJyPzBdndfhzA-RRo_orw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSquadron commander Leonid Beda, decorated as a Hero of the Soviet Union, made more than 100 combat sorties in an Il-2. In Famous Russian Aircraft, he describes how he led a group of Il-2s supporting Soviet ground troops assaulting Sapun Hill, in a crucial area near Sevastopol at the Crimea. Flying 6-9 meters (20-30 feet) above the ground, they masked their approach in the valleys surrounding the German gun emplacements on the hill, and were able to inflict considerable damage. To facilitate their escape, Beda and his group took refuge in the valleys again, flying extremely low. Later, Beda and his fellow Il-2 pilots participated in strafing attacks on German vessels in Sevastopol’s bays and against German airbases nearby. Despite the presence of significant anti-aircraft artillery, Beda and his squadron mates succeeded in sinking several ships in the harbor and destroying a number of German aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RoFI4hgjoYa4p_fKgyLXOk0PaG47ar1rR0WOC61yodi1rtsYDXeRIyfNNPzdT_GY9mUZPCYko",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLack of available Russian fighter protection, however, for the vulnerable and slow-moving Il-2s often led to severe losses in combat. In the spring and summer of 1942, for example, Il-2s were being lost at the very high rate of one for every 24 combat sorties; during the Battle of Stalingrad, that ratio increased to one aircraft per 10-12 combat missions. Luftwaffe fighters and anti-aircraft units claimed 6,900 victories over Il-2s in 1943, and 7,300 in 1944. These numbers might be exaggerated, but on the other hand, the Soviet numbers of losses might not be correct either: According to Soviet records, the total wartime Il-2 losses amounted to nearly 11,570 aircraft, or about 30 percent of the Soviet Union’s total combat aircraft losses.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZsDyouwnpF0rIJcGUFCQCg-YgCZbEhguSg4l6oXaqK6cj7eiVso0X2y7Ehb3OW2oDUkfrJjE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, by the end of World War II, the Il-2 was widely regarded as one of the best and most effective weapons deployed by the Soviet forces. Oleg Rastrenin, a highly regarded expert on Soviet airpower, notes that, during World War II, “it was precisely the Il-2 that was the most useful aircraft for our infantry and the aircraft most feared by the German infantry.” According to Rastrenin, at the beginning of the war, Il-2s comprised less than 0.2% of the inventory of the Soviet Air Force. But soon this number rose, and stayed at about 30% of all Soviet combat tactical aircraft for the duration of the war. For World War II, the Ilyushin Il-2 is an iconic aircraft, as iconic as the T-34 tank or the Katyusha rocket system - an aircraft that contributed significantly to the Allied victory in World War II.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The C-49 Control Car","From WWII to sports stadiums","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qr9J9zIb_jk9dfuT86jjMkgG4ClTRBY5Nq47bOJmse-atO3LA45OyBoZCpypWG3Iutjg65XxA","/story/PAXhMdkzDf9hJQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:f1794ac6-9ded-49ef-a2bd-5f07b875c9bd","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qr9J9zIb_jk9dfuT86jjMkgG4ClTRBY5Nq47bOJmse-atO3LA45OyBoZCpypWG3Iutjg65XxA","nhbQBJjhwbDHisFdG3i9vZ1tsLY",[0.5,0.5,0,0.4847059,0.3781746],null,null,null,[3400,2520]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"PAXhMdkzDf9hJQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SEWVk5jVkZdZMMkj3Q07L69wT60DBJQ7kyXj28o9ObNik18txYSvZwpzwv2JJp2AhkjlsE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEvery year, thousands of visitors pass the Goodyear C-49 control car at our Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. They see the control car as it looked through the 1980s, when it provided stunning aerial visuals above numerous events, including Worlds Series games, Super Bowls, and the 1980 Olympic Games.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SMjbjSApi23TSN_GG5tEGvIHNIr696BuwIY_GygmJ69j9PR7qwXIVEoSlBhP13Ry1K6U6IUg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhat you may not realize, however, is that beneath the colorful exterior and television camera equipment lies a veteran of World War II. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe C-49 control car took its first flight on August 23, 1934, under the name Enterprise (NC-16A). It flew in the skies above Washington, DC, and in the New York area during the years before the war, but once the United States entered the conflict, the C-49 control car took flight to Akron, Ohio, to begin its wartime service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SK5b8-lOSV25bkc5GipAIVxx6N61-skBakTXawoWVigqufL3T-n7s4DS5Ff-7pgViEcDoBbA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBefore World War II, the lighter-than-air arm of the U.S. Navy was practically nonexistent. It consisted of only a handful of varied types of airships, including three L-type training crafts. Once the United States entered the war, it needed to rapidly expand aircraft capabilities to contest the growing threats to its shores. In January 1942, the German Navy launched numerous attacks against U.S. commercial shipping from U-boats stationed along the coast. Although land-based aircraft and ships were useful for patrolling against such threats, airships proved to be the best resource for the task. The new K-type airship could stay aloft for over 24 hours, could carry radar and other equipment for hunting for German submarines, and could move fast enough to keep up with vulnerable shipping convoys. But the aircraft would not be enough: pilots were needed to help patrol the skies. In order to rapidly augment the number of training airships available to the service, the U.S. Navy purchased C-49 from Goodyear, along with several other advertising blimps within Goodyear’s fleet, to help prepare future lighter-than-air pilots. The L-type airship was smaller than the patrol airships in the Navy fleet, at 148 feet long by 54 feet high and 48 feet wide. They could fly for about 475 miles and provided an excellent platform for teaching new pilots the art of flying a lighter-than-air craft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rfo5S_lSOFQAIGfidz8qy-hbZaa4PCc7B-GwN7qDeOSkfJlg5BjiDE5PLWpAc5myqaJ-azQAY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter C-49 was purchased by the U.S. Navy, it was renamed L-5 and flown to Akron, Ohio, to provide pilot training at the Wingfoot Lake facility owned by Goodyear. Pilots flew training missions over northern Ohio, gaining critical experience which would prove essential to later anti-submarine patrols. L-5 even flew some missions ensuring the areas throughout northern Ohio were abiding by blackout regulations.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ra06svPGy_IC1hwkDgXZunlXFEVhezqwgI1M9_7gGQUzrYROgvgsbI7VJHuIZyicXvRf_wK3M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn January 1942, L-5 was deflated and the control car and envelope were shipped to Moffett Field, California. Moffett Field had been the base for the rigid airship USS Macon before its loss in February 1935. L-5 served at both Moffett Field, California, and Lakehurst, New Jersey, for the remainder of the war, operating as a training craft to hundreds of pilots. One of the many pilots that came to fly L-5 was John F. Lutz.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R4yapWb7I1SGsU5bAQqnN78jKy9eYJ-8gNLte3LVyBCdeV4vrVG1oN2A9lUO82aa2vcdQJVGU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eJohn F. Lutz began his Navy career during the spring of 1942 when he started Naval Flight Ground School at Chapel Hill, North Carolina. From November 1942 until March 1943, Lutz flew numerous L-Type ships while training to become a pilot. He first flew L-5 on February 5, 1943, and flew L-5 again for three days in March 1943.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TZWY0mseF-Yjg4wa0h0tuB5LgMkJLVvJwXEfnEvyNhnGY1at-KCFPVNLYgOGyXRQHWdkMd0js",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFollowing his flight training in the L-Type airships, in April 1943, Ensign Lutz served aboard K-Type airships flying out of Florida and bases throughout the Caribbean. Lutz performed important anti-submarine patrols throughout the area, protecting the shipping of critical war materials, including oil, exiting from the Gulf of Mexico. When submarines were spotted, K-Type airships could call in other aircraft or surface ships to make an attack, or even strike at the submarine with four depth bombs carried aboard the craft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RatozakrNGVW19rQp26nfTTYAMVSGOW4pFJjIKaTcpU0TGd5JxzlCfKtFQhTpTo6JskvZx",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eK-Type airships proved to be critical components of naval aviation throughout World War II. They proved to be excellent at search and rescue operations, often dropping life rafts and survival supplies to those found at sea and calling in other craft to pick them up. K-Type airships provided essential anti-submarine warfare patrols and convoy protection to merchants and shipping along the Eastern seaboard of the United States, throughout the Caribbean, and along the east coast of South America. K-Type airships were even sent to patrol the Straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea. Convoys under the protection of K-Type airships rarely came under attack, as submarines were often spotted before any attack could be made. The many tasks assigned to K-Type airships, however, could never have been accomplished without the brave crews who constantly surveyed the seas, flown by pilots like John F. Lutz.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The P-38 Lightning and the SR-71 Blackbird.","A shared history and connection","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QfvoUYhh5_tvXJxwNTTsNbXj04myzTgT97itCq4d5-giYpbzwWD9QBtxM9Tc9WILLD4V6QJw","/story/PQXRSTonSh5ELA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:8ec3eedd-a3a2-4d5e-9c67-79442c4aca5e","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QfvoUYhh5_tvXJxwNTTsNbXj04myzTgT97itCq4d5-giYpbzwWD9QBtxM9Tc9WILLD4V6QJw","Xoe_ThVN-SYfZQyCu9hGJll0Nm0",[0.42,0.6234254,0,0.81482357,0.6237338],null,null,null,[6137,4922]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"PQXRSTonSh5ELA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjuwTcjTbVFLgjRV_6cHAOo0T9iNBs396BqogrSp4wRQxgRD1gtLil37Cjsv0AvddiRITf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhen walking around the museum, it’s easy to think of the aircraft of different eras as existing almost in different worlds from each other. But when Museum curator Michael Hankins talks to visitors about one of Air and Space\u0026#39;s most popular aircraft, the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, they are always amazed to find that it is deeply connected to one of the greatest World War II fighter planes, the P-38 Lightning.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuyH1Sb3f0lMOJmsuqttQcV8xPstYp1L6KRQ43myhtapyC_nIMLCeRrABadhrMtb5qveWw0nI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe SR-71 Blackbird is one of the most awe-inspiring aircraft to ever fly in the United States’ inventory. Though its design can be traced back to concepts as early as the late 1950s, its combination of sleek curves and sharp angles looks futuristic even 60 years later. The Blackbird is known for its high-altitude (well over 80,000 feet) and extremely high speeds (over three times the speed of sound, over 2,000 miles per hour). It still holds many world records for top speeds of piloted, air-breathing airplanes. The lead designer behind this technological marvel was Lockheed engineer Clarence “Kelly” Johnson.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q6-xZD9Lkz1G_e_MOsroSsqErkDaLgtOl_fCG7Lxgylh-sC6XjjvvvFjVRhMOBL0H_XzfF1nc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBut long before the Blackbird was a gleam in Johnson’s eye, he co-led design efforts on another high-speed, high-altitude airplane that became one of the most effective U.S. fighters of World War II. The Germans allegedly called it the “Fork-Tailed Devil,” American ace fighter pilot Major Jack Ilfrey called it “a beautiful monster.” The U.S. Army Air Forces called it the P-38 Lightning.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TYgPRM2shDzY0NnVHDWasNUZs_df8_wGJR46vCnSCAguztsfPM1ynjtK6re7B1DBqODbtM91Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe art of interception\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJohnson made a name for himself as early as 1933 when, as a student at the University of Michigan, he improved the aerodynamic design of the Lockheed Model 10 Electra by incorporating a twin-tail design—a feature that became a hallmark of Lockheed products for decades after. Around the same time, in 1934, 1st Lt. Benjamin Kelsey became the project officer for fighter aircraft development in the Army Air Corps. Interested in the contemporary concept of a bomber-destroyer aircraft, Kelsey’s office issued a proposal for a high-speed, heavily armed fighter with the primary mission of intercepting and destroying high-altitude enemy bombers. Lockheed submitted a design—primarily done by Johnson—which just barely lost to Bell’s entry, the XFM-1 (Fighter-Multiplace) Airacuda. Although one squadron of Airacudas eventually became operational, the five-crew dual-engine pusher aircraft experienced a myriad of technical problems. Its failure was one factor among others that convinced Kelsey, who was fond of Johnson’s proposal, that smaller, single-seat fighter designs might be more effective for the mission of intercepting enemy bombers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T8HG9NWP7SpPiff47b7UBx8PDj_coUsildOS8LdsGmikkvUiXQ6UPVcS-yqAr0KnauA11avg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eKelsey worked with Lieutenant Gordon Saville, who was on the Army Board for aircraft procurement. Both men desired a fighter with more engine power (up to 1,500 horsepower, well beyond that of the XFM-1) and up to 1,000 pounds of armament, which was significantly higher than the 500 pounds called for by American pursuit planes of the mid-to-late 1930s. In February 1937, Kelsey issued a circular proposal for a single-seat version of his interceptor concept. Keeping to that ideal, the proposal called for a minimum speed of 360 miles per hour and specified the use of the powerful Allison V-1710C engines incorporating new General Electric turbosuperchargers for high-altitude performance.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjuwTcjTbVFLgjRV_6cHAOo0T9iNBs396BqogrSp4wRQxgRD1gtLil37Cjsv0AvddiRITf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvolving designs\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eSix companies were invited to submit designs: Boeing, Consolidated, Curtiss, Douglass, Vultee, and Lockheed. With most of Lockheed’s small engineering staff focused on other projects, the new fighter, referred to as the Model 22, was co-designed by Johnson and the company’s chief engineer Hall Hibbard, with additional help from Willis Hawkins and James Gerschler. Johnson considered six potential designs, including pusher engines, a dual pusher-puller concept, a twin fuselage with the cockpit on the left side, and a design placing the engines in the center with extended shafts leading to wing-mounted propellers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjuwTcjTbVFLgjRV_6cHAOo0T9iNBs396BqogrSp4wRQxgRD1gtLil37Cjsv0AvddiRITf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLooking back years later, Johnson recalled that the design process had been a simple “logical evolution” driven by the proposal’s requirements. The Allison 1710 engines plus the turbosuperchargers made for long assemblies, and the proposal also called for a retractable tricycle landing gear. As Johnson described, “By the time we had strung all of that together we were almost back to where the tail should be. So we faired it back another five feet and added the tail. . . . [T]hat produced the characteristic twin-tailed airplane.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLbuxZGpQjhravlQ3cBxXOD5eWM7xa9TPtKB4wtqyKLtpSE7CrzY39voJlGyP8AFqsn0ZfH5M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis simple approach of evolving a design logically from essential mission requirements marked Johnson’s career, including the later process of designing the dual-engine twin-tailed A-12 that evolved into the SR-71 Blackbird. That plane, also known for pushing the boundaries of speed and altitude to new limits, was the result of twelve iterations of evolved designs and the only one that maximized all the requirements of speed, altitude, range, and stealth characteristics. Both the Model 22 and SR-71 design processes also pointed to what Johnson’s successor and close friend Ben Rich recalled as Johnson’s “fanatical” belief “that an airplane that looked beautiful would fly the same way.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tab7nT-4FZ13s5Na8-Ii72C0caKDUZQT4HE2MZ0GTMsU4SiZiYYDncy4sBc9uVtOKnSdQACqc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLightning in the sky\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe first flights of the XP-38 were anything but beautiful. Kelsey himself took the controls, but before it even got off the ground, the brakes failed, and on the first flight, the flaps failed. After addressing these issues and other minor setbacks, on February 11, 1939, Kelsey flew the plane from March Field in Riverside, California, to Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio, after a refueling stop in Amarillo, Texas. The XP-38’s airspeed on that flight averaged 360 miles per hour. In contrast, two years prior, Howard Hughes had set a cross-country speed record of seven hours, twenty-five minutes, averaging 327 miles per hour in an H-1 racer. After landing in Ohio, the XP-38 looked poised to beat that record. Meeting Kelsey at Wright Field, Army Air Corps Major General Henry “Hap” Arnold instructed Kelsey to continue to Mitchell Field in New York to go for the record.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TGCVJEzdeL9cTodcp-imTO80FasNLt-jTBfNEXrmxLtDSDOfMqe-IkmEuCEqwLSohk_PNU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhile approaching Mitchell Field, the XP-38’s engines experienced icing and lost power. Despite Kelsey’s efforts, the prototype crashed into treetops before skidding through a golf course. Kelsey was unharmed but the plane was destroyed. Despite missing the runway by about 2,000 feet, he had still made the record time of seven hours and two minutes. An impromptu speed record attempt in a prototype had beaten Hughes’ carefully planned record with his highly calibrated racing plane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q6-xZD9Lkz1G_e_MOsroSsqErkDaLgtOl_fCG7Lxgylh-sC6XjjvvvFjVRhMOBL0H_XzfF1nc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePushing the boundaries of speed and setting records was a hallmark of Johnson’s work at Lockheed. Similar to the XP-38, the A-12—which later evolved into the SR-71 Blackbird—experienced similar issues in its early days. The first test flight of the A-12 in 1962 experienced dangerous wobbling before test pilot Lou Schalk brought it down into a dry lakebed. The SR-71 later set its own cross-country record in 1990, shooting from Los Angeles to Washington, DC, in one hour and four minutes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjI8Jh3HzABj047QUPb7slD24GWK_UGpf226igbgE9QSwKYm2tR4oqbxgiCSDINHU0DkDZDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLightning legacy\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe P-38 became one of the most versatile aircraft of World War II. The top two highest scoring American ace pilots of all time, Majors Richard Bong and Thomas McGuire, achieved all of their aerial victories in P-38s. Of the top eight highest scoring U.S. Army Air Forces aces in the Pacific Theater (those with 20 or more victories), seven flew P-38s. The Lightning was the third highest-scoring aircraft in the war in terms of aerial victories (only the P-51 Mustang and F6F Hellcat had higher totals).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R_Ti_XCrVGr-VCj_Ew2j-8vh5reFcb0mYhP_84zZxeaHJizL5B6mnLOFgsuOwYKwe2PssNbyKH",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe P-38’s high speed, exceeding 400 miles per hour, combined with its long range (up to 2,500 miles with extra fuel tanks) and its ability to take damage and stay in the air made it especially useful in the mission of photoreconnaissance. Trading out the guns for cameras, the photo-recon model of the P-38 was named the F-5. Although Johnson had not set out to make the P-38 a reconnaissance plane, his emphasis on pushing the boundaries of speed and altitude made him adept at designing planes for that role. In that sense, the SR-71 Blackbird, his crowning achievement in a long tradition of high-speed reconnaissance planes, dated back to his work on the P-38.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qsmz30c3sQHQlyl6CjpxsE7GG7axCGpc3RIdSVRvGl_eabLFmRoSwnI2ZcncRq0ZGVbTZD7A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOf course, no aircraft is the work of one person. Both the P-38 and the Blackbird, as well as all the other aircraft created under Johnson’s tenure, were collaborative efforts with teams of engineers, designers, manufacturers, scientists, and test pilots. But Johnson did leave his fingerprints on these planes, creating a legacy of twin-tailed airplanes that earned a powerful place in aviation history and memory.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Kawanishi N1K2-J Shiden Kai","A notable Japanese naval plane","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TJt5F1UxQZJouH-F4FoUhPd3Y2CESSPyLTirZNyEHQmyP18kbL9xSBHSUl3gPK8XKYDs_FCfzO","/story/twUxI-HGAo_AJw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"twUxI-HGAo_AJw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RGLkjjw1aXp60l2Gc3TZDKLQbdR73bWvFmQ0JNQkUtbyLLTS0UHjTrKFP0FYqyEmLGumsyzDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMany people know the Mitsubishi Zero fighter that Japanese pilots flew throughout World War II. Less well-known is that Japan developed another exceptionally good fighter airplane: the N1K2-J \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e (‘sheeden-kie’ or Violent Lightning Modified; Allied codename GEORGE). This fighter did not enter operational service until 1944, but its superb abilities helped make it a notable part of Japanese aerial history.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TndHPO4Xx58xaq9m1F4EVOw4KCG4wHY9XLpGrPw38EVbhPJBwt_SHS-fREr4V8orT5vMjawgAA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDevelopment\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e story begins in December 1941 when a team of designers at the Kawanishi Aircraft Company proposed a land-based version of the float-equipped fighter called the Kawanishi N1K1 \u003ci\u003eKyofu\u003c/i\u003e (Mighty Wind, Allied codename REX).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eA few of the major changes made to transform the floatplane to fly from land bases include:\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e• Removing the main float and two wingtip floats\u003cbr\u003e• Upgrading the 14-cylinder Kasei engine to an 18-cylinder Homare\u003cbr\u003e• Installing a bigger propeller to absorb the extra power from the more powerful engine\u003cbr\u003e• Installing retractable landing gear with long gear legs to keep the propeller off the ground\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SrVjzmB2tpf7HYSOqOIaMw1LkxnuB0N8H1gBBAZ9uxaJeNwZyS8YFDgK9gFoqZuki1VKycCpo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Japanese navy named the new fighter N1K1-J \u003ci\u003eShiden\u003c/i\u003e, and a test pilot made the first flight on December 27, 1942. Kawanishi spent the next year resolving various problems with the design before navy pilots took the first \u003ci\u003eShidens\u003c/i\u003e into combat early in 1944. The factory delivered a total of 1,007. Meanwhile, Kawanishi had begun revising the design less than a week after the first \u003ci\u003eShiden\u003c/i\u003e flew. Designers moved the wing to the bottom of the fuselage, shortened the landing gear, lengthened the fuselage, redesigned the tail, and removed 550 lb (250 kg) of superfluous weight. They kept the powerful but temperamental 2,050 hp (1,529 kW) Homare engine and named the new aircraft \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e (Violet Lightning Modified). A test pilot made the first flight on January 1, 1944, and the navy rushed the fighter to operational squadrons less than four months later.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis new fighter’s impressive capabilities motivated the navy to get the aircraft into combat as soon as possible. Capable of rolling at 82° per second at 240 mph (386 km/h) and having a maximum speed of about 370 mph (595 km/h) at 18,000 ft (5,480 m), the \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e was maneuverable and fast and mounted a formidable array of four 20mm cannons in the wings. Japanese pilots with skill and experience could hold their own in combat with American pilots flying F6F Hellcats and F4U Corsairs.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOne system unique to the \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e enhanced its maneuverability: The landing flaps doubled as combat flaps that automatically deployed up to 30 degrees when triggered by a tube holding a mercury switch linked to the aircraft’s pitot-static air system. The system detected the amount of G-force and airspeed, for example during a tight loop or steep turn, and deployed the flaps without pilot intervention. The flaps increased lift and lowered the fighter’s stall speed. Once the pilot stopped turning, the system automatically retracted the flaps, easing workload on the pilot. No other fighter during World War II used a similar system.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QWmbSOL0revuetFSdSM0nzruqOGx8uHwQ5svZXut1HPrNPIbD-BTFgxCl7kv5RSit5jjzJKcY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOperational history\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Japanese navy gathered a group of experienced fighter pilots, formed them into the 343rd Kokutai (air group), and assigned them to fly \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e fighters. The group was led by Minoru Genda, who helped Admiral Yamamoto plan the Pearl Harbor attack in December 1941. Over the Inland Sea in March 1945, 343rd pilots fought U. S. Navy pilots of Fighter-Bomber Squadron VBF-17 flying Grumman F6F Hellcats. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn June 2, 1945, over Kagoshima Bay, 343rd pilots battled pilots of VBF-85 flying Vought F4U Corsairs from the aircraft carrier USS \u003ci\u003eShangri La\u003c/i\u003e. Visitors can see a part of this history firsthand, as the National Air and Space Museum displays an F6F and a Corsair at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S6wcJm2GHZ-9FTZu_jlZEP6MBXFu9Gcw8EUkzpwWKcHUgZcfimw3fhy-dkHbMGuwGV_TdToRxr",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Museum’s \u003ci\u003eShiden Kai\u003c/i\u003e is one of four on display at museums in the USA and Japan. Staff at the Champlin Fighter Museum painted the fighter in the color and markings of an airplane assigned to the 343rd Kokutai when they restored the airplane for the Museum in 1991.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Curtiss SB2C Helldiver","The \"Big-tailed beast\"","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TUeodiMwK4-i-bqESJ_2a0H0Al0Rr15BhotndEJSOxtW1Zmffwz4EqXX-PynP9_0UhgCmhBjU","/story/uAUhPCXqDwCVIA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d379caf4-99dc-4aa2-83af-2eba1a1e9aef","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TUeodiMwK4-i-bqESJ_2a0H0Al0Rr15BhotndEJSOxtW1Zmffwz4EqXX-PynP9_0UhgCmhBjU","Se3V_OPX-zlGvbDJi_ApCcKtvnk",[0.53487664,0.49,0,0.8998463,0.37825093],null,null,null,[7581,9890]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"uAUhPCXqDwCVIA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9XApksd-kxYixLve97ZZDncpzk6wCfAPajulzjK2dwqQwouOiTY3VWsFLaLyXk__dFFcmFhY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Curtiss SB2C Helldiver would have been the U.S. Navy’s frontline carrier-based dive bomber for much of WWII, but problems with its development delayed its introduction and saddled it with a bad reputation. By the end of the war, changes in technology meant other aircraft could deliver an equal or greater amount of ordnance with comparable accuracy, eliminating the need for a specialized dive bomber. Thus, the SB2C was the last dive bomber in the Navy’s inventory.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rct1cH-jeY61IDO5v8Je7C_91PwK7_BkrvWxhZ3jKawB0HLvQRJJBON0hxNmdQVzwErc0z",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOrigins\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe SB2C Helldiver has connections to Curtiss’ previous Navy dive bomber, the SBC, also called the Helldiver (the Curtiss company seemed fond of the name). The SBC was a biplane design that began in 1933 as a two-seat fighter with dive bombing capabilities (XF11C) and was subsequently revised to scout-bomber specifications. The SBC-3 entered Navy service in 1937 and was the last biplane combat aircraft to see Navy service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SCcqLmG2UKVj4vjVZZ6bO1Zxm3XhyswMg8htdrVkQBgbENQsubv-sGBIIDgVxmZfCMt0YTu-w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEven as the Navy placed its first orders for the biplane SBC in 1936, the Navy was already looking for a monoplane to replace it. They saw an opportunity to improve a plane that had competed with the SBC for the Navy contract: the monoplane Northrop BT-1. Suitably modified, the aircraft was reclassed as a scout-bomber (SB) around the time Northrop had become Douglas’ El Segundo division. Accordingly, the new airplane was designated SBD, the Dauntless. The Navy, however, only expected it to be a stopgap for what would come next.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SYu7OBQVevylbje4-6Pk2497NZgNUpiVkrs5vnbL66_H9nSyDqpFruazra9CkHlvLESglEmA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn 1938, just a year after the first deliveries of SBC-3s, the Navy issued a specification for a new monoplane dive bomber that would result in the SB2C, the third Curtiss plane to carry the name “Helldiver” but the first to carry it as an official service nickname. The Navy’s requirements for this new monoplane dive bomber were challenging: it had to be able to carry a significant weight of weaponry internally while incorporating specific equipment and structural features within an airframe small enough to fit two on the elevators of the Essex class carriers. None of the SB2C’s features were entirely new, only the Pratt \u0026amp; Whitney R-2800 engine had yet to be proven on other aircraft, but some of features had not previously appeared on a Curtiss design, and some of the internal systems pushed the state-of-the-art.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SYu7OBQVevylbje4-6Pk2497NZgNUpiVkrs5vnbL66_H9nSyDqpFruazra9CkHlvLESglEmA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eNavy practice at this time was to wait until a prototype had been tested before placing any orders. In the case of the new Helldiver, the Navy was watching the gathering war clouds and was eager to replace the “stopgap” SBD with a better aircraft. The Navy also may have been lulled into taking a chance based on design studies and wind tunnel tests. Whatever the reasons, the Navy broke with practice and ordered 370 SB2Cs from Curtiss on November 29, 1940, before the first prototype had flown.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RCuIQbRE6wFD_9jdRHjlJx9171xyQFyvzm-NV4_-BeNjmp8m7lv3R4VO1f6HzAg5xiaNaqcYzQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDevelopment and production problems\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eUnfortunately, the Navy’s gamble did not pay off; Curtiss’ Helldiver faced a long developmental road. The lone XSB2C-1 prototype’s maiden flight was December 18, 1940, but it crashed in February 1941 and had to be rebuilt. In December that year, it suffered an in-flight wing failure that destroyed it without ever being turned over to the Navy for testing. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAmong its problems was that it was “stubby.” Its wingspan was eight feet wider than the Dauntless, with a wing area almost 25% greater to support an empty weight of 7,122 lbs – roughly a thousand pounds heavier than the Dauntless. But while the Helldiver could fold its wings to save space, little could be done about the length: it was only two feet, four inches longer than the Dauntless. This meant the Helldiver’s tail had less directional authority than the Dauntless despite needing more to control a bigger, heavier airplane.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RCuIQbRE6wFD_9jdRHjlJx9171xyQFyvzm-NV4_-BeNjmp8m7lv3R4VO1f6HzAg5xiaNaqcYzQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs a result, the XSB2C-1 suffered from poor handling , directional instability, and bad stall characteristics. The prototype also revealed structural weaknesses, while the R-2800 engine and its 3-bladed hydraulic propeller suffered their own teething problems. The Navy ordered nearly 900 internal and external changes to the design before clearing it for production. These changes, along with necessary adaptations to the production line, significantly delayed deliveries to the Navy. To make matters worse, Curtiss was producing the Helldiver at a brand-new plant, which caused its own delays.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tzm_90Zob1WqKo5PzvmhMSkOIA8jtHO2Jj4FmNaYnDb9wCUPOoq6sOGG5mflYpYNyBIYjJdt8k",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe first production SB2C-1 Helldiver did not fly until June 1942, with the first deliveries to fleet squadrons at the end of that year. Though Curtiss had made numerous changes, the -1 production model still suffered from a number of difficulties. It had aerodynamic problems, while the changes added another three thousand pounds to the airplane’s weight. Once assigned to carriers, it had tailwheel and hook failures that limited it to service ashore until the problems were addressed. In addition, the electrical and hydraulic systems required a lot of maintenance on parts that were difficult to access. Overall, the Helldiver made a poor first impression among both aircrew and maintainers, earning it the pejorative nicknames “The Big-Tailed Beast” (often shortened to just “The Beast”) and “Son of a Bitch, 2nd Class” (a play on the SB2C designation and the Navy’s enlisted rank abbreviations). \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDespite the problems, some of which only emerged well after it entered service, initial demand for the Helldiver was high, leading the Navy to assign additional construction to Fairchild Aircraft’s Canadian branch (with these aircraft designated the SBF) and the Canadian Car \u0026amp; Foundry Company (designated the SBW). Though the U.S. Navy was the primary customer, both the British navy and the Australian air force placed orders for Helldivers. The U.S. Army Air Forces ordered some three thousand as the A-25 Shrike (which omitted the wing fold and tailhook, along with other minor differences from the SB2C). Nevertheless, the Helldiver’s problems proved too much trouble for these additional customers. The Army took delivery of only about 900 A-25s before deciding it did not need a dedicated dive bomber, while both the Australians and the British quickly decided the Helldiver was unsuited to service and canceled their orders.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rp6Nz0-p-GsDg5D1dLq1BswLYBtDRjTOVPurxKJZko23rI6RjX7oC7qzXmhWPYM4CaengzWCE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCombat at last\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eModified again, Helldivers returned to carriers in May 1943, but performance was still poor. Embarked aboard the new USS Yorktown (CV-10), the ship’s commanding officer, Captain J.J. “Jocko” Clark, recommended scrapping the entire Helldiver program. The Helldiver did not make its combat debut until November 1943, in a raid on the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rp6Nz0-p-GsDg5D1dLq1BswLYBtDRjTOVPurxKJZko23rI6RjX7oC7qzXmhWPYM4CaengzWCE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHelldivers were still only slowly replacing Dauntlesses in June 1944 when a defining moment highlighted the aircraft’s weaknesses. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Adm. Marc Mitscher launched a strike force against the Japanese carriers that included 51 SB2C-1C Helldivers and 26 Dauntlesses. The entire strike was launched at extreme range, and this distance significantly affected the Helldivers due to their smaller fuel load: only five returned to land safely on the carriers. Of the 46 lost, 32 ran out of gas and crashed or ditched. Tellingly, only two Dauntlesses were lost: one was shot down and one crashed on landing.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rl1BieDDPIE3-yUWrxriS9zEg_qDdUy4q-wN3NCH4rozkH733RQUX5jokvpF00FOT98-12Tjc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn early 1944, deliveries of the SB2C-3 brought great improvements (with some pilots using “The Beast” nickname affectionately), but the airplane was unable to completely shed its bad reputation. Vice-Adm. John McCain, who commanded the fast carrier task force (TF 38) for the last year of the war, declared that there was “no place for a plane with the performance of the SB2C” on the carriers. In his opinion, the F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair fighter-bombers were better suited to the job. The fighter-bombers could carry almost as large a bomb load as the Helldiver and, with the introduction of air-to-ground rockets, could deliver that payload as accurately as the Helldiver. At the same time, the Grumman TBF / Eastern Division TBM Avenger torpedo bomber proved itself equally capable as a level bomber. The Avenger had a somewhat shorter range than the Helldiver but offered a similar payload and slightly more speed. It was also easier to fly and did not have the Helldiver’s maintenance problems. Subsequently, while further improved SB2C-4 and -5 models (deliveries beginning late 1944 and early 1945, respectively) began living up to the promise of the Helldiver’s design, the era of the dedicated dive-bomber was coming to an end.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RO1ZT0rClNVtTLZcsYlsfo9a0PtQgS-xg31GbsC87HzJX1stUXLwhfsKNoW5XZEuMzhoP8L10",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Helldiver would remain in Navy and Marine Corps service until 1950, but after the war, the U.S. sold surplus Helldivers to the navies of Italy, Portugal, Thailand, Greece, and France. The French navy kept them in service until 1958, and Helldivers saw their last combat in the third phase (1946-1949) of the Greek civil war and with the French in the First Indochina War (1951-1954).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tt4ZmXmwvqatVd9E4hJfJlJKpvdb8ZIZKIIdK1DW63qRQsA9HBKZIBmi9oVduGc10-JI8tVd0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eA Helldiver at the Udvar-Hazy Center\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOne can see history in the Museum’s Helldiver (BuNo 83479), which is on display at our Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. It is an SB2C-5, which featured additional fuel tanks and replaced the older ASB surface-search radar with the new APS-4 radar as standard equipment. The -5 also carried over changes from earlier models such as a more powerful engine (1900 hp / 1417 kw vs. 1500 hp / 1119 kw in the -1), a four-bladed electric propeller, perforated dive brakes to improve handling, and wing racks for additional bombs or rockets. The Navy accepted BuNo 83479 in May 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S99r3CTE0s4dN6eeevhnjT0uONQMjAek1HU08X_SbxogOKEe7ujEWz5TAJenDNTH8pO76o7JI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFrom September through December 1945, this aircraft was assigned to Bombing Squadron (VB) 92, the “Battling Beasts,” aboard the U.S.S. Lexington (CV-16). It just missed the end of the war but saw service in the western Pacific and occupied Japan, its only carrier deployment. In 1946, 83479 was assigned to shore-based bomber and attack squadrons for brief periods. Following an overhaul at the beginning of 1947, the airplane served in Aviation Training Unit #4 (VA-ATU #4) at Naval Air Station Jacksonville in Florida until 1948, when the Navy removed it from active service and set it aside for the Smithsonian. It was finally delivered to the Smithsonian in 1960. In 1975, we loaned the airplane to the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida, where it was restored and put on display until 2003. The Museum began another restoration in 2010 and put 83479 on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center in 2014, wearing its VB-92 markings.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,1,"planes",null,null,null,14,"TilesRibbon","EditorialSection:3056c72b-7b38-4ea5-9b29-5c88e6491186"];window.INIT_data['MicroscopeImage:e1e276cd-ccc9-4350-8610-0c0d173396bb'] = ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:e1e276cd-ccc9-4350-8610-0c0d173396bb","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rb4OU0CVgjJO5zFL3R7T_c7-GJAfnv4z4FkafSsAKrhg021-moPv36CYR93H1H8JviMFGP6VM","u_aw2HQs9rq7FfLKK6-tergA6Zg",[0.5,0.38,0,1.086299,0.5035527],null,null,null,[4949,6552]];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:51d6fff0-dd78-417d-9931-00d0f3d5d3c2'] = ["stella.edit.sect",null,17,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Discover What Made B-17 A Flying Fortress","It was big, slow and loud. So how did it defend itself?","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXsc2dTf5mSfz9rhpUhyxVNZuwsZHmxIMGP45m2fU9fUm6TmLH9ZLDUmodipuJKVTVjApiug","/asset/a-look-at-the-b-17-flying-fortress-bomber/YwGknhtnxFCNgQ",21,null,null,null,null,["YwGknhtnxFCNgQ",1.7777778,null,null,["//i4.ytimg.com/vi/kOl6tyP92UY/hqdefault.jpg","kOl6tyP92UY","A Look at the B-17 \"Flying Fortress\" Bomber",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum"],null,null,null,null,null,"Watch",[2],null,null,null,[1,"YwGknhtnxFCNgQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,null,"https://airandspace.si.edu","INDEPENDENCE AVE AT 6TH ST, SW\nWashington, DC, 20560\nUnited States",38.88781,-77.019905,"Washington, DC, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4",1524,725,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum"]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,15,"Stories","EditorialSection:51d6fff0-dd78-417d-9931-00d0f3d5d3c2"];window.INIT_data['MicroscopeImage:29a7b136-e7d4-474c-bf6c-8763f1d1d241'] = ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:29a7b136-e7d4-474c-bf6c-8763f1d1d241","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R8ZLSzXTXEHl7GFGvX1EjNjk7SwD5D_v2NpCROFkUU3mCivIailjIgda6Dq42rTK34DvT4hSLu","nC2Tv7Eljks0xzEaE1u_0FP1Llk",[0.48280674,0.20905416,0,0.9676517,0.44290257],null,null,null,[5045,6766]];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:120692bb-f4fa-4deb-8643-ef18fb6cf0c8'] = ["stella.edit.sect",["Paintbrushes, posters, and politics","The contributions of artists, designers, animators, and more to the war effort",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","Remembering World War II Through Art","Learning from Air Force veteran Robert Jordan's painting \"November 1944\"","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S4YEV6L3q7eOhqMdrh9QGHM1bWjSJLsKXTkQf23x-C3X8o-AlyBTqgxvikryaMKJs_g-D3Ffwq","/story/wgVhZV_xAOhiLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"wgVhZV_xAOhiLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u0026quot;November 1944\u0026quot; by Robert Jordan (1925–1993) is a massive oil painting representing an American aircrew. In 1976, the artist donated the painting to the National Air and Space Museum’s art collection while teaching art history at the Washington University in St. Louis. Jordan’s donation letter to the Museum reveals that his impetus for the painting came from an admiration of group portraits by the seventeenth-century painters Frans Hals and Rembrandt van Rijn. Rembrandt was notorious for his chiaroscuro technique, in which subjects are rendered in strong contrasts of light and shadow—this painting certainly reflects those characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWith the chiaroscuro technique, Jordan painted the crew members in the duality of light and shade in front of an aircraft hidden in shadow. Jordan also stated in his letter, “The painting by no means is a true group portrait. I was working from a twenty-two-year-old memory of faces, and really wanted it to be general for any crew.” In a modest tone, the artist also shared his experience as a B-24 tail gunner in the 8th Air Force during World War II. His crew was shot down on their fourth mission near Hanover, Germany, and they were imprisoned in Stalag Luft IV Prison of War (POW) camp. At the end of the war, the crew was forced to march to avoid the advancing Russians. The artist refers to the painting as a “memory myth,” but a little research tells otherwise.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe group portrait\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn a style reminiscent of the American artist Edward Hopper (1882–1967), Jordan presents a crew of nine men positioned in front their aircraft along with the U.S. star insignia on the fuselage. Some of the men wear fleece-lined brown bomber jackets or flight suits, while others wear parachute harnesses, goggles, or have flying helmets on their heads. Others wear yellow rectangular life vests (also known as “Mae Wests”). The life vests are the brightest color in the painting and shine like beacons in the otherwise solemn color palette of dark blue, green, and brown. The attire worn by these men is the standard flight gear from the WWII era.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T9kKGsCo_FJCEu_y6i45p6MlPM19Hy8iezewOziHxeX-ljExxCxsHkAPRKIRMSFRFS3zKV7aEG",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCrew members stand with slightly drooped shoulders with arms crossed or hands in their pockets while others crouch or kneel. The gazes of the figures are downturned and are not engaged with the viewer. Instead, their facial expressions are introspective as if in deep thought. Unlike typical smiling or boastful crew members often seen in WWII photographs, the overall body language of this group evokes a quiet sense of shared despair. Stillness overwhelms the atmosphere of this hauntingly beautiful rendering of an aircrew. Details of this painting as described above suggest that November 1944 is based on “memory truth” rather than “memory myth” as the artist suggests.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rjyhx9itDCR9QQMgT9RMAZGpzVw6h-28Ao_byBVX0lVNoQN_TYOty46r35fgjILy4Ym8RLFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMissing air crew report # 11217\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRobert Jordan was a nineteen-year-old when he and his aircrew were shot down on November 26, 1944. Stationed at the Tibenham Royal Air Force Base near Norfolk, England, the young airman was with the 445th Group and assigned to the 703rd Squadron as the tail gunner of a Consolidated Liberator B-24J bomber aircraft. The B-24 was sometimes referred to as a “Flying Boxcar” or “Flying Coffin” because of its large, squarish fuselage. Furthermore, bailing out was also problematic and a challenge for crewmembers to reach their respective hatches in order to jump out. Piloted by 2nd Lt. Daniel Snow, the plane was nicknamed “Snow Ball from Hell.” Under weather conditions noted as haze with one-tenth cloud cover, the crew was in the midst of a bombing mission over Misburg, Germany, when their plane was hit by enemy anti-aircraft fire and they had to parachute out. At approximately 12:40 pm, the plane went down about 15 miles southeast of Hanover, Germany and all nine members of the crew were captured. That November day, four other planes from the 445th Group were also shot down and a total of 45 crewmen were on board the other lost aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rjyhx9itDCR9QQMgT9RMAZGpzVw6h-28Ao_byBVX0lVNoQN_TYOty46r35fgjILy4Ym8RLFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe sketchbook\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJordan recorded some of the experiences that day through a series of drawings, now located in the collection of the New Hampshire Historical Society. A sketch captioned “No Fox Holes in the Sky” depicts two men wearing oxygen masks tumbling inside of the B-24 aircraft cabin. A large gaping hole in the side of the aircraft confirms one of the places they were hit. A spread of empty ammunition shells from the waist gunner’s position covers the floor of the aircraft. In “Just Before Bail Out,” two crew members prepare to bail out of the plane. “Watching the Boys Going Home” is a scene with Jordan crouching on the ground in an empty field after parachuting to the ground. Above him in the sky is a formation of bombers from his squadron flying safely back to England. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eShortly after reaching the ground, the sketches reveal that the teenage tail gunner was captured by an armed farmer and turned over to the German authorities. “KAPUT!, I’d Had It!” shows a sequence of events related to the squadron’s immediate capture such as U.S. airmen escorted by German soldiers to the railroad station while local townspeople kicked, punched, and threw things at them. One of the injured servicemen was supported by two of his crewmates. Another quick sketch is of a young boy in uniform captioned “Little Nazi,” with a side note that says, “I didn’t last more than 10 minutes as a free man in Germany.” Those few sketches are merely of his first few hours in Germany.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rjyhx9itDCR9QQMgT9RMAZGpzVw6h-28Ao_byBVX0lVNoQN_TYOty46r35fgjILy4Ym8RLFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePOW drawings\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJordan also made sketches of his solitary confinement at the Luft IV POW camp and of “The March” also known as “The Long March” or “The Death March.” Under Hitler’s orders, Allied POWs were forced to march hundreds of miles to escape the advancing Soviets as the Germans wanted to use the POWs as bargaining chips at the end of the war. In loose pencil marks, the drawings show emaciated servicemen knocked to the ground or struggling to walk or the miserable sleeping conditions in the bitter cold—the winter of 1945 was one of the coldest on record. Other sketches depict efforts to procure water from the Germans (which was sometimes impossible to get) or delousing routines to get rid of lice. Whereas Jordan’s sketches of the earlier aircraft and bail out experiences are detailed, the depictions of the POW experiences are incomplete. His memories as a POW seemed harder to reach, as if pushed away instead of easily resurfacing through his pencil onto the paper—and justifiably so. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAccounts from other servicemen’s experiences at Luft IV described their brutal treatment and the deplorable living conditions of “The March.” Airmen from the Luft IV were not fed and sanitation was non-existent. Men remained in the same clothing they bailed out in for the duration of their imprisonment and were given only one blanket to make it through the winter months. Jordan was “skin and bones” when liberated that spring by Allied troops. During his three-month hospital stay in England, a Red Cross nurse gave him a sketchbook and pencils to help with the physical and mental healing process. The aforementioned drawings were made during his hospital recovery in 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RpyniSkaZ-bGCGgHHkHTZmE3OOXsPXaz8KV6BhZ6XMeZ2rFhkL233W1k62dLMuzuFHhRIdJw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMemory truth\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter the war, Jordan received degrees from Dartmouth College and Columbia University, and became both a successful painter and art historian. In his recollection about \u0026quot;November 1944,\u0026quot; in a letter to the Museum he says, “…I still feel some sense of ambiguity I had when I painted it, and which I felt in 1944—the sense of adventure as well as the possibility of death—the necessity of the task as well as the madness of it all. Nothing new there, for men at war, but at least the necessity part was far more clear cut than today.” It’s not a coincidence that he chose to paint \u0026quot;November 1944\u0026quot; in the 1960s during the height of the Vietnam War. Jordan remarked the painting was a search of his own experience, “for some occasion where men are bound tighter in a meaningful association.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u0026quot;November 1944\u0026quot; suggests a truthful reflection of the artist’s experiences in WWII, rather than a painting inspired by the Great Dutch Masters or a memory-myth. Nine men in the painting are the same number of members in Jordan’s aircrew that were shot down. Painterly expressions of gaunt facial features and defeated body language exude the notion—these men have been through hell and back.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q84b7LWc_dxKoL5PCaZYSGG-4ocauceK_ej2CPHPzjK_rEn3sBrkhHk5UxmLY58vLb6j9FuonN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA non-detailed B-24 aircraft serves as a backdrop for the men and is the same type of plane Jordan’s crew flew that unforgettable day in November. The plane recedes into the darkness of the background and is symbolic for the lost aircraft. Bright yellow life vests serve as signs of hope in the otherwise solemn painting—representing the survival of the entire crew. Although the depicted details of this aircrew may not replicate an exact likeness to Jordan’s actual crew, their faces reveal a shared expression having lived through a POW experience. November 1944 is a testament to the courage and honorable service like Robert Jordan’s crew and others during WWII—and gives hope that life endures after unprecedented circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","How Mickey Mouse Raised Morale","Disney dives into WWII","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QaM4SnwMIm-jGqM2Jd6-yUmk0B6rOcEgxj9kiwC1lLcoORxgj8qbwIB6lIWEbZJj3ABTEZG1E","/story/BQXhuqy5geSMLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d8b06f26-05a7-41cf-9f34-fa84902059c8","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QaM4SnwMIm-jGqM2Jd6-yUmk0B6rOcEgxj9kiwC1lLcoORxgj8qbwIB6lIWEbZJj3ABTEZG1E","HgyUDIcJr4Ei8y-VDpGKWeJhyr8",[0.5017912,0.48040885,0,0.42169908,0.16235094],null,null,null,[3908,5870]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"BQXhuqy5geSMLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TEZvSETUXcpLmui0qDQXjL2DkpwNb8XH9hEFAKOeHScuQVN7Ww7i8yt8ZX0ofNRKZTIuktT_nU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn December 7, 1941, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, drawing the United States into World War II. The ext day U.S. Army troops requisitioned half of Walt Disney’s Burbank, California, studio for their use. But space was not all that Disney would provide the troops. Artists, animators, and Walt Disney himself pitched in, enlisting Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, and other beloved Disney characters in the war effort.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TvqTLgJFzrJaB-9S-hITJ6mW6OpPqBOBmr3dZirumAyfBGTJQlSlbeG1b8SpE58Bycucpqmg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDisney partnered with several government programs to educate citizens and encourage them to do their part on the home front. Disney characters appeared on posters, in books, and even on war bonds.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ThwGONxiw4n4e6rNW6G8h8lAJhqc-emn6q096WcpleRIEKqHmC0xxinmH-fyiECOJakPV-CSo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe use of Disney’s characters in war-related work helped to strengthen the perception of the Disney brand as a symbol of the United States and its values.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ThwGONxiw4n4e6rNW6G8h8lAJhqc-emn6q096WcpleRIEKqHmC0xxinmH-fyiECOJakPV-CSo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA set of three posters aimed at educating civilians working war-related jobs on the importance of proper nutrition for optimum output was created by Disney for the California War Council\u0026#39;s Food and Nutrition Committee. Advertisements show that other groups could purchase them for 5 cents each to hang in their own work spaces.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q_hL6pwCp5DzqZ8GlMS5_iByJXlH4CX2jJMmAu9cnNH0bIp_yTHv2BFkd8NQRCN8rQO1dmGw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDisney’s animation studio created educational shorts, training films, and patriotic entertainment. Most famously, Walt Disney was asked to go to South America as part of the Good Neighbor Program promoting cordial relations between North and South America during the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qwlv3Ev_OxRXahCjgE6aFVgUSVPkWmQM404yTzNG98pUA58Cg6uvaY2tT13gsL25-tEvC2MUU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDisney and his research team, dubbed \u0026quot;El Grupo,\u0026quot; traveled and took in the sights both as ambassadors of goodwill, and as research for planned South American cartoons.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TvFwYZ4nSkACrR-NgFBiBuWo0u3dIZsLK_4nASJ2vuRVUTpnpJj6yxPtGMuJphiA8pr_Ib4w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe most famous results of that trip were the films \u0026quot;Saludos Amigos\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;The Three Caballeros,\u0026quot; both starring Donald Duck. In 1943 The New York Times praised Donald as an “ambassador-at-large, a salesman of the American Way” for his representation of the United States both at home and abroad.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RtRHTqzCG0ZGg7DaV2kKi0y2bNSU_B7iBP8bjj016EP1l0-WUFRbdmUMtpOrE6DYiRFL1JMv0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDisney was most prolific during the war as a morale booster for the troops. Company artists created images of Disney characters for unit patches, eventually providing insignia to almost 1,300 units in the U.S. armed forces.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T072rpTEvUxqLzXqUk6c3shQsY1_RjESiH6lhdI0bFrFw9glrm_wdRJgMOtLv5fCJrrzglLA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFifinella was a female gremlin designed by Walt Disney based on Roald Dahl\u0026#39;s book \u0026quot;The Gremlins.\u0026quot; She was used as the official mascot and insignia of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPS).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QPvviRRq_AZXEqB56IV5jHX8Sbz3IpMDzI7T2w_PoWNDyMM0Oc9G996xrFOvmLNLIj5HIbC5w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMany Disney characters ended up as nose art on military aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QufLPlR_dnzFc2KuvDwGPArMC6pnxAHeV3S4IaUo2X19uYsVt0nXVk0LTeRpVF2Gw9W9myCCk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Studio’s work was not just instrumental in the United States’ war effort; using Disney characters to speak on behalf of the U.S. government also solidified the idea—building since Disney’s 1930s cartoon work—that the brand was associated with patriotism and a symbol for America writ large.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Strike Hard, Strike Sure","Poster-sized education for the public","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TbTWRQOd9Opgvmw_3sy2s37tI1h9Z_inyA-hvvKc1Hrqpm8iWLgpsqK2afDonjQhXVEOr0-ghS","/story/tgWh1RI-J9l4Kg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:1e91b5ad-bf23-4d1d-abc8-d7107c1ffd73","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TbTWRQOd9Opgvmw_3sy2s37tI1h9Z_inyA-hvvKc1Hrqpm8iWLgpsqK2afDonjQhXVEOr0-ghS","niEYwPYiMe2AT4BeJYxajdCtuuU",[0.5,0.5,0,0.609017,0.22029589],null,null,null,[2706,4326]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"tgWh1RI-J9l4Kg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ReO2ccLgfG8XIMomUmMEeF2mcceUwKCfzsoaYBs6YERVeyIsFkzj9Lk87IswQgSwbCyDwGwLSH",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBeginning in July 1940, the German Air Force, or Luftwaffe, launched a sustained campaign against Great Britain\u0026#39;s Royal Air Force (RAF)\u0026#39;s Fighter Command to achieve air superiority. 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= ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:aa9db126-f858-46fd-9ff6-f6bf0a17532c","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QeGLeSqMWo0CXgcDsgU-AEqizDlQDi5ltefNCUYoU4dxEc71DGnGi0mBKhH_BLc-Bgg3FyPBw","HWcohstCjOrhz9d7pzzFO1-Van0",[0.4,0.494,0,0.66296595,0.51548326],null,null,null,[6118,4830]];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:4403b4fb-9634-4a34-9395-ea0c59d1584d'] = ["stella.edit.sect",null,8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","A Pattern of Resistance","The men who risked their careers to stand up against systemic racism","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QWXnDw_v4z-Yl1HC3820gnbARYpp6dz2IbLXTfKvagYmtUiWdijTlesihStghXtLGBMrWJm1wB","/story/bQXxBkmTIlWvJA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d00964b2-0d29-4691-a3a0-d9bfad9daee2","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QWXnDw_v4z-Yl1HC3820gnbARYpp6dz2IbLXTfKvagYmtUiWdijTlesihStghXtLGBMrWJm1wB","0SnJCWGDl6UvzWivHzie6sivMRM",[0.5596154,0.3796576,0,0.88076925,0.6283988],null,null,null,[1300,993]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"bQXxBkmTIlWvJA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tdq_L6Z54KTeCE63KEm4vE4_jg2D_-MuAwbRwX2DiSUY-0Gykz4wGLYUJR-sGDIYo_pbhMv7M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFor many years, the story of the Tuskegee Airmen—a group of African American airmen who flew combat missions in racially segregated units in World War II—was not well known to the American public. Although much research remains to be done, the story of these men has become somewhat famous in recent years, thanks not only to memoirs and scholarly histories, but also to several motional pictures, books, television shows, documentaries, and other pop culture references. Their story is usually presented as one of triumph, in which their exemplary performance helped pave the way for the integration of the United States armed services in 1948. While this narrative is not wrong, it is, as always, more complicated than that. It took a lot more than combat effectiveness to prove to some military leaders that African Americans could and should be able to fly and fight for their country. Racism was deeply entrenched in the American military and has not been completely removed even 75 years later. The Tuskegee Airmen’s fight for equality involved more than their skills in the air. It required coordinated, collective actions of civil disobedience in which 162 officers risked their careers and their lives to stand up against systemic racism in the US Army Air Forces (AAF). The largest of these incidents became known as the Freeman Field Mutiny.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S74MdOPiyOCDFUL4FEs0HvZl13Vr3RYgCykgNCA4BhuM86rk2ugpsDBnPRbQbGjdv-Uj_uaCj7",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAlthough some white officers welcomed and supported the creation of African American units, such as Captain Noel Parrish, many AAF leaders resisted allowing African Americans to fly American aircraft. It was only possible at all thanks to organized, collective lobbying and public pressure. The two most impactful groups were the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) and African American press outlets, particularly the Pittsburgh Courier. These groups placed considerable pressure on politicians in Congress and on President Franklin Roosevelt, who in turn demanded the AAF begin to accept African Americans as combat pilots. This combination of organized activism that threatened the reelection chances of politicians led to top-down demands and spurred the creation of the Tuskegee Airmen, so named for their training location in Tuskegee, Alabama.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tbx4i_ZBzzHCtOqXw7yn8zOJStNR_pE7awhM4kBZ3gffCBsP_uPwfUKfhVlgIEUyyyQK4x",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFighter achievements\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe first African American unit to fly in combat was the 99th Pursuit Squadron, flying P-40 Warhawks with the 33rd Fighter Group. The 33rd’s commander, Col. William Momyer, tried to get the 99th removed from combat duty, claiming that the group was ineffective and had not performed well in air-to-air combat. This ignored the fact that Momyer himself ordered the squadron primarily to a ground attack role. A subsequent investigation showed that the 99th performed equally to other Warhawk squadrons. This was not the last time that AAF commanders tried to subvert what they considered the Tuskegee “experiment” based on false assumptions about African American abilities.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TBqM5U0bdlLK6X5LXpiK0ZSHbD7PimEOgJOUpNApp10ltG8_fJobHuHNMnFKcvXD6yclVtebc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe 99th was not alone. The AAF also stood up the 332nd Fighter Group, consisting of three more squadrons of African American pilots: the 100th, 301st, and 302nd, flying P-39 Airacobras and P-40 Warhawks. Later, the 99th FS joined the 332nd FG, all flying combat missions based out of Italy. During the summer of 1944, they began flying P-47 Thunderbolts and P-51 Mustangs, including long-range escort missions of bombers deep into Berlin. The 332nd FG performed well in air-to-air combat, shooting down 94 enemy aircraft. Three of those aerial victories were against German Me-262 jet aircraft. This was far from the highest in the Fifteenth Air Force, but it did beat the records of the all-white 1st FG (72) and 14th FG (85). None of the Tuskegee Airmen reached ace status, but 1st Lt Lee Archer came close with four kills. Tuskegee Airmen also succeeded at escorting bombers to their targets. The all-white units of the Fifteenth Air Force lost an average of 46 bombers on escort duty during the war, but the African American pilots of the 332nd lost only 27.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Su2-A9OayASKfFfGGtrMf6lIBlhzB9o_2CsiHqRXF432hOm8SExyBPiUdaVL7E4Zg97EA1kw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBlack bombers\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDespite all that the 332nd FG accomplished, one of the Tuskegee Airmen’s most significant moments involved a unit that did not get a chance to fly in combat: the 477th Bombardment Group. Activated in January 1944, the 477th consisted of four squadrons of B-25 Mitchell aircraft. The AAF was committed to segregation and lacked the resources to create a new separate training facility for navigators and bombardiers. Thus, the group used an existing training facility at Selfridge Field, Michigan, and added segregated facilities to it. The group was commanded by Col. Robert Selway and attached to the First Air Force. Selway was not happy with the concept of African American crews, and worked actively to prevent them from being promoted to command positions, regardless of competency or number of flight hours. Yet the bigger opposition to the Tuskegee Airmen came from the Selfridge base commander Col. William Boyd and the commander of the First Air Force, Maj. Gen. Frank Hunter. Hunter had become a decorated ace fighter pilot during World War I, and preferred the racial policies of that era, arguing that African Americans should be concentrated on as few bases as possible to handle what he called “the Negro problem.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QIEwpNI1yhByyvxSwBhU_eoT7jIkioiqJqYFL7nCo2hF0gO5EYLtN2ueM91WF-k-Rpu3ifcA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHunter and Boyd established a history of discrimination at Selfridge early in 1944 when he banned African American officers from entering the base officers’ club. Lt. Milton Henry, an African American pilot and officer who had already faced punishment for his refusal to abide by Jim Crow regulations on Montgomery busses, entered the club and demanded service. When refused, he issued a complaint. Further investigation resulted in a formal reprimand to Boyd and Hunter from the War Department. Gen. Benjamin Davis Sr. (the first African American General, who at the time served in the Office of the Inspector General) recommended that Boyd and Hunter both be removed from command and court-martialed. The AAF ignored this and instead court-martialed and discharged Henry, who had issued the complaint. At the same time, Lt. Gen. Barney Giles, the chief of the Air Staff at AAF Headquarters, apologized to Boyd and Hunter for the reprimand, saying that the Air Staff “backed them 100% on this thing,” and that Hunter’s discrimination policies had the approval of Gen. Henry “Hap” Arnold, the commander of the AAF.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tdq_L6Z54KTeCE63KEm4vE4_jg2D_-MuAwbRwX2DiSUY-0Gykz4wGLYUJR-sGDIYo_pbhMv7M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRepeated resistance\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe AAF argued that the cause of racial tension at Selfridge was due not to the discriminatory policies of its commanders, but to outside agitators in nearby Detroit, the press, and communists. The AAF used that as justification to move the 477th to Godman Field near Fort Knox, Kentucky, citing that it was a better place to conduct flying training. That claim bordered on ludicrous: Godman not only had less than 25% of the space and facilities available at Selfridge, but its runways could not handle bombers, there was no air-to-ground gunnery range, and it did not have enough housing to hold the group. The atmosphere in the South also proved challenging. For example, in one incident, a white private refused to salute Capt. Clarence Southall, an African American officer. The private explained that “he was from the South and did not salute Negroes.” Southall attempted to court martial the man, but instead his commanders transferred the private to another base with no punishment and threatened to charge Southall with inciting a riot.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sam-grXMWA0gZr3bYV5up-NoHnPIZhQW61o86qC7Ll7NYMNKd53moho6sF3gizbHmk3jMd4A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBecause of the limitations on facilities and personnel, the 477th was not being trained together. Some people assigned to the 477th were spread at other bases around the country where they experienced similar discriminatory policies. For example, African American officers at Midland Army Air Base in Texas were prohibited from using the officers’ club when it scheduled a dance that planned for white women to attend. African American officers such as Lt. Coleman Young submitted formal complaints and were again labelled communist agitators by their superiors.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sam-grXMWA0gZr3bYV5up-NoHnPIZhQW61o86qC7Ll7NYMNKd53moho6sF3gizbHmk3jMd4A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe inadequacies in training procedures and facilities, combined with racial discrimination policies and practices, began to pile up. In an attempt to solve the facilities problem, the AAF moved the 477th yet again, this time to Freeman Field, just outside the town of Seymour in southern Indiana. Although the training facilities there were far better than at Godman, the local population were less than welcoming. Restaurants and grocery stores refused service to African Americans. Already strained by discriminatory policies, hostile commanders, and training inadequacies, Selway’s and Hunter’s attempt to circumvent AAF regulations and segregate the facilities at Freeman pushed the African American officers of the 477th to the point of a major collective action of civil disobedience.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRead more in the follow-up exhibit \u0026quot;Mutiny at Freeman Field: The Tuskegee Airmen on Trial, Part 2.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Mutiny at Freeman Field","How the airmen led a campaign civil disobedience against segregation","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SyhxRU7xSwskJT1WCkzGFDN5X1uJkZx1oG8E-nl9Ga969GFpx_h0uCQCeVlvyx6evL0TjxE04M","/story/RgUx62NwH-9_Ig",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:2a0e16b2-1f3a-492b-836e-7a3dbd7c29b8","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SyhxRU7xSwskJT1WCkzGFDN5X1uJkZx1oG8E-nl9Ga969GFpx_h0uCQCeVlvyx6evL0TjxE04M","ts8kEpK-aZerN_tZyXMBN7pRGd0",[0.5,0.5,0,0.95416665,0.74285716],null,null,null,[1200,840]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"RgUx62NwH-9_Ig"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RGEfJokJ4-cNZqvw9jwwdEg7JR2qQRbJjCx7jny5iXq2KdNFZufXqom0WcF6MjiJD1Xi-s_w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Tuskegee Airmen have become popular symbols of increasing diversity and representation in the U.S. armed forces, but the extent to which they had to fight to establish themselves, risking their careers and lives not only against enemy fire but against their own leaders, is not as well known. No group made that more clear than the 477th Bombardment Group. Although they never saw combat, they fought for freedom as hard as anyone of their generation through their actions of collective resistance at Freeman Field, Indiana.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TBqM5U0bdlLK6X5LXpiK0ZSHbD7PimEOgJOUpNApp10ltG8_fJobHuHNMnFKcvXD6yclVtebc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSegregation On and Off Base\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe 477th had already endured a long history of racial discrimination, inadequate training, and major blows to morale caused by their own leaders (as documented in the previous entry in this series). The group’s arrival at Freeman Field was marked with tension. The local town’s businesses refused to serve African American officers, while white officers on the post bristled at suddenly being in the minority. Commander of the First Air Force Maj. Gen. Frank Hunter, who himself had been responsible for many of the discriminatory policies against the 477th, sent an intelligence agent to get a sense of the situation. The report included several statements taken from white AAF officers who expressed their contempt for having to serve alongside African Americans. Some complained about the smell of African Americans and were offended at the thought of equality. Others displayed an eagerness for violence against their fellow officers, as one said: “If one of them makes a crack at my wife, laughs or whistles at her, like I saw them do to some white girls downtown, so help me, I’ll kill him.” Another bragged about taking part in lynching, saying “I killed two of them in my hometown, and it wouldn’t bother me to do it again.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTwTrL1GnwMqRAf-M93dPSVdAWSfOME8jz1rueyFOiUmMjXwG2t5uS0a-CNhy1OShr9y9x5hI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe group’s commander, Col. Robert Selway, upon arrival at Freeman in March 1945, ordered the creation of two separate officers’ clubs. Segregating the clubs by race would have been a direct violation of AAF regulations that demanded officers’ facilities be open to all officers. Selway indicated that one of the clubs was designated for “trainees,” and the other for “instructors.” It just so happened that all the trainees were African American and all the instructors were white, despite the fact that many of the African American “trainees” already had logged significant combat hours and outranked some of the white officers. Furthermore, transcripts of telephone calls with Selway and Hunter revealed that the trainee/instructor scheme was merely a cover for race, as both of them repeatedly referred to the instructor club as the “white” club, making sure that the official orders “don’t say anything about color, race, or creed.” Hunter hoped that the growing resentment would give him a pretext for further action, telling Selway “I’d be delighted for them [the African American officers] to commit enough actions that way so I can court-martial some of them.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTwTrL1GnwMqRAf-M93dPSVdAWSfOME8jz1rueyFOiUmMjXwG2t5uS0a-CNhy1OShr9y9x5hI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCivil disobedience\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn April 5, 1945, the African American officers began a pre-planned display of resistance. In small groups of just a few officers at a time, they began entering the white “instructor” club, 36 of them getting arrested in the process. The next night the same tactic played out again, with another 25 arrested. The club was then closed, and 110 officers wrote to the Army Inspector General to request an investigation into the arrests. The complaint specifically noted the inherent hypocrisy of U.S. racial policies in the context of the struggles of World War II, stating: “The continuance of this policy can hardly be reconciled with the world wide struggle for freedom for which we are asked, and are willing, to lay down our lives.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSelway and Hunter, under the advice of the Judge Advocate, released all the arrested officers except three, who they claimed had used physical force to push their way into the club. Selway then drafted a new regulation outlining his policy of assigning trainees and instructors to different facilities and assigning those designations by race—against the objection of the First Air Force Inspector General, who noted that approximately 20 of the African American officers were not trainees in any sense. Selway, working with Hunter, then ordered all of the officers to read the new regulation and sign a statement certifying that they understood it, under penalty of the 64th Article of War, which directed that refusal to obey a direct order would result in punishment up to death. Of the 422 African American officers assigned to the 477th, 101 of them refused to sign and were arrested.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMany of these officers drafted and signed separate statements outlining their reasons for refusing to sign the racially discriminatory order, most of which are stark and powerful. One officer wrote that obedience “would have done violence to the conscience of the undersigned; it would have constituted moral conduct less than that required of an officer and a gentleman in the Army of the United States.” Another stated: “The undersigned wishes to indicate over his signature his unshakable belief that racial bias is Fascistic, un-American, and directly contrary to the ideals for which he is willing to fight and die.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUnder pressure\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe 101 officers who refused to sign were sent back to Godman Field, Kentucky, and the rest of the 477th followed shortly thereafter. This was a brazen attempt to eliminate the program of African American pilots altogether. In a phone conversation to the First Air Force’s chief of training, General William Welsh, the chief of staff of the Air Force for training said of the move: “If we can stave it off in some way for a period of time… maybe we can eliminate the program gradually and accomplish our end.” But the officers of the 477th had planned carefully. Not only did they write formal complaints through official channels to their command structures, but they had communicated with organizations like the NAACP and tipped off a local reporter so that the incidents were documented in the public press. This, combined with Selway and Hunter’s transparent actions, drew the attention of the highest authorities in the nation.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T2r3JfmOsm6eO3f8a8eFnuK-twL-eNvCMauIWj6Jc_MOHsoDL8t4K5Q8EzTZYZLketesW9or4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePresident Harry Truman was informed of the occurrences at Freeman and Godman fields. Shortly after, the Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, Gen. George Marshall, ordered that the 101 arrested officers be released at once. Hunter complied but insisted that a letter of reprimand be added to their permanent records. Under pressure from the War Department, AAF commander Gen. Henry “Hap” Arnold replaced Selway with Col. Benjamin O. Davis Jr., who took command of the 477th and of Godman Field. Displaying the pettiness typical of institutional racism, Hunter refused to attend the change of command ceremony.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCourts-Martial\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eNevertheless, after significant debate, the AAF Chief of Justice Col. R.E. Kunkel, who argued for the release of all the arrested officers, compromised with Hunter, who wanted them all tried, settling on courts martial for the three officers accused of a physical altercation with the white officer blocking the door when they had entered the club. Lt. Marsden Thompson and Lt. Shirley Clinton were tried together while Lt. Roger Terry was tried separately. The NAACP sent a legal team led by Ted Barry, president of the organization’s Cincinnati branch. The board judging over the trial consisted of six African American officers, whom every single white officer called to testify refused to salute. In each case the proceedings came to a halt so each white officer could be reminded that a salute was the military custom.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWJTUHLmDOdcrk_HzgT3sbiusI5BBeQS4cBvPUOF1ZpReG13xSER5nrk1_4IQ4jAhxnQqHylDY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe testimonies revealed inconsistencies in how admittance to the club was allowed. It became quickly obvious that skin color was the determining factor. Selway’s testimony was the most dramatic, as he objected to every question, arguing that they were “irrelevant and immaterial.” After being repeatedly reminded that witnesses do not have the right to object to questions, Selway was labelled a hostile witness. His testimony also contradicted what had been recorded in his own telephone transcripts. In the final verdict, Thompson and Clinton were both acquitted. Terry was found not guilty of disobeying an order, but guilty of “jostling a superior officer.” The prosecution had asked for the death penalty. Instead, Terry was fined $150. The fee was paid via a collection from his fellow officers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Su2-A9OayASKfFfGGtrMf6lIBlhzB9o_2CsiHqRXF432hOm8SExyBPiUdaVL7E4Zg97EA1kw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLegacy\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Freeman Field Mutiny, as it became known, led to drastic change for the time. Davis was able to remove the promotional log jams in the 477th, allowing African Americans into the command positions they had earned. The AAF convinced the War Department to pass a new regulation prohibiting racial segregation in base facilities, as well as conduct a thorough review of discriminatory policies throughout the military. Despite this progress, racial bias in the air arm was far from eliminated and Davis encountered heavy resistance. For example, the post commander at Fort Knox near Godman Field complained to the First Air Force headquarters, saying: “We have four General Officers living here… by God, they just don’t want a bunch of coons moving in next door to them.” The 477th never saw combat, largely because the war soon came to an end, but also because Gen. George Kenney, air force commander in the Pacific, worked to prevent the 477th from being sent to the theater, against the recommendations of Gen. Douglas MacArthur and Lt. Gen. Ira Eaker.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sam-grXMWA0gZr3bYV5up-NoHnPIZhQW61o86qC7Ll7NYMNKd53moho6sF3gizbHmk3jMd4A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn spite of this, the AAF, soon to become the independent U.S. Air Force, gradually became more racially inclusive. The Air Force ordered an end to its segregation policies before President Truman issued his executive order that officially integrated all the armed services. Although full racial integration of the armed services took three more years of hard work, the fallout from the Mutiny at Freeman Field set the services firmly on that path. Exactly 50 years after the mutiny, in 1995, the US Air Force exonerated those who had been arrested, finally removing Hunter’s reprimand letters from their records and expunging Terry’s conviction.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RDfjFVN6VoBjk-UTh7Ku6ZWFDZFKORKCRPo8Um_he_AR-t5ypWX0IZKVuLq7eMXgG9bYE6a9c",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAlthough many of the Tuskegee Airmen made remarkable combat achievements, their greatest victories were against systemic racial injustice, forcing the nation to hold closer to the ideals of liberty and equality enshrined in its founding documents. Seventy-five years later, that fight is far from over. The tactics used by the 477th of peaceful civil disobedience combined with forging connections to activist organizations and press outlets to put political pressure on national leaders all served to further their cause. Those efforts serve as a powerful example of how meaningful change can still be achieved. As Col. Benjamin Davis Jr. said: “The privileges of being an American belong to those brave enough to fight for them.”\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","An Interview with Charles McGee","The Tuskegee Airman and WWII veteran on how they dispelled racial bias","//i3.ytimg.com/vi/ZEs4ooL5pj4/hqdefault.jpg","/asset/charles-mcgee-s-role-as-a-tuskegee-airman-in-wwii/MAEYsNDaEtw-sw",21,null,null,null,null,["MAEYsNDaEtw-sw",1.7777778,null,null,["//i3.ytimg.com/vi/ZEs4ooL5pj4/hqdefault.jpg","ZEs4ooL5pj4","Charles McGee's Role as a Tuskegee Airman in WWII",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum"],null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"MAEYsNDaEtw-sw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,null,"https://airandspace.si.edu","INDEPENDENCE AVE AT 6TH ST, SW\nWashington, DC, 20560\nUnited States",38.88781,-77.019905,"Washington, DC, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4",1524,725,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum"]],["stella.common.cobject","A Memorial to a Fallen Hero","Lt. James L. McCullin Jr was one of the first African American pilots lost in combat","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SHIix9TgFsvybK0YjrT-zKdf6v7ueTW6liwBGd1jB1xdD9mf2MRZ9IeztLqSQjVvewXjVHJcZS","/story/MAUhp_pZIHtIKw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d80bda1a-1bf1-430a-b358-0799ce46d55e","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SHIix9TgFsvybK0YjrT-zKdf6v7ueTW6liwBGd1jB1xdD9mf2MRZ9IeztLqSQjVvewXjVHJcZS","fX85vXVWxt0smRDLV8g6_KSgJJE",[0.5563569,0.49,0,0.8859029,0.5383161],null,null,null,[4853,5000]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"MAUhp_pZIHtIKw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ","A memorial quilt",[null,"\u003cp\u003eSince the 19th century, recording memories and creating memorial quilts have been ways for families to honor and remember lost loved ones. For Vivian L. McCullin, a memorial quilt was a way to keep the memory of her deceased brother, James L. McCullin Jr, alive. On July 2, 1943, after escorting B-25 bombers on a raid over southwestern Sicily, Tuskegee Airmen 2nd Lt. James L. McCullin Jr. and 1st Lt. Sherman W. White Jr. failed to return to base, becoming the first two African American pilots lost in combat while flying for the United States. Lieutenants McCullin and White were presumably shot down by enemy fighters over Sicily, but no crash sites were ever found. This unfinished quilt cover, donated to the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture by McCullin’s nephew, tells the story of Lieutenant McCullin from his time in college and training at Tuskegee Institute to serving with the 99th Fighter Squadron in the Mediterranean and his post-death legacy.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eJames Lawrence McCullin Jr. was born on November 25, 1918, in St. Louis, Missouri, to James and Bessie McCullin.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMcCullin attended Kentucky State College (now University) where he played football, basketball, and joined the Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMcCullin graduated from Kentucky State in 1942 with a bachelor’s degree in sociology and economics. After graduating, McCullin enlisted in the Army Air Corps at Jefferson Barracks outside of St. Louis. Shortly thereafter McCullin was sent to Tuskegee, Alabama, to train as a pilot.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R92NSltaInw3ESpohj2XJCc0VXNdQtpmmx7LSXPdu7dcxx2ufFM3if07yzYVkS0I_FJsBMGbSe","Training the Tuskegee Airmen",[null,"\u003cp\u003eBefore World War II, African Americans were barred from flying for the U.S. military. Due to intense pressure from civil rights groups and the African American media, in 1941, the Army Air Corps formed an all-African American pursuit squadron with a training base at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. In addition to training pilots, the program at Tuskegee trained support personnel including mechanics, navigators, nurses, and others who kept the more than 900 Tuskegee pilots airborne throughout the war. Thirteen African American men volunteered for the first flight training program and many more followed. They were determined to serve their country and show skeptical military leaders that African Americans could be top fighter pilots. Graduates eventually joined the 99th Pursuit Squadron (later the 99th Fighter Squadron) or the newly formed 332nd Fighter Group under Col. Benjamin O. Davis Jr. (one of the first graduates of the program and later the first African American Air Force general). The Tuskegee Airmen were recognized for their record of safely escorting bombers on their missions, putting to rest any doubts about the abilities of African American pilots.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R92NSltaInw3ESpohj2XJCc0VXNdQtpmmx7LSXPdu7dcxx2ufFM3if07yzYVkS0I_FJsBMGbSe",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis PT-13 Stearman Kaydet was one of the planes used to train airmen at Moton Field in Tuskegee, Alabama.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University) was the ideal place to train African American pilots. Founded in 1881, Tuskegee Institute, under the direction of Booker T. Washington, was dedicated to training African American students in both academic subjects and practical skills. Steeped in a long history of training African Americans, Tuskegee had everything the Army Air Corps was looking for: facilities, technical instructors, and an ideal climate for year-round flying.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn March 1941, the new pilot training program at Tuskegee received national attention when First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt took to the skies in a plane piloted by chief civilian instructor at Tuskegee, C. Alfred “Chief” Anderson. When the first lady said to Chief Anderson that she’d “heard colored people couldn’t fly airplanes,” he responded, “Well, we’re not having any problems here.” Chief Anderson and Mrs. Roosevelt spent more than a half hour in the air. After landing, she announced, “Well, you can fly all right.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePhotographs and stories of the first lady flying with a black pilot demonstrated Mrs. Roosevelt’s support of the training program at Tuskegee. The ensuing press coverage helped promote the program and validated the capabilities of African American pilots.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eJames McCullin graduated from the pilot training program at Tuskegee on September 6, 1942. His diploma states that “James Lawrence McCullin has satisfactorily completed the course of instruction prescribed for Pilot Training at the Tuskegee Army Flying School.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLieutenant McCullin and eight other African American men were part of graduating class 42-H (pictured here). Lieutenant McCullin is standing far left. Pictured directly directly in the center (fourth from the left) is Lt. Robert W. Diez, who was featured in a popular War Bonds poster during the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QInIH381QcyZ-TCTW6elneJ29XfBFVKxtFbThfI7eQHGm-NyXgkmSEqNiaPlruV-mgczHf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLieutenant McCullin’s classmate, Lt. Robert Diez, is featured on this famous War Bonds poster created for the United States Department of the Treasury in 1943 by artist Betsy Graves Reyneau. Heroic images of Tuskegee Airmen such as this poster helped recruit new servicemen and build support for the war in African American communities.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ","Tuskegee Airmen enter the war",[null,"\u003cp\u003eNine days after Lieutenant McCullin received his pilot’s wings, the 99th\u003cbr\u003eFighter Squadron was declared combat ready. The group was deployed in April 1943 and arrived in North Africa on April 24. The 99th Fighter Squadron joined the 33rd Fighter Group under commander Col. William W. Momyer and had their first mission on June 2, 1943. According to the official squadron history, “Pilots of the 99th Fighter Squadron had an average of two missions daily from June 2 to June 9, 1943. The missions were varied; some were to bomb gun positions on Pantelleria Island, others to serve as escorts for A-20s and B-25s.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUpon their arrival in the Mediterranean, pilots of the 99th Fighter Squadron, including Lieutenant McCullin, were assigned to pilot Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighter-bomber aircraft. The P-40 was a single-seat, single-engine fighter that first flew in 1938. The P-40 was used by most of the Allied powers and remained in service throughout the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn July 2, 1943, Lieutenant McCullin took part in a mission escorting a dozen B-25 bombers to their target. Over the coast of Sicily, the group was attacked by German fighters. Lt. Charles B. Hall shot down a Focke-Wulf 190, becoming the first African American pilot in the U.S. military to shoot down an enemy fighter. However, when the fighters returned to their base, Lieutenant McCullin and another pilot, Lt. Sherman H. White, were missing. A search patrol was sent out, hoping to find evidence that the pilots had been forced to land along the coast of Sicily. In a report to the Baltimore Afro-American a correspondent with the 99th Fighter Squadron wrote, “One day they were eating and playing games and talking of postwar plans back home—then they went on a mission—and never came back.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn his autobiography, Col. Benjamin O. Davis Jr., who led the mission, described the day: “On 2 July I led a 12-plane escort of 12 B-25s to Castelvetrano in southwest Sicily. It was on this mission that I saw my first enemy aircraft, an element of two FW-190s and a flight of four Me-109s, far above my part of our formation, which was flying close escort to the B-25s. When the enemy planes dove on the bombers, our top cover turned into them and kept them out of range. During this mission we had our first pilot losses: Lts. Sherman White and James McCullin. We believed at the time that both these pilots had made a forced landing along the Sicilian coast, but regrettable, it did not turn out that way. The loss of fighter pilots was like a loss in the family.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ","Lieutenant McCullin's legacy",[null,"\u003cp\u003eNo traces of Lieutenant McCullin, Lieutenant White, or their planes were ever discovered. Lieutenant McCullin and Lieutenant White were legally declared dead on July 3, 1944, per Army regulations, one year and one day after they went missing, making them the first black pilots ever killed in combat for the United States. Lieutenant McCullin is listed among the Tablets of the Missing at the North African American Cemetery in Tunis, Tunisia, and has a headstone at Jefferson Barracks National Cemetery in St. Louis County, Missouri.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLieutenant McCullin was posthumously awarded the Air Medal for “heroic or meritorious achievement while participating in aerial flight” and the Purple Heart “for military merit and wounds received in action.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q-UCoqYVC1TfnA3j_TEUeNMfKVPJ7-Qb-hZuNPNvC61wbdC9R0q5yQyrnyJa1fJ6YG0rltxz8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis Purple Heart was posthumously awarded to 2nd Lieutenant James L. McCullin Jr. on October 12, 1944.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn 1948, Kentucky State University named its new dormitory in honor of Lieutenant McCullin. McCullin Hall still stands on the KSU campus today. A plaque inside McCullin Hall reads, “Lt. James L. McCullin was a gentleman, a scholar, and a true thoroughbred, who entered Kentucky State College in 1938. … Lt. McCullin was killed by anti-aircraft fire in action over Sicily on July 3, 1943 [sic], thus becoming the first KSU graduate killed during World War II.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QY42whisCDcVM4Cjf1TZ1SP46zn6YAkASI6-ixiBghdnaHIFSta63Em98q2K8i2i1NxrCQlmFZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBetween 1942 and 1946, 992 pilots were trained at Tuskegee and 355 were deployed overseas. By the end of the war 84 pilots had lost their lives, including 68 pilots killed in action or accidents. Through this memorial quilt and other objects donated to the National Museum of African American History and Culture by his family, Lieutenant McCullin’s story and the story of the Tuskegee Airmen will be told for generations to come.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,11,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:4403b4fb-9634-4a34-9395-ea0c59d1584d"];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:29971ff1-c349-4072-940c-f55fa2053fd3'] = ["stella.edit.sect",["Learning the lessons of the past","Why we continue to remember",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","The Effort to Rebuild Europe","The effect of WWII on children and the impact of The Marshall Plan","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNg93CYabhtO-THaV_mAKyEb63WNZyU-c5mA0LqpkQPtOVOx0e4eun8is3U_aSGuPdvFPNd269","/story/GgUhTOtPbr06KA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"The George C. Marshall Foundation"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"GgUhTOtPbr06KA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SahJ_nmMxX88M4rVhnYQxjtKvZYj4Uhln06nWHlfpMmH066fJo2x9lzqCednNEx2WEOEoEMqM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTherese Bonney, a photojournalist, documented the war to show what fascism does to children. She was often quoted saying that her book, Europe\u0026#39;s Children, was a book written with a lens.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R5yigOKyH6wBkfEQNOFk4K7aVwbOiTVA-mLZnBXGqFZMhVCGyXflenWLsZyui7kEV9CjH2MaM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSpanish children searching for food. \u003cbr\u003eTheir bags are filled with rotten oranges.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sd8BT43rDDFEe2XFL1mY9sP15Fr21HgcXLkeJheOoTMA98zvBc6oQPM81ohV3uI54iPstdCg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eChildren faced a strange life.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQ1oOgjodYeYh0HhQl4sq19Xy58syilfaz8PxZHyx2aI7us5dOHAa7eHsXstzUKrP_5keDFS3w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTrying to salvage some sense of normalcy by digging through the rubble for toys.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Impact Of The War On Dutch Daily Life","The story of the Second World War in 100 objects from collections in the Netherlands","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TKi2QtEtf-AaQhQsWEpZUW2mKc02qlN656Gc19FxxsBQo0kzeAMA7IqXPdukfCwQhzNL3-cQ","/story/9AVB6kUuV0xCKw",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"Nationaal Comité 4 en 5 mei"],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"9AVB6kUuV0xCKw"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S8eihT30HZgOvnKC7rhFdgrNnWHvISPe86qEL02iSOy2wLuvb-Jse0bVa1D2nVrDBKqr3eElQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eUNIQUE COLLABORATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Second World War in 100 Objects was a once-in-a-lifetime exhibition made possible through the cooperation of twenty-five Dutch war and Resistance museums, the Kunsthal Rotterdam and the vfonds. The museums involved in this unique collaboration provided exceptional objects from their collections, which are being presented together for the first time at one location. These 100 objects tell the story of the Second Word War in an original way. Every object has a moving, disturbing or remarkable history. The exhibition could be seen at the Kunsthal Rotterdam from 5 February thru 5 May 2014.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOnce the exhibition has closed, information about these 100 select objects will continue to be available via \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ewww.tweedewereldoorlog.nl\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TqyBsNRkyHpi7sDM6NXyvsdujaRJhIJiuZ0pyrXCsaAuqiE5IAFGDNrYGG_I_LlYKzMSZ3ZQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1. Gasproof Baby Buggy\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the Dutch Royal Collection, The Hague / On permanent loan to \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eHet Loo Palace\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePram of metal and glass, specially made for Princess Beatrix to protect her from a possible poison gas attack.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 110 cm x w 110 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs the threat of war increased in Europe in August 1939, the Dutch army was placed at a heightened state of alertness. In early 1940, as a precautionary measure, the firm of Kiekens built two gasproof baby buggies as protection against the possibility of a poisonous attack. This one for the then two-year-old Dutch Princess Beatrix and another for her younger sister Princess Irene.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/gasproof-baby-buggy//\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R_gbk2QvRm4sscH9HLZZDXxH6WGwXB6dVs70ICxc_ZfsfS7fyDpeOM6-mJvzeN3f44tOKb7Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2. THE CAPITULATION FLAG\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam / The War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhite cloth, nailed to a piece of broomstick. With blood stains. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 148 cm x w 68 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe 14th of May 1940: four days earlier, German troops had invaded the Netherlands. Fierce battles were raging in many places. Also in Rotterdam. The Germans threatened to bomb the city if the Dutch did not surrender. A white flag was needed. Sergeant Major Gerrit Ommering made this one from a sheet and a broomstick. Waving his flag, he walked back and forth a number of times between Dutch Military Headquarters and that of the Germans during the negotiations to force a capitulation. Along the way he tended to a wounded marine and blood splattered on this flag.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/the-capitulation-flag/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QJAQzyJb2Ws9AfT42CxI0OPZYoIMumM_KZvj2TFLI1JGI-RYeGp_kf2w_HmM8_JebnsUN3uw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3. MELTED SEWING MACHINE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eElectric Singer sewing machine, affected by fire during bombardementop Rotterdam.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eH 26 cm x W 48 cm \u003cbr\u003e1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eEarly in the afternoon on 14 May 1940 the air-raid siren suddenly sounded. The people of Rotterdam rushed to take cover as German Heinkel bombers approached the city. Then all hell broke loose.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/melted-sewing-machine/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SKSwE8cHQLE_aXIOfsXyNR1LGttzVaIdm8Kv8YPbTPJnagOXhkJV8nWLIF-P8SJKzXyLg_V7kf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4. BURIED TRENCH PICKAXE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.provincie-utrecht.nl/onderwerpen/alle-onderwerpen/archeologie/provinciaal-depot//\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eProvince of Utrecht / Foundation Greb\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eH 16 cm x W 26 cm \u003cbr\u003e1939-1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn the morning of 11 May 1940, 23,000 German soldiers launched an attack on the Grebbeberg, a strategic hill near the Dutch town of Rhenen. The German army was far superior to the inexperienced and poorly armed 2,500 Dutch soldiers of the 8th Regiment Infantry (8 R.I.).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/buried-trench-pickaxe/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SZKAR5IPqIe_KlI4IjHhvG75OLdqhrjstowLp2kLXcjxfUS5Lq8SpAK3_DWXX-B5iX1cp1",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5. SHELLSHOCKED WATCH\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kazemattenmuseum.nl/?land\u003dnl\u0026amp;id\u003d0\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCasemate Museum in Kornwerderzand\u003c/a\u003e, Province of Friesland\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 30 mm x w 28 mm\u003cbr\u003e1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 14 May 1940, German planes sighted the Dutch gunboat Johan Maurits van Nassau just off the coast of the town of Callantsoog. Earlier the ship had successfully helped to defend the Afsluitdijk, the large enclosure dam in the north of the Netherlands.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/shellshocked-watch/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rq0FilD36bQbcvzFbXmC4D-SGnGHYfovgMRDRZHqsEV62j2Ca_GTYvF-Rcba28QSE0DsUUxxbM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6. SEYSS-INQUART’S SS UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the Dutch \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nmm.nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Military Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Soesterberg\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 80 cm x w 45 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eArthur Seyss-Inquart, who had been a loyal member of the Nazi-SS since 1938, was installed as Reichskommissar (Nazi Governor of the Netherlands) on 29 May 1940 in the Ridderzaal of the Dutch Parliament building in The Hague. As Hitler\u0026#39;s representative in the occupied Netherlands, he largely determined German policymaking.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/seyss-inquarts-ss-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_So0kYyY3BbWCCKybziKrtNvP9Jx1qJauEbz0SbAooeJnjWmC48ZOyfwNsl1k4r5Wm3eA0M",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7. REICHSKREDIT-KASSENSCHEINE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of The \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.dnb.nl/home/index.jsp\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Central Bank\u003c/a\u003e(DNB) / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.dnb.nl/over-dnb/nationale-numismatische-collectie/index.jsp\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe Money Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eVaried dimensions, 1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWith the occupation of the Netherlands in 1940, a new temporary currency was placed into circulation: the Reichskreditkassenschein. German soldiers could purchase what they needed from Dutch shops using this money.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/reichskreditkassenscheine-2/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgHGDO8Aqhd4h2JHXZeIJpj_X-B5jxfENovbBE5NYlmTcwierP1kDQoYbo2BIOIohTuzzAvNw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e8. CHOPPED OFF PIGEON’S FEET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e/ \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 7 cm x w 3 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs early as May 1940, the Germans issued an ordinance stating that all carrier and fancy pigeons had to be killed. Free-flying pigeons might be used to get messages to the Allied Forces.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/chopped-off-pigeons-feet/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TiMoX_3wkYQS8nzeih8dL_Ab-lIZCIWFKcgJ4tRxfC9m1h-F7UPc0206bvrRlETVgd9E5kxA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9. RADIO FREE ORANGE TURNTABLE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 40 cm x w 82 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe 28th of July 1940: ‘This is Radio Oranje, the voice of the Netherlands at war’.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/radio-oranje-turntable/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qy1DAYKvtJgw3Jk6yNBe0VlOzD2yc2Gj_CgXg88o3hGxNk-xOeQIb64GyHMga3A9JF7_zy4RM6",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e10. DEADLY TYPEWRITER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovcg.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWar and Resistance Center Groningen\u003c/a\u003e (OVCG)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 25 cm x w 39 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe German occupier not only imposed its will using soldiers, but also through the Civil Service. A typewriter could be just as deadly as a bullet. Until the end of 1944 this typewriter was used in the Scholtenhuis on the Grote Markt, the main square in Groningen. In this monumental building countless arrest warrants were set in motion, confessions were noted in detail after brutal interrogations and documents were typed to facilitate the persecution of the Jews.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/deadly-typewriter/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgLgjZrbxml18cFtlUsLkNpU5YaEbajUPTih-BV6VTqgLS16YPEjY5Hn1-TBWAT7zRFh-04oQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e11. ANTON MUSSERT’S CHAIR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 110 cm x w 70 cm, 1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis desk chair, with its Dutch Nazi Party insignia – including the States Lion – once stood in Anton Mussert’s office at NSB Headquarters located at #35 Maliebaan in the Dutch city of Utrecht. Mussert was the co-founder and leader of the National Socialist Movement (NSB) in the Netherlands.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/anton-musserts-chair/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q6HzPPSwkyOuS06deOKGkvy-SCQARjKHACJ9cvh-h4Z6-tB_wcHT_ONP-mtxgTxjjI-ctJZA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e12. NETHERLANDS UNION MANIFESTO\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.niod.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e (NIOD), Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 122 cm x 86 cm, 1940\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThree prominent Dutch citizens: Hans Linthorst Homan, Jan de Quay and Louis Einthoven hoped to improve on a bad situation. Inclined to cooperate with the German occupier in order to ensure the preservation of Dutch values, in July 1940 they founded De Nederlandsche Unie (The Netherlands Union).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/nederlandsche-unie-manifesto/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QgQJ5436frrH-CtYXPAjrl0MtuDRGzQuq7lwh2VDRynkdoD13Yam-QFn0TWLWzjFPVfWv6WQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e13. RESISTANCE TEA SPOONS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseumzeeland.nl/index.php/nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eZeeland Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eVaried dimensions, 1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1941, the Niehot family of The Hague welcomed its fourteenth child to the world. The midwife, Nelia Epker, suggested giving Dutch Royal names to the newborn baby. A birth announcement was placed in the newspaper for Irene Beatrix Wilhelmina Juliana Niehot. It was a symbolic gesture of resistance to maintain morale.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/resistance-teaspoons/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sjmqndd7A6MfTKSo2725SsyAw0kSkTl72qo8h27_LHmxKrlAwjK292COaoUqA0O8JnU_7n7g",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e14. WOMEN\u0026#39;S AUTO-MOBILE CORPS (VAC) UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.defensie.nl/cdc/bronbeek/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eBronbeek Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Arnhem\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 150 cm x w 55 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePrior to the Second World War, Japan conquered both Korea and Taiwan (Formosa) and a part of China. The initial aim of expanding Japanese territory changed into efforts to establish a great Asian Empire.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/vrouwen-automobiel-corps-vac-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sd6gAvXWOJiI05-0IsdBLyXeLxej5MazMO_SgmK5KOcbQsYRHsuHa4s716oHFs7T8EofeEaAih",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e15. ANTON DE KOM’S FOUNTAIN PEN\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the De Kom family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 12 cm x w 1 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eEven before the Second World War, the writer and activist Anton de Kom fought with all his heart for equality between blacks and whites in the Dutch colony of Suriname. His book Wij slaven van Suriname (We Slaves of Suriname) was a symbol of resistance against colonialism.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/anton-de-koms-fountain-pen/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TMfrZaGkle3VgcUTyB3yj6NFUcfH5R12QsXtOPhAtqZsaloMV-ti5pTPImF2Hpbf3kxT5J",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16. MIMEOGRAPH WITH BICYCLE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eResistance Museum, Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 120 cm x w 180 cm (Copying machine)\u003cbr\u003eh 120 cm x w 50 cm (Bicycle) \u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1940, the German occupier abolished freedom of the press. Only information that it sanctioned was allowed in the papers, on the radio and in newsreels. An illegal press arose in reaction to this. The first newspapers appeared sporadically, but by the end of the war the number of illegal publications had increased to 1300.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/mimeograph-with-bicycle/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Toa-qzYmGJKN7dSEIwP32hyHyDqh4o_ENJcrA1f4kRJdbkEcnqyX0zoi96LGbNdjBjiL-Yueg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17. NETHERLANDS\u0026#39; WINTER-AID MONEY BOX\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e/\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl//\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 17 cm x ø 10 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1940, the Reichskommissar (Nazi Governor) of the occupied Netherlands, Seyss-Inquart, set up Winterhulp Nederland (Netherlands\u0026#39; Winter-Aid) modelled on the German example. Through collections and raffles the organization raised money to help provide needy Dutch families with food and clothing. All other charitable organizations were banned.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/winterhulp-nederland-money-box/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QowjZK9zYR1OqXSZRb2zRomoRtqawreg-YcMu1toytR4MzJ2TjsCUxYItGck1Z2Hs6ZSY9",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e18. GATSONIDES’ COAL GAS-GENERATOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 125 cm x w 265 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eBecause the German occupier commandeered fuel for its own needs, early in the war there was already a shortage of petrol. To ensure that cars could still keep riding, some were equipped with a gas generator or a large gas reservoir on top. This meant extensively rebuilding the vehicle. The Dutch race car driver and inventor Maus Gatsonides developed a new kind of gas generator: a gasifier.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/gatsonides-gas-generator/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rzn4nkNmnoVkphhhpXVqzBX0h0JhXYcuWyUGt5WduT8-FZTr8pKuBFOu4ZKOX1cKHJ3IrwXQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e19. ‘KRAUT FILTER\u0026#39;\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.friesverzetsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFrisian Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 75 cm x w 63 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJust like the newspapers, the radio also fell under strict German supervision during the occupation. In January 1941, Dutch stations were replaced by a single state-run broadcaster overseen by the NSB (Dutch Nazi Party).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/kraut-filter/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QIUsV_ly1nt2iOf2iXWRV5eP57qXDnO1c6KzaU_38C2kkvrHqF_f3s564KwANqeh8aJqT0Ox4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20. ELFSTEDENTOCHT CHALLENGE CUP\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.elfstedentocht.frl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRoyal Society of Eleven Frisian Cities\u003c/a\u003e/\u003ca href\u003d\"http://friesscheepvaartmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFrisian Maritime Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 35 cm x ø 12 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the early morning hours of 6 February 1941, 1900 people fastened on their skates. The race of all races was about to begin: the Elfstedentocht (Eleven Cities Speed Skating Tour). The weather was mild and the ice looked inviting. But there were also some concern. An imposed blackout meant a large part of the race would have to be skated in the dark, making it very difficult for many participants. The Frisian skater Auke Adema finished first.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/elfstedentocht-challenge-cup/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RjPFO8eHjSUhFNSg5oSzLtqqgigASwJqg3pHYC_x8dJZwv9oQPO8rjegkXnSUIl4Vc6ujT0cQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e21. ORANJEHOTEL DOOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e, with the permission of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oranjehotel.org/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Foundation Oranjehotel\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 230 cm x w 95 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis wooden door once closed off the distinctive small archway in the long prison wall on Van Alkemadelaan in the Dutch seaside town of Scheveningen. During the war, this notorious prison quickly became known to the Dutch as the Oranjehotel (Lit. Orange Hotel), given that many Dutch Resistance fighters – including members of the Resistance group De Geuzen, Anton de Kom and Boy Ecury – were interned here.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/oranjehotel-door/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q9JKBylxVwTKMkZT3erLcy7kap-yaxb5zy9A55PBCXDOXNIzrdYQ66y830mdq8dqqabeJybuY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e22. MERCHANT NAVY GUNNER’S VEST\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.maritiemmuseum.nl/nl/page/42/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMaritime Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 79 cm x w 58 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRoeland Jan Kroesen was just one of thousands of men sailing with the Dutch Merchant Navy when the Second World War broke out. Life changed drastically: ships that weren\u0026#39;t in occupied waters at the outbreak of the war and capable of helping the Allied effort were required to do so. This was the result of a vaarplicht (injunction to continue sailing) issued by Dutch royal decree on 6 June 1940.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/merchant-navy-gunners-vest/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ri8NA7PydmJy6KGP9rS0lB9Ed0vm_27DsjYjK3v4dHGRNsLwIZzEKut5NumvQtveQsBx7UulVU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e23. FORGED IDENTITY CARD\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.markt12.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMarkt 12 - Euregional Hiding Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Aalten\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 11 cm x b 24 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 8 October 1941, the Jewish cattle dealer Salli Schwarz narrowly escaped a roundup on Molenstraat in the town of Winterswijk. Sneaking through backyard after backyard, he embarked on a journey that would last the rest of the war. Salli, followed by his wife Betty and daughter Ria, went from one hiding place to another.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/forged-identity-card/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QMvqFDy3UyorZm3Wzf6PzTdV4bSWCtbp1iEsz4-AvNry05DXFpa7queLCm1_Iv-g1Ux6uI5Vs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e24. \u0026#39;FORBIDDEN FOR JEWS\u0026#39; \u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum-zh.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eSouth Holland Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Gouda\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 19 cm x w 40 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eLess than two months after the German invasion, Jewish employees of the Dutch Air Raid Defence Service were dismissed. It was the first in a long line of anti-Jewish measures. Jews were gradually isolated from the rest of the population in the Netherlands.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/verboden-voor-joden/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTVkjLVAhLTkF6Goo1IvOlRlxGP_rUb5edv3l6Jadhd3N1SJLSQS--o8foqsHPZQNIMhlcDA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e25. SNIP AND SNAP MARIONETTES\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bijzonderecollecties.uva.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eSpecial Collections of the University of Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.theaterinstituut.nl/#tin-na-bijna-80jaar?cache\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Theatre Institute\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 85 cm x w 25 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the months following the bombing of Rotterdam in May 1940, the Germans wanted daily life to continue as normal as possible. So entertainment was of great importance. And who better to help with this than the popular twosome of Snip and Snap. For years the comedy reviews of Willy Walden (Snip) and Piet Muyselaar (Snap) had drawn full houses.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/snip-and-snap-marionettes/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SyWFxSRQvbR3eSfNNQcS5yqKUOllKrjpB6-5NfSd_RyQtthzUhDOZ91wm6tTJag5wvdKEBeA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e 26. LAST SELF-PORTRAITS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRijksmuseum Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 31 cm x w 25 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter the February Strike of 1941, the sculptor and draftsman Cor van Teeseling joined a Resistance group that printed and distributed the illegal Communist newspaper De Waarheid (Lit. The Truth). Six months later, the Germans arrested him. On 10 November 1941, the death sentence was pronounced against him.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/last-self-portraits/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWmjB1VSivXyqphdbCaarQFYk7kP0a9hCLheAl-SikiESCo_1y0OtLEcllci7tiLXIcw_RdOU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e27. DIRECTIONS TO CAMP AMERSFOORT\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the National Monument Camp Amersfoort\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 20 cm x w 99 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIt was a simple black \u0026amp; white signboard alongside the road with a few abbreviated German words. Nothing more. But for the thousands of prisoners who saw this board on their way to Polizeiliches Durchgangslager (Police Transit Camp) Amersfoort, it was their first glimpse of an unknown future.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/directions-to-camp-amersfoort/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ss_MpoXImydWgtqtJJ5NgSueOPT8gTkkNfWgYHFpc-16uB6Es0BJ4aczQdan8ZHE4XDAbfskdZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e28. ENGELANDVAARDER’S CANOE \u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the Peteri family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 50 cm x w 460 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDuring the war around 1700 Dutch men and women who tried to reach freedom in England, over land or by sea, were given the honorary name: Engelandvaarders (Lit. England-farers). They hoped to actively take part in the Allied struggle against the Germans. Two brothers, Henri and Willem Peteri, managed to escape from the occupied Netherlands in this canoe.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/engelandvaarders-canoe/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SpcZ9pi9qrfkjyOGpXbILr3dr-vpEr71iXO44BhsYXJYrFnivdEu_wlPj2XejEvnWX70p6Kbw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e29. GERMAN LANGUAGE RADIO COURSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Arthur van Beveren\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 24 cm x w 16 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn Sunday 5 October 1941 listeners readied themselves with a textbook for their first German lesson, broadcast on a Dutch radio station from the city of Hilversum. Alfred Rügner began by telling his audience a little something about German pronunciation.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/german-language-radio-course/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TEWShu9DSMIbjLl8QYcyHaHZixip_8E407JKc-IbQBg2Y_OxwUt6Cldc8CbHPkNbho6218zkqT",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e30. STEEL ‘STEED’ WITH WOODEN TIRES\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nmm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch National Military Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 120 cm (bicycle)\u003cbr\u003eø 75 cm (wheel)\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the period 1940-1945, very few people actually owned a car so bicycles were a major means of transport. Because imports of rubber were discontinued during the war, bicycle tires were quickly scarce. But this made people inventive: when certain products were unavailable during the war, people came up with substitutes.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/steel-steed-with-wooden-tires/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9oCmOZxba7_kbVfXeyxs9O6CmBOEkU-Z0lSpgDgJAFXqLVnAhfc6mt6tsPVmFaI4AGPaUEg0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e31. JAPANESE MACHINE GUN\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.defensie.nl/cdc/bronbeek/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003ecollection of the Bronbeek Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Arnhem\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 41 cm x b 140 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIt was a quiet, breezy night with a full-moon as marine H. Kooi of the Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indisch Leger, KNIL (Royal Netherlands East Indies Army) left the city of Surabaya to go into battle. Two months earlier, at the beginning of 1942, Japan had attacked the Dutch East Indies and it now threatened to occupy Java as well. Suddenly we find ourselves in the middle of a fight against the Japanese...\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/japanese-machine-gun/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TXsnjRsWNfBaJ8bhKw7VZAEjueh_TKBeUfZPzPFZOGGuwlLzOsiZJQ6bd5Q-lmoWncfNhR",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e32. ROLL OF ‘YELLOW STAR’ FABRIC\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 60 cm x w 137 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs of 3 May 1942, all Jews age six and older were required to wear a so-called yellow star visible on the left side of their clothing. It was yet another measure to isolate and exclude Jews from Dutch society. The word Jood (Jew) appears in the middle of this six-pointed star, which has the same form as the Jewish Star of David.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/roll-of-yellow-star-fabric/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SHBHlZeQvXWPQ8ZGNtdCv-TX05hrGhujLI6VZrPlpXkhYhZyouoIWMe9GaoDSR7ErUuSD8KK8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e33. AIR FILTER FROM DEFENCE BUNKER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.monumentfortdebilt.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFort De Bilt Memorial Centre and Monument\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eA number of machine gun bunkers were built near all the forts forming the Dutch Waterlinie, land that could be flooded as a means of defence. In the event of a gas attack these bunkers could be sealed off airtight.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/air-filter-from-defence-bunker/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TrHbkgMrNNTT0jm6RfJ4_vVo976s88goEvt-QrMd12U73csZm4GLCS0pYWVhDOBlASbiHiAQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e34. GERMAN BIRTHDAY GIFT\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.niod.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies\u003c/a\u003e (NIOD), Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 67 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 11 May 1942, in his headquarters at #35 Maliebaan in Utrecht, the leader of the Dutch Nazi Party (NSB), Anton Mussert, was congratulated by his personnel on the occasion of his forty-eighth birthday. Then two members of his staff carried in a large present. They opened the package to reveal a huge book, almost 70 cm high and weighing at least 15 kilos.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/german-birthday-gift/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T14aDtINndat2QicFfwHlzi8GcqXwEiej5B0uYj20ZLctg8SEAOXvXJVU1wBhznjo44K5wT1iu",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e35. CIGARETTES FROM HOME-GROWN TOBACCO\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.achterhoeksmuseum1940-1945.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAchterhoeks Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e 1940-1945, Hengelo\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eVaried dimensions, 1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThere was a huge shortage of tobacco during the war years due to the compulsory delivery of a large part of the tobacco stock to Germany and the loss of supply lines from abroad.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/cigarettes-from-home-grown-tobacco/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RiuKKilYFWhTLOSVqa7iv8oylTS2pyVvQh3TPWswJtI9eqmiifcXYzWJJjOdAkPZq0yCi0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e36. FROM SIMON VESTDIJK’S WORK\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://vestdijk.com/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eVestdijk Society\u003c/a\u003e / Hans Visser\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 25 cm x w 21 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 4 May 1942, the Germans imprisoned 460 prominent Dutch people including politicians, mayors, professors, clergymen, lawyers, writers and musicians in the Beekvliet Preparatory Seminary in the Dutch town of Sint-Michielsgestel.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/from-simon-vestdijks-work/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rm4_Ye7p9ir8tujXJHEEv95ZhNZ_EqDCeIwITUU3suev8gbYZu2zl6i2oArYJZzLqdm4sk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e37. FILE CABINETS WITH STAMPS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eResistance Museum Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePer box:\u003cbr\u003eh 12 cm x w 16 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThanks to these rubber stamps – stored in envelopes arranged alphabetically in these cabinets – it was possible to create fake identity cards and other documents during the war. Exactly how many were forged is unknown, but by the beginning of 1944 the count was already 91,000.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/file-cabinets-with-stamps/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RpbDyp_Ee4i4g9z_6jTItRJkzjQRpvAzGAQm_IlRvVhZnLX8fHkwcbTyqJhOBVvG9qCgJ7miU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e38. BURMA RAILWAY CROSSTIE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 14 cm x w 192 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Japanese occupier in the Dutch East Indies forced Western men and Dutch Indonesians of the colony to work as slave labourers. Thousands of men, who were first vigorous, strong and healthy, suffered terribly under the wretched conditions. All day long they toiled in the burning sun and almost unbearable heat to lay the infamous Burma Railway.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/burma-railway-crosstie/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qr8aB0SyAZRYSevEEyKGNmUECUqjPHZOhX4f_35EVPzxkzkqq6yl1Q_UmxBxgrQ5YF18FugrM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e39. ANNE FRANK’S MARBLES\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.annefrank.org/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAnne Frank House\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 9 cm x w 19 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eSome Jewish children gave away their toys when they had to report for transport or went into hiding. Marbles were a child’s prized possession. The night before they were transported, a few children in the South of Amsterdam were known to have said: ‘Let’s just toss them!’ They threw their marbles out the window, hoping other children in the neighbourhood would gather them up.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/anne-franks-marbles/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QkTKuRSs0UVggAe1PDCOtz0j1o1zz2yddUnu8U7SaEaR98vQg_aZsjjiKqgomHvizQRrTW8g",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e40. WESTERBORK-AUSCHWITZ TRAIN SIGNBOARD\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/index.html#/index\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCamp Westerbork Memorial Centre\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 40 cm x w 80 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis metal train sign ‘Westerbork-Auschwitz, Auschwitz-Westerbork’ indicated a return trip that nobody would ever make. On 15 and 16 July 1942, the first two cargo trains packed with more than 2,000 Jews left the Westerbork Transit Camp headed for the Auschwitz extermination camp in Poland. Most of the people aboard these transports were killed the same day they arrived. A total of 65 trains left for Auschwitz alone.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/westerbork-auschwitz-train-signboard/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SstjiFtBSq8CbqcFc0MmxuTShFv1sinRrHu9goQ_v8QFiFo0MdEi710RbtAc9FikhTfZJnTLQZ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e41. ORDEDIENST COVERALLS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"about:invalid#zGuavaz\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCamp Westerbork Memorial Centre\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 145 cm x w 60 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn October 1939 the first German-Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi Germany arrived in Westerbork. They were involved in the internal organization of the refugee camp starting in 1940, as well as later on when it officially became a transit camp for Jews: Polizeiliches Judendurchgangslager Westerbork.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/ordedienst-coveralls/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QibUgyRdGoOeGkaZRJLd-r_4T_nxac_rhAJDIysIgEfZ1zED6AUM2edke2DJA-xaxcSuCkw5I",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e42. JEUGDSTORM TRUMPET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.achterhoeksmuseum1940-1945.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAchterhoeks Museum \u003c/a\u003e 1940-1945, Hengelo\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 16 cm x w 51 cm\u003cbr\u003e1939-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e‘When standing at attention for a long time, once the musical director gives the sign, the horn may be placed under the right arm’ These and other strict instructions applied to playing the Nationale Jeugdstorm (NJS, National Youth Storm) trumpet.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/jeugdstorm-trumpet/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Re2WyIdPnfY0RX8ifyfhPnnlZN3kzxyuWL3T7yXX3NSmEYDAE-SO303gTUKglZu9K4lUSn5A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e43. FAREWELL LETTER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 17 cm x w 15 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eA planned sea crossing on 21 March 1942 of the Jewish Engelandvaarder (Lit. England-farer) Carl Martin Zellermayer and eight others failed because they were betrayed. In the ferry boss’ house in the Dutch harbour village of Simonshaven they awaited nightfall. Once it was dark, they could embark on their journey to England. But before that happened, the Germans surrounded the house and arrested the would-be Engelandvaarders.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/farewell-letter/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TY6I5Vlg6N1jTY-OdGy_TBsnj9QMODmu8pCawjbnb4ujSOnYkZGjdZHPYBpK5SWJi6C0bYPQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e44. BEAR WITH FULL BELLY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 37 cm x w 11 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eNine-year-old Margreet Kuiper arrived at Camp Tjideng in Batavia with nothing. The last suitcase with any of her belongings was lost along the way. But then she found this teddy bear in the garbage. The Japanese, who occupied the Dutch East Indies in 1942, interned the Dutch in special camps. A reign of terror prevailed in Camp Tijdeng. Hunger and disease were rampant and in the absence of medicine, the death toll rose. In this difficult period Margreet cherished this teddy bear.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/bear-with-full-belly/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SAU6wKgmHi4uZMit9BKv6vmQgqNJR4Vk0dvi7KZ_3hpDuu1jGh8pNHbYLeQtZF4AOvgU5m3M_i",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e45. SEIZED BELL\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumklokenpeel.nl/nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003e National Clock \u0026amp; Peel Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Asten\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 41 cm x ø 39 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn September 1942, the Germans enacted a measure that made many of the Dutch extremely angry: they seized bronze church bells to melt them down for canons and ammunition.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/seized-bell/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RgCZuKStL_flJCDCnmcJpA8i9vs1_GVLIaywADcivQ4YaHkKAZwnqH7usd2rJsg2xMgVADSw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e46. LIFE VEST FROM JAPANESE ‘HELL SHIP’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.defensie.nl/cdc/bronbeek/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eBronbeek Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Arnhem\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 45 cm x w 30 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Nitimei Maru, a Japanese troop ship with around 1,000 Dutch prisoners of war and 1562 Japanese soldiers aboard, departed from Singapore on 29 December 1942.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/life-vest-from-hell-ship/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TiXxjeOyWVoeN772QomKnsyWc5rkmSsDQPbu1A6icW5VIdFhF0MVjScafJ1Trvk1sUVYXX6A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e‘47. DE NIEUWE MENSCH’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRijksmuseum Amsterdam\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 277 cm x w 172 cm\u003cbr\u003eca. 1937\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1940 the leader of the Dutch Nazi Party (NSB), Anton Mussert, received this painting as a gift from the Dutch businessman Louis van Leeuwen Boomkamp before he departed for the Dutch East Indies. Mussert hung it in his office at NSB Headquarters in Utrecht.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/de-nieuwe-mensch-2/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QW9Sx01ECQmVg62aFE7vk1WCUOJNOyf-mm1ItRvmjyU2v1kelh5hX93WHV6DSbczQE8XwBhRQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e48. FLAG IN GOOD HANDS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the Winterswijk Synagogue\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 182 cm x w 230 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1943, the Jewish family Gans was on their way to the train station because Father Josef, Mother Martha and their four children Abraham, Louise, Emma and baby Harry had received a call-up notice. After earlier deferments they were ordered, like many other Jews, to report for internment in the Vught Concentration Camp.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/flag-in-good-hands/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qba_T9DE4O5pDZY0o3BDBnhFqWzSQsyNQAGWE__ODlu-qEG1BmWI_skVfmEfwHjycE2p8keVQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e49. BETRAYER’S BOUNTY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.niod.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies\u003c/a\u003e (NIOD), Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 27 cm x w 20 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis receipt was given to members of the Dutch Henneicke Colonne in 1943 for the Jews they had arrested and delivered to the German authorities.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/betrayers-bounty/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TFfM5ASU7f9Q6EW_OjsceTd3qcOrcp82DSeZ4Q6KLUxl_7cDRoCLz0w1L7pCyTQIgq8snjTUBc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e50. BLESSED RADIO\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kazemattenmuseum.nl/?land\u003dnl\u0026amp;id\u003d0\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCasemate Museum\u003c/a\u003e in Kornwerderzand, Province of Friesland.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 19 cm x w 14 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn May 1943, the Germans tried with all their means to jam the reception of foreign radio stations, including Radio Oranje (Radio Free Orange) from England. But this had little effect and the majority of the Dutch population continued to listen to these forbidden broadcasters.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/blessed-radio/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RfGzLJ4lZ2OOiTq8F8OG397cigK1ZhSPemlgjahSYHgcz6GlibvJOSkZq6fV1fb8VToyquiA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e51. SHOEMAKER’S FAREWELL\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.nmkampvught.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Monument Camp Vught\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 15 cm x w 54 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe everyday life of the Jewish Gold family, who lived in the village of Jutphaas near Utrecht, came to an abrupt end in April 1943: Father, Mother and their son Lothar were picked up from their home and eventually deported. They always had close contact with the neighbours across the street, the Steenaart family.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/shoemakers-farewell/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TpMsvNHiWZ3GmTLhItLbQ7F5YOl2Y0YZZMk8F6MNXsa4wQhz53dWVFXFf1yuszsrojkT0fXQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e52. APRIL-MAY STRIKE DEATH PENALTY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovcg.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWar and Resistance Center Groningen\u003c/a\u003e(OVCG)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 30 cm x w 35 cm \u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 29 April 1943, Wehrmachtbefehlshaber (Wehrmacht Commander) General Friedrich Christiansen announced that Dutch soldiers who had fought against the invading Germans in May 1940 would again be taken as prisoners of war and sent to Germany to work in factories and on the land.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/april-may-strike-death-penalty/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QgdVcpLegUR3dgfvppib_aKcmcnvBulwN0DLRav_txYWTELfe6YhkIhZVx1t85QsFOsnnxQ0U",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e53. VOLUNTEER’S SS-UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nmm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch National Military Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Soesterberg\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 60 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Dutch volunteers who fought with the Germans were initially two apart groups: those who served with the Waffen-SS and those who registered for the Dutch Vrijwilligerslegion (Volunteer Legion).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/volunteers-ss-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R_3bJKL3g0FjzhvqskhdIskCy1GpFPB-nc5jQ5nVdzmgvI2I4a3xcixrb0_xXclkXw0gNkujA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e54. LOOTED CUTLERY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eMade available to the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/index.html#/index\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCamp Westerbork Memorial Centre\u003c/a\u003e, for the exhibition In bewaring gegeven (Given in Safekeeping)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFor years Chris B’s family used this silver-plated cutlery to eat their meals. In 1943, B. was an ardent Nazi who actively took part in hunting down Jews hiding in Amsterdam and its vicinity. He was a member of the Henneicke Colonne, a group that in a period of six months arrested between 8000 and 9000 Jews and delivered them to the Hollandsche Schouwberg, the Amsterdam theatre venue from which the deportations took place. B. and his fellow Dutch ‘Jew hunters’ received a bounty payment of 7.50 guilders for each person they rounded up.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/looted-cutlery/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RMPjo92_41qcmnaIsAeJej293ICMPq_V6R6Rtf3HvPOD9PyE77HtEoAvFkCAjbBbkjNAQPQA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e55. HANNIE SCHAFT’S DISGUISE GLASSES\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1943, the red-headed Dutch student Hannie Schaft joined a Communist Resistance group in the Dutch city of Haarlem. This group liquidated betrayers. Hannie worked closely with the sisters Truus and Freddie Oversteegen.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/hannie-schafts-disguise-glasses/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SpCwcJwpo82ll5Dv4A13rC6eyPLVXJ6r0nbOECdKK61BldZ-iKUjsrOSAsHGyqKa1Rpp6IctE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e56. CHRIST AND THE ADULTERESS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumdefundatie.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFundatie Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Zwolle / Borrowed via the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.cultureelerfgoed.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Cultural Heritage Agency\u003c/a\u003e (RCE)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 100 cm x w 90 cm \u003cbr\u003e1942\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1943, via an art broker, Hermann Goering purchased this ‘Vermeer’ for the astronomical amount of 1.65 million guilders. The seller was the painter and art dealer Han van Meegeren.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/christ-and-the-adulteress/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tcz5HNcx1MqrD9aCn7uOxMlhXyiYRmrVn5BdnlSqHKuCqcG6p5HoOggYx4M8xprP9ei-wkuAA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e57. A LAST MESSAGE FROM ETTY HILLESUM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 9 cm x w 14 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 7 September 1943, a freight train with 987 Jews aboard departed from the Westerbork Transit Camp in the east of the Netherlands to the Auschwitz Concentration and Extermination Camp in occupied Poland. Sitting on her backpack in an overcrowded railway car, twenty-nine-year-old Etty Hillseum wrote this postcard to her friend Christine who lived in Deventer. ‘We have left the camp singing...’ she entrusted to paper. Then she threw the card from the train – her last sign of life.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/laatste-groet-etty-hillesum-2/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TnDzYIr6xfBZtiQHL-qNolYTxT5XCThFGRHKQ8Vz11YHCB5BIC27DKYlC6UHOQx2hMjXNZAnc5",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e58. STILL LIFE WITH BREAD\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.vughtsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eVught Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e via the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.nmkampvught.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Monument Camp Vught\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 65 cm x w 75 cm \u003cbr\u003e1943\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe painter Johan van Sweden, who was also a member of the Groningen artists’ collective De Ploeg (The Plough Team), ended up in the Vught Concentration Camp in the Netherlands because of his Resistance activities. He made commissioned portraits for some of the camp guards and the SS there and because of this received a number of special privileges. He was provided with his own studio, while the guards went about getting him painting supplies.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/still-life-with-bread/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QUQIxfTofbSMCXf9liQhziTDfHGiB2_HWHcdY_SrrBlatQ7wrO20ERK4qG2l1LKlbUYKhghDs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e59. AUNT TRUUS’ TOTE BAG\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 23 cm x w 45 cm\u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1942 Truus Scholten joined the resistance in the Dutch province of Limburg, bordering on Germany. As a midwife, she was respected by both the Dutch and the Germans. Her line of work exempted her from the imposed evening curfew and she was allowed to keep her car.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/aunt-truus-tote-bag/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rq4SZHii-Vkp1hwhekJ20KQqeEgR3u-Xxk388h20QCUfm9owCGecRba9XKH8VizLgTlvhFouY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e60. TOY PLANE IN HIDING\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the Rooiman family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 15 cm x w 40 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn 27 September 1942, the Jewish child Joop Levy went into hiding with his parents. They were taken in by the Ebbers family on their farm in the village of Lintelo in the Achterhoek, a region in the eastern part of the Netherlands. Joop had no friends to play with.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/toy-plane-in-hiding/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rg_TzPD9XdhvAJ4Yko5sPRruMJu62LursXaJSn8hNWZPIzTPzAZRp3NIyU3a_UtOMi5TVxQfNm",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e61. SINTERKLAAS COSTUME\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 155 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFlip Heil participated in Resistance activities related to the illegal Amsterdam newspaper Het Parool. He was married to a Jewish woman, Lien Barend. Because the Nazis tended not to bother couples in mixed-marriages, Lien was relatively safe.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/sinterklaas-costume/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tq9S7hAI3_NlOcaYArHI2EVH4BE-UdUEFXxgjAOIkZpHxYfeesARiYxj8WvSa83n8PRgWq_yY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e62. B2 SPY RADIO SET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.cryptomuseum.com/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCrypto Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 16 cm x w 52 cm \u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWalking down the street with a suitcase isn’t particularly unusual and it wasn’t during the war either. It was, however, a different story if the case contained an illegal radio transmitter. Many Resistance fighters risked their lives to maintain contact with a free England using a B2-transmitter.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/b2-spy-radio-set/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLwh_OPjghc2HJEwYNLpoAEb_I7ns_COu0SqjCyOdnGgeMDU34_T7yW3ynl4CUouRCx2uo_B8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e63. GERMAN PROPAGANDA POSTER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.niod.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNetherlands Institute for War\u003c/a\u003e, Holocaust and Genocide Studies (NIOD), Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 110 cm x w 79 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Dutch cities of Nijmegen, Enschede, Deventer and Arnhem endured heavy attacks from Allied bombers on 22 February 1944. Due to bad weather conditions, the pilots could not attack the designated targets in Germany so instead they chose an opportune target: the railway yard in Nijmegen.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/german-propaganda-poster/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rkqlf6ug9U45gN8-qP1lTtHV-ZUUJa2QkM9EmR-beC7ZASIRfsyUpE8NN4l7vhEFgrpUM4V44"],["",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e64. PERSECUTION CAPTURED IN TIME\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kampwesterbork.nl/index.html#/index\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eCamp Westerbork Memorial Centre\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eJust a few seconds... that’s how long this girl stared into the camera on 19 May 1944 in the doorway of this boxcar in Westerbork, unaware of her fate. The train was about to depart for the Auschwitz-Birkenau Extermination Camp in Poland. It is surmised that she was gassed there during the night of 2 August 1944. Her exact identity was unknown for decades, but as the ‘Girl with the Scarf’ she became a symbol of the persecution of the Jews.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/persecution-captured-in-time/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"],null,[null,"lnwmFk55fj8"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QONdcPc8JxrpML8JAklXKvhZKhG1kpQi4q3bVHjjBx9Q8yFj-ZRYtB6FLzwIWyRjvz5png2w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e65. RUPERT DOLL\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collections of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.friesverzetsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFrisian Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e and the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum-zh.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eSouth Holland Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Gouda\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 82 cm x w 57 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe English called him ‘Rupert’ and the Americans ‘Oscar’. The Allies used these paratrooper dummies to cause confusion and chaos among the German troops.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"about:invalid#zGuavaz\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ryr6rzqvl4eQ5-1CONjihn-69opKDOXXbP0EDEmw5guKqNtd5VfBZ3iig1j1BAZpqCBazt0w",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e66. TAPESTRY FROM SINGAPORE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 141 cm x w 100 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRabbi Chaim Nussbaum grew up in Scheveningen in the Netherlands and after getting married returned with his wife to the country of his birth, Lithuania. When the Nazis invaded Lithuania in 1941, Chaim managed to escape with his family.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/tapestry-from-singapore/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RxvEaGo6D_Hx-ItBNXaqCv__nfkrlE5U8NeCTTXn44K-ze7RTfGWRZFeW_27m34KbPFo-JAb4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e67. SS-FLAG\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovcg.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWar and Resistance Center Groningen\u003c/a\u003e(OVCG)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDuring the occupation, this SS-flag was used at the Scholtenhuis on the Grote Markt in Groningen. The headquarters of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the notorious Nazi Security Service – a division of the SS – was located here.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/ss-flag/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RuUFZsMmKCYrZaXxTc5WAOcPSYG1WY8ddi7uaHw-G_RBa-B5P000wSmyYI7_kNu3PEDN8hwg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e68. A RING FOR ROZA\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 2 cm x w 2 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter their hiding place was betrayed, Roza and Siem Vos were deported via Westerbork to the Auschwitz Extermination Camp in Poland on 3 March 1944. They were immediately separated from each other.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/a-ring-for-roza/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QqbmgmT5UGwm1-AXjAnAGrLkeHJ8kvSq-TeAAn0ChQNTmoEedrcH0xsKfBJ1AMZe9kplLsYcMv",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e69. PRINCE BERNHARD’S BS-UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.nmm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch National Military Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Soesterberg\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 57 cm x w 47 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDuring the years the Dutch Royal family spent exiled in England, Prince Bernhard was of tremendous support to Queen Wilhelmina. In September 1944 she appointed him commander-in-chief of the BS: Nederlandse Binnenlandse Strijdkrachten (Dutch Interior Forces).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/prince-bernhards-bs-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RoPkhW3XK-vVQDnSuMmpciqW5sYeKTGOyJiBh2I_BLAb917zbLyd62Z7MOxhns2xEPtigS9Hg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e70. SILK ROUTE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.airbornemuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003e‘Hartenstein’ Airborne Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Oosterbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 70 cm x w 70 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhen Lieutenant Colonel John Frost, commander of the British 2nd Parachute Battalion, landed in the Netherlands on 17 September 1944, this silk map of the Netherlands, Belgium and France was safely tucked in his pocket.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/silk-route/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TgJvMl2amJmIQxJ-tn7U36bt747WlpPKz2SmsVTFLQuoCn9Z0isXSIcLN_ruWg6CJ7cLCzscJU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e71. DIVINE WEDDING DRESS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.airbornemuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003e‘Hartenstein’ Airborne Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Oosterbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 130 cm x w 60 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Allies wanted to put an end to the war as quickly as possible, so in the autumn of 1944 they launched a dangerous plan: Operation Market Garden. On the 17th of September 1944, 35.000 British and American paratroopers jumped from planes above the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Gelderland or landed by glider.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/divine-wedding-dress/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RI1xrPJQQ_wxKKEBFTMNOn1REMx0fIPDMBqLR9dog3uHnZZ8Bh53MZMFZlrBUYhTPzEGPKeU8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e72. FOLDABLE MOTORCYCLE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.airbornemuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003e‘Hartenstein’ Airborne Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Oosterbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 90 cm x w 140 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis British folding motorcycle literally fell from the sky during the Battle of Arnhem. On 17 September 1944, nearly 5,200 men of the British First Airborne Division landed by parachute or glider on the woodland heath near the town of Renkum, some distance from the city of Arnhem. In supply containers hanging from parachutes, just about everything was dropped: food, radios, bicycles and this British Welbike single-seat motorcycle.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/foldable-motorcycle/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T_SRWWarEWhhar_3E6OldEm9_V89YTzE9N5CBLeH-C8_EHxYy0BOUB15j0gSenwii6mpLCOw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e73. SPERRGEBIET WARNING\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e1944-1945, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 80 cm x w 100 cm\u003cbr\u003e1940-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDutch cities and villages were filled with signboards: displaying instructions and warnings in German. Most were for practical purposes, for instance to help people find different German government offices. But there were also signs with a more threatening tone, like this one indicating a Sperrgebiet: an area restricted to everybody without official clearance.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/sperrgebiet-warning/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TRcyrMWUc7aMHpQ5JKzmTLIStFb4fWl3sEBN9j9-bYrezw93CL7QNixZ0dtkP5A0MD8K67",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e74. TREES’ DIARY ABOUT ‘MARKET GARDEN’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e1944-1945, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 22 cm x w 17 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eTrees Schretlen wrote on 18 September 1944: ‘The battle for Nijmegen has begun.’ The Americans and British have arrived to liberate the city. Trees kept a diary in the high school agenda she purchased for her junior year. Given all the schools had been closed, she no longer needed it for her classes. She drew a radio in the margin with the caption ‘Forward to the final victory.’\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/trees-diary-about-market-garden/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SKx9VgvkPTLOY1imQDawrWyHhtfUQRcUhmb2TEipjyGVdL0giRbi9sL7UXDDcBbVMWzambIg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e75. ‘REGISTRATION BUREAU, WAR VOLUNTEERS’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.achterhoeksmuseum1940-1945.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eAchterhoeks Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Hengelo\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 43 cm x w 90 cm \u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThere were youngsters in the liberated south of the Netherlands who were eager to join the armed struggle. On 1 October 1944 the exiled Dutch government in London reached the Oorlogsvrijwilligersbesluit (Lit. War Volunteers Decision): allowing Dutch males, ages 18 to 36 years, to volunteer for deployment in Europe or in the Dutch East Indies, which was occupied by the Japanese.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/registration-bureau-war-volunteers/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RHgVNn9kZOXFWEyPD9aOmjA-VvqDRAD8XxUWF0d_HE5rl0b2Kj2Ei87MADXe-J84tfN9A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e76. CROMWELL BATTLE TANK\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.oorlogsmuseum.nl/nl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eOverloon War Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFor more than four years, the village of Overloon in the eastern part of the Dutch province of Brabant went untouched by the Second World War. Of course residents saw German soldiers in their streets, but they were spared the wartime violence. That changed dramatically in the fall of 1944.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/cromwell-battle-tank/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TDsGTRkNqgmIx0Ph9uWDpMe4NwSm9XjLiiZfyK_I3dTdAFntjAOIk-LFn-EPP-FFgliS1BE3Y",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e77. POLISH LIBERATOR’S UNIFORM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.maczekmuseum.nl/en\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eGeneral Maczek Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Breda\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 60 cm x w 70 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eShouting with joy, the population of Breda welcomed their liberators on 29 October 1944. Surprisingly enough those troops turned out to be Polish. After fierce fighting under the leadership of General Maczek, the 1st Polish Armoured Division had managed to liberate the Dutch city from the Germans.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/polish-liberators-uniform/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TqwNTe6HPa2kaO5tEmZHJWLm_XuA6opNTBAtH55BqCVkdgUZ0-eWYYGE_2grffCIkwgDxBGdrO",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e78. ROYAL LIBERATION DRESS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.jhm.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJewish Historical Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 52 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1944, a little Jewish girl named Elianne Muller wore this dress made of parachute material – dyed orange – during the Liberation celebration that took place in the village of Neerkant in the Dutch province of Brabant. It went beautifully with her reddish curls. The family Thijssen, who had been hiding the girl, made her this dress for this festive occasion.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/royal-liberation-dress/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T5ODtABXb2Aa-XgFt0YMDz_1ZF5-0qvXSbX0fhlfTh-svpmBUnk5RCYfI7qOb81lV-PqGS7-0",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e79. GERMAN SUBMACHINE GUN\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseumzeeland.nl/index.php/nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eZeeland Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 28 cm x w 62 cm.\u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhen Lieutenant Bas Groeneweg disarmed a young German soldier he had taken prisoner during the liberation of Zeeland, he did not hesitate for a moment.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/german-submachine-gun/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TyvgsU7m1LYJRZTINjuay0Q_1KSJGDX1_VKgJB5Jlh6fqQX7u1M__2DXhadiJmCYVlyUdOP14",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e80. AMERICAN WATER WEASEL\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseumzeeland.nl/index.php/nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eZeeland Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter the September 1944 defeat during the Battle of Arnhem, taking control of the mouth of the River Scheldt in Belgium was a priority for the Allies. This strategic move would give them access to the waterway leading to the city of Antwerp, which had already been liberated. Antwerp’s harbour was a very important supply point for the massive Allied effort. To help make this possible, the British Royal Air Force (RAF) bombed dykes at four different locations on Walcheren in the Dutch province of Zeeland, almost entirely submerging the peninsula.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/american-water-weasel/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SR2XHxADXgZIWK3Zpl9Lf-EnxxBvLMhKMu0hwZJkf-NvV6KMMg14BLQRB-0Svq6TS6B3j1VGo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e81. WOODEN WAALSDORPERVLAKTE CROSS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.friesverzetsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eFrisian Resistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 142 cm x w 60 cm\u003cbr\u003e1941-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWaalsdorpervlakte, in the dunes by the Dutch seaside village of Scheveningen, was one of the most notorious spots during the Second World War. On this desolate sand plain more than 250 people were killed by the Germans.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/wooden-waalsdorpervlakte-cross/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SYjL3TxWwgP1ZFqvFWAf3JDSIIT3X0WaFm3LStp8VIVNhx69W3wK1fVegctHN6IcvnKBkpF0lI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e82. ORIGINAL BURIAL CROSS OF AN AMERICAN LIBERATOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Herman Wijnhoven\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 74 cm x w 45 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eReturning from a bombing raid of Germany’s Ruhr Valley in 1944, American pilot James M. Hansen’s fighter plane ran into trouble and crashed. James was killed instantly. The Allies, who buried him in the temporary American military cemetery in the village of Molenhoek near the Dutch city of Nijmegen, placed this wooden cross on his grave.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/original-burial-cross-of-an-american-liberator/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R-yN02TJmwJmF6elyWHn51CC_Er29xmwvfvi2l6YbKydHr-yh8gtjpUtqe7ZVXGnLF3Cq6qYo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e83. RAZZIA IN ROTTERDAM\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museumrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e / \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovmrotterdam.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eThe War and Resistance Museum Rotterdam\u003c/a\u003e \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 187 cm x w 47 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the early hours of 10 November 1944, 8,000 German soldiers flooded the streets of Rotterdam. They lay a cordon around the city, took up position on the bridges and squares and shut down the telephone service. They distributed pamphlets ordering all men ages 17 to 40 years to report for tewerkstelling (employment in the service of Germany).\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/razzia-in-rotterdam/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZqMKTGrE8Gc4SniLi03V-tfbSofKSbKr7pFHcmNRfFgj2k0w680yAnY3YNb_aTerusNi1dA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e84. ESCAPED WEARING TRADITIONAL BONNET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.markt12.nl/home.asp?l\u003dnl\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMarkt 12 - Euregionaal Freedom Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Aalten\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 20 cm x w 35 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOne out of every five inhabitants of the town of Aalten located in the Achterhoek, the so-called back corner in the east of the Netherlands bordering Germany, was in hiding there during the Second World War. The occupier was on constant look out for people on the run, Jews or young men trying to avoid work in the labour camps. Even the churches in town were not safe.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/escaped-wearing-traditional-bonnet/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T9GelutYoLCA3P5wODQZPU5jdpI8nJObJXVmSL0fkqSYemQsOlDY4sghiL8zUZ5Icfq97nK14",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e85. EMBROIDERED BLOUSE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.indischherinneringscentrum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eIndies Commemoration Centre\u003c/a\u003e / courtesy of Joost Bodegom\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 82 cm x w 70 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter Japan invaded the Dutch East Indies, the Japanese occupier put 100,000 Dutch people in camps. There were separate camps for prisoners of war, for men and boys ages ten years and older and for women and children.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/embroidered-blouse/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RalQ_yyCDlT6gJ1zgu9XpheXiIgyVSZwHw35deJdHE20ouClKwvzBtaRkgAb_LwtA5wGBibMQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e86. EMERGENCY STOVE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the Roest family\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 50 cm x w 25 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe last winter of the war (1944-1945) was extremely icy and cold. Hunger was rampant in the west of the Netherlands, particularly in the big cities. There was also a large shortage of fuel. The supply of coal from the province of Limburg had come to a halt. To make a bad situation even worse, from November 1944 the gas and electricity in Amsterdam was often shut down. No gas, no coal, and as a result no heating. So anything flammable was burnt in makeshift stoves like this one.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/emergency-stove/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_StX-ArumhwDBYe3gBRQ-e9cT-RYuKxGEhp_LA1ts3F107zDiHxpFvstAhIBycY1qwFSXz2Wg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e87. DOG HAIR SWEATER\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum\u003c/a\u003e 1944-1945, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 42 cm x w 43 cm\u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDuring the war, little Liesbeth van Ogtrop lived with her brother Hein-Jan and her parents in the Dutch village of Eemnes. The family had a dark grey keeshond named Sten. Whenever Sten was groomed, the brush was filled with handfuls of hair. During the bitter cold winter of 1944-1945, the Van Ogtrop family did not go hungry thanks to a supply of vegetables they had grown in their garden. But textiles, coal and many other products were scarce. Then Liesbeth’s mother got the idea to put the dog hair she had accumulated to good use. An acquaintance spun some balls of wool and she knit her daughter a sweater.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/dog-hair-sweater/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q9SEhxN9cjVpBd6pxAjVMcrlJv1sLqWGgimeXvbNIIT2QTYmguiNw4zvOrekPZDhhCeEuPWQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e88. SHARDS OF METAL FROM A V2 ROCKET\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Ron van Vleuten\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn September 1944 fourteen-year-old Ron van Vleuten, from the Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in The Hague, began to hear the menacing sounds of V2 rockets being launched in the distance: ‘Will it pass us by? Quiet. Listen. Is it going to make it? Yes... luckily it’s going further!’ Ron sighed in relief. That deadly V2 bomb didn’t fall from the sky prematurely, like so many others, but was headed for England.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/shards-of-metal-from-a-v2-rocket/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RJifGxNBjtv4C5o3PuvqhkOgRkNALEgJ8og9VpZhi1MqvVUsPWiru828DLmRUdkd4GXuXSGw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e89. SOUVENIR SEAGULL WINGS\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 8 cm x w 32 cm \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe winter of 1944-1945, which was at first very rainy and then unbearably cold, led to one of the worst disasters in Dutch history. Famine threatened the lives of 3.6 million people, especially in the big cities in the west of the country.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/souvenir-seagull-wings/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TO0cKS8bT8EK55OlFirar8db8XXDMEjrCHI1po3kVtxdXmvgYQr228NO4wekVqLVPTA-YbXQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e90. BABYHUIS ADMINISTRATION\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.ovcg.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eWar and Resistance Center Groningen\u003c/a\u003e(OVCG)\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThirteen malnourished babies were taken in by the clandestine Princess Margriet Babyhuis (Lit. Baby House) in Groningen because of the widespread famine in Amsterdam. A group of ladies from Groningen, acting on the initiative of Sieneke Bones, decided to help these infants through the hard winter. People in Groningen supported the project with money and food.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/babyhuis-administration/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tj4v-bPUFMAc_5MifwTNR-UKe2-VLU1ycYRD9Mm3iM87t8Te7A8vKogbhThBttTU0QNs9dCg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e91. MARLENE DIETRICH WAS HERE...\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum 1944 -1945\u003c/a\u003e, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 21 cm x w 17 cm \u003cbr\u003e1944-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis guest book belonged to the parents of sixteen-year-old Carla Hustinx from the city of Maastricht. Their home was a regular place to stay for singers, movie stars, athletes and comedians that came to entertain American soldiers after the south of the Netherlands was liberated in September 1944.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/marlene-dietrich-washere/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ScSpFehbNCP67KKTv_nln_IbqgDB2aeMvHyOuwm5FRxxuqqqbKqi7V4_x3VtCgwasPb2XLOI0Y",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e92. STOLEN CUTLERY\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.bevrijdingsmuseum.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Liberation Museum 1944-1945\u003c/a\u003e, Groesbeek\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 18 cm x w 50 cm\u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn the autumn of 1944, an almost twenty-nine-year old English soldier named Jim fell head-over-heels for nineteen-year-old Emelia Sluys. Emelia was staying with relatives on Groesbeekseweg in the city of Nijmegen because her home had been destroyed during the Battle of Arnhem. To his regret Emelia did not share his feelings: she also thought he was too old.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/stolen-cutlery/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TjkDH4zr9-YSuskBfUD-bfG6aomt4eTSSwlOc7otcL_VqczfY12nZuZ04OKTlAH3cIf97oLw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e93. THANKS TO A BISCUIT TIN\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Milena Holdert and Judith Herzberg\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 12 cm x ø 6 cm\u003cbr\u003e1943-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThere are circumstances when your life could very well depend on something as simple as a biscuit tin. This one went with Abel Herzberg and his wife Thea on a dreadful journey. In the Westerbork Transit Camp as well as the Bergen-Belsen Concentration Camp, it was matter of life or death to be able to safely store the little bit of food that was available from time to time.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/thanks-to-a-biscuit-tin/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SrigMcudS3I8yf8j-jb0g0mOkGSPiYhZTg5kjMci2UgVDDgwa19eZsw3XU85V_1F9bbMrXDChS",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e94. JAPANESE FLAG\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of the J. B. Leyten, LL.M.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 140 cm x w 200 cm\u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe text of this ‘good luck flag’, which belonged to the Japanese General Shunkichi Ikeda, reads: ’A tiger walks 1,000 miles, but always returns again’. A group of Japanese women from his place of birth embroidered this thousand-stitch saying, meant to bring him luck and prosperity.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/japanese-flag/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qlsz-ZAjQ-3o659UR3PazdIKjwA47ibFOnwux6VAJ8-VcuEcsyjYpj6Is7Z_orpWUY-Z8KtOM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e95. BOOTS OF THE COMMANDER OF CAMP AMERSFOORT\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.kampamersfoort.nl/p/start\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Monument Camp Amersfoort\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 44 cm x w 29 cm \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eKarl Berg was originally the third man in the chain of command at Camp Amersfoort and in 1943 he was appointed camp commandant. He had a reputation for being cruel and merciless. Berg was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of prisoners.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/boots-of-the-commander-of-camp-amersfoort/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T1sMJHMODOgFSB1b2h4qO2EJkFsUEXq3N88WQYkqTi5My6IT_BVrDXB1Bv_BFFNWN2Xypfx1ys",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e96. CLIPPED AND SHAVED\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.verzetsmuseum.org/museum/nl/museum\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eResistance Museum\u003c/a\u003e, Amsterdam\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 4 cm x w 15 cm \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFreedom! Suddenly Dutch flags were hanging all over the place and people were singing and dancing arm-in-arm in the streets. But pent-up emotions were also unleashed: ‘Kraut whores’, girls and women who had consorted with the Germans during the war, were targeted. They were dragged from their homes, marched through the streets, jeered and spit at in the days following the Liberation.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/clipped-and-shaved/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QSySl2vHG1CVpr3nPPQUKn-3h38XwiIgrnLtH2AyqbA0utqw2lnWocIp1ufeLn-w6dYCXkn7mb",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e97. JACKET WORN BY A-BOMB SURVIVOR\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e\u003cbr\u003e(Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 124 cm x w 53 cm \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eA flash and a deafening rumble. On 9 August 1945, the American Air Force exploded an atomic bomb 500 metres above Nagasaki. The Japanese city was wiped away, 39,000 people died and 25,000 were wounded.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/jacket-worn-by-a-bomb-survivor/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QYBkRjSFRBq-zHsbJgQcXZ77QLIx6vBFuf9fPMyaYZslRwRp9t1s2xfYAErgLhadMtMv9mig",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e98. BOX FROM ‘OUTSIDE THE CAMP’\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1942-1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThese were once the toys, clothing and medicine of Hugo Steenmeijer, the child of a Dutch father and an Indisch (East Indian) mother.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/box-from-outside-the-camp/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TNJNzUN1oRmrDxuGxGDGMC5mCL0pQh9bbb7bn4-s82Wml7qwembkZZFCocbOYkG61OmokhNQs"],["",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e99. THE NETHERLANDS IS LIBERATED\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the private collection of Prince Bernhard, in trust to the \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.beeldengeluid.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eDutch Institute for Sound and Image\u003c/a\u003e, Hilversum\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn September 1944 Prince Bernhard visited Maastricht, the first Dutch city liberated by the Allies. As commander-in-chief of the BS: Nederlandse Binnenlandse Strijdkrachten (Dutch Interior Forces), he then went to see other areas where the war had taken its toll.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/the-netherlands-is-liberated/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"],null,[null,"G-l3rAkpFOs"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QTvEIQ-uGVDzo-G3EFH8TuW4C8rdHu9n9ZvOarO-QIxDKuKoz3zuJESuPZUbhrXHO9JcCoWg"],["",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100. THE JAPANESE CAPITULATE\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom the collection of \u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.museon.nl/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eMuseon\u003c/a\u003e (Museum of Science and Culture), The Hague\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eh 2 cm x w 19 cm\u003cbr\u003e8mm-film \u003cbr\u003e1945\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis is the only known film footage of the Japanese capitulation being celebrated. Prisoner Noor Prins, who was locked up in the Aek Paminke III Internment Camp on Sumatra Island in the Dutch East Indies, managed to hide her film camera from the Japanese for years.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003ca href\u003d\"http://www.tweedewereldoorlog.nl/100voorwerpen/en/voorwerp/the-japanese-capitulate/\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eRead more on the World War II in 100 Objects website\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"],null,[null,"UijtQoIqFI0"]]]]]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,4,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:29971ff1-c349-4072-940c-f55fa2053fd3"];window.INIT_data['MicroscopeImage:1e91b5ad-bf23-4d1d-abc8-d7107c1ffd73'] = ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:1e91b5ad-bf23-4d1d-abc8-d7107c1ffd73","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TbTWRQOd9Opgvmw_3sy2s37tI1h9Z_inyA-hvvKc1Hrqpm8iWLgpsqK2afDonjQhXVEOr0-ghS","niEYwPYiMe2AT4BeJYxajdCtuuU",[0.5,0.5,0,0.609017,0.22029589],null,null,null,[2706,4326]];window.INIT_data['MicroscopeImage:ecfd688d-905a-4199-af7e-d89ea7495c08'] = ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:ecfd688d-905a-4199-af7e-d89ea7495c08","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SOv-gJcmMeIl1WBT7Zf-mDMUSrkwjC4DRvqU1c0O75KyT9mR-gm2930D9fCOzGWUVPQJeCN9o","oL2M0bxdoSmmi0wJQAgfn2NfmFU",[0.4560078,0.36647093,0,0.5942551,0.44237533],null,null,null,[13156,10220]];window.INIT_data['MicroscopeImage:d80bda1a-1bf1-430a-b358-0799ce46d55e'] = ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d80bda1a-1bf1-430a-b358-0799ce46d55e","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SHIix9TgFsvybK0YjrT-zKdf6v7ueTW6liwBGd1jB1xdD9mf2MRZ9IeztLqSQjVvewXjVHJcZS","fX85vXVWxt0smRDLV8g6_KSgJJE",[0.5563569,0.49,0,0.8859029,0.5383161],null,null,null,[4853,5000]];window.INIT_data['MicroscopeImage:60af3ff2-32f4-462a-8840-5fecdcdccf47'] = ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:60af3ff2-32f4-462a-8840-5fecdcdccf47","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QH-voSjBpVPVhIEYFzyI2Nl8cdqwUqUvCtVE66Tn5Nk6dl_oja5mcERuUO09ySrBnPotTAej8","5z5OqwdR4TaHm2hUKwhucSnW-EU",[0.5,0.51,0,1.1619086,0.50521064],null,null,null,[6359,8975]];window.INIT_data['MicroscopeImage:d8b06f26-05a7-41cf-9f34-fa84902059c8'] = ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d8b06f26-05a7-41cf-9f34-fa84902059c8","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QaM4SnwMIm-jGqM2Jd6-yUmk0B6rOcEgxj9kiwC1lLcoORxgj8qbwIB6lIWEbZJj3ABTEZG1E","HgyUDIcJr4Ei8y-VDpGKWeJhyr8",[0.5017912,0.48040885,0,0.42169908,0.16235094],null,null,null,[3908,5870]];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:0572f88d-930a-49d1-9fcc-92ba910ad315'] = ["stella.edit.sect",["Photos from the front","The photographic legacy of WWII",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","World War II in Color","Rare color photographs reveal new aspects of life in WWII","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwD4-rcJCrQcKIb5r8PVfPksZOfL_kuJ9IALqyR_eNjfW_stIXXI0EdDsOqKuA_emwohBNyw","/story/5wVxlUkSrbrHKg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"5wVxlUkSrbrHKg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SPAqz6LTimPYgdhHqXixyLheS5pnw7VRX2-Itl9w6sBlnFBVCyDWTRd-Fn4xwifjoYyAG0Kw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWorld War II is one of the best documented conflicts in history. Millions of photos and miles of motion picture film stock provide a rich visual documentation of the conflict in both its brutal violence and celebration of martial purpose. Color photography, though not new, had only just become widely available when the war began. Existing color images of the war are not hard to come by, but they are considerably rarer than black and white images.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qq6Iu_EPggZvhA0t9R7KzA20iB23m0Fu4N1H1oSq5muJaE0Drl-N9LpXr2rrJDWhkwI1qlCMc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs the lived experience of World War ll fades away, the use of original color imagery provides a sense of immediacy for younger generations for whom the war is often a vague and distant event from the last century. As part of the National Air and Space Museum’s renovation, which involves exciting new exhibits in our flagship location on the National Mall in Washington, DC, Museum staff and volunteers are scanning World War II color photography that will be used in a vibrant display of Americans at war in the air. Large high-resolution images of both new and known moments of the war will give visitors a chance to experience this conflict in a new light.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SSYCOFlxd_GiJCN2xNQHTdrhRshWkaT7YxAz8br10wqZcK4-yrWps5lMRwHLNz3tL9-5MYSDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis project is not without its challenges. The color transparencies are exceptionally fragile, and the Museum’s Archives have to limit access to them, which in turn limits their broader use in exhibits and books. Another challenge is that much of the photography is grainy. Government photographers with professional labs tended to have the best results, but they were not often shooting from the front. This means that photos of the front were often taken by amateurs in less-than-ideal conditions and with poor equipment.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RVuPCUQap1IZKjhkIc0-uYshCZvKJrWMaZ0dHAd-odPG8pIs-PgFve2dlmzePcxZiep-8jJw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe following images are only a small number of the thousands being scanned, but they give an idea of the range of wartime experiences documented. They come from the National Air and Space Museum Archives collection, National Archives and Records Administration, and the Library of Congress. For those images not already available digitally at high resolution (such as those at the Library of Congress), the exhibit team will make them available over time.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S7iI_PgdC-jt3l70en7kVfL7jIdtc8OyY3ILyhOybow61eCjL2IaOiFoQc2R1wxGaDAaJ0eEt8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eArmy Air Forces recruits arrive at the San Antonio Aviation Cadet Training Center in preparation for basic training.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T5ZJX2RrElBASazjyJOtNQ1ZxQDCtUc-GSBzoE5d8-CRKp1L73QU6W0IC5_-eXbf9U8Vlxeow",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe XPB2M-1 prototype for the Martin Mars flying boat sits on the ground at the Martin Aircraft Factory, Martin State Airport in Baltimore, Maryland ,in late 1942 with a Piper J-3 Cub parked on its right wing to convey its massive size.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SemUPhrzL4Cl0gzXO4gjUd8qy4xUIunI_TIf0mcOU5MzF2lZSi4tS5-hONH8t2ZjfO3dyFfw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAn Army Air Forces engineer examines a B-17 model undergoing wind tunnel testing.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RZN2Lm7gjE56zRSXw5J0bus3eW0nJzfYeW-z7CPEzUZ9GDi9s8-3QRwT719TRhBzp1TSGT_mI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eNaval aviation cadets check the morning roster for their primary training flights in N2S “Yellow Perils,” 1942/43.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SkrgqSJC1SCWT987yviWfJUnkZKMQW0H9M2EFslb4OSWS2o28NirTPAeNg-k0Z-rwy-C8tQA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA Navy JRF Goose in flight over Alaska, winter 1942/43.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TWlMNvKCSOv7sstEpi19R1YY1Uwj_BPXZRvViPX5I4I-Pfyj2fXvUj-OLrkeD9tL567aBk4Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA riveter works on a wing panel of a Vultee A-31 Vengance dive bomber at Vultee’s Nashville, Tennessee, plant in February 1943.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tbx4i_ZBzzHCtOqXw7yn8zOJStNR_pE7awhM4kBZ3gffCBsP_uPwfUKfhVlgIEUyyyQK4x",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAviation cadets in Tuskegee, Alabama, undergoing advanced training in AT-6s.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q1f6e4jTAzK5cJoNHIy6vb5SmqnYY_edWGHV4nmihc_WsjjKvopnlzp88xPVdiESQOYwmb9Q",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCapt. Jack Westward of Lewiston, Idaho, instructs combat fliers on the fine points of B-17 formation flying at an Eighth Air Force base in England.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RRr3dcUGAv4izRcGFxRBzsAyDa9Hjc6QYUVItJ9xmR0ebo05Jm1aYufvLn_J-H_IW-UbeHp0A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eARM3C Robert L. Brown of Denver, Colorado, poses in the cockpit of an F6F Hellcat aboard the USS Yorktown (CV-10) with “Scrappy,” the ship’s mascot, November-December 1943.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TYjoNWrtRv60iiTi0EFIITxg5y2NhSfZNrz9rstTxEB3Vhpf7pBRZqBhyVlO6pIktKIZnzq10",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWreckage burns from two Marine F4U Corsairs that collided at what appears to be Barakoma airfield on Vella Lavella Island in the Solomons, late 1943 or early 1944.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QsySvBdomob8mMRvX_tHXVsvBCG0il8yfx9fhUQwKA2SHCTuKGnDwlSh7xgAvCZ8ljLaEV",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePilots of Marine Torpedo Bombing Squadron 232 (VMTB-232) stand by their squadron scorecard in 1943/44. The squadron played an important role in the Guadalcanal.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Quk61E_-Rvn8wiCkn_I71kOmBe5ppn86lYK5Mj9_fNLtIGcZmppH6vTsSfWkimVZ2RpvyN",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAn intelligence officer briefs pilots for “Operation Strangle” in spring 1944. They were to attack key supply lines keeping German forces operating in Italy.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SSYCOFlxd_GiJCN2xNQHTdrhRshWkaT7YxAz8br10wqZcK4-yrWps5lMRwHLNz3tL9-5MYSDg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEnglish women watch an Eighth Air Force maintenance crew work on a B-24 engine.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R-46iSuFiPFgIOuXJzPcyFcVWjuLGe1dArvUrYWvOM8pP9yP2tXEs1NXUwJzxoEO2Xp5f1rOc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eCommander Frank Erickson, U.S. Coast Guard, demonstrates air-sea rescue with a Sikorsky HNS-1 helicopter operating from Floyd Bennett Field, 1944/45.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RVuPCUQap1IZKjhkIc0-uYshCZvKJrWMaZ0dHAd-odPG8pIs-PgFve2dlmzePcxZiep-8jJw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSgt. Manuel Goulart Ferreira from Rio de Janeiro proudly polishes the Brazilian national insignia of a 1st Brazilian Fighter Squadron P-47 Thunderbolt in Italy. The squadron flew in combat from November 1944 to May 1945 as part of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force. Brazil was the principal South American nation participating in Allied operations against Germany.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qq6Iu_EPggZvhA0t9R7KzA20iB23m0Fu4N1H1oSq5muJaE0Drl-N9LpXr2rrJDWhkwI1qlCMc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe USS Midway (CVB-41) is launched on March 20, 1945, in Newport News, Virginia.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R4gbSdQhPx0DVQ8OvYK8qNSIOGKH1PZidRSwEV8zKDizk3-9D4oXypsT3Awbh56M3uWCGjnIs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn Spring 1945, a group of Navy flight nurses walks from their Douglas R5D (C-54) transport. They are (l-r): Lt. JG Lydia Masserine, Lt. Stella Makar, Lt. JG Dorothy Wood, Lt. JG Hope Toone, Lt. JG Mae Hanson, and Ens. Winnifred Jennings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SpB2IAfnLfeyP1ZzzeVvfS6Kepgom0tHo4pGnnenl1Ip-Brx-yhKaM9ni3lKu9qdcVqLy1dA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMarines on Okinawa look over an abandoned Japanese Kawasaki Ki-61 “Tony” on April 9, 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLCjWS1e1QebJv2me272u0Oa292F-Byq4lqIucflRUEwbklBcbbLLxhEP2EX3U4r1sGVKU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn April 22, 1945, 1st Lt. Jeremiah O’Keefe shot down five Japanese kamikaze aircraft off Okinawa in his F4U Corsair and then brought down another two six days later.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QH-pj_tXerVembaUWHKlfnRvOgGXYAPWgmdaoTT6XZC3-nmDT_GWnzCwOfQxLs5lQhC0Tw-jE",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003ePresident Franklin Roosevelt’s casket proceeds down Constitution Avenue toward the White House during his funeral procession on April 14, 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RM6WhAZ63sPfDle-mSh9FrZRlipGUw4jm3-3UWUup--q5WBa4IRVHWsGmAC-RJNPu5qwvt",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eLt. Clifford Allen of Chicago, Illinois, stands in front of a C-47 preparing to drop the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion. The 555th was the only African American parachute unit and was not ready in time to deploy to Europe. Instead, as incendiary Japanese balloon bombs were launched towards the U.S. in mid-1945 in hopes of starting large fires in the Pacific Northwest, the 555th was assigned to jump on fires to extinguish them as part of “Operation Fire Fly.” The unit made 15 such jumps. Note the 150-foot rope for descending from tall trees; the plastic helmet and catcher\u0026#39;s mask were protection against branches and brambles.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SPAqz6LTimPYgdhHqXixyLheS5pnw7VRX2-Itl9w6sBlnFBVCyDWTRd-Fn4xwifjoYyAG0Kw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eA Naval Air Station boneyard shortly after the end of the war contains numerous catapult-launched OS2U Kingfighers (foreground), along with JM-1 (B-26) target tugs in yellow, and a R4D (C-47) transport.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R413BdLXxVCG4jzy-zovr7iMwRfGo6TYcR7E5tg-QhhxrMqbhJiUyCZzp6OBZpTnpUlPYHHw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eGerman civilians salvaging their possessions in bombed-out Berlin after the surrender of Germany.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SiXUTKvYs5wLtFtmLv3OngE8c35P51eS6wZikyM8qQLgBi6TTnxsstkX-LMFrLkL5tV6H1uow",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMarine flamethrowing Sherman tanks set fire to Japanese aircraft in Sasebo, Japan, on November 2, 1945.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Women Pilots of WWII","Newly digitized photos shine a spotlight on the lives of women pilots","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rp_MYsNfJua2TNoQKk5nR7HmbpsI3ji89Mu3opelrpN-sjrKDtNsy7UFTuM-ky2xDVSHBesOc","/story/zgWxN3jnPUdkKQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"zgWxN3jnPUdkKQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qsf0ADE9YUTpOfHHhmKHIRZdW0TKdR6zQHEhJu0_z94Ei7eK5RWtP7WH7jFvki0WqvJ4NJpw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eArchives serve an incredibly valuable function for historical interpretation. Photographic archives, in particular, present a unique visual reading of the past, and they are a vital resource in the early stages of gallery formation.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;WASP Ann McClellan adjusts her earphones in the cockpit of a BT-13 while Anne Johnson stands on the wing of the plane.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tt45OGqcTkBQjvCbuWVwpDAJ2iSMzThXfFR4xiP-Y66MONfFCZDiiPJ7dQTIfNgp6ucQB9xg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe United States Air Force Collection, now at the \u003ca href\u003d\"https://www.archives.gov/college-park\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eNational Archives and Records Administration at College Park, Maryland\u003c/a\u003e, contains a range of color transparencies featuring the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R8Fk6JUdl1QjMab-0Oc9iticuJAfZDeuFMg-dk1D_CIHaOAMfKbzYDoNyXiTcxhloO9Ccfalc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFounded in 1943 with the merging of the Women Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) and the Women’s Flying Training Detachment (WFTD), the WASPs flew 60 million miles during World War II, piloting military aircraft on domestic missions.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;WASPS and instructor having a talk before take-off for a ferrying mission.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T8L0Vih6O36DeYlZVKkQXUtNgAEJ2MKDlg8772K94xLK_nHxHD428xKjnuOqYZrLNGecnlwFAU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTheir director, \u003ca href\u003d\"https://airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/women-in-aviation/cochran.cfm\" target\u003d\"_blank\"\u003eJacqueline Cochran\u003c/a\u003e, became the first female aviator to break the sound barrier in 1953.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qde65iHZIhhEGhAYf8bG_fLAckEDblO0ww2XgpcsNjGB2B_6JjPe8T5JywlMo6dK6DgfWtfg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThough they performed a wide variety of tasks, the Women Airforce Service Pilots often carried out ferrying missions to transport aircraft for the war effort.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;WAFs and Army Pilot. The girls pilot the P-51s and other airplanes from factory to airbases within the United States.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RHKw_UZqNX8eIvhdL6gHR8LVYLn8US-rZyoWbIHYdamkiDuSv9arjAl5OeshfqFUMWG3OGpHY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWASPs flew the entire range of aircraft manufactured for World War II. In this series, we see P-51s, a P-38, and a BT-13.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;Pilot in Women’s Air Service prior to take-off.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tm1UQKL0BdWPyID30ewMsD2mmLZFjjwSQf3KhgZxkdM1eFEovfZvP2eEMUCi3Dxpz37SwovPs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe WASPs were disbanded in 1944, and it would be an additional 30 years before women would once again serve as aviators in the United States Armed Forces. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;Swinging down along the ramp at the AAF’s Training Command’s Advanced single engine pilot school at Foster Field, Victoria, Texas, are eight feminine pilots, members of the AF WASP. Left to right: Pauline S. Cutler of Cleveland, Ohio,; Dorothy Ehrhardt, Bridgewater, Mass.; Jennie M. Hill of Harvey, Ill.; Etta Mae Hollinger, Paola, Kans.; Lucille R. Cary, Joliet, Ill.; Jane B. Shirley, Brownfield Tex.; Dorothy H. Beard, Sacramento, Calif.; and Kathryn L. Boyd, Weatherford, Texas\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QdHXJIhBmfvyJl_n8RWeXNKM88snHGtNyknjQlDreFD-s45t1I2jQZwVZASL0fkDH6gvWF6A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eReflecting on the 75 years since the founding of the WASP, these archival images provide a stark reminder of the pioneering efforts and achievements of female military aviators during World War II.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;WASP climbing into a Lockheed P-38 preparatory to ferrying mission.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qde65iHZIhhEGhAYf8bG_fLAckEDblO0ww2XgpcsNjGB2B_6JjPe8T5JywlMo6dK6DgfWtfg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSuch sources allow us to critically analyze the past, the creation of the historical record, and their importance to our cultural memory.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOriginal photo caption: \u0026quot;WAFs who ferry North American P-51’s and other types of airplanes from factory to airbases. 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1945","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TaRZ5lYI-UoxNSrTiDj-XhNrbMLdfUwfjIBOcvEUNxvfMmWWDFpeEWyusV8m7j-wuFCEXo-7I","/story/ZAWx8kAhj5P7Jg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"ZAWx8kAhj5P7Jg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TagJKLJUPiSksN7JX0pojp-GIVX4FHYreO_awvy3LCOtP5gJvFWTsc95qLoyrOVvJ6BvyiZw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn May 8, 1945, Germany surrendered to the Allies, ending nearly six years of Nazi tyranny over Europe. The National Air and Space Museum has a unique artifact in our collection related to that day 75 years ago — a machine gun that was carried by a German aircraft that was claimed to be the last enemy aircraft shot down by U.S. forces in Europe before the end of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QzQ_Fv8TDtDlzD_GNUGexN1XyfbvBrUK4o9J1szIPnR9OreWbdP-rSjbXqbSU-bhNFzP58vg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn May 1945 the U.S. 204th AAA (Anti-Aircraft Artillery) Battalion was stationed about 25 miles southeast of Kassel, Germany, protecting airfield R-11 at Eschwege. The 204th belonged to the IXth Air Defense Command, whose job was to protect vital ports, cities, airfields, supply bases, and lines of communication behind the field armies from the French beaches to Germany. Around 2:37 pm that afternoon, the 204th\u0026#39;s gunners saw a German aircraft flying low towards their positions near the airfield. Batteries C and D began firing at the aircraft with their M-51 electrically driven turret-mounted antiaircraft guns. The German aircraft, a Junkers Ju 88, descended and belly landed in a field between low hills. The aircraft crash-landed with propellers still turning, shedding the blades, but beyond the left engine breaking free from the wing, the aircraft seemed to have suffered little damage. The one thing that stood out was that the crew had jettisoned the cockpit canopy before hitting the ground. As U.S. soldiers approached, they found to their surprise that the aircraft held not only a reduced crew of two, but also approximately ten “passengers.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RIDbOEgDGj5LD3d-W-f7Rf8LAbdlmnXSmnoz0p1qY6TD8_B2Hd9PFWPZyHukThHZBdRCmZiA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBy May 1945 Nazi Germany was in collapse. With the Allies pressing in from all sides, Hitler had committed suicide. In the east, the Soviet army had pushed into German territory, but in the rush to defeat the enemy, the Soviets had bypassed pockets of resistance. One of these pockets was in the Courland region of western Latvia. Ordered to hold the area with their backs to the Baltic Sea, some 200,000 German and Latvian soldiers, sailors, and airmen were trapped by the Red Army. Despite a blockade by the Soviet Baltic Fleet, the Germans had attempted several evacuations by sea. With surrender announced for May 8, the Luftwaffe made a last attempt to fly into the Courland pocket to rescue Germans from Soviet capture.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RIDbOEgDGj5LD3d-W-f7Rf8LAbdlmnXSmnoz0p1qY6TD8_B2Hd9PFWPZyHukThHZBdRCmZiA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEarly that morning, at their base in Vaernes, Norway, several aircraft, including the Ju 88 that would crash at Eshwege, readied for the flight. After flying over the Baltic, the Ju 88 landed at Cirava airfield in the Courland Pocket and picked up wounded soldiers. Taking off again, they flew west to reach land held by either Germans or by the western Allied armies. Running low on fuel, the Ju 88 had just left Soviet-controlled territory when the pilot spotted the airfield at Eschwege. Having no pre-arranged signal to show the aircraft’s intentions, the defenders fired on the perceived threat. Following the established procedure for a belly landing, the crew jettisoned the canopy, since the regular access to the cockpit under the fuselage would be blocked. Once U.S. personnel arrived on the scene, a hole was cut in the side of the aircraft to reveal the passengers in the bomb bay and rear fuselage who were now trapped by the blocked underside. The downing of this desperate flight was claimed as the last U.S. air victory in Europe before hostilities officially ended an hour before midnight.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RKwwTahBQkyhaCaXQky7DwORVReyfU3EsmXX5ZNoiVjsvmqxXBohxkZyuCg3pAD8PCDYybMA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne of the rear-firing MG 81 machine guns and its mount were retrieved from the jettisoned canopy as a souvenir. In 1947, IXth Air Defense Command had been inactivated and was nearing disbanding when its commander, General William Richardson, donated these artifacts to the Museum. They now provide us with a tangible link to events 75 years ago and the end of that terrible war.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","The Flypast That Celebrated the End of World War II","Remembering the flyover of the USS Missouri during the Japanese surrender ceremony","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9CSbRPaO7wE1EghmO_T_keQPO1lOrRIbI9pjuhO9hIQuvvq4Gmxm0mIEBIQ1y9NyoX3_4gbh6","/story/EAWxZVI9SBPRKg",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:650a0d50-fd1c-4c0d-b433-c8cb45554d35","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9CSbRPaO7wE1EghmO_T_keQPO1lOrRIbI9pjuhO9hIQuvvq4Gmxm0mIEBIQ1y9NyoX3_4gbh6","gwUML_oZ0vBeYVSxl55dqAbrFLE",[0.5116216,0.35796693,0,0.83271164,0.47829506],null,null,null,[4720,4752]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"EAWxZVI9SBPRKg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S2GSBgKIVk3EhnvPViC5LGXWHWwqg7zG72vkOojUuW6ZOjuhNjaTesf6RIRH-2tDcJy-50FA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn September 2, 1945, there was a grand ceremony in Tokyo Bay. Aboard the battleship USS Missouri, representatives from the Empire of Japan met with those of the United States., United Kingdom, France, Soviet Union, China, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand to sign the document that formally ended World War II.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QvCN5kp77s0FX0U8UYeDvtDp1ZnEmBque-pDqwgzjjlGoNsyeiODZ41p7hkKd9vP9rQl04OjM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSurrounding the Missouri were other vessels from the U.S. Third Fleet including some British and Australian navy ships and even one Dutch vessel, a hospital ship. The armada included everything from battleships, cruisers, destroyers to minesweepers, submarines, landing vessels, repair ships, oilers, cargo vessels, and hospital ships. But only five aircraft carriers were anchored in the bay: two light carriers and one escort carrier from the U.S. Navy and two escort carriers of the Royal Navy. The big fleet carriers, which had shouldered the offensive tasks of the Navy after the U.S. battleship fleet had been sunk on December 7, 1941, were not represented. So where we they?\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QJhANaPkHvRqWkG9fz-f-56mYkKNSAVJ77ryFe-prtPhp22ShrEz4aZXx531kM_78Rl2WXLm8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWhile the Japanese had broadcast their surrender on the morning of August 15 (the evening of August 14 in Washington, D.C.), it took some time for hostilities to come to a stop. Combat continued in places where Japanese commands had not received (or refused to believe) word of the cease-fire and surrender. But things had quieted down within afew days and by September, parts of the Third Fleet’s fast carrier task force (fleet and light carriers of both the U.S. and Royal navies) had been reassigned to other duties. Still, there was concern that kamikazes, whether rogue or under government orders, might try to disrupt the surrender ceremony. The Navy wanted fighter cover in case of any aerial threat to the assembled military leadership. Consequently, the remaining ships of the fast carrier task force roughly half the maximum wartime strength, were not in Tokyo Bay, but instead were cruising offshore, ready to conduct flight operations to protect the ships and VIPs if necessary. Fortunately, these preparations were not needed: The instrument of surrender was signed by all parties without a hitch, at which point the carrier planes showed their other reason for being in the sky that morning.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RzXZXF-NDUBA7b8K01vy4PnUBf1B-23FU9Z4bv6NLnYimvPsqyRpPum6KfCdt-GvzE4hFZTsg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eMoments after the ceremony on the Missouri concluded, 349 carrier airplanes (though some sources say it was 450) flew overhead in a massed formation.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHQvWIkT2Yh1AghZ_zyCgLPi4ko80wpow2a-gEoi0aZD_xJWx9y1Damfg4k6lGdD5QPUGyvg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThey were followed by 462 B-29 Superfortresses, the only other aircraft that had been able to bomb targets in the Japanese home islands on a regular basis during the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RByvtFxeJZgveY0RNfeeRHBl9dms-fhNdAMHF7waSCnVtm_SII7VLZawgoYThwX2JD-1CR",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIt was an aerial show of might to match the roughly 250 Allied vessels in the harbor that day: A fitting celebration to the end of both the Pacific War and World War II as a whole.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]]]],null,null,null,1,"moments",null,null,null,6,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:2f6989b0-7003-4122-a302-e64decd5a98f"];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:feac3910-bd3e-48fe-842a-96a48292d7e6'] = ["stella.edit.sect",["Explore the part aeronautics played","Discover the role that the air forces played in bringing the war to an end",null,null,null,1],30,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","The Playbook","The key aerial events and achievements","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SnzM7xWHhwjacZMLHfOShuvHD1NOr0rJHV8oVjAcyQUYZR7AdM-czMLmyi1e6U0P301hm9R_4","/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/moments",16,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"1",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:a6e6657b-3332-483e-a520-c8af390f4531","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SnzM7xWHhwjacZMLHfOShuvHD1NOr0rJHV8oVjAcyQUYZR7AdM-czMLmyi1e6U0P301hm9R_4","4pR4yFxp1bWZVsKDmNXYSVoI4Fo",[0.5,0.40084508,0,1.0186143,0.51014787],null,null,null,[4968,6194]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[2,"smithsonian-world-war-ii"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,"en"],["stella.common.cobject","The Pilots","Human stories of bravery, courage, and exceptional lives","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SOv-gJcmMeIl1WBT7Zf-mDMUSrkwjC4DRvqU1c0O75KyT9mR-gm2930D9fCOzGWUVPQJeCN9o","/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/pilots",16,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"2",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:ecfd688d-905a-4199-af7e-d89ea7495c08","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SOv-gJcmMeIl1WBT7Zf-mDMUSrkwjC4DRvqU1c0O75KyT9mR-gm2930D9fCOzGWUVPQJeCN9o","oL2M0bxdoSmmi0wJQAgfn2NfmFU",[0.4560078,0.36647093,0,0.5942551,0.44237533],null,null,null,[13156,10220]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[2,"smithsonian-world-war-ii"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,"en"],["stella.common.cobject","The Planes","Learn about icons of aeronautics and remembering their journeys","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZT8th2eW8Bhgbv2gqsqTbutgdnVECNxwaUfFtJ6j-iG5da71Xqe6CKLNbsxUNuw-1wyFqdNub","/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/planes",16,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"3",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:d85b5882-aff9-40dd-b2ae-fadb8fd52f57","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZT8th2eW8Bhgbv2gqsqTbutgdnVECNxwaUfFtJ6j-iG5da71Xqe6CKLNbsxUNuw-1wyFqdNub","iVSyIMLvrCRmbRYyqiYLFeEa32Q",[0.412,0.4262295,0,0.824,0.6008827],null,null,null,[2000,1586]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[2,"smithsonian-world-war-ii"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,"en"],["stella.common.cobject","The Posters","The role of the arts in the war effort","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sk9hxbgzsfy3XbiADY4IA-KWIXuvyVGBs7Njr7up3qbEEOKypKrCH4Dfx4RbJ5Snx6IOTcLrA","/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/art",16,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,"4",null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:46dae539-0506-40b3-a592-b8e41186c7a5","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sk9hxbgzsfy3XbiADY4IA-KWIXuvyVGBs7Njr7up3qbEEOKypKrCH4Dfx4RbJ5Snx6IOTcLrA","DcUSahpikmXQBfzgH7R0JJAx6ZM",[0.42201725,0.32390887,0,0.25608712,0.11533046],null,null,null,[6559,8422]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[2,"smithsonian-world-war-ii"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,"en"]]],null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,5,"TableOfContentsTiles","EditorialSection:feac3910-bd3e-48fe-842a-96a48292d7e6"];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:5aa5f7b8-bdf7-484b-8ffd-10dbd0d82248'] = ["stella.edit.sect",["Heroic pilots","The brave people risking their lives in the skies",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","A Pilot Who Supported the Allied Aviators Against the Odds","\"Pat the Pilot\" was an American aviatrix, WAFS member, and Allied liaison","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RTUF5MKgMD2H28CU8ocLm9K3oSl1rRhAF8PIwyWZbYj7ZQe_vWQzpt3pepfnmDa4piExGD6MdQ","/story/rwXxBV_kkV28IQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"rwXxBV_kkV28IQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TDhKuoFDRb9HTU6VefgpLEWYVXN9PQY4JCt_2o3We6po2l3ty94HmNpmMpOpPiGw4DEvt0OXBi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAline “Pat” Rhonie made a perfect three-point landing in her 125 hp Luscombe Phantom when she touched down in Manchester, New Hampshire, on June 6, 1940. Owned by Rhonie, the plane was a Warner-powered, high-wing, two-seat cabin monoplane that she flew as the American Liaison for the French Aero Club. Rhonie piloted civilian and military aircraft throughout the United States as an American aviatrix and eventual member of the Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron, yet her mission traversed international borders to support the Allied cause.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TDhKuoFDRb9HTU6VefgpLEWYVXN9PQY4JCt_2o3We6po2l3ty94HmNpmMpOpPiGw4DEvt0OXBi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBorn Aline Rhonie Hofheimer in 1909, she often went by the nickname “Pat.” Prior to World War II, she amassed an impressive resume:\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e- In 1931, she became one of the first American women to receive a U.S. transport pilot license. \u003cbr\u003e- In 1934, she was the first woman to fly solo from New York to Mexico City, where she met with famous artist Diego Rivera. She showed Rivera the tempera technique she learned from John Sloan and in return, Rivera taught her fresco mural painting. \u003cbr\u003e- From 1934 to 1938, she completed a 126-foot long mural depicting the history of aviation at Roosevelt Field, Long Island. \u003cbr\u003e- On a trip overseas in 1936, Rhonie earned her English Pilot’s License, and she was the first American woman to receive an Irish Commercial License in 1938. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eShe did all this, earning the titles of global aviatrix and renowned artist before reaching her 30th birthday.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TDhKuoFDRb9HTU6VefgpLEWYVXN9PQY4JCt_2o3We6po2l3ty94HmNpmMpOpPiGw4DEvt0OXBi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eRhonie’s war work began in September 1939. Though highly qualified, she was turned away from flying in the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force, the female auxiliary of the Royal Air Force, on account of not being a British subject. She instead assisted in organizing Red Cross units and ventured to France, where she worked with a society that supplied books to soldiers at the front. Eventually, she enlisted voluntarily as a lieutenant in the French Section Sanitaire, an ambulance unit for women.\u003cbr\u003e \u003cbr\u003eWhile in France, Rhonie witnessed the plight of Allied aviators. According to one report, she watched “the twisting of American-made Curtiss fighters when they tangled in dog-fights with the German Messerschmidts…” In her experience, she watched French aviators struggle to maintain canvas covers over aircraft in open fields in below-freezing temperatures. As an American Liaison for the French Aero Club, Rhonie saw an opportunity to help and embarked on a mission to raise funds for canteens to support the Allied aviators.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T6LjrmMQCTKhiseG1yqpP3N0go7_MSDmBQlbdN63a-IkSWmUlsUcAgfazcnboFtXjE9x12",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAmerican Liaison for the French Aero Club\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhen Rhonie compiled her list of aviation sponsors of 1940, the United States had not yet entered World War II. She knew she was treading on thin ice in requesting the support and sponsorship of Americans. In an interview with the New York Mirror, Rhonie explained, “I know I’ve got to watch myself. I know that I must not keep calling the Allies ‘we.’ I know that I must not tell Americans that this is the war we thought we were fighting last time… this time, Democracy is REALLY at stake… I know all that, but it’s so hard to keep my mouth shut…” \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe responses to Rhonie’s sponsor requests revealed an interesting assessment of American aviation attitudes toward the war effort prior to the United States’ entry. Some, for example, expressed vehement support. Among such supporters were George Chapline, VP of Sales at Wright Aeronautical Corporation; Harry F. Guggenheim; Richard H. Depew Jr. of Taylorcraft Aviation Corporation; and Clifford Henderson, the “Barnum of Aviation” and Managing Director of the U.S. National Air Races from 1928-1939. Rhonie also received overwhelming support from fellow women aviators, including Louise Thaden, who had won the Bendix Trophy Race in 1936, and Betty Gillies, original member and President of the Ninety-Nines from 1939-1941. (Betty, who married the Vice President of Grumman, Brewster Allison “Bud” Gillies, in 1930, was a talented aviatrix whose skills would earn her a spot as the first official member of the U.S. Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron).\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TZZONC2htXZJ_VNS8OXKHGu6Md6TSPD7HJTAQbxwCfKeQ6eSBJxNqe2MvJKGJI5vi0qMzg2Ksi",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOthers, however, denied Rhonie’s request for sponsorship. Some, such as the Vice Chairmen of the Air Safety Board for the Civil Aeronautics Authority, were morally opposed to supporting a war effort that did not involve the United States. Others, including C.R. Smith, President of American Airlines; J.S. Allard, VP of Curtiss-Wright Corporation; and Clarence M. Young, Pan American World Airways executive and holder of U.S. Civil Air License No. 2., simply felt they did not have the time or that their professional position prevented them from outwardly supporting the cause. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRegardless, the fundraising tour received enough support, and Rhonie arrived in New York on April 3, 1940. Throughout May and June of 1940, she flew around New England, and on July 4, she left for Denver to continue her cross-country tour. Rhonie provided a fresh perspective on the needs and experiences of Allied airmen overseas. In her numerous interviews throughout her tour, she promoted the Allied cause to American audiences and received financial support for Allied aviators’ canteens.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QmGdP_aYJ4CUlevbJELCxxFTJIQlajFlvzb_QMxg0bnUlMGIcteAn_gb8gDlciiYYcTPRdLQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWomen’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOnce the U.S. entered the war in December 1941 after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Rhonie partook in the formation of a U.S. women’s air corps. Citing English women pilots who had been used to ferry military planes across the channel to the French airdrome, women flyers such as Jacqueline Cochran and Nancy Love believed their efforts could be used to free up male pilots for front line duty. Rhonie supported their vision and agreed that, in addition to ferrying aircraft, women would make excellent teachers for the first seventy-five hours of instruction before releasing men to military flyers for tactical instruction. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eRhonie submitted a letter to the Secretary of the Navy in support of the initiative and offered her services as a pilot to the United States’ war effort. In a response dated April 15, 1942, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air, Artemus L. Gates, explained they had carefully considered employing civilian ferry pilots and ensured, “In the event that this policy should be modified to include pilots with your qualifications, you will be notified forthwith.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q9tZSkB_qkYDBeSdfR3mLynqTxeva6MrqSL6fm1gzF7E2EpCKP6WhjhdXoe4x4-DaBUyGjS_lA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFive months later, Rhonie received a telegram from General “Hap” Arnold, Commanding General of the Army Air Forces. The telegram informed Rhonie of the plan to establish a women’s ferrying squadron and asked her to report to Wilmington at her own expense for an interview and flight check. Under the leadership of Nancy Harkness Love, Rhonie became one of the original nine qualified women selected as a part of the Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS). \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn October 22, 1942, under the direction of Betty Gillies, Rhonie flew one of six L-4B Cubs from the Piper factory in Lockhaven, Pennsylvania, to Mitchel Field on Long Island for the WAFS first official ferrying mission. Though she was the fourth to join behind Nancy Love, Betty Gillies, and Cornelia Fort, Rhonie was the first to leave the WAFS. She ferried aircraft until December 31, 1942, when she was discharged through normal civil service procedures.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SbA9niC6SSpMF4qyrUhjGy8svTKe_4RbqkP-m1EMqQPr3hQ6TA5nglNttF8ITAspDa26spHPM",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWith a shortage of Allied ferrying pilots across the globe, Rhonie went back to England on her own accord where, from November 1943 through November 1944, she served in the Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA). After the war, Rhonie was appointed a member of the French national association of the Croix de Guerre (Cross of War), received the Médaille de la Reconnaissance française (Medal of French Gratitude), and was made a Companion of the Ordre de la Libération (Order of Liberation). She died January 7, 1963, at the age of 54. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhether raising funds by piloting her Luscombe Phantom across the U.S. as a French Aero Club Liaison or ferrying military aircraft across the U.S. and England as a member of the WAFS and ATA, Rhonie’s overall enthusiasm for the Allied cause highlights the global efforts of aviators in World War II. Even before the U.S. entered the war, Rhonie emphasized how American aircraft, French aviators, and all Allied supporters played an important role in the war effort. In pursuing her passion, American aviatrix Pat the Pilot is but one example of women’s global influence during World War II both on the ground and in the air.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Ben Kuroki: A Story We All Need to Know","A decorated pilot and the only Japanese American to serve in air combat in the Pacific","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_STNtcl9SGeePXZZEF0ytCK2E_WcPcP-JspQtUBnum8hQgIP9azQhxsQ55QNWm7mcEcB_YDuQ","/story/QwVRpj5n7yv_IQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:220c7e8b-b408-495d-9a14-06afa632fdc5","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_STNtcl9SGeePXZZEF0ytCK2E_WcPcP-JspQtUBnum8hQgIP9azQhxsQ55QNWm7mcEcB_YDuQ","V7P4aKLkVl37Y0OTz3SFtb-vDgI",[0.5,0.38713217,0,1.5896134,0.77426434],null,null,null,[1280,1636]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"QwVRpj5n7yv_IQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SVIUxMaPbIejOD-8f_zEsEjpi_tLPjfGjNrHSXJ4ZgYUmX_k-C3djNFeULRlZmhMbTGE4mkf4",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn times of national crisis or trauma, Americans have an amazing capacity to unite, support one another, display unbreakable resolve, and express their humanity in a myriad of ways. Indeed, for many, these qualities are at the heart of what it means to be an American. One need look no further than the American capacity for moral support and charitable giving in response to natural disasters. Like no other, we are a nation of caring, a citizenry of givers to those in need.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eBut in the midst of national catastrophe, we can also be gripped by fear and feel threatened. Sadly, those understandable emotions in a crisis sometimes can lead to intolerance, and even aggression, toward the perceived source of that threat. In times when our national psyche is traumatized and our daily life destabilized, groups of our fellow Americans can be collectively isolated and targeted — blamed for a crisis for which they bear no responsibility and are victims just the same as the rest of us. Such reactions are typically bound up with the complex history of race and identity in the United States. While many of us are able to self-identify with immigrant roots in this country, we have also struggled to keep the national fabric from fraying along ethnic and racial lines. This challenge has surfaced most visibly during periods of national crisis.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TQyY2Yip1399d2jZVSzFg6Ln0Z-SDBbiiK6lsVBd5x_8ChfFO7lUK_vaaLBXZ6i0NlwXliCw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe current COVID-19 pandemic has thrown us into one of these times of national trauma and fear. While the overwhelming majority of Americans are exhibiting the unity and compassion for those afflicted that is a hallmark of our society, a minority have manifested their fear and upset by targeting Asian Americans with ridicule, unfounded allegation, and even violent attack. As May is Asian Pacific American Heritage Month, this is an important time to take a stand by making an effort to understand from where these acts of intolerance stem, coming to terms with our own history, and voicing outrage against such intolerance based on an appreciation of the journey we must take as one people to be the nation we aspire to be.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis juxtaposition of American unity and humanity with irrational fear and intolerance during difficult times has many historical precedents. In recent memory, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, by a small group of fanatical outsiders brought our country together in inspiring ways and spawned heartwarming compassion across the country for those in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania. Still, a small number of our fellow citizens chose to lash out at Americans of Arab heritage, or those perceived to be.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePrior to 9/11, the most searing attack on Americans’ sense of security came on December 7, 1941, with the bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japan. That event inspired what has became known as the Greatest Generation to rally and engage that moment of national trauma with unprecedented unity and commitment to face what lay ahead, and ultimately achieve victory in World War II. But it was also a time when fear and distrust led to the incarceration of 120,000 American citizens of Japanese descent, and recrimination against many more. The story of one Japanese American in World War II, Ben Kuroki, sheds light in an informative way on that time, but is also incredibly relevant for our current time.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tt87IuI3AIaEk5N2rVdPpYotknNqSUyI62AjhEn9iRpjUYujNVkFHBFf0C-Tq0zz_44LXu6A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter Pearl Harbor, a Nebraska farm boy named Ben Kuroki volunteered for the U.S. Army Air Corps. He could not have been more American: born in the breadbasket of America, one of ten children, growing up in a small town of with a population of about 500, vice-president of his high school senior class. His parents had come to the United States from Japan, started a family, and settled into a happy life in their adopted country. Outraged as an American when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, Ben Kuroki and his brother Fred enlisted in the U.S. Army.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eKuroki somehow slipped through the filter that placed all Japanese American enlistees in segregated units and he became a gunner in a B-24 squadron based in Europe. He served with distinction and completed 30 combat missions, more than the standard full tour of 25. He returned to the United States for rest and recuperation, and as a war hero made appearances to engender support for the war. In particular, he was toured through the Japanese American incarceration camps to garner support and recruitment of other Japanese Americans to fight. He quickly found himself at the center of a firestorm of controversy—exploited by the government and distrusted by his fellow Japanese Americans wrongfully imprisoned in camps. Kuroki fiercely fought for his country and wanted to be seen as every other American in uniform doing his duty. But his Japanese heritage placed him in the complex duality of American hero and “suspect citizen.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tt87IuI3AIaEk5N2rVdPpYotknNqSUyI62AjhEn9iRpjUYujNVkFHBFf0C-Tq0zz_44LXu6A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHis dedication undeterred by this circumstance, Kuroki returned to the fight by serving another full tour of duty as a B-29 gunner in the Pacific. He was the only Japanese American to serve in air combat in the Pacific, and one of very few soldiers at all to have fought in both the European and Pacific theaters. He completed a total of 58 combat missions and was awarded three Distinguished Flying Crosses and the Air Medal with five oak leaf clusters. After the war, Kuroki did a series of speaking tours addressing issues of racial injustice, funded with his own savings and small donations. When asked about his experience, Kuroki remarked, “I had to fight like hell for the right to fight for my own country.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S_-JiqQgDO3uS-wOWM_VGdDs9C2M4HIyiEFEMSxekbaOeu6WPCEVnaOcWJ8zRmehfXQZiyRQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBen Kuroki was an American hero by any measure, and his experiences tell us much about World War II air combat. But what makes his story truly important for us to know today is the powerful example it provides that we are all individuals that make up this great nation. No one should be judged by generalization, and no one should walk in fear of recrimination based on unfounded perceptions of a group to which they belong. If we can respect each other as individuals, then we become an unstoppable collective force. Ben Kuroki showed us being American was who he was and what he stood for in spite of other’s attempts to label him or make assumptions based on his ethnic heritage. But he also showed us we are a better America for embracing people of all backgrounds, especially under the most arduous of circumstances. As we observe the 75th anniversary of the end of World War II, let’s remember what Ben Kuroki did for our country in World War II, and what his inspiration can mean for us today.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Fighter Pilots and Flying Aces","The lives and legacies of pilots post-war","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SftDyAwVXZXeeJq93f1vJZxtMH-m8_p-vLuRezIYqr3u3Rx1ekDrScbqIF4Qjact6Es5ANNps","/story/rwVRxxx3AW-xLA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:dc42f911-90c0-4172-976a-429672be5fa4","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SftDyAwVXZXeeJq93f1vJZxtMH-m8_p-vLuRezIYqr3u3Rx1ekDrScbqIF4Qjact6Es5ANNps","3dueBndWQVfwgocvVSiVllyu_bE",[0.5,0.35144672,0,1.0262125,0.70289344],null,null,null,[2825,2049]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"rwVRxxx3AW-xLA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S1OFK2TllinQGYh1tSqOwFpgl6awTboJf2rCrZBoH2U-OZa68u6UXyF_4SDXtyrCMeAZP7Dg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntroduction\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOne of my favorite conversations to have with visitors at our museum are those that draw connections across different time periods. It’s easy to forget that many of the same people involved in one era go on to have careers spanning into later periods. As we reflect on the 75th anniversary of the end of World War II this year, I wanted to highlight three World War II “ace” pilots (meaning they shot down five or more enemy aircraft) and how they went on to careers that helped to define and shape the future of the U.S. Air Force.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThis is not an exhaustive list nor a “top three,” by any means, but rather three examples from among many dozens more that could be mentioned.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SH59cUW-aiDLjGg9iuLCZgplKBeavTKcfoi4cHJsM7UJHBigqw8sLoeX3h3hoJsErI-rfb",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMajor George Welch\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn a warm Saturday night in Waikiki, Hawaii, 2nd Lt. George Welch attended a dinner and dance party that turned into an all-night poker game. As Sunday morning dawned and the victors gathered their winnings, the festive mood was shattered by the sound of gunfire. The date: December 7, 1941.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXqD7BW0R39P4x8ds9uRBQ3VNW3J7233JF-Dx7ohN1esWmDEaB-707OE2MzwJTzBwAIT9hRpo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWelch, a recent addition to the 47th Pursuit Squadron, called the airstrip at Haleiwa to have two P-40B Warhawks ready to go. Welch and his friend 2nd Lt. Kenneth Taylor hopped into Taylor’s car and raced to the airfield as Japanese bullets rained down. The two airmen jumped into their airplanes and took off. After damaging two Aichi D3A Val dive bombers, Welch landed to fix a jammed gun and reload. He proceeded to shoot down another Val and a Mitsubishi A6M Zero. With four credited aerial victories, Welch had almost reached ace status before the U.S. had even declared war!\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXqD7BW0R39P4x8ds9uRBQ3VNW3J7233JF-Dx7ohN1esWmDEaB-707OE2MzwJTzBwAIT9hRpo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWelch’s achievements did not end on that day of infamy. For a time, Welch held the title of “King of the New Guinea’s Skies,” flying P-39 Airacobras and P-38 Lightnings in the Pacific. After shooting down 16 enemy planes, a case of malaria took him off combat duty.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7yU3Wtc2C8xLWFMmrOPNXuvezyNiJOjbAO7IoGbkzfkFfb4o35XeS9hGdTUCgr7wMNSf_FDs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWelch’s post-war career was both vital to the early U.S. Air Force and tragic. In spring 1944, Welch resigned his commission and became a test pilot for North American Aviation. In October 1947, he was the first to fly the XP-86, the prototype for what became the F-86 Sabre, in which he reached 618 mph in level flight. Seven years later, in October 1954, Welch was test flying an early model of another new fighter, the F-100A Super Sabre. Pulling 7 Gs out of a dive at Mach 1.55 caused a catastrophic failure and the airplane began to disintegrate. Although Welch initially survived the crash, he died en route to a hospital. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWelch, one of the first air-to-air victors of World War II, also helped usher in a new age of jet combat and supersonic fighters that came to define the U.S. Air Force.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qjvtuq6ihNRwlr1PPYs4r3Ak-Y8WPDNYaF2nLTwAk4XDo9Z3jySBsF8fdgMsDo_ABLArOx9A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBrigadier General Robin Olds\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e“By the time I was five, “I could name an airplane by the sound of its engine on takeoff or landing,” claimed ace pilot Brig. Gen. Robin Olds. He grew up steeped in air power, as the son of Maj. Gen. Robert Olds, who was a mentor to Gen. Curtis LeMay. Robin entered West Point in 1940 and then flew P-38 Lightnings with the 479th Fighter Group, arriving in Europe less than two weeks before D-Day. Olds made ace in only two engagements, the first on August 14, 1944, when he downed two Fw-190s, then on August 25, when he shot down three Bf 109s. That made him the last P-38 pilot in the 8th Air Force to make ace. His unit transitioned to P-51 Mustangs, in which Olds continued to tear apart German fighters, ultimately ending the war with 12 aerial victories.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9APK7_RaPkdHz2DgJG2WOP4Z_aNxM1Hsg3ipajEpDsjNUvYnbkdtgT5dfrUCol_vYufpX",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eSuch a record would be notable on its own, but Olds is most famous for his achievements following World War ll. For several years, Olds rotated through various non-combat roles, including flying in a P-80 Shooting Star aerobatics demonstration team, flying Gloster Meteors in an exchange program with the RAF, and holding non-combat command positions in Washington, DC, before eventually getting orders to command the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing and join the Vietnam War in September 1966.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eImmediately upon arriving to his new command, he got in a fistfight with two lieutenants at the officers’ club who—in the tradition of the Wing—tried to rip the patches off Olds’ flight suit. Instead of seeing this as a discipline problem, Olds thought it was a sign of healthy morale, saying, “These guys had spirit.” His first act was to show the Wing, nicknamed the “Wolf Pack,” that he was willing to learn and would be flying alongside his men, pushing them. “I’d give the guys in the briefing room the same goading speech, ‘I’m gonna be better than you!’” he recalled. “As soon as they stopped being pissed off, they got into the spirit of the challenge.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S6gBllNGWlFlqbtdUtyrqIPUTMirnVMyxh8MDoxMY6u4l6mKb6-8H2Prdz1nRfihwfQM8mEB3A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOlds’ deputy commander of operations was a friend he had worked with previously at the 81st Tactical Fighter Wing: Col. Daniel “Chappie” James. Starting as an instructor for the Tuskegee Airmen, James later became the first African American four-star general. Together, the two were known by their joint nickname: “Blackman and Robin.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QqEOX0wB85-PKHvE72-hKvTHG0lMPF-X7ihx_YpO_leifqhdM_WPvVcvBWa9-ysZZxtpqAeA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBy the end of the year, Olds was frustrated with the mounting losses to North Vietnamese MiG fighters and designed “Operation Bolo.” The plan revolved around taking the QRC-160 jamming pods typically carried by F-105 Thunderchiefs and instead placing them on F-4 Phantoms. North Vietnamese forces thought the electronic signature was indicative of vulnerable F-105s, but instead it was a trap. A swarm of Phantoms, including James and Olds, went after the surprised MiGs. While James chased one MiG into position for his wingman to shoot it down, Olds also contributed one victory to the total of seven destroyed MiG-21s, nearly half of North Vietnam’s MiG-21 inventory at that time.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Suqy1zt9ogX3lhy6HXnTHFh8mvcFCO8efcOKWMdPX885uyXdoF8R3PklxoLwApYWyW7NCz1g8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOlds ended his time in Southeast Asia with four aerial victories, making him a triple ace with a career total of 16. He then spent time as the commandant of cadets at the Air Force Academy before retiring in 1973. Although he began his career as a World War II ace, Olds’ later career not only made important contributions to the American effort in the Vietnam War, but became culturally emblematic of the stereotypical fighter pilot in the process.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SkHX3snjraRISMD2QkZKAXMswYFCRmr5_Y-lLfy1yWL98NulrOmDMSlhxsC60baen10PFtrHU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eColonel James Hagerstrom\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn the morning of January 23, 1944, 1st Lt. James Hagerstrom, having only recently recovered from malaria, was leading a flight of P-40 Warhawks on a “maximum effort” bombing mission in the Pacific. Nearing their target of Boram, New Guinea, Hagerstrom saw 10 to 15 Mitsubishi A6M Zeros pouring down on a group of P-38s near him. His group dropped his tanks and dove into what became a massive dogfight. He and his wingman, 2nd Lt. John Bodak, each shot down Zeroes off the other’s tails, as Hagerstrom damaged more Japanese fighters in multiple head-on passes and shot down more that were chasing other P-38s. Hagerstrom expended all his ammunition in the fight, emerging with four victory credits (three Zeroes and one Kawasaki Ki-61 Hien) in addition to damaging others while saving the lives of two P-38 pilots. Combined with the two victories he earned the previous year, he was now an ace.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SkHX3snjraRISMD2QkZKAXMswYFCRmr5_Y-lLfy1yWL98NulrOmDMSlhxsC60baen10PFtrHU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eHagerstrom was discharged after the war and joined the Texas Air National Guard. When the Korean War began in 1950, he was recalled to active duty. Fitting the fighter pilot stereotype, Hagerstrom longed for air-to-air victories. Of the 40 American ace pilots in the Korean War, Hagerstrom was the only one flying in a fighter-bomber unit (the 67th Squadron) as opposed to a dedicated fighter-interceptor squadron. This was due to his reputation for dropping his bombs as fast as possible and heading straight for the North Korea-China border, known as “MiG Alley,” where enemy planes were more likely to be flying. Hagerstrom never missed an opportunity, whether it was by volunteering to fly on Christmas day (when he got his second MiG-15 kill), or when he flew on his last day in Korea. He was literally standing in his dress uniform waiting for his transport home to land when a friend told him a sensitive mission requiring four pilots had come up. Hagerstom jumped in an F-86 immediately and shot down another MiG, bringing his total to 8.5 credits in Korea.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SkHX3snjraRISMD2QkZKAXMswYFCRmr5_Y-lLfy1yWL98NulrOmDMSlhxsC60baen10PFtrHU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter Korea, Hagerstrom continued to make important contributions to the Air Force. He set up an evaluation program for the then-new AIM-9 Sidewinder missile, which has since become a mainstay of air combat. After various command and staff positions, Hagerstrom joined the Vietnam War in 1966. Working out of Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base, he led a program to adapt the “Starlight Scope” for use on AC-47 gunships, giving them much better visibility for night operations. Hagerstrom spent his time in Southeast Asia helping to run interdiction efforts in Laos against the Ho Chi Minh Trail before his frustration with that conflict prompted him to resign in 1968.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLy46hg0SNlnS-It5P2nCuxrEpFyuiHPllh1fJw962c6jK0yy7iyYqCHnF2fgUvO0rSCgxrvk",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe Legacy of World War II\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn many ways, these men are exemplars of the stereotypical fighter pilot, establishing their ace status in World War II. Stories of air-to-air combat are exciting, and ace status is certainly a source of pride. But aerial victories alone do not win or lose wars. Each of these officers—and countless others—went beyond their role as fighter aces to contribute to the development of the U.S. Air Force, whether by holding command positions and leading others, developing new tactics, or pushing the boundaries of aviation technology. These men are but the tip of the iceberg of examples in which the World War II experience was foundational, defining the trajectory of the Air Force.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","How “Whitey” Feightner Helped Shape Generations of U.S. Navy Aircraft","How the avid flyer went from Navy test pilot to two-star admiral","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwkdQq4f5VGXOxXIqsxb_-f6bI793izGOqs16faaWijBovsGrIq_OMFZBDNORu8Tg7xFW8-g","/story/tQVhHCCb_m_qIA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"tQVhHCCb_m_qIA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQxWQEmq2aEGnmr6ibRIZD4RGYVM2gQBznoYSLwJiNp1ItjLD3Su39aP0Yt3tc3Y-DPesidw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eEdward L. “Whitey” Feightner was a man who caught the flying bug in college and just wanted to keep flying. He joined the U.S. Navy and shot down at least nine airplanes during World War II. After the war, the Navy made him a test pilot. He ended up flying and even developing many of the Navy’s newest designs (including helicopters) until his retirement in 1974.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQxWQEmq2aEGnmr6ibRIZD4RGYVM2gQBznoYSLwJiNp1ItjLD3Su39aP0Yt3tc3Y-DPesidw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFeightner was born October 14, 1919, in Lima, Ohio. He attended Findlay College in nearby Findlay, Ohio and learned to fly, earning his private pilot’s license in 1940.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eWhen he graduated from college in 1941, he really just wanted to keep flying. Expecting to be drafted soon, he initially tried to join the U.S. Army Air Corps, but faced a six-month wait to begin training. While hanging around the Findlay airport one day, he saw a Naval Aviator land his North American SNJ, change into his crisp white uniform in the hangar, meet up with an attractive woman, and leave with her in a nice convertible. Observing the same events, his flight instructor suggested he check out the Navy flight training program.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQxWQEmq2aEGnmr6ibRIZD4RGYVM2gQBznoYSLwJiNp1ItjLD3Su39aP0Yt3tc3Y-DPesidw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Navy could take him straight away, so he enlisted in U.S. Naval Reserve on June 16, 1941 (just hours after graduating college), and entered the Naval Aviation Cadet Training Program. Feightner completed his primary training on April 3, 1942, earning his commission as an ensign and his Naval Aviator’s wings. He then went through advanced flight training and carrier qualifications at NAS Norfolk.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S1OFK2TllinQGYh1tSqOwFpgl6awTboJf2rCrZBoH2U-OZa68u6UXyF_4SDXtyrCMeAZP7Dg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWWII combat\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eThe Navy assigned him to fly F4F Wildcats with VF-3 aboard USS Yorktown (CV-5), but Yorktown sunk (June 7, 1942) following the Battle of Midway before he could report. The survivors of VF-3 regrouped in Hawaii under their new commander, Lt. Cmdr. Edward “Butch” O’Hare, who had just become the Navy’s first fighter ace. VF-3 was effectively a training/refresher squadron while ashore, and Feightner learned much about how to fly in combat from O’Hare and the other veterans.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S1OFK2TllinQGYh1tSqOwFpgl6awTboJf2rCrZBoH2U-OZa68u6UXyF_4SDXtyrCMeAZP7Dg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDuring this time, O’Hare noticed that, as the rest of the squadron developed deep tans in the Hawaiian sun, Feightner never tanned but only burned, leaving him as white as before once he recovered. As a result, O’Hare nicknamed him “Whitey.”\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S1OFK2TllinQGYh1tSqOwFpgl6awTboJf2rCrZBoH2U-OZa68u6UXyF_4SDXtyrCMeAZP7Dg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFeightner was reassigned to VF-10, the “Grim Reapers,” aboard USS Enterprise (CV-6) when the carrier came through Hawaii. His first combat experience was the Battle of Santa Cruz (October 25-27, 1942) in which the two remaining Japanese fleet carriers (Shokaku and Zuikaku) sought to finish off the two remaining American carriers, Enterprise and USS Hornet (CV-8). Feightner shot down a Japanese dive bomber on his first combat mission, then, low on fuel, had to land aboard Enterprise after it had taken damage from two bomb hits and a near-miss. VF-10 operated from Guadalcanal for a time (while Enterprise left for repairs.). Feightner claimed to have shot down nine aircraft while stationed there, but the records never made it into his official tally.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R0y19hZw5qxzI76nalJ4ZL6XexNDJEfAFJntQDtDsstrvHvnviT3RJr9fRzfgobQrtCr4Y",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn May 1943 he returned to the U.S. and began transitioning to the Grumman F6F Hellcat with VF-8. In March 1944, Carrier Air Group 8 (to which VF-8 belonged) transferred to USS Bunker Hill (CV-17), part of the Fast Carrier Task Force (whose designation was alternately TF-38 or TF-58 depending on whether 3rd Fleet or 5th Fleet was in command). Feightner finally got credit for shooting down his fifth airplane on March 30, 1944, making him an ace. His official tally reached nine before the Bunker Hill rotated back to the U.S. for overhaul in November 1944. Subsequent assignments kept him out of combat in Korea and Vietnam, so he never had a chance to increase his victory total.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TzbEUL5Bp9rD3YaiVqSY1pRvT76u6WwS0bMjeiFHr2au0Fo25mhuUcn7T2jeW8X_dti3bimEU",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTest pilot\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn his return to the States, the Navy assigned Feightner as an instructor pilot in Fighter Training, a role he held through the end of the war. After the war, he spent several years in staff jobs before being assigned to the second class at the Naval Test Pilot School. Following his graduation in 1949, Feightner became a member of the Navy’s Flight Test Division. From then until 1953, he flew all manner of Navy aircraft, not just fighters — he learned to fly (and tested) many of the Navy’s helicopters, seaplanes like the Martin P5M Mariner, and even the largest airplane the Navy has ever operated: Lockheed’s massive double-decker R6V Constitution.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAs a test pilot, Feightner was also in on the ground floor for the new jet airplanes being developed. He was the Navy’s project pilot for Vought’s radical-looking F7U Cutlass. In the late summer of 1951, he performed carrier suitability tests with the F7U-1. The -1 was severely underpowered, and the tailless design required an extreme nose-up attitude when landing that made it difficult to see the carrier. Feightner’s tests demonstrated the -1 was definitely not safe for carrier operations: he was the only pilot ever to fly one on or off a carrier. The improved F7U-3 eventually served in the Fleet, but the “Gutless Cutlass” retained a reputation as a dangerous airplane to fly.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QEf_tn4JC8ZkttSrSvaacXpD7n9xDb90JKuYSOsJVM36awa0P-xIq0M5ox3u6pfvVJaf0BFg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFlying with the Blue Angels\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn January 1952, the Navy wanted the F7U to start flying with the Blue Angels (despite its problems) and ordered Feightner to join the flight demonstration team. In addition to the underpowered and unreliable engines, the Cutlass also had a new hydraulic system. This came with its own problems, and made the Cutlass unsuited to close formation flying. The Blue Angels’ solution was to have two Cutlasses fly independently of the four Grumman F9F Panthers the team was already flying. This introduced the two “solo” aircraft that continue to be part of Blue Angels performances today.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eOn one flight to an air show in Chicago, both he and his wingman suffered engine losses in their Cutlasses. Then, near their destination, the wingman had a fire in his second engine. While he landed safely, his plane blocked the only runway. Feightner ended up landing on a just-completed runway at a nearby civilian airport, becoming the first pilot to land at O’Hare, the airport named after the long-ago commanding officer who had christened him “Whitey.”\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn September 1952, Feightner reported to Developmental Test Squadron 3 (VX-3) in New Jersey, where he flew even more of the Navy’s newest jets, developing tactics and operational doctrine for them, including flying simulated nuclear attack missions. Feightner was also the pilot for the first public demonstration of the Navy’s new steam catapult technology.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RtpforPltzANSYtdwQ4TIyH2LbDlr3-d7b_uCh3eUgSkTLtRdQ9Acd7oQ0pRt-L90H6x6ZCpo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRising to senior leadership\u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFrom VX-3, he went on to command his own squadron, command a carrier air group, and serve on the staff of another carrier air group before reporting to the Naval War College. When he graduated in 1961, he was assigned as the project officer for the McDonnell F4H Phantom II and then the Tactical Fighter Experimental (TFX) project that became the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark. In 1962 the Navy made him head of Navy Fighter Design, where he oversaw development of the Vought F8U Crusader, North American FJ-4 Fury, and the Grumman E-2 Hawkeye. The E-2 came out of the Fighter Design office because of its role in guiding fighters to incoming targets.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFeightner’s next responsibilities were at sea, including a year as captain of the USS Okinawa (LPH-3), a helicopter carrier. Following this, Feightner returned to shore, serving in aviation-related positions at the Pentagon, and then as director of the Naval Aviation Weapons Systems Analysis Group. He completed his Navy career leading different offices in Naval Air Systems Command. In these varying roles, he influenced development of Grumman’s F-14 Tomcat and EA-6B Prowler, Lockheed’s S-3 Viking, McDonnell Douglas’ F/A-18 Hornet, and numerous aerial weapons systems. By the time he retired in 1974 as a two-star admiral, Feightner had 8,610 flight hours in over 100 different Navy aircraft. Following his retirement, he co-founded a military consulting company, and continued flying, tallying a total of nearly 2,400 hours in civilian aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SQxWQEmq2aEGnmr6ibRIZD4RGYVM2gQBznoYSLwJiNp1ItjLD3Su39aP0Yt3tc3Y-DPesidw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFeightner married Violet Volz in 1948, but they never had children. After she died in 2015, Feightner moved in with his nephew in Coeur d’Alene, Idaho. His last flight was on his 97th birthday, flying a floatplane around Lake Coeur d’Alene. He died on April 1, 2020, leaving a legacy as a successful combat pilot and a man who helped shape several generations of U.S. Navy aircraft.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","A Conversation with WWII Veteran Thomas McFadden","The Triple Nickel and WWII Smokejumper shares his story","//i1.ytimg.com/vi/TPw9HhfPPlE/hqdefault.jpg","/asset/a-conversation-with-wwii-veteran-thomas-mcfadden/7gFeA4zZtCOcbg",21,null,null,null,null,["7gFeA4zZtCOcbg",1.7777778,null,null,["//i1.ytimg.com/vi/TPw9HhfPPlE/hqdefault.jpg","TPw9HhfPPlE","A Conversation with WWII Veteran Thomas McFadden",null,null,0.5625,0,0],null,null,null,null,null,0,null,"Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum"],null,null,null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[1,"7gFeA4zZtCOcbg"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,[null,null,null,"https://airandspace.si.edu","INDEPENDENCE AVE AT 6TH ST, SW\nWashington, DC, 20560\nUnited States",38.88781,-77.019905,"Washington, DC, United States",null,null,null,["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4",1524,725,0],"/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum"]]]],null,null,null,null,"pilots",null,null,null,9,"CardsLarge","EditorialSection:5aa5f7b8-bdf7-484b-8ffd-10dbd0d82248"];window.INIT_data['MicroscopeImage:220c7e8b-b408-495d-9a14-06afa632fdc5'] = ["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:220c7e8b-b408-495d-9a14-06afa632fdc5","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_STNtcl9SGeePXZZEF0ytCK2E_WcPcP-JspQtUBnum8hQgIP9azQhxsQ55QNWm7mcEcB_YDuQ","V7P4aKLkVl37Y0OTz3SFtb-vDgI",[0.5,0.38713217,0,1.5896134,0.77426434],null,null,null,[1280,1636]];window.INIT_data['EditorialSection:87d9641f-62f1-418a-baea-a33a93c40e0e'] = ["stella.edit.sect",["Engineering built to last","The incredible story of how an Air Force Martin B-26 Marauder became an icon",null,null,null,1],8,null,null,null,[[["stella.common.cobject","How Flak-Bait Survived 200 Missions and 1,000 Holes","A closer look at its history, achievements, and graffiti","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SgpukOwA33nxpAF_s6ebmW0SY6xb6SCQDSenT8U9TILUz9CUmwQt5EVUgJbp0SWWxqK1pSP-A","/story/tQURsL5ybe_kIQ",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:bf518e33-3193-4535-8feb-559745d189a5","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SgpukOwA33nxpAF_s6ebmW0SY6xb6SCQDSenT8U9TILUz9CUmwQt5EVUgJbp0SWWxqK1pSP-A","cvukHWM6PVbeRGV-yV3mLudR5ZY",[0.44,0.51215726,0,0.87161905,0.8468643],null,null,null,[6000,3866]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"tQURsL5ybe_kIQ"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ts9fx3uLc8CWO6Kjdvu-I4bRg34Iif9E95B47h-bJT0IiaL7nR5cBzwxzd7YJ985aLkY0qmw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn April 17, 1945, an Army Air Forces crew in a bomber named Flak-Bait led the 322nd Bombardment Group of the Ninth Air Force against Magdeburg, Germany, a “defended area” on the Elbe River in Saxony. The next day, the soldiers of the American Ninth Army occupied the city. Americans had been flying Flak-Bait, a Martin B-26 Marauder, in combat against Nazi Germany since August 16, 1943.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TGbUXFm8_tYDtj1CPpctu8cg0MiKHOuNxMvqoqxXaRjmwwyS4HQVKNV1dk_GBDo0hZ5V5X6ls",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOver the course of that year and nine months, Flak-Bait and its bomber boys flew over 200 missions. They attacked cities; airfields; road, rail, and canal junctions; bridges; supply depots; fuel and ammunition dumps; gun emplacements; and even V-1 flying bomb launch sites as they prepared for the Allied invasion of France and supported the armies on the ground as they pushed east toward Berlin, the German capital. By spring 1945, Flak-Bait’s ground crew had repaired over 1,000 holes on the aircraft caused by Nazi shrapnel, cannon shells, and machine gun bullets. (Hence the name Flak-Bait!)\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QdD96Oo0RgJ3j8kqd7F_IWyHUhTXJ7L_RrvhaLLImOCqvdQbQCdPF_SnrVVGh8YHPEWCoMMBw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eFlak-Bait is one of the iconic objects of World War II held by the Museum. It was a weapon, much like the M-1 Garand battle rifle and the Sherman tank, that young Americans used to help free occupied-Europe from Nazi Germany. Alongside two other icons with incredible provenance, the Pearl Harbor-survivor Sikorsky JRS-1 amphibian and the Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay bomber that helped end the war, Flak-Bait presents Smithsonian visitors the beginning, the middle, and the end of American involvement in World War II.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SECbHSzcVRcbe9lBk5nz_xLhadXEjTCkn8s_jMfqiuQd2GPQwQTKbXf80mf5vkwDXIcGUrVw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs an artifact, Flak-Bait is providing our staff an unprecedented opportunity to interpret and preserve a survivor of a long and bitter air war. Since starting a project to preserve Flak-Bait in late 2014, we’ve reached important treatment milestones, including the pioneering work to save the doped fabric control surfaces and interior fabric panels. Work continues as restoration and conservation staff expand their meticulous and state-of-the-art work to the rest of the fuselage and the wings, including a detailed investigation into the remnants of the world’s only surviving D-Day invasion stripes.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q0msm-0ExDcLQAHTv4Bpa7svEeKO7jl0bQ9OGXCVcrXiA8DCDAg-gPD0glPw8V7JTunG_pYh6G",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn the coming years, we are looking forward to our goal: the display of the reassembled Flak-Bait , in the Boeing Aviation Hangar of the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, all back together since being taken apart all those years ago in 1946 for shipment back to the United States.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RxHi609U78LUh5__zRU1soFpQj5oTfPMdoGP7Lw8wQdDEd3yo8573lXmeAJ0urDJtA0bBSElsH",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn the meantime, we continue to work on the project, especially research into its history. We’ve shared with visitors our take on how to spell Flak-Bait, a look at what the bomber and its crews experienced during its three missions on D-Day, and a behind-the-scenes tour.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rq-rOHM5L8CLIknqkt0LSH61IFwLkXqQBdozG67geXWFXSP64hiu-Qd4eBeQuNe9IDtdXKj9U",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne thing we want to know more about is the people behind Flak-Bait. From 1943 to 1946, 358 individual Army Air Forces aircrew flew in Flak-Bait over the course of 219 flights, 202 of which were combat missions. How do we know those numbers? A three-person team from the B-26 Marauder Historical Society, Ron Bolesta, Roberta Faulkenberry, and Brian Gibbons, dedicated over 600 hours combing through various records, including the 59,000 page operational records of the 322nd Bombardment Group held by the US. Air Force Historical Agency. Their effort to document every mission flown by the medium bomber ensures that our curators have all the relevant information available to share with visitors, and especially to those who have a family connection to Flak-Bait. They provided their results to the Museum last summer and we have been enjoying working with their findings in addition to those generated by Museum volunteer, Joe Romito, who also authored a blog discussing Flak-Bait’s missions based on his research.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SpeZqGlNSeUJMMF8LNosZwlIXjsE_8Uz0U9N5YbLYjKGXi3nUrD5Nu3ZIKowhFQVS0JM9Fkmw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOver the entire lower half of Flak-Bait’s fuselage are hundreds of signatures from another group of people connected to the bomber. Because of its special history, General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold selected Flak-Bait for inclusion in a collection of World War II aircraft set aside for what would become the Smithsonian’s National Aeronautical Collection. As Flak-Bait sat in open storage at airfields in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany at war’s end, Army Air Forces maintenance personnel and some civilians, including children, decided they would leave their mark on history by signing their names, current location, and hometowns in pencil and ink, with some even scratching their names into the paint.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RKm39EhJqQoQUoiCGMaXL289jGZc2rrSgPkgXs2DMusMyJhHhT9jdtAOnHz1AJHAU2yJblLxl5",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne of our upcoming projects is to map and document that graffiti to expand our understanding of the people that interacted with Flak-Bait as it transitioned from a weapon of war to an artifact of one of the greatest conflicts in human history.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QdD96Oo0RgJ3j8kqd7F_IWyHUhTXJ7L_RrvhaLLImOCqvdQbQCdPF_SnrVVGh8YHPEWCoMMBw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs we recognize the 75th anniversary of Flak-Bait successfully surviving the air war over Europe, we must reflect that its treatment project has been a tremendous experience for the Museum so far. It is a once-in-a-career opportunity to interpret, to treat, to display, and to reach out to the public with an amazing story of survival and resolve from World War II, which presents itself in the form of Flak-Bait.\u003c/p\u003e"]]]]],["stella.common.cobject","Preserving Flak-Bait: Reversing a 1970s Restoration","Keeping Flak-Bait in fighting shape for years to come","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QlW5uItK9nwkhU5Wj8KfwPBSxMfN58XhIGBV9Nd2IAqU5mPxDSLausXrmvzR9D4Tk96mQizQ","/story/vQVx-IGeLxy0IA",29,null,null,null,null,null,null,[null,null,null,null,["stella.microscopeimage","MicroscopeImage:a8cd5790-f626-45c8-a71b-4d0656a89ebf","https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QlW5uItK9nwkhU5Wj8KfwPBSxMfN58XhIGBV9Nd2IAqU5mPxDSLausXrmvzR9D4Tk96mQizQ","LI7X4rhrYK1LUaaGG5ybOEBXHJQ",[0.49320784,0.43685865,0,0.94750565,0.6699405],null,null,null,[3000,2380]]],null,null,null,null,[2],null,null,null,[4,"vQVx-IGeLxy0IA"],null,null,null,null,[1],null,null,null,null,[[["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7iM5ws1upPJEbC83DyRQ467imFeS_MzI7EyLlG_JDK6KulLuJ4KF2hB1BW1QK3nZL8M0yug",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Martin B-26B Marauder Flak-Bait is an iconic artifact of World War II. This medium bomber and its crews survived over 200 missions over Europe, which was more than any other American combat aircraft in World War II. The nose section went on display when we opened in 1976, but the remainder of the aircraft has been in storage since the 1940s. Thankfully, with plans for exhibition at the Udvar-Hazy Center, where there is room to display the full aircraft, the entire artifact is now together and has been undergoing preservation treatment in our Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TxOjEQSd_fGhdWiPJUxvkKRyt_lFJaHSY7f4fxjVnTRPmQ4Ehl_1Cvos0lyl3tOI9TwoGB",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne aspect of this preservation effort is undoing a previous restoration. In the 1970s, the nose section of Flak-Bait had layers of paint applied over the original factory applied paint. This over-painting was done to the top and bottom three quarters of the nose section in an effort to cover up areas of corrosion and peeling paint and areas where the bare aluminum alloy was exposed from its operational history.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn this photo, the areas of the nose section that were over-painted are highlighted green with photo-editing software.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QdD96Oo0RgJ3j8kqd7F_IWyHUhTXJ7L_RrvhaLLImOCqvdQbQCdPF_SnrVVGh8YHPEWCoMMBw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn the 1970s the predominate aesthetic for interpreting technological artifacts favored the look of “new” and “undamaged.” We believe this is one of the reasons why paint was applied to the battle-scarred nose section of Flak-Bait before it went on display in 1976. Our current philosophy for the interpretation of Flak-Bait is one of celebration of its battle damage and the wear and tear of use. By highlighting the damage and revealing the original paint layers, we are returning this aircraft to a more honest and authentic state of preservation. The Museum’s conservation department has been developing techniques to reverse the 1970s overpainting to reveal the original paint layers and previously obscured markings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qk9odbLW4vfJ1gVCuvz5D4kIJzG3DwhUSBhA61q9cExZzAVQxwNoaxlksKdfax3g3Kw6sGdnQt",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBefore we could attempt to reverse the overpainting, we needed to fully understand the paint layers, their thickness, and their solubility. We first embarked on a project to carry out diagnostic imaging with with help of a Museum photographer to better understand the complex painted surface. We used ultraviolet light (UV) photography and infrared (IR) reflectography.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QHd_J4fv8YyVs9gFnZlml48QkQfDuliXGMt_ACq9sICH-p-n0nHndRqpd51TKJQQeUcJvgzA",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUV photography allows us to distinguish organic materials, such as oils, resins, paint binders, and pigments from one another based on how they absorb UV light and become fluorescent.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eFlak-Bait is shown here photographed in UV light. Notice how the lower row of bombs is fluorescing a pale yellow while the rest are varying shades of red. This suggests that a different type of paint was used here. Some areas of overpainting appear as a milky yellow green between the second and bottom rows of bombs.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qk9odbLW4vfJ1gVCuvz5D4kIJzG3DwhUSBhA61q9cExZzAVQxwNoaxlksKdfax3g3Kw6sGdnQt",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThis detail photo of Flak-Bait shows the “Flak-Bait” design and 200th mission bomb on the pilot’s side in UV light. Notice how the 200th mission bomb fluoresces a different color red than the smaller bombs—again suggesting a different type of paint was used. Overpaint can be seen in UV where there are pale and hazy blue fluorescence is located on the left of the image, below the F and L.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_StuOptVUhaK_xIIHQuZAhd5zbVkTqSzXO_qw4Hkx3Dv5NhGjNNGeVP5G498I22S0PUd7s3MQ8",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe co-plot’s side of the aircraft is not often seen in historical photographs of \u003ci\u003eFlak-Bait\u003c/i\u003e, though it is equally compelling, with a large patch located just aft of the bombardiers’ station.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S0K6SOGFMycj293O0fHtt87LfA3rpST1MLqzQDFCCPng_VWpDxUQjHw2z1gqMqcSKd7QpN57A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn UV light, the bright yellow drips located forward of the windscreen are quite pronounced. In many other areas of the exterior, we have various oil and grease stains that relate to the operational history of the aircraft. We aim to keep these types of surface stains as part of the narrative of the aircraft’s operational history. Distinguishing historic versus post-historic damage has been an important step in determining our treatment approach. The oil drips seen below are post-historic and likely came from the aircraft hanging above \u003ci\u003eFlak-Bait\u003c/i\u003e while it was on display at the National Mall building. Therefore, it was decided that these oil stains should be removed.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TqB6vlfpGrwK3X0f3naVvm1QRm_q4iFG4qdIV5Su7E5l5GOQuAmoRwNl0279iHUs58GHBb6Krd",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eInfrared reflectography (IR) is a technique commonly employed by our colleagues in paintings conservation to see through paint layers, revealing an artist’s graphite drawings. We borrowed this technique to determine if there were signatures of the servicemen buried under the overpainting. The image below shows several IR photographs digitally stitched together. Graphite from the pencils preferentially absorbs IR light, enhancing the legibility of signatures that were otherwise obscured.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QjWdwmoKvSZbeS_4Kc0I4RTGk6N6HdI6JSchPhi4E8sbvLVgLxTlJaql7rg1TPx76iZKkFrpc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn many locations along the fuselage, a combination of overpainting and soiling obscured the handwriting, which was made legible with the IR photography.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SR7VSjI8n4pBT3GMX8Yqi0npP76YFT7z6wxsioGJWCdImmQPiE77uNXAFexyRor96w3MnUrk5p",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOnce the diagnostic imaging was complete, we had a good understanding of the overpaint and original paint characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S5VgE7FHKLby-OHne7ROtpnP-7WfGkDQI7JTL60WK9avxbdLHTM6iPEHL6pnYF6LQEK1qW1A",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eUtilizing the IR and UV images helped greatly in determining areas where the overpaint removal technique needed to be modified to not disturb the fragile graphite markings.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QwZVWoVR_JYZv3eOvKocfAwbr6SziqaLaDs8yl8miDabrz195Rr4KPL5sA2AiWNZevY4ETwdu1",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWe developed a process for safely removing the overpaint, which began with extensive solubility testing of the paint layers. In the image below, Malcolm Collum is seen carefully applying an organic solvent to the overpaint layers to determine its solubility. Once we completed extensive material analysis and solubility testing, we began removing the overpaint layers from the top surface of the nose section.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RYIZWIHm61Szye7627gt7aoe4Ixkzlf39he7r1536nBp_eTV6WlsZCe2A2_Qmf50EdCkvchw",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eWe discovered an intact layer of original olive drab paint and original zinc chromate painted scab patches underneath a lighter green overpaint. The area indicated as “original” in the image below reveals the dark colored olive drab paint layer which is the original, factory applied paint. We also see the evidence of use and wear to the paint – particularly on raised rivet heads and along the paths where the maintenance crews walked.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SVVQItAUTj98UkniqEktjmXyfLsXtVECWIEKI2mLlVlyUCFWZW-4eRp3HlSAmkMJ_F5XMY0LfQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOnce the top of the nose section was complete, we began on the underside surfaces. The image below shows the underside of the bombardier’s section before and after the overpaint removal had begun. On the right is the bombardiers’ section with a square of original paint revealed in the center of the image. Note the water streaking caused when \u003ci\u003eFlak-Bait\u003c/i\u003e was left in the rain on the tarmac.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_ThLF-mwNcFCu62_LYeBrhxzAF_5QrkG8yhaKx3et1Wkw2ZxUd_uzsX35csJQCZ_dVZyUNm9Mc",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAreas where signatures were covered with overpaint were handled with great care to not disrupt the markings. This example shows the signature of Alfred McBee, written between the gun blister locations on the co-pilot’s side. The areas of light blue haze that obscure most of the top and bottom of his signature is the overpaint applied in the 1970s. After the overpaint was removed, his signature has greater legibility and it’s possible to see that there are areas of loss paint. This loss is likely due to the interface of the machine gun blisters abrading the paint during firing and removal for maintenance. These losses are part of the authentic look that we want to reveal and celebrate.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QBrDwn0hBUniKylbWNjjYCQMiBzf5Co71RtQOUIHEF6Sw3RZg1_pA5HktfZoecLhYVvlwChzQ",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOn the pilot’s side of the aircraft, the overpaint removal did not reveal any new signatures but did bring out the original paint color. 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Some tribes were recruited by the United States military to develop secret battle communications using their languages. Other Native people found one another during the war and informally used their languages to subvert the enemy. “Code Talkers,” as they came to be known after World War II, are twentieth-century American Indian warriors and heroes who significantly aided the victories of the United States and its allies.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SGmYf2ePugKx7FBeMjRw8iFpjjU8n_PKlqqV00q_a3woKwYFvCNoWXugVBC-x7MTrLBWvVSRo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAmerican Indian nations have always fought to defend themselves. Their history includes numerous wars with enemies, such as the United States. Leading up to the world wars, the U.S. government had also spent years trying to erase American Indian cultures and ways of life, including the use of native languages.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SRXApFwx_V8O-YNzU-npM32YWUNtE9o5AQF4rveX715vu45BqclejMdW6QzahaJJbcMuE_aSo",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBeginning in the late nineteenth century, many American Indian families were forced to send their children to boarding schools, where they were forbidden to speak their Native languages. Many Code Talkers attended boarding schools and as adults found it puzzling that the same government that had tried to take away their languages in schools later gave them a critical role speaking their languages in military service.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sgv_SH8fA-QMGULqrxsS0o8UtbKvTUycUdWK4vDKWUEihfaitfAC_N_oOQubh0aqvvhAq3",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eDespite everything that American Indians had endured in the past, American Indian men and women have served in all branches of the military. In many conflicts and wars, including World War I and World War II, American Indians honorably defended their homelands and the United States.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sgv_SH8fA-QMGULqrxsS0o8UtbKvTUycUdWK4vDKWUEihfaitfAC_N_oOQubh0aqvvhAq3",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn World War I, Choctaw and other American Indians transmitted battle messages in their tribal languages by telephone. Although not used extensively, the World War I telephone squads played a key role in helping the United States Army win several battles in France that brought about the end of the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TA2WFHSZvBZ8zJvt2D8eme_oSGw5CkDbllKQmiGVdU5DH7NsT6MzMRpBKbyopc80GCH4VjZg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eBeginning in 1940, the army recruited Comanche, Meskwaki, Chippewa, Oneida, and later, Hopi, people to transmit messages in code during World War II. Then in 1941 and 1942, the Marine Corps recruited Navajo Code Talkers.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TA2WFHSZvBZ8zJvt2D8eme_oSGw5CkDbllKQmiGVdU5DH7NsT6MzMRpBKbyopc80GCH4VjZg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eIn 1942, Philip Johnston, who was not American Indian but had grown up on the Navajo reservation and had heard about the successes of the Choctaw telephone squad, suggested to the Marine Corps that Navajos and other tribes could be very helpful in maintaining communications secrecy. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eAfter viewing a demonstration of messages sent in the Navajo language, the Marine Corps recruited 29 Navajos to develop a code within their language. The Marine Corps established a Code Talking school once the Navajo code was created.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TVGrTIOLzLEdQfHLvhUDnapCXTLekDuWAMrAjAxIFcMggduIC7gsBEAsg75c7jYEHsD4KI5zs",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eTo develop their Type One Code, the original 29 Navajo Code Talkers first came up with English words for each letter of the English alphabet. Since they had to memorize all the words, they used things that were familiar to them, such as kinds of animals. Then, they translated those words into Navajo.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qyh57GOS3hmcgQhaP_yazPZSRskxtJaE7-NgYyRjHVALT1t1VUSOOt0ObNKoHh6t4FLerrlZuf",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAs the war progressed, more than 400 Navajos were eventually recruited as Code Talkers. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eUltimately, there were Code Talkers from at least 16 tribes who served in the Army, the Marines, and the Navy.* Some Code Talkers enlisted, others were drafted\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eTheir training was intense. Following basic training, the Code Talkers completed extensive training in communications and memorizing the code.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SG2md9E41jFODXrn5k7dgfPt3O06e1kCR4cenTb_bP4vOqS3ecpH-tNmhY-XbwcvWWeRz9JMI",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eOne such Code Talker was Carl Gorman, who joined the United States Marine Corps in 1942 when he learned they were recruiting Navajos. He went through all of the difficult training and was one of the original 29 Navajos who were given the secret mission of developing the Navajo code. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eMr. Gorman served in four important Pacific battles: Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Tinian, and Saipan. In 1942, he was stricken by Malaria, a severe tropical disease, yet he continued to fight. In 1944, Mr. Gorman was evacuated from Saipan suffering both from the effects of Malaria and post-traumatic stress. He had to be hospitalized and took many months to recover.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TA2WFHSZvBZ8zJvt2D8eme_oSGw5CkDbllKQmiGVdU5DH7NsT6MzMRpBKbyopc80GCH4VjZg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThe Native American Code Talkers were fluent in their tribe’s language, and they operated both wire and radio equipment, and often had to carry it on their backs. They had to set up and maintain the electronic communication wires or lines. Sometimes their messages were broadcast over a wide area, helping to direct bigger operations. At other times, messages related to a smaller group, such as a platoon.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TA2WFHSZvBZ8zJvt2D8eme_oSGw5CkDbllKQmiGVdU5DH7NsT6MzMRpBKbyopc80GCH4VjZg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eThey provided an invaluable service by using their language to create special codes and are credited with saving thousands of American and Allied lives. \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eMore than 12,000 American Indians served in World War I—about 25 percent of the male American Indian population at that time. During World War II, when the total American Indian population was less than 400,000, an estimated 44,000 Indian men and 800 women served.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SvF5-wKA0S8sHWm_GKdLJiPKS-yRiCVRLB_xY9xyCnIJcgvOpmqgbvwwQVC4fmkA70ExmTEHY",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003eAfter World War II, most American Indian Code Talkers returned to communities that were having difficult economic times. Racism toward American Indian people was common and even though they had served their country with distinction, American Indian veterans could not eat or drink in some establishments—or even vote in some national or state elections.\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003ePartly due to the secrecy of the program, in the military and non-Indian world, recognition for the Code Talkers was slow to develop. They were not acknowledged for many years despite their sacrifices and important roles in winning the war.\u003c/p\u003e"]],["//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TftHLpqyDiXDrfK4VqFzl2LoCzFYdYO5teqLqb2qi8Z-Grvj8wepYIR3yk7MPNasxVoEAubg",null,[null,"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e Recognition \u003c/b\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eIn 1989, the French government awarded the Comanche Code Talkers the Chevalier of the National Order of Merit, a very high honor. Finally, in 2000, the United States Congress passed legislation to honor the Navajo Code Talkers and provided them with special gold and silver Congressional Medals. 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data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QPtC2qv-msh1SsxoweKiPl3qz65mJNUK6sa7pxluulA3KuhIdRif5Ewh17rE-K6wdNS6_81mM" data-ct="pp" data-nms="true"></div><div class="spzSUb"><div class="eFsD4b"><h1 class="tF7USe">World War Two: The Flying Frontier</h1><h2 class="QYzQ7d">75 years since World War II ended, join the Smithsonian Institution in exploring the role aeronautics played</h2><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp Tti2Ye" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="World War Two: The Flying Frontier" data-url="https://artsandculture.google.com/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii" data-galabel="project-page-hero" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QPtC2qv-msh1SsxoweKiPl3qz65mJNUK6sa7pxluulA3KuhIdRif5Ewh17rE-K6wdNS6_81mM"><div class="DIJzlf apTFrf iW4pEe B0hYxd" jscontroller="iKY4f" jsaction="MFzXR:aW9bVe;rcuQ6b:npT2md;IBB03b:orzFjd;kjspDd:orzFjd;TMOOrb:orzFjd;JIbuQc:zfmy0d;" 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1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od mrINdc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd; mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="O7iZXb" aria-label="Scroll" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -24px"><svg width="24px" height="24px" viewBox="0 0 24 24" class=""><path d="M7.41 15.41L12 10.83l4.59 4.58L18 14l-6-6-6 6z"/></svg></span></span></div><div class="iqRHNe"></div></header><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="2" data-name="PartnerLogos" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF rvbBuf"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>In collaboration with</span></h2></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="uGY8Pe"><a class="e0WtYb CTYNpb" href="/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_2_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_PartnerLogos_item_1_/partner/smithsonian-national-air-and-space-museum" data-gaeditorialindex="2" data-gaeditorialname="PartnerLogos" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><img class="A5M0y jwuQz" alt="Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S124sgS2xu--bx-N68FpfMBYb75F9-SvlscB9FnoqIduT4eEEz9gfEfHhNWJn4M597UY9HuU4" /></span></a><a class="e0WtYb CTYNpb" href="/partner/smithsonian-national-museum-of-american-history" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_2_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_PartnerLogos_item_2_/partner/smithsonian-national-museum-of-american-history" data-gaeditorialindex="2" data-gaeditorialname="PartnerLogos" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><img class="S7tdd jwuQz" alt="Smithsonian's National Museum of American History" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QDnbwr-cfV4tcog8cAOy_zZIF922stQzpNlAf_8sBOMxVMPpTQesyMyKtF83d77O_UFXr_ag=fcrop64=1,0c5a0ac8f337f536" /></span></a><a class="e0WtYb CTYNpb" href="/partner/national-museum-of-african-american-history-and-culture" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_2_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_PartnerLogos_item_3_/partner/national-museum-of-african-american-history-and-culture" data-gaeditorialindex="2" data-gaeditorialname="PartnerLogos" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><img class="S7tdd jwuQz" alt="Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RLswPdpJ-9Lea3Fp9wjU7YvushGMZ53MbZxzvVvBrRjm7ozE87gnlU7NMwoNicn9HoCocuzg=fcrop64=1,14180741ebe6f8bd" /></span></a><a class="e0WtYb CTYNpb" href="/partner/national-museum-of-the-american-indian" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_2_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_PartnerLogos_item_4_/partner/national-museum-of-the-american-indian" data-gaeditorialindex="2" data-gaeditorialname="PartnerLogos" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><img class="S7tdd jwuQz" alt="Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Ru1mBvl9WRJ95oQCVTzB7YQwTpq-8wBIy3eLFo5BQ7cTHekZ1fSVg8eZJNh_eE1lxNVFEu" /></span></a></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="3" data-name="CardsLarge" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF XVsP6d"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Ending hostilities in Europe</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Partners from around the world commemorate the final events on the Western front and finding peace</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="mKSIYc" data-cards-count="3"><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/lQUxxY4nqwYA8A" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Events That Led Up To D-Day" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_3_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/lQUxxY4nqwYA8A" data-gaeditorialindex="3" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RH7T502GzJJICcOJyFqdQmBAC6BqDmHefHvdhRnT-wKweazZrVqLyAp5gC2UJboNms2KHuEOc" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">U.S. National Archives</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Events That Led Up To D-Day">The Events That Led Up To D-Day</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The operation that brought together 133,000 land, air, and sea forces">The operation that brought together 133,000 land, air, and sea forces</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="The Events That Led Up To D-Day" data-url="/story/lQUxxY4nqwYA8A" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/lQUxxY4nqwYA8A" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RH7T502GzJJICcOJyFqdQmBAC6BqDmHefHvdhRnT-wKweazZrVqLyAp5gC2UJboNms2KHuEOc"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "The Events That Led Up To D-Day"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/GAVRjTbYFW1zJw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Celebrating VE Day and Remembering Loved Ones" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_3_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/GAVRjTbYFW1zJw" data-gaeditorialindex="3" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SdT-0dxDnvv28FDBexfDq_R_GW-eEQg8-AeQs-TWrVTD7XaIVH9UuKLOS7XB9nGtVTqYAp" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Imperial War Museums</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Celebrating VE Day and Remembering Loved Ones">Celebrating VE Day and Remembering Loved Ones</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="On 7 May 1945, the formal act of military surrender was signed, ending World War Two in Europe">On 7 May 1945, the formal act of military surrender was signed, ending World War Two in Europe</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Celebrating VE Day and Remembering Loved Ones" data-url="/story/GAVRjTbYFW1zJw" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/GAVRjTbYFW1zJw" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SdT-0dxDnvv28FDBexfDq_R_GW-eEQg8-AeQs-TWrVTD7XaIVH9UuKLOS7XB9nGtVTqYAp"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Celebrating VE Day and Remembering Loved Ones"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e VkdScb iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l7LyNci93xs" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;click:EBe6fc" jscontroller="V99V9" data-video-bgsrc="//i1.ytimg.com/vi/l7LyNci93xs/hqdefault.jpg" data-video-youtube-id="l7LyNci93xs" title="See How The Crowds Came Together on VE DAY" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_3_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/asset/ve-day-celebrations/MQFOE3zHGyWBdA" data-gaeditorialindex="3" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//i1.ytimg.com/vi/l7LyNci93xs/hqdefault.jpg" data-ct="c"></div><div class="oPzwQ lXkFp"><svg width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 18 18" focusable="false" class=""><path d="M7 12.5 12.5 9 7 5.5v7ZM9 17a7.796 7.796 0 0 1-3.104-.625 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-2.563-1.708 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-1.708-2.563A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 1 9a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 .625-3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1 4.27-4.271A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 9 1a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 3.104.625c.972.417 1.82.993 2.542 1.73a7.86 7.86 0 0 1 1.729 2.54A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 17 9a7.797 7.797 0 0 1-.625 3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1-4.27 4.27A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 9 17.001Zm0-1.5c1.806 0 3.34-.632 4.604-1.896C14.868 12.34 15.5 10.806 15.5 9s-.632-3.34-1.896-4.604C12.34 3.132 10.806 2.5 9 2.5s-3.34.632-4.604 1.896C3.132 5.66 2.5 7.194 2.5 9s.632 3.34 1.896 4.604C5.66 14.868 7.194 15.5 9 15.5Z"/></svg></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Imperial War Museums</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="See How The Crowds Came Together on VE DAY">See How The Crowds Came Together on VE DAY</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="People gathered together from all over London in the name of peace">People gathered together from all over London in the name of peace</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="See How The Crowds Came Together on VE DAY" data-url="/asset/ve-day-celebrations/MQFOE3zHGyWBdA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/asset/ve-day-celebrations/MQFOE3zHGyWBdA" data-image="//i1.ytimg.com/vi/l7LyNci93xs/hqdefault.jpg"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "See How The Crowds Came Together on VE DAY"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="4" data-name="CardsLarge" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF XVsP6d"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Learning the lessons of the past</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Why we continue to remember</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="mKSIYc" data-cards-count="2"><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/GgUhTOtPbr06KA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Effort to Rebuild Europe" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_4_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/GgUhTOtPbr06KA" data-gaeditorialindex="4" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNg93CYabhtO-THaV_mAKyEb63WNZyU-c5mA0LqpkQPtOVOx0e4eun8is3U_aSGuPdvFPNd269" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">The George C. Marshall Foundation</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Effort to Rebuild Europe">The Effort to Rebuild Europe</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The effect of WWII on children and the impact of The Marshall Plan">The effect of WWII on children and the impact of The Marshall Plan</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="The Effort to Rebuild Europe" data-url="/story/GgUhTOtPbr06KA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/GgUhTOtPbr06KA" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RNg93CYabhtO-THaV_mAKyEb63WNZyU-c5mA0LqpkQPtOVOx0e4eun8is3U_aSGuPdvFPNd269"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; 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mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Impact Of The War On Dutch Daily Life" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_4_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/9AVB6kUuV0xCKw" data-gaeditorialindex="4" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TKi2QtEtf-AaQhQsWEpZUW2mKc02qlN656Gc19FxxsBQo0kzeAMA7IqXPdukfCwQhzNL3-cQ" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Nationaal Comité 4 en 5 mei</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Impact Of The War On Dutch Daily Life">The Impact Of The War On Dutch Daily Life</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The story of the Second World War in 100 objects from collections in the Netherlands">The story of the Second World War in 100 objects from collections in the Netherlands</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="The Impact Of The War On Dutch Daily Life" data-url="/story/9AVB6kUuV0xCKw" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/9AVB6kUuV0xCKw" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TKi2QtEtf-AaQhQsWEpZUW2mKc02qlN656Gc19FxxsBQo0kzeAMA7IqXPdukfCwQhzNL3-cQ"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "The Impact Of The War On Dutch Daily Life"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="5" data-name="TableOfContentsTiles" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Explore the part aeronautics played</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Discover the role that the air forces played in bringing the war to an end</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="FPK5Ae"><div class="dxztSe" jsaction="JZCswc:PkMYQd;IBB03b:rXxpye;" jscontroller="dar0Ff" jsshadow><div class="bYeTje T0wJse" jsaction="click:RfjPw;" aria-hidden="true" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_5_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TableOfContents_leftArrow" data-gaeditorialindex="5" data-gaeditorialname="TableOfContentsTiles" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="A4B6ub" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><svg width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24" class="LKARhb"><path d="M20 11H7.83l5.59-5.59L12 4l-8 8 8 8 1.41-1.41L7.83 13H20v-2z"/><path fill="none" d="M0 0h24v24H0V0z"/></svg></span></div></div><div class="bYeTje CMCEae" jsaction="click:nDU51d;" aria-hidden="true" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_5_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TableOfContents_rightArrow" data-gaeditorialindex="5" data-gaeditorialname="TableOfContentsTiles" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="A4B6ub" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><svg width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24" class="LKARhb"><path d="M20 11H7.83l5.59-5.59L12 4l-8 8 8 8 1.41-1.41L7.83 13H20v-2z"/><path fill="none" d="M0 0h24v24H0V0z"/></svg></span></div></div><div class="z1JkWd NJ4rnc" jsname="vzJc7b"><span jsslot><div class="c2Yf5e U3el0b lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/moments" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Playbook" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_5_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TableOfContents_/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/moments" data-gaeditorialindex="5" data-gaeditorialname="TableOfContentsTiles" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SnzM7xWHhwjacZMLHfOShuvHD1NOr0rJHV8oVjAcyQUYZR7AdM-czMLmyi1e6U0P301hm9R_4" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.0186142921447754" data-ch="0.5101478695869446" data-mw="4968" data-mh="6194" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.40084508061408997"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><span class="M2QpMe">1</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Playbook">The Playbook</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The key aerial events and achievements">The key aerial events and achievements</h4></div><div class="MTxi0"><span class="gwS9Xb">Explore</span></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e U3el0b lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/pilots" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Pilots" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_5_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TableOfContents_/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/pilots" data-gaeditorialindex="5" data-gaeditorialname="TableOfContentsTiles" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SOv-gJcmMeIl1WBT7Zf-mDMUSrkwjC4DRvqU1c0O75KyT9mR-gm2930D9fCOzGWUVPQJeCN9o" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.5942550897598267" data-ch="0.4423753321170807" data-mw="13156" data-mh="10220" data-xp="0.45600780844688416" data-yp="0.36647093296051025"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><span class="M2QpMe">2</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Pilots">The Pilots</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Human stories of bravery, courage, and exceptional lives">Human stories of bravery, courage, and exceptional lives</h4></div><div class="MTxi0"><span class="gwS9Xb">Explore</span></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e U3el0b lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/planes" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Planes" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_5_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TableOfContents_/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/planes" data-gaeditorialindex="5" data-gaeditorialname="TableOfContentsTiles" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QZT8th2eW8Bhgbv2gqsqTbutgdnVECNxwaUfFtJ6j-iG5da71Xqe6CKLNbsxUNuw-1wyFqdNub" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.8240000009536743" data-ch="0.6008827090263367" data-mw="2000" data-mh="1586" data-xp="0.41200000047683716" data-yp="0.4262295067310333"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><span class="M2QpMe">3</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Planes">The Planes</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Learn about icons of aeronautics and remembering their journeys">Learn about icons of aeronautics and remembering their journeys</h4></div><div class="MTxi0"><span class="gwS9Xb">Explore</span></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e U3el0b lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/art" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Posters" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_5_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TableOfContents_/project/smithsonian-world-war-ii/art" data-gaeditorialindex="5" data-gaeditorialname="TableOfContentsTiles" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sk9hxbgzsfy3XbiADY4IA-KWIXuvyVGBs7Njr7up3qbEEOKypKrCH4Dfx4RbJ5Snx6IOTcLrA" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.25608712434768677" data-ch="0.11533045768737793" data-mw="6559" data-mh="8422" data-xp="0.42201724648475647" data-yp="0.32390886545181274"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><span class="M2QpMe">4</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Posters">The Posters</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The role of the arts in the war effort">The role of the arts in the war effort</h4></div><div class="MTxi0"><span class="gwS9Xb">Explore</span></div></span></a></div></span></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="6" data-name="CardsLarge" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF XVsP6d LwLTbf" data-anchor="moments"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Achievements in the air</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Key moments and milestones of WWII</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="mKSIYc" data-cards-count="2"><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/ZAWx8kAhj5P7Jg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Story of the Last American Aerial Conflict in Europe" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_6_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/ZAWx8kAhj5P7Jg" data-gaeditorialindex="6" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TaRZ5lYI-UoxNSrTiDj-XhNrbMLdfUwfjIBOcvEUNxvfMmWWDFpeEWyusV8m7j-wuFCEXo-7I" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Story of the Last American Aerial Conflict in Europe">The Story of the Last American Aerial Conflict in Europe</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The final events before hostilities officially ended an hour before midnight on May 8, 1945">The final events before hostilities officially ended an hour before midnight on May 8, 1945</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="The Story of the Last American Aerial Conflict in Europe" data-url="/story/ZAWx8kAhj5P7Jg" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/ZAWx8kAhj5P7Jg" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TaRZ5lYI-UoxNSrTiDj-XhNrbMLdfUwfjIBOcvEUNxvfMmWWDFpeEWyusV8m7j-wuFCEXo-7I"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "The Story of the Last American Aerial Conflict in Europe"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/EAWxZVI9SBPRKg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Flypast That Celebrated the End of World War II" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_6_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/EAWxZVI9SBPRKg" data-gaeditorialindex="6" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9CSbRPaO7wE1EghmO_T_keQPO1lOrRIbI9pjuhO9hIQuvvq4Gmxm0mIEBIQ1y9NyoX3_4gbh6" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.8327116370201111" data-ch="0.47829505801200867" data-mw="4720" data-mh="4752" data-xp="0.5116215944290161" data-yp="0.35796692967414856"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Flypast That Celebrated the End of World War II">The Flypast That Celebrated the End of World War II</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Remembering the flyover of the USS Missouri during the Japanese surrender ceremony">Remembering the flyover of the USS Missouri during the Japanese surrender ceremony</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="The Flypast That Celebrated the End of World War II" data-url="/story/EAWxZVI9SBPRKg" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/EAWxZVI9SBPRKg" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R9CSbRPaO7wE1EghmO_T_keQPO1lOrRIbI9pjuhO9hIQuvvq4Gmxm0mIEBIQ1y9NyoX3_4gbh6"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "The Flypast That Celebrated the End of World War II"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="7" data-name="Stories" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="m0MoKd"><div class="c2Yf5e VkdScb QqVQEe ctkBAc"><a class="e0WtYb" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N9gyXZUwRdM" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;click:EBe6fc" jscontroller="V99V9" data-video-bgsrc="//i3.ytimg.com/vi/N9gyXZUwRdM/hqdefault.jpg" data-video-youtube-id="N9gyXZUwRdM" title="Preserving the Incredible Stories" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_7_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Stories_item_1_/asset/world-war-ii-victory-in-europe-stem-in-30/0AEMjQz9fr8OiA" data-gaeditorialindex="7" data-gaeditorialname="Stories" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SjJ_ik9ZLmpTi07PzKMhkiwIV9IS-PyDm0yf3D2Llwgsc7syIelY95lh9ibVJ8bLY6ljO3zQ" data-ct="c"></div><div class="oPzwQ lXkFp"><svg width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 18 18" focusable="false" class=""><path d="M7 12.5 12.5 9 7 5.5v7ZM9 17a7.796 7.796 0 0 1-3.104-.625 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-2.563-1.708 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-1.708-2.563A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 1 9a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 .625-3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1 4.27-4.271A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 9 1a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 3.104.625c.972.417 1.82.993 2.542 1.73a7.86 7.86 0 0 1 1.729 2.54A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 17 9a7.797 7.797 0 0 1-.625 3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1-4.27 4.27A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 9 17.001Zm0-1.5c1.806 0 3.34-.632 4.604-1.896C14.868 12.34 15.5 10.806 15.5 9s-.632-3.34-1.896-4.604C12.34 3.132 10.806 2.5 9 2.5s-3.34.632-4.604 1.896C3.132 5.66 2.5 7.194 2.5 9s.632 3.34 1.896 4.604C5.66 14.868 7.194 15.5 9 15.5Z"/></svg></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Video</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Preserving the Incredible Stories">Preserving the Incredible Stories</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="A journey into the pilots and planes with the National Air and Space Museum">A journey into the pilots and planes with the National Air and Space Museum</h4><div class="n8xtxd"><span class="ll2YRb o713je" aria-hidden="true">watch</span></div></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Preserving the Incredible Stories" data-url="/asset/world-war-ii-victory-in-europe-stem-in-30/0AEMjQz9fr8OiA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Stories_item_1_/asset/world-war-ii-victory-in-europe-stem-in-30/0AEMjQz9fr8OiA" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SjJ_ik9ZLmpTi07PzKMhkiwIV9IS-PyDm0yf3D2Llwgsc7syIelY95lh9ibVJ8bLY6ljO3zQ"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce p9Nwte rw97Ub B0hYxd xLR5Vd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Preserving the Incredible Stories"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="8" data-name="SimpleStack" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF" data-anchor="cockpit"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Pilot the planes that helped bring peace</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Explore 3D panoramas of historic cockpits and experience what it was like to be flying the plane</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="uIrnse" jscontroller="dglYtc" jsaction="mouseover:enRSme(ibnC6b); mouseout:Eg1VOd(ibnC6b); touchstart:jcWz(ibnC6b);IBB03b:rXxpye;GvneHb:og1FDd;"><div class="lBGoSc" jsname="SmKAyb"><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="0" data-steps-from-center="2" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_8_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="8" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/DAVRwzWaHQCNsg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_8_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/story/DAVRwzWaHQCNsg" data-gaeditorialindex="8" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RChhIBrfOVqwpiP_UbQBnc7JiayoRrLi2Bb8nCyEWp-gXoW-xcPfbbPFyk23EcCJgjungBCuY" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat">Grumman F4F-4 Wildcat</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="An American standard">An American standard</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="1" data-steps-from-center="1" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_8_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="8" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/KAXBOvMROq9QFw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Messerschmitt Me 262 A-1a Schwalbe" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_8_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/story/KAXBOvMROq9QFw" data-gaeditorialindex="8" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SbfIFrQLu5UO-OKn7btb1AQP412h6FiwF5I0OPdCFJ_XRdsirQvaUtDhKlY5JeNuusx6eTbQY" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Messerschmitt Me 262 A-1a Schwalbe">Messerschmitt Me 262 A-1a Schwalbe</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The swiftest plane in the skies">The swiftest plane in the skies</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve s4l1N" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="2" data-steps-from-center="0" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_8_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="8" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/yAUx45AVyXO7ww" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="North American P-51D" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_8_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/story/yAUx45AVyXO7ww" data-gaeditorialindex="8" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S28UHCTQ4aPrROKDvA7fwPm2Hz-S28qgbrJVbpd102sedjusVPejNXFekofu9_gCrum9p2FA" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="North American P-51D">North American P-51D</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="One of the greatest fighters of WWII">One of the greatest fighters of WWII</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="3" data-steps-from-center="1" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_8_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="8" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb qrsiNe"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/nwVh8vu5z7ucZQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Supermarine Spitfire HF. Mk. VIIc C" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_8_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/story/nwVh8vu5z7ucZQ" data-gaeditorialindex="8" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qtcf3qxNJBc3vcJSaBZ5zQ48vPzKDt85Bubl1-ZgMZGs0vmbzLUfZzArCjGalEaVGOWcS__Ks" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Supermarine Spitfire HF. Mk. VIIc C">Supermarine Spitfire HF. Mk. VIIc C</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="A British air history legend">A British air history legend</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="9" data-name="CardsLarge" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF XVsP6d" data-anchor="pilots"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Heroic pilots</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">The brave people risking their lives in the skies</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="mKSIYc" data-cards-count="5"><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/rwXxBV_kkV28IQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="A Pilot Who Supported the Allied Aviators Against the Odds" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_9_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/rwXxBV_kkV28IQ" data-gaeditorialindex="9" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RTUF5MKgMD2H28CU8ocLm9K3oSl1rRhAF8PIwyWZbYj7ZQe_vWQzpt3pepfnmDa4piExGD6MdQ" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="A Pilot Who Supported the Allied Aviators Against the Odds">A Pilot Who Supported the Allied Aviators Against the Odds</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title=""Pat the Pilot" was an American aviatrix, WAFS member, and Allied liaison">"Pat the Pilot" was an American aviatrix, WAFS member, and Allied liaison</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="A Pilot Who Supported the Allied Aviators Against the Odds" data-url="/story/rwXxBV_kkV28IQ" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/rwXxBV_kkV28IQ" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RTUF5MKgMD2H28CU8ocLm9K3oSl1rRhAF8PIwyWZbYj7ZQe_vWQzpt3pepfnmDa4piExGD6MdQ"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "A Pilot Who Supported the Allied Aviators Against the Odds"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/QwVRpj5n7yv_IQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Ben Kuroki: A Story We All Need to Know" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_9_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/QwVRpj5n7yv_IQ" data-gaeditorialindex="9" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_STNtcl9SGeePXZZEF0ytCK2E_WcPcP-JspQtUBnum8hQgIP9azQhxsQ55QNWm7mcEcB_YDuQ" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.589613437652588" data-ch="0.7742643356323242" data-mw="1280" data-mh="1636" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.3871321678161621"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Ben Kuroki: A Story We All Need to Know">Ben Kuroki: A Story We All Need to Know</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="A decorated pilot and the only Japanese American to serve in air combat in the Pacific">A decorated pilot and the only Japanese American to serve in air combat in the Pacific</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Ben Kuroki: A Story We All Need to Know" data-url="/story/QwVRpj5n7yv_IQ" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/QwVRpj5n7yv_IQ" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_STNtcl9SGeePXZZEF0ytCK2E_WcPcP-JspQtUBnum8hQgIP9azQhxsQ55QNWm7mcEcB_YDuQ"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Ben Kuroki: A Story We All Need to Know"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/rwVRxxx3AW-xLA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Fighter Pilots and Flying Aces" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_9_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/story/rwVRxxx3AW-xLA" data-gaeditorialindex="9" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SftDyAwVXZXeeJq93f1vJZxtMH-m8_p-vLuRezIYqr3u3Rx1ekDrScbqIF4Qjact6Es5ANNps" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.026212453842163" data-ch="0.7028934359550476" data-mw="2825" data-mh="2049" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.3514467179775238"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Fighter Pilots and Flying Aces">Fighter Pilots and Flying Aces</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The lives and legacies of pilots post-war">The lives and legacies of pilots post-war</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Fighter Pilots and Flying Aces" data-url="/story/rwVRxxx3AW-xLA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/story/rwVRxxx3AW-xLA" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SftDyAwVXZXeeJq93f1vJZxtMH-m8_p-vLuRezIYqr3u3Rx1ekDrScbqIF4Qjact6Es5ANNps"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Fighter Pilots and Flying Aces"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/tQVhHCCb_m_qIA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="How “Whitey” Feightner Helped Shape Generations of U.S. Navy Aircraft" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_9_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_4_/story/tQVhHCCb_m_qIA" data-gaeditorialindex="9" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwkdQq4f5VGXOxXIqsxb_-f6bI793izGOqs16faaWijBovsGrIq_OMFZBDNORu8Tg7xFW8-g" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="How “Whitey” Feightner Helped Shape Generations of U.S. Navy Aircraft">How “Whitey” Feightner Helped Shape Generations of U.S. Navy Aircraft</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="How the avid flyer went from Navy test pilot to two-star admiral">How the avid flyer went from Navy test pilot to two-star admiral</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="How “Whitey” Feightner Helped Shape Generations of U.S. Navy Aircraft" data-url="/story/tQVhHCCb_m_qIA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_4_/story/tQVhHCCb_m_qIA" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwkdQq4f5VGXOxXIqsxb_-f6bI793izGOqs16faaWijBovsGrIq_OMFZBDNORu8Tg7xFW8-g"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "How “Whitey” Feightner Helped Shape Generations of U.S. Navy Aircraft"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e VkdScb iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPw9HhfPPlE" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;click:EBe6fc" jscontroller="V99V9" data-video-bgsrc="//i1.ytimg.com/vi/TPw9HhfPPlE/hqdefault.jpg" data-video-youtube-id="TPw9HhfPPlE" title="A Conversation with WWII Veteran Thomas McFadden" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_9_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_5_/asset/a-conversation-with-wwii-veteran-thomas-mcfadden/7gFeA4zZtCOcbg" data-gaeditorialindex="9" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//i1.ytimg.com/vi/TPw9HhfPPlE/hqdefault.jpg" data-ct="c"></div><div class="oPzwQ lXkFp"><svg width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 18 18" focusable="false" class=""><path d="M7 12.5 12.5 9 7 5.5v7ZM9 17a7.796 7.796 0 0 1-3.104-.625 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-2.563-1.708 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-1.708-2.563A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 1 9a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 .625-3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1 4.27-4.271A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 9 1a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 3.104.625c.972.417 1.82.993 2.542 1.73a7.86 7.86 0 0 1 1.729 2.54A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 17 9a7.797 7.797 0 0 1-.625 3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1-4.27 4.27A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 9 17.001Zm0-1.5c1.806 0 3.34-.632 4.604-1.896C14.868 12.34 15.5 10.806 15.5 9s-.632-3.34-1.896-4.604C12.34 3.132 10.806 2.5 9 2.5s-3.34.632-4.604 1.896C3.132 5.66 2.5 7.194 2.5 9s.632 3.34 1.896 4.604C5.66 14.868 7.194 15.5 9 15.5Z"/></svg></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Video</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="A Conversation with WWII Veteran Thomas McFadden">A Conversation with WWII Veteran Thomas McFadden</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The Triple Nickel and WWII Smokejumper shares his story">The Triple Nickel and WWII Smokejumper shares his story</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="A Conversation with WWII Veteran Thomas McFadden" data-url="/asset/a-conversation-with-wwii-veteran-thomas-mcfadden/7gFeA4zZtCOcbg" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_5_/asset/a-conversation-with-wwii-veteran-thomas-mcfadden/7gFeA4zZtCOcbg" data-image="//i1.ytimg.com/vi/TPw9HhfPPlE/hqdefault.jpg"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "A Conversation with WWII Veteran Thomas McFadden"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="10" data-name="SmallBanner" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF perj0e yh923d ysapGc LwLTbf"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>The Tuskegee Airmen</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">The African American aviators breaking barriers while fighting for their country</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="pRW4xf lXkFp"><div class="s9Cgjd"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Who Were The Tuskegee Airmen?</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Discover how they made a pioneering contribution to the war and the end of racial segregation in the American armed forces</h3></div><div class="TuUn3c"><a class="e0WtYb o713je EanbMd FVIKjc" href="/story/EAVBtIoEaIs0JQ" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_10_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SmallBanner_/story/EAVBtIoEaIs0JQ" data-gaeditorialindex="10" data-gaeditorialname="SmallBanner" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><span>Read</span></span></a></div></div><div class="VOsOob" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RolQ17VuGOiJNhWCh9Rm3_CQiHg65LN69PyldR7GZOtwq_ovhsLosh7HKXJu6YDBLFiJnIv_Y" data-cw="0.44873106479644775" data-ch="0.35779356956481934" data-mw="3767" data-mh="2732" data-xp="0.47004827857017517" data-yp="0.493242084980011"></div><div class="m12Xbc"></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="11" data-name="CardsLarge" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF XVsP6d"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="mKSIYc" data-cards-count="4"><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/bQXxBkmTIlWvJA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="A Pattern of Resistance" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_11_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/bQXxBkmTIlWvJA" data-gaeditorialindex="11" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QWXnDw_v4z-Yl1HC3820gnbARYpp6dz2IbLXTfKvagYmtUiWdijTlesihStghXtLGBMrWJm1wB" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.8807692527770996" data-ch="0.6283987760543823" data-mw="1300" data-mh="993" data-xp="0.5596153736114502" data-yp="0.3796575963497162"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="A Pattern of Resistance">A Pattern of Resistance</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The men who risked their careers to stand up against systemic racism">The men who risked their careers to stand up against systemic racism</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="A Pattern of Resistance" data-url="/story/bQXxBkmTIlWvJA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/bQXxBkmTIlWvJA" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QWXnDw_v4z-Yl1HC3820gnbARYpp6dz2IbLXTfKvagYmtUiWdijTlesihStghXtLGBMrWJm1wB"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "A Pattern of Resistance"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/RgUx62NwH-9_Ig" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Mutiny at Freeman Field" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_11_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/RgUx62NwH-9_Ig" data-gaeditorialindex="11" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SyhxRU7xSwskJT1WCkzGFDN5X1uJkZx1oG8E-nl9Ga969GFpx_h0uCQCeVlvyx6evL0TjxE04M" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.9541666507720947" data-ch="0.7428571581840515" data-mw="1200" data-mh="840" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.5"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Mutiny at Freeman Field">The Mutiny at Freeman Field</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="How the airmen led a campaign civil disobedience against segregation">How the airmen led a campaign civil disobedience against segregation</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="The Mutiny at Freeman Field" data-url="/story/RgUx62NwH-9_Ig" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/RgUx62NwH-9_Ig" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SyhxRU7xSwskJT1WCkzGFDN5X1uJkZx1oG8E-nl9Ga969GFpx_h0uCQCeVlvyx6evL0TjxE04M"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "The Mutiny at Freeman Field"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e VkdScb iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZEs4ooL5pj4" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;click:EBe6fc" jscontroller="V99V9" data-video-bgsrc="//i3.ytimg.com/vi/ZEs4ooL5pj4/hqdefault.jpg" data-video-youtube-id="ZEs4ooL5pj4" title="An Interview with Charles McGee" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_11_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/asset/charles-mcgee-s-role-as-a-tuskegee-airman-in-wwii/MAEYsNDaEtw-sw" data-gaeditorialindex="11" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//i3.ytimg.com/vi/ZEs4ooL5pj4/hqdefault.jpg" data-ct="c"></div><div class="oPzwQ lXkFp"><svg width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 18 18" focusable="false" class=""><path d="M7 12.5 12.5 9 7 5.5v7ZM9 17a7.796 7.796 0 0 1-3.104-.625 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-2.563-1.708 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-1.708-2.563A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 1 9a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 .625-3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1 4.27-4.271A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 9 1a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 3.104.625c.972.417 1.82.993 2.542 1.73a7.86 7.86 0 0 1 1.729 2.54A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 17 9a7.797 7.797 0 0 1-.625 3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1-4.27 4.27A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 9 17.001Zm0-1.5c1.806 0 3.34-.632 4.604-1.896C14.868 12.34 15.5 10.806 15.5 9s-.632-3.34-1.896-4.604C12.34 3.132 10.806 2.5 9 2.5s-3.34.632-4.604 1.896C3.132 5.66 2.5 7.194 2.5 9s.632 3.34 1.896 4.604C5.66 14.868 7.194 15.5 9 15.5Z"/></svg></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Video</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="An Interview with Charles McGee">An Interview with Charles McGee</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The Tuskegee Airman and WWII veteran on how they dispelled racial bias">The Tuskegee Airman and WWII veteran on how they dispelled racial bias</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="An Interview with Charles McGee" data-url="/asset/charles-mcgee-s-role-as-a-tuskegee-airman-in-wwii/MAEYsNDaEtw-sw" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/asset/charles-mcgee-s-role-as-a-tuskegee-airman-in-wwii/MAEYsNDaEtw-sw" data-image="//i3.ytimg.com/vi/ZEs4ooL5pj4/hqdefault.jpg"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "An Interview with Charles McGee"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/MAUhp_pZIHtIKw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="A Memorial to a Fallen Hero" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_11_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_4_/story/MAUhp_pZIHtIKw" data-gaeditorialindex="11" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SHIix9TgFsvybK0YjrT-zKdf6v7ueTW6liwBGd1jB1xdD9mf2MRZ9IeztLqSQjVvewXjVHJcZS" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.8859028816223145" data-ch="0.5383160710334778" data-mw="4853" data-mh="5000" data-xp="0.5563569068908691" data-yp="0.49000000953674316"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="A Memorial to a Fallen Hero">A Memorial to a Fallen Hero</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Lt. James L. McCullin Jr was one of the first African American pilots lost in combat">Lt. James L. McCullin Jr was one of the first African American pilots lost in combat</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="A Memorial to a Fallen Hero" data-url="/story/MAUhp_pZIHtIKw" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_4_/story/MAUhp_pZIHtIKw" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SHIix9TgFsvybK0YjrT-zKdf6v7ueTW6liwBGd1jB1xdD9mf2MRZ9IeztLqSQjVvewXjVHJcZS"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "A Memorial to a Fallen Hero"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="12" data-name="Clusters" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF JsQ3Kc"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>The women who made waves</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">The essential role played by women, from pilot WASPs to Navy WAVEs</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="QC52Cd" data-cards-count="4"><div class="c2Yf5e n9YQJf dxOld lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/TgXRjwNH8CUaIw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Making WAVES" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_12_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Cluster_item_1_/story/TgXRjwNH8CUaIw" data-gaeditorialindex="undefined" data-gaeditorialname="undefined" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QH-voSjBpVPVhIEYFzyI2Nl8cdqwUqUvCtVE66Tn5Nk6dl_oja5mcERuUO09ySrBnPotTAej8" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.1619086265563965" data-ch="0.5052106380462646" data-mw="6359" data-mh="8975" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.5099999904632568"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><span class="M2QpMe">The Yeomanettes</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Making WAVES">Making WAVES</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="A brief overview of the women in the United States Naval Reserve during World War II">A brief overview of the women in the United States Naval Reserve during World War II</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e n9YQJf dxOld lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/SgWBd8JZ6LxWIw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Cracking Codes" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_12_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Cluster_item_2_/story/SgWBd8JZ6LxWIw" data-gaeditorialindex="undefined" data-gaeditorialname="undefined" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qi5sHGmb__2nb1EwPNNRwTWK3lrWTdIdQHXG4gj7fcAMO7rHU8TuerosXiNaRkfoP6oeJ98zg" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.8990725874900818" data-ch="0.6875901818275452" data-mw="1833" data-mh="1386" data-xp="0.4495362937450409" data-yp="0.5194805264472961"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><span class="M2QpMe">Cryptologists</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Cracking Codes">Cracking Codes</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Cryptologists in the Navy WAVEs">Cryptologists in the Navy WAVEs</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e n9YQJf dxOld lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/lwWh1GPltixRKg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Flying Planes" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_12_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Cluster_item_3_/story/lwWh1GPltixRKg" data-gaeditorialindex="undefined" data-gaeditorialname="undefined" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TvvM7_eAhIGhL-bEH3QAT7X8l5vsXBom2_orabt4d02bQYIhXI6r1Bq0AfNPfY-_aKgEI6px4-" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.961381196975708" data-ch="0.8750051259994507" data-mw="3000" data-mh="2052" data-xp="0.519309401512146" data-yp="0.43750256299972534"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><span class="M2QpMe">Pilots</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Flying Planes">Flying Planes</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The stories of the WASPs">The stories of the WASPs</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e n9YQJf dxOld lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/ggVxCVD9FVK4Lw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Guiding The Way" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_12_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Cluster_item_4_/story/ggVxCVD9FVK4Lw" data-gaeditorialindex="undefined" data-gaeditorialname="undefined" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuqqvcPw-20yHAbeFc5tmC2atgW0vFqVjp-qvZ_vyJ7yt7EZQume2570vO9bdmjojcb4d0TKI" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><span class="M2QpMe">Navigators</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Guiding The Way">Guiding The Way</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Navigators and Instructors in the WAVEs">Navigators and Instructors in the WAVEs</h4></div></span></a></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="13" data-name="Stories" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Native words, Native warriors</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Discover the incredible stories of the Native American Code Talkers of World War II</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="m0MoKd"><div class="c2Yf5e QqVQEe ctkBAc"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/yAXBAYZ9wwV7Jw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="How Traditional Tribal Languages Were Turned into Life-Saving Codes" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_13_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Stories_item_1_/story/yAXBAYZ9wwV7Jw" data-gaeditorialindex="13" data-gaeditorialname="Stories" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SvJZCIZbhbS3V9g_KK441NNxFcximdvsoaAzsj6MWRtgPWOTz1Za8wetVB6Noe8QSAC_Phfg" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.9319999814033508" data-ch="0.6698181629180908" data-mw="1750" data-mh="1375" data-xp="0.5057142972946167" data-yp="0.36549797654151917"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="How Traditional Tribal Languages Were Turned into Life-Saving Codes">How Traditional Tribal Languages Were Turned into Life-Saving Codes</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Learn of the essential roles played by Native Americans in the military">Learn of the essential roles played by Native Americans in the military</h4><div class="n8xtxd"><span class="ll2YRb o713je" aria-hidden="true">Read</span></div></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="How Traditional Tribal Languages Were Turned into Life-Saving Codes" data-url="/story/yAXBAYZ9wwV7Jw" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Stories_item_1_/story/yAXBAYZ9wwV7Jw" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SvJZCIZbhbS3V9g_KK441NNxFcximdvsoaAzsj6MWRtgPWOTz1Za8wetVB6Noe8QSAC_Phfg"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce p9Nwte rw97Ub B0hYxd xLR5Vd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "How Traditional Tribal Languages Were Turned into Life-Saving Codes"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="14" data-name="TilesRibbon" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF LwLTbf" data-anchor="planes"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>The aircraft that made history</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Discover the different types of planes that skimmed the skies in WWII</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="GAvoBb"><div class="dxztSe" jsaction="JZCswc:PkMYQd;IBB03b:rXxpye;" jscontroller="dar0Ff" jsshadow><div class="bYeTje T0wJse" jsaction="click:RfjPw;" aria-hidden="true" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_leftArrow" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="A4B6ub" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><svg width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24" class="LKARhb"><path d="M20 11H7.83l5.59-5.59L12 4l-8 8 8 8 1.41-1.41L7.83 13H20v-2z"/><path fill="none" d="M0 0h24v24H0V0z"/></svg></span></div></div><div class="bYeTje CMCEae" jsaction="click:nDU51d;" aria-hidden="true" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_rightArrow" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="A4B6ub" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><svg width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24" class="LKARhb"><path d="M20 11H7.83l5.59-5.59L12 4l-8 8 8 8 1.41-1.41L7.83 13H20v-2z"/><path fill="none" d="M0 0h24v24H0V0z"/></svg></span></div></div><div class="z1JkWd NJ4rnc" jsname="vzJc7b"><span jsslot><div class="c2Yf5e t3RZAc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/eAWxR13igw4KKQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Vought OS2U Kingfisher" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_/story/eAWxR13igw4KKQ" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SuVq9y-_tNEbQEAYWbcW359JmBVAKCmQWIJ6LPh7YS7_np8o3wFVGumumYybHVB79um2w4iGLC" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.770177960395813" data-ch="0.6581910848617554" data-mw="4895" data-mh="3120" data-xp="0.5699999928474426" data-yp="0.3290955424308777"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Vought OS2U Kingfisher">The Vought OS2U Kingfisher</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum">Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e t3RZAc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/DQUx6cjop-3dLA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Sikorsky JRS-1" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_/story/DQUx6cjop-3dLA" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TOrxXfMAK7zhpo2RiBQttjlvBGwJsF9Yc0b8R2On5Pb-OrKBRLeJdiB4OT_a5qRdMyzHwiFw" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.9874176383018494" data-ch="0.476500004529953" data-mw="1669" data-mh="2000" data-xp="0.5062912106513977" data-yp="0.5170000195503235"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Sikorsky JRS-1">The Sikorsky JRS-1</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Not just a "Flying Pickup Truck"">Not just a "Flying Pickup Truck"</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e t3RZAc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/rwXRw09550EMKA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_/story/rwXRw09550EMKA" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TC_AGDiXp8cKNiaJrz886dBHmE1hObpoTGvvuuAccKuYlmapuOycoISaKLMZFVSf9cO6jaJMVy" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter">The Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Unmatched in the skies">Unmatched in the skies</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e t3RZAc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/vwXRjGksAG-FIw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Curtiss P-40E" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_/story/vwXRjGksAG-FIw" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SFsM8NaKPDu5YLsnNZ4m1dD-VPX6zIGWEAmOzVzWAyFuCFrPm3fPBEHBAMYpDu71J20MuyHg" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.8500000238418579" data-ch="0.9167567491531372" data-mw="1500" data-mh="925" data-xp="0.574999988079071" data-yp="0.4583783745765686"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Curtiss P-40E">The Curtiss P-40E</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The incredible story of Lope's Hope">The incredible story of Lope's Hope</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e t3RZAc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/5wXh3e3K0CcTLA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Ilyushin Il-2" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_/story/5wXh3e3K0CcTLA" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R5ec-4PiLS8WNuOqExdd-dpJw9g45EQbzib7wcsI-VAQDeoc-pIAW0ACMs5GRlQvhR67DxEcYY" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Ilyushin Il-2">The Ilyushin Il-2</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The Soviet Union's "flying tank"">The Soviet Union's "flying tank"</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e t3RZAc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/PAXhMdkzDf9hJQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The C-49 Control Car" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_/story/PAXhMdkzDf9hJQ" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qr9J9zIb_jk9dfuT86jjMkgG4ClTRBY5Nq47bOJmse-atO3LA45OyBoZCpypWG3Iutjg65XxA" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.4847058951854706" data-ch="0.3781746029853821" data-mw="3400" data-mh="2520" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.5"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The C-49 Control Car">The C-49 Control Car</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="From WWII to sports stadiums">From WWII to sports stadiums</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e t3RZAc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/PQXRSTonSh5ELA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The P-38 Lightning and the SR-71 Blackbird." data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_/story/PQXRSTonSh5ELA" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QfvoUYhh5_tvXJxwNTTsNbXj04myzTgT97itCq4d5-giYpbzwWD9QBtxM9Tc9WILLD4V6QJw" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.814823567867279" data-ch="0.6237338185310364" data-mw="6137" data-mh="4922" data-xp="0.41999998688697815" data-yp="0.6234254240989685"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The P-38 Lightning and the SR-71 Blackbird.">The P-38 Lightning and the SR-71 Blackbird.</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="A shared history and connection">A shared history and connection</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e t3RZAc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/twUxI-HGAo_AJw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Kawanishi N1K2-J Shiden Kai" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_/story/twUxI-HGAo_AJw" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TJt5F1UxQZJouH-F4FoUhPd3Y2CESSPyLTirZNyEHQmyP18kbL9xSBHSUl3gPK8XKYDs_FCfzO" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Kawanishi N1K2-J Shiden Kai">The Kawanishi N1K2-J Shiden Kai</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="A notable Japanese naval plane">A notable Japanese naval plane</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e t3RZAc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/uAUhPCXqDwCVIA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Curtiss SB2C Helldiver" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_14_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_TilesRibbon_/story/uAUhPCXqDwCVIA" data-gaeditorialindex="14" data-gaeditorialname="TilesRibbon" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TUeodiMwK4-i-bqESJ_2a0H0Al0Rr15BhotndEJSOxtW1Zmffwz4EqXX-PynP9_0UhgCmhBjU" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.8998463153839111" data-ch="0.37825092673301697" data-mw="7581" data-mh="9890" data-xp="0.5348766446113586" data-yp="0.49000000953674316"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Curtiss SB2C Helldiver">The Curtiss SB2C Helldiver</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The "Big-tailed beast"">The "Big-tailed beast"</h4></div></span></a></div></span></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="15" data-name="Stories" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="m0MoKd"><div class="c2Yf5e VkdScb QqVQEe ctkBAc"><a class="e0WtYb" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kOl6tyP92UY" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;click:EBe6fc" jscontroller="V99V9" data-video-bgsrc="//i4.ytimg.com/vi/kOl6tyP92UY/hqdefault.jpg" data-video-youtube-id="kOl6tyP92UY" title="Discover What Made B-17 A Flying Fortress" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_15_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Stories_item_1_/asset/a-look-at-the-b-17-flying-fortress-bomber/YwGknhtnxFCNgQ" data-gaeditorialindex="15" data-gaeditorialname="Stories" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXsc2dTf5mSfz9rhpUhyxVNZuwsZHmxIMGP45m2fU9fUm6TmLH9ZLDUmodipuJKVTVjApiug" data-ct="c"></div><div class="oPzwQ lXkFp"><svg width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 18 18" focusable="false" class=""><path d="M7 12.5 12.5 9 7 5.5v7ZM9 17a7.796 7.796 0 0 1-3.104-.625 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-2.563-1.708 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-1.708-2.563A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 1 9a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 .625-3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1 4.27-4.271A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 9 1a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 3.104.625c.972.417 1.82.993 2.542 1.73a7.86 7.86 0 0 1 1.729 2.54A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 17 9a7.797 7.797 0 0 1-.625 3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1-4.27 4.27A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 9 17.001Zm0-1.5c1.806 0 3.34-.632 4.604-1.896C14.868 12.34 15.5 10.806 15.5 9s-.632-3.34-1.896-4.604C12.34 3.132 10.806 2.5 9 2.5s-3.34.632-4.604 1.896C3.132 5.66 2.5 7.194 2.5 9s.632 3.34 1.896 4.604C5.66 14.868 7.194 15.5 9 15.5Z"/></svg></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Video</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Discover What Made B-17 A Flying Fortress">Discover What Made B-17 A Flying Fortress</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="It was big, slow and loud. So how did it defend itself?">It was big, slow and loud. So how did it defend itself?</h4><div class="n8xtxd"><span class="ll2YRb o713je" aria-hidden="true">Watch</span></div></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Discover What Made B-17 A Flying Fortress" data-url="/asset/a-look-at-the-b-17-flying-fortress-bomber/YwGknhtnxFCNgQ" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_Stories_item_1_/asset/a-look-at-the-b-17-flying-fortress-bomber/YwGknhtnxFCNgQ" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXsc2dTf5mSfz9rhpUhyxVNZuwsZHmxIMGP45m2fU9fUm6TmLH9ZLDUmodipuJKVTVjApiug"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce p9Nwte rw97Ub B0hYxd xLR5Vd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Discover What Made B-17 A Flying Fortress"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="16" data-name="CardsLarge" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF XVsP6d"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Engineering built to last</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">The incredible story of how an Air Force Martin B-26 Marauder became an icon</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="mKSIYc" data-cards-count="2"><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/tQURsL5ybe_kIQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="How Flak-Bait Survived 200 Missions and 1,000 Holes" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_16_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/tQURsL5ybe_kIQ" data-gaeditorialindex="16" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SgpukOwA33nxpAF_s6ebmW0SY6xb6SCQDSenT8U9TILUz9CUmwQt5EVUgJbp0SWWxqK1pSP-A" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.8716190457344055" data-ch="0.8468642830848694" data-mw="6000" data-mh="3866" data-xp="0.4399999976158142" data-yp="0.5121572613716125"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="How Flak-Bait Survived 200 Missions and 1,000 Holes">How Flak-Bait Survived 200 Missions and 1,000 Holes</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="A closer look at its history, achievements, and graffiti">A closer look at its history, achievements, and graffiti</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="How Flak-Bait Survived 200 Missions and 1,000 Holes" data-url="/story/tQURsL5ybe_kIQ" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/tQURsL5ybe_kIQ" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SgpukOwA33nxpAF_s6ebmW0SY6xb6SCQDSenT8U9TILUz9CUmwQt5EVUgJbp0SWWxqK1pSP-A"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "How Flak-Bait Survived 200 Missions and 1,000 Holes"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/vQVx-IGeLxy0IA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Preserving Flak-Bait: Reversing a 1970s Restoration" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_16_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/vQVx-IGeLxy0IA" data-gaeditorialindex="16" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QlW5uItK9nwkhU5Wj8KfwPBSxMfN58XhIGBV9Nd2IAqU5mPxDSLausXrmvzR9D4Tk96mQizQ" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.9475056529045105" data-ch="0.6699404716491699" data-mw="3000" data-mh="2380" data-xp="0.4932078421115875" data-yp="0.4368586540222168"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Preserving Flak-Bait: Reversing a 1970s Restoration">Preserving Flak-Bait: Reversing a 1970s Restoration</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Keeping Flak-Bait in fighting shape for years to come">Keeping Flak-Bait in fighting shape for years to come</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Preserving Flak-Bait: Reversing a 1970s Restoration" data-url="/story/vQVx-IGeLxy0IA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/vQVx-IGeLxy0IA" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QlW5uItK9nwkhU5Wj8KfwPBSxMfN58XhIGBV9Nd2IAqU5mPxDSLausXrmvzR9D4Tk96mQizQ"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Preserving Flak-Bait: Reversing a 1970s Restoration"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="17" data-name="CardsLarge" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF XVsP6d"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Flying to new heights</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">How World War II led to new technological breakthroughs</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="mKSIYc" data-cards-count="5"><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/MAUB811LhYCkKw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Farewell to the Flying Boat" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_17_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/MAUB811LhYCkKw" data-gaeditorialindex="17" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QeGLeSqMWo0CXgcDsgU-AEqizDlQDi5ltefNCUYoU4dxEc71DGnGi0mBKhH_BLc-Bgg3FyPBw" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.6629659533500671" data-ch="0.5154832601547241" data-mw="6118" data-mh="4830" data-xp="0.4000000059604645" data-yp="0.49399998784065247"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Farewell to the Flying Boat">Farewell to the Flying Boat</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="The birth of commercial air travel as we know it">The birth of commercial air travel as we know it</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Farewell to the Flying Boat" data-url="/story/MAUB811LhYCkKw" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/MAUB811LhYCkKw" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QeGLeSqMWo0CXgcDsgU-AEqizDlQDi5ltefNCUYoU4dxEc71DGnGi0mBKhH_BLc-Bgg3FyPBw"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Farewell to the Flying Boat"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/xQWRUEghqqVULA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Blimps vs. Boats" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_17_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/xQWRUEghqqVULA" data-gaeditorialindex="17" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R1FB14iAcYJ2HSv2_Bziiv2J7w575ttKMNddB9fQdCjNiHIHikhj7D9P3pkgEOMuupK4KJxA" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.2716970443725586" data-ch="0.9965939521789551" data-mw="2676" data-mh="2096" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.49829697608947754"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Blimps vs. Boats">Blimps vs. Boats</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Searching for submarines from the skies">Searching for submarines from the skies</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Blimps vs. Boats" data-url="/story/xQWRUEghqqVULA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/xQWRUEghqqVULA" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R1FB14iAcYJ2HSv2_Bziiv2J7w575ttKMNddB9fQdCjNiHIHikhj7D9P3pkgEOMuupK4KJxA"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Blimps vs. Boats"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/RAUB4vQWTLRfLQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Sleeker, Faster, and More Aerodynamic" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_17_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/story/RAUB4vQWTLRfLQ" data-gaeditorialindex="17" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RwqUaJgjObkXC9T9fWKSe9ydEq3q0p07Ic3zWMkhH5KYGm5QoEFc6uBJYfxHbQzcn9ikRoS7w" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.8480084538459778" data-ch="0.6633001565933228" data-mw="3041" data-mh="2432" data-xp="0.5099999904632568" data-yp="0.4126356840133667"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Sleeker, Faster, and More Aerodynamic">Sleeker, Faster, and More Aerodynamic</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="How the NACA Full Scale Wind Tunnel advanced the design of planes">How the NACA Full Scale Wind Tunnel advanced the design of planes</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Sleeker, Faster, and More Aerodynamic" data-url="/story/RAUB4vQWTLRfLQ" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/story/RAUB4vQWTLRfLQ" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RwqUaJgjObkXC9T9fWKSe9ydEq3q0p07Ic3zWMkhH5KYGm5QoEFc6uBJYfxHbQzcn9ikRoS7w"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Sleeker, Faster, and More Aerodynamic"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/_wVR8zpg9UmgLg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Myth of the German “Wonder Weapons”" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_17_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_4_/story/_wVR8zpg9UmgLg" data-gaeditorialindex="17" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7oBuNXziNSvMz8KAnkRz0pXu0tZdSty8LzHZRxBbuGwOrhsVvE7csq-HibLTM7JTC30IfduQ" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.7894726395606995" data-ch="0.8055499196052551" data-mw="6465" data-mh="3964" data-xp="0.4699999988079071" data-yp="0.42404136061668396"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Myth of the German “Wonder Weapons”">The Myth of the German “Wonder Weapons”</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="A race between the Allies and the Axis">A race between the Allies and the Axis</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="The Myth of the German “Wonder Weapons”" data-url="/story/_wVR8zpg9UmgLg" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_4_/story/_wVR8zpg9UmgLg" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T7oBuNXziNSvMz8KAnkRz0pXu0tZdSty8LzHZRxBbuGwOrhsVvE7csq-HibLTM7JTC30IfduQ"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "The Myth of the German “Wonder Weapons”"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e VkdScb iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1POohDe5q5c" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;;click:EBe6fc" jscontroller="V99V9" data-video-bgsrc="//i2.ytimg.com/vi/1POohDe5q5c/hqdefault.jpg" data-video-youtube-id="1POohDe5q5c" title="The History of LORAN Navigation" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_17_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_5_/asset/history-of-the-loran-system/FgGmxd65E0K8qQ" data-gaeditorialindex="17" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TribkiQCfeM28Vlryts1GxJerrHJZSQ_cZIOkTHKFkYsIic2vdjilsYuY-BPPTSk9EYRkOgg" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.0451492071151733" data-ch="0.7689939737319946" data-mw="10984" data-mh="8637" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.5"></div><div class="oPzwQ lXkFp"><svg width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 18 18" focusable="false" class=""><path d="M7 12.5 12.5 9 7 5.5v7ZM9 17a7.796 7.796 0 0 1-3.104-.625 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-2.563-1.708 8.28 8.28 0 0 1-1.708-2.563A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 1 9a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 .625-3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1 4.27-4.271A7.797 7.797 0 0 1 9 1a7.7 7.7 0 0 1 3.104.625c.972.417 1.82.993 2.542 1.73a7.86 7.86 0 0 1 1.729 2.54A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 17 9a7.797 7.797 0 0 1-.625 3.104 8.027 8.027 0 0 1-4.27 4.27A7.7 7.7 0 0 1 9 17.001Zm0-1.5c1.806 0 3.34-.632 4.604-1.896C14.868 12.34 15.5 10.806 15.5 9s-.632-3.34-1.896-4.604C12.34 3.132 10.806 2.5 9 2.5s-3.34.632-4.604 1.896C3.132 5.66 2.5 7.194 2.5 9s.632 3.34 1.896 4.604C5.66 14.868 7.194 15.5 9 15.5Z"/></svg></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Video</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The History of LORAN Navigation">The History of LORAN Navigation</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="A new top secret system to navigate the seas">A new top secret system to navigate the seas</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="The History of LORAN Navigation" data-url="/asset/history-of-the-loran-system/FgGmxd65E0K8qQ" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_5_/asset/history-of-the-loran-system/FgGmxd65E0K8qQ" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TribkiQCfeM28Vlryts1GxJerrHJZSQ_cZIOkTHKFkYsIic2vdjilsYuY-BPPTSk9EYRkOgg"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "The History of LORAN Navigation"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="18" data-name="SimpleStack" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF" data-anchor="art"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Posters for the people</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Explore newly digitized posters from around the world</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="uIrnse" jscontroller="dglYtc" jsaction="mouseover:enRSme(ibnC6b); mouseout:Eg1VOd(ibnC6b); touchstart:jcWz(ibnC6b);IBB03b:rXxpye;GvneHb:og1FDd;"><div class="lBGoSc" jsname="SmKAyb"><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="0" data-steps-from-center="5" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/la-r-a-f-bombarde-san-relâche-les-industries-de-guerre-allemandes-la-victoire-des-allies-est-assuree/AAFtYMH_rMvL2g" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="La victoire des allies est assuree" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/la-r-a-f-bombarde-san-relâche-les-industries-de-guerre-allemandes-la-victoire-des-allies-est-assuree/AAFtYMH_rMvL2g" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #d1cac7;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RGM3VkQkNWhe0szL_eRSR0fdWrKDbBGYgWRwKr86OcVj4CIiI22Q052cbiWEkwkVGDn8J8qbo" data-ct="c" data-ia="6057,8889,1338,4526,2125,4164"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="La victoire des allies est assuree">La victoire des allies est assuree</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="1" data-steps-from-center="4" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/back-them-up/bwFHX4G4yB2SMQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Back them up!" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/back-them-up/bwFHX4G4yB2SMQ" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e1d0b8;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T4e0I-7a8c0KEZsCt5_3TPygF7Z8X684XvwWXLwtXDkKJRV04uQbLO7B7z0VqZmAaiFwJdOQ" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Back them up!">Back them up!</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="2" data-steps-from-center="3" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/let-s-go-canada/7wFvsv1urYshkA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Let's go Canada!" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/let-s-go-canada/7wFvsv1urYshkA" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e8dfc9;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R5OApDDGV56oAC5OK60EYiNbq_w9nLHkBxXwIb2h7Lke0nwZm_Ona33DnECdS483CMbQTsEw" data-ct="c" data-ia="4212,6134,1339,2444,756,2040,1019,3623,858,4545"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Let's go Canada!">Let's go Canada!</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="3" data-steps-from-center="2" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/united-the-united-nations-fight-for-freedom-office-of-war-information-washington-d-c-and-ragan-leslie/4QGTuyNKXJQnfA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="United" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/united-the-united-nations-fight-for-freedom-office-of-war-information-washington-d-c-and-ragan-leslie/4QGTuyNKXJQnfA" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #d4c5c7;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RPC1v6Yb2qsPqizPC9wV7qgoq7m_qG_82b4UEsiqFUwEaxuicjqcLATiaaj2DMjK7nowYOsi5k" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="United">United</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="4" data-steps-from-center="1" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/he-s-your-boy-back-him-up-with-more-ge-production-q-q-v-general-electric-company-general-electric-company/-gG8R1odkDlICg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="He's your boy!" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/he-s-your-boy-back-him-up-with-more-ge-production-q-q-v-general-electric-company-general-electric-company/-gG8R1odkDlICg" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #cecdca;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RJIWjjN4j5qkYBQpfRbChV_PDhPac6SK97Y4-T4fM9SxZ6yMoksuzgDWYeMEOObauZvv1Ub3A" data-ct="c" data-ia="6894,9026,2974,4663,1263,2355,1708,5929,1263,6718"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="He's your boy!">He's your boy!</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve s4l1N" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="5" data-steps-from-center="0" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/we-can-do-it-miller-j-howard/6AEtqBiZKzphhw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="We can do it!" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/we-can-do-it-miller-j-howard/6AEtqBiZKzphhw" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RBVA8lsIMUsdFMewczqnjmM6CzNG8hWDtDl5r188dLTCptlKl3pXrUTkKgCOBu0PBc49YKTCU" data-ct="c" data-ia="2358,3000,235,1153,540,1608,122,2239,197,2966"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="We can do it!">We can do it!</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="6" data-steps-from-center="1" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb qrsiNe"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/libertÉ-affiche-executee-sous-l-occupation-allemande/JQGBmlnlrt1xeg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Liberté" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/libertÉ-affiche-executee-sous-l-occupation-allemande/JQGBmlnlrt1xeg" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #dec6bb;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Sf87VPMvfR0MkGG611XdbG6p9cTBUUBC-SJ7dVVwOCqd8gplWOGRvc3i5ODc7h5CK-UZS-qKk" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Liberté">Liberté</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="7" data-steps-from-center="2" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb qrsiNe"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/ours-to-fight-for-freedom-from-want-office-of-war-information-washington-d-c-and-rockwell-norman-1894-1978/XAGmnp9-Pkrj9g" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Ours to fight for" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/ours-to-fight-for-freedom-from-want-office-of-war-information-washington-d-c-and-rockwell-norman-1894-1978/XAGmnp9-Pkrj9g" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e7d9c6;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T3pPexhcA42tbxGvqELaEPYduKiIJdnvK7VWy7iAwHg9CuIEYPLDR4_aFd7Z0_5IKq3cPXOUPY" data-ct="c" data-ia="7887,10690,5650,6827,5309,6673"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Ours to fight for">Ours to fight for</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="8" data-steps-from-center="3" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb qrsiNe"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/the-dutch-fight-on-to-victory/EgFHPU-dqAfX5w" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Dutch fight" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/the-dutch-fight-on-to-victory/EgFHPU-dqAfX5w" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #bccddc;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q_IFF9M-IkNJkVCgK_PRjxJkcDZu21it6GFwKh0-omevqG8_qU8cYRPwabKQgLyMkNnvEQjog" data-ct="c" data-ia="5346,7181,1652,3682,553,1826,130,5204,553,6915"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Dutch fight">The Dutch fight</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="9" data-steps-from-center="4" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb qrsiNe"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/we-want-your-kitchen-waste-keep-it-dry-free-from-glass-bones-tins/RAGdChDjc86E1g" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="We want your kitchen waste" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_18_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/we-want-your-kitchen-waste-keep-it-dry-free-from-glass-bones-tins/RAGdChDjc86E1g" data-gaeditorialindex="18" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e1bfb8;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_STz24ZW6C1kRQvcFukpIfeNnkybs9OPFNQsMGwxgoEmRINBzsY0BJqfc3rGBVOJbXZm7B-Rg" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="We want your kitchen waste">We want your kitchen waste</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="19" data-name="SmallBanner" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF perj0e yh923d ysapGc"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="pRW4xf lXkFp"><div class="s9Cgjd"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Explore the poster collections by color</span></h2></div><div class="TuUn3c"><a class="e0WtYb o713je EanbMd FVIKjc" href="/color?project=world-war-ii-posters" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_19_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SmallBanner_/color?project=world-war-ii-posters" data-gaeditorialindex="19" data-gaeditorialname="SmallBanner" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><span>Pick a color</span></span></a></div></div><div class="VOsOob" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SbVzFxr55RLT_dYVDYy1ip_YJ3Y7PZUIPBtJoXxzkkI2j0VH4FtIm7Yux--3_EAy_gqlfzOwM"></div><div class="m12Xbc"></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="20" data-name="CardsLarge" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF XVsP6d"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Paintbrushes, posters, and politics</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">The contributions of artists, designers, animators, and more to the war effort</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="mKSIYc" data-cards-count="3"><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/wgVhZV_xAOhiLA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Remembering World War II Through Art" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_20_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/wgVhZV_xAOhiLA" data-gaeditorialindex="20" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S4YEV6L3q7eOhqMdrh9QGHM1bWjSJLsKXTkQf23x-C3X8o-AlyBTqgxvikryaMKJs_g-D3Ffwq" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Remembering World War II Through Art">Remembering World War II Through Art</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Learning from Air Force veteran Robert Jordan's painting "November 1944"">Learning from Air Force veteran Robert Jordan's painting "November 1944"</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Remembering World War II Through Art" data-url="/story/wgVhZV_xAOhiLA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/wgVhZV_xAOhiLA" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_S4YEV6L3q7eOhqMdrh9QGHM1bWjSJLsKXTkQf23x-C3X8o-AlyBTqgxvikryaMKJs_g-D3Ffwq"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Remembering World War II Through Art"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/BQXhuqy5geSMLA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="How Mickey Mouse Raised Morale" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_20_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/BQXhuqy5geSMLA" data-gaeditorialindex="20" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QaM4SnwMIm-jGqM2Jd6-yUmk0B6rOcEgxj9kiwC1lLcoORxgj8qbwIB6lIWEbZJj3ABTEZG1E" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.42169907689094543" data-ch="0.16235093772411346" data-mw="3908" data-mh="5870" data-xp="0.5017911791801453" data-yp="0.48040884733200073"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="How Mickey Mouse Raised Morale">How Mickey Mouse Raised Morale</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Disney dives into WWII">Disney dives into WWII</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="How Mickey Mouse Raised Morale" data-url="/story/BQXhuqy5geSMLA" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/BQXhuqy5geSMLA" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QaM4SnwMIm-jGqM2Jd6-yUmk0B6rOcEgxj9kiwC1lLcoORxgj8qbwIB6lIWEbZJj3ABTEZG1E"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "How Mickey Mouse Raised Morale"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/tgWh1RI-J9l4Kg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Strike Hard, Strike Sure" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_20_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/story/tgWh1RI-J9l4Kg" data-gaeditorialindex="20" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TbTWRQOd9Opgvmw_3sy2s37tI1h9Z_inyA-hvvKc1Hrqpm8iWLgpsqK2afDonjQhXVEOr0-ghS" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.609017014503479" data-ch="0.22029589116573334" data-mw="2706" data-mh="4326" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.5"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="Strike Hard, Strike Sure">Strike Hard, Strike Sure</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Poster-sized education for the public">Poster-sized education for the public</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="Strike Hard, Strike Sure" data-url="/story/tgWh1RI-J9l4Kg" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_3_/story/tgWh1RI-J9l4Kg" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TbTWRQOd9Opgvmw_3sy2s37tI1h9Z_inyA-hvvKc1Hrqpm8iWLgpsqK2afDonjQhXVEOr0-ghS"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "Strike Hard, Strike Sure"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="21" data-name="CardsLarge" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF XVsP6d"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Photos from the front</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">The photographic legacy of WWII</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="mKSIYc" data-cards-count="2"><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/5wVxlUkSrbrHKg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="World War II in Color" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_21_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/5wVxlUkSrbrHKg" data-gaeditorialindex="21" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwD4-rcJCrQcKIb5r8PVfPksZOfL_kuJ9IALqyR_eNjfW_stIXXI0EdDsOqKuA_emwohBNyw" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="World War II in Color">World War II in Color</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Rare color photographs reveal new aspects of life in WWII">Rare color photographs reveal new aspects of life in WWII</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="World War II in Color" data-url="/story/5wVxlUkSrbrHKg" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_1_/story/5wVxlUkSrbrHKg" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_TwD4-rcJCrQcKIb5r8PVfPksZOfL_kuJ9IALqyR_eNjfW_stIXXI0EdDsOqKuA_emwohBNyw"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "World War II in Color"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iI1ZM"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/story/zgWxN3jnPUdkKQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Women Pilots of WWII" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_21_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/zgWxN3jnPUdkKQ" data-gaeditorialindex="21" data-gaeditorialname="CardsLarge" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rp_MYsNfJua2TNoQKk5nR7HmbpsI3ji89Mu3opelrpN-sjrKDtNsy7UFTuM-ky2xDVSHBesOc" data-ct="c"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb mKJNXe"><span class="M2QpMe">Online Exhibit</span><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Women Pilots of WWII">The Women Pilots of WWII</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Newly digitized photos shine a spotlight on the lives of women pilots">Newly digitized photos shine a spotlight on the lives of women pilots</h4></div></span></a><div class="cCNe0 lXkFp" jscontroller="acWgwb" jsaction="JIbuQc:UEmoBd; click: UEmoBd(ru89He),UEmoBd(FQhpwf);R7KM6d:r1oohb;AqyeSc:wiqaSb;" data-title="The Women Pilots of WWII" data-url="/story/zgWxN3jnPUdkKQ" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_CardsLarge_item_2_/story/zgWxN3jnPUdkKQ" data-image="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rp_MYsNfJua2TNoQKk5nR7HmbpsI3ji89Mu3opelrpN-sjrKDtNsy7UFTuM-ky2xDVSHBesOc"><div role="button" class="U26fgb mUbCce fKz7Od rw97Ub B0hYxd iT6Vrc M9Bg4d" jscontroller="VXdfxd" jsaction="click:cOuCgd(preventDefault=true); mousedown:UX7yZ; mouseup:lbsD7e; mouseenter:tfO1Yc; mouseleave:JywGue; focus:AHmuwe; blur:O22p3e; contextmenu:mg9Pef;touchstart:p6p2H; touchmove:FwuNnf; touchend:yfqBxc(preventDefault=true); touchcancel:JMtRjd;" jsshadow jsname="ymIaV" aria-label="Share "The Women Pilots of WWII"" aria-disabled="false" tabindex="0" title="Share"><div class="VTBa7b MbhUzd" jsname="ksKsZd"></div><span jsslot class="xjKiLb"><span class="Ce1Y1c" style="top: -12px"><svg width="18" height="20" class="Wdgiwc"><path d="M15 14c-.79 0-1.5.31-2.03.81L5.91 10.7c.05-.23.09-.46.09-.7s-.04-.47-.09-.7l7.05-4.11c.53.5 1.25.81 2.04.81 1.66 0 3-1.34 3-3s-1.34-3-3-3-3 1.34-3 3c0 .24.04.48.09.7L5.04 7.81C4.5 7.31 3.79 7 3 7c-1.66 0-3 1.34-3 3s1.34 3 3 3c.79 0 1.5-.31 2.04-.81l7.05 4.12c-.05.22-.09.45-.09.69 0 1.66 1.34 3 3 3s3-1.34 3-3-1.34-3-3-3zm0-12c.55 0 1 .45 1 1s-.45 1-1 1-1-.45-1-1 .45-1 1-1zM3 11c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1zm12 7c-.55 0-1-.45-1-1s.45-1 1-1 1 .45 1 1-.45 1-1 1z"/></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="22" data-name="SimpleStack" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Loose lips sink ships</span></h2><h3 class="y4FzZb oxUh3d">Countries around the world reminded citizens that careless talk costs lives</h3></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="uIrnse" jscontroller="dglYtc" jsaction="mouseover:enRSme(ibnC6b); mouseout:Eg1VOd(ibnC6b); touchstart:jcWz(ibnC6b);IBB03b:rXxpye;GvneHb:og1FDd;"><div class="lBGoSc" jsname="SmKAyb"><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="0" data-steps-from-center="3" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/the-enemy-has-long-ears-we-in-scotland-must-be-most-careful-not-to-give-away-anything-about-h-m-ships-careless-talk-costs-lives-and-ships/KgESRNzMuCmaUw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Enemy Has Long Ears" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/the-enemy-has-long-ears-we-in-scotland-must-be-most-careful-not-to-give-away-anything-about-h-m-ships-careless-talk-costs-lives-and-ships/KgESRNzMuCmaUw" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e1bcb8;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Rb4OU0CVgjJO5zFL3R7T_c7-GJAfnv4z4FkafSsAKrhg021-moPv36CYR93H1H8JviMFGP6VM" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.086298942565918" data-ch="0.5035526752471924" data-mw="4949" data-mh="6552" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.3799999952316284"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="The Enemy Has Long Ears">The Enemy Has Long Ears</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="1" data-steps-from-center="2" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/hold-your-tongue/eQE4uhBrr7mABQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Hold Your Tongue" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/hold-your-tongue/eQE4uhBrr7mABQ" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e9deca;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QuZx3zKTqVTfCWyhvfq4XePbaCXZLm87OGdvk-kzagF_jLBPLfxrI03o8o9TSprS0-wJmUtIQ" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.9629695415496826" data-ch="0.8285166025161743" data-mw="2891" data-mh="4200" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.5199999809265137"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Hold Your Tongue">Hold Your Tongue</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="2" data-steps-from-center="1" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb oyCJYc"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/qui-a-trop-parlé/IwE8GqhpaNwTcw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Qui a trop parlé?" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/qui-a-trop-parlé/IwE8GqhpaNwTcw" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e1cfb8;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R8ZLSzXTXEHl7GFGvX1EjNjk7SwD5D_v2NpCROFkUU3mCivIailjIgda6Dq42rTK34DvT4hSLu" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.9676517248153687" data-ch="0.4429025650024414" data-mw="5045" data-mh="6766" data-xp="0.4828067421913147" data-yp="0.2090541571378708"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Qui a trop parlé?">Qui a trop parlé?</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve s4l1N" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="3" data-steps-from-center="0" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/loose-lips-might-sink-ships-seagram-distillers-corporation-seagram-distillers-corporation-new-york-and-goff-henry-sharp-jr-essargee/qQF7PHtvg2l0EQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Loose Lips Sink Ships" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/loose-lips-might-sink-ships-seagram-distillers-corporation-seagram-distillers-corporation-new-york-and-goff-henry-sharp-jr-essargee/qQF7PHtvg2l0EQ" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #b9d9e0;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RTRtBWNC1QUVxf7km2e6OuZnQ0_4c3EGmxes2vM1dPMBoGnBKhQi8PPk77kesOxq5x7bEru6U" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.2433898448944092" data-ch="0.5876340866088867" data-mw="6435" data-mh="8359" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.29381704330444336"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Loose Lips Sink Ships">Loose Lips Sink Ships</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="4" data-steps-from-center="1" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb qrsiNe"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/keep-mum-she-s-not-so-dumb-careless-talk-costs-lives/GAEIUq3ilee2JQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Keep Mum" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/keep-mum-she-s-not-so-dumb-careless-talk-costs-lives/GAEIUq3ilee2JQ" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e5d8c2;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qe9OPzZyUr8MErKtaLNcRVLewn413w1iY8eySqDUZYTJDRxIZLqn3e04Dy0rM5EhYna6BXOw" data-ct="c" data-ia="3398,5068,1810,2634,620,1580,1089,1689,882,1580,1410,3178,657,2965,265,1771,684,2965"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Keep Mum">Keep Mum</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="5" data-steps-from-center="2" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb qrsiNe"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/il-part-ce-soir-indiscrÉtion-catastrophe-se-taire-c-est-servir/cQFp0AwVyOdw3w" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Se Taire, C'est Servir" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/il-part-ce-soir-indiscrÉtion-catastrophe-se-taire-c-est-servir/cQFp0AwVyOdw3w" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #d0cdc9;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R3F7VirM4kYdAW_lX-VBdiyLT0cXnzbJJDo2n5Ua--h6HEZwXRpmIBtgKoFT917xi8YVYZlKs" data-ct="c" data-ia="4548,6732,2781,3180,1694,2160,2058,2406,835,1240"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="Se Taire, C'est Servir">Se Taire, C'est Servir</h3></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="gRX0ve" jsname="ibnC6b" data-index="6" data-steps-from-center="3" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_hovered" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false"><div class="G3jmoc lNZdwd"><div class="G3jmoc LHjn9e"><div class="G3jmoc O4DHN"><div class="G3jmoc gcG0rb qrsiNe"><div class="c2Yf5e NQwUHc lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/a-careless-word-a-needless-sinking-office-of-war-information-washington-d-c-and-fischer-anton-otto-artist/XgHwyTruIXG7iQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="A Careless Word..." data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_22_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_SimpleStack_/asset/a-careless-word-a-needless-sinking-office-of-war-information-washington-d-c-and-fischer-anton-otto-artist/XgHwyTruIXG7iQ" data-gaeditorialindex="22" data-gaeditorialname="SimpleStack" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #ddc4bc;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T17tBSl8a73K6WgPCr8QVJf25VZSb44GZhGNaNbmwPQIGZzrG8JJdlcoWzSM_yy0OAaF3yWw" data-ct="c" data-cw="1.1033250093460083" data-ch="0.5190010070800781" data-mw="6377" data-mh="8321" data-xp="0.5" data-yp="0.25950050354003906"></div></div><div class="vxLcHb"><h3 class="icXnic" title="A Careless Word...">A Careless Word...</h3><h4 class="gDqesd" title="Office of War Information. (Washington, D.C.)">Office of War Information. (Washington, D.C.)</h4></div></span></a></div><div class="n14XAf" jsname="VbfJvb"></div><div class="ZKg6we"></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="23" data-name="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF aiEHve m09azd"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><style nonce="BkiN9u6A3Gp9iprf21CPFA">.m09azd {}</style><div class="W8EjCd fjh6V"><div class="T1l3pf w8kSXe"><div class="GDYgCd"><div class="sulpxf"></div><div class="G0x67d"><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/en-guerre-contre-l-axe/agGowlAUexw22Q" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="EN GUERRE CONTRE L'AXE" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item12_/asset/en-guerre-contre-l-axe/agGowlAUexw22Q" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e4d6bf;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_R6C_aXtxSMzP-TNkip5FCANDaAoQfjO_w0QfhI0Ewx8LUHlFgygbp2aL6TflQ-46KeQRVdsA" data-ct="c"></div></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/man-the-guns-join-the-navy-united-states-navy-and-barclay-mcclelland/6AH0zBTOBjQEEA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Man the guns Join the Navy" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item13_/asset/man-the-guns-join-the-navy-united-states-navy-and-barclay-mcclelland/6AH0zBTOBjQEEA" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #eadfce;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Q-XqLS_ZmGwSeagWoYNX23yqglnNg87ftL0oYF0lgMgBXreSxXIDu5i4FHmjo59LP5sOMbjHZ9" data-ct="c" data-ia="6500,9400,2354,4104,1003,1571,1042,5415,1003,3836"></div></div></span></a></div></div></div><div class="sulpxf"></div><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/man-the-guns-join-the-navy-united-states-navy-and-barclay-mcclelland/HAGS6uzfpEkAOw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Man the Guns Join the Navy" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item11_/asset/man-the-guns-join-the-navy-united-states-navy-and-barclay-mcclelland/HAGS6uzfpEkAOw" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #ebe0cf;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SDRcrKrCvrnDiAH3JjXp9qkFMwa47fDnhDBQBsVghCec5DnsljHJNASdmkhVjUw_M3zYFoWGw" data-ct="c"></div></div></span></a></div></div><div class="T1l3pf Z94W9e"><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/tokio-kid-say-much-waste-of-material-make-so-o-o-o-happy-thank-you-douglas-aircraft-company-douglas-aircraft-company-santa-monica-ca/kAHGU2SZttXOew" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Tokio Kid Say Much Waste of Material Make So-O-O-O Happy! Thank You. Douglas Aircraft Company." data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item1_/asset/tokio-kid-say-much-waste-of-material-make-so-o-o-o-happy-thank-you-douglas-aircraft-company-douglas-aircraft-company-santa-monica-ca/kAHGU2SZttXOew" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #cecdcb;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Qmu4W1KacrUQtmCCJJBZI5jA5F0dHWK4UdiPuVHXYfFVO-RgmvfD2FijIlUtrBQ5TBHXLyEpc" data-ct="c" data-ia="3208,4272,2001,2490,244,1008,1636,2855,244,4058"></div></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/japanese-representative-on-uss-missouri-u-s-national-archives-army-signal-corps-collection/4QEX67CpF-287Q" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Japanese Representative on USS Missouri" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item2_/asset/japanese-representative-on-uss-missouri-u-s-national-archives-army-signal-corps-collection/4QEX67CpF-287Q" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #c1c8d7;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_QJhANaPkHvRqWkG9fz-f-56mYkKNSAVJ77ryFe-prtPhp22ShrEz4aZXx531kM_78Rl2WXLm8" data-ct="c" data-ia="5748,4504,1824,2132,1240,1596,3999,4326,1303,1682,3281,3588,1308,1668,2126,2386,1255,1558,3056,3334,1226,1553,3669,3933,1384,1692,2442,2702,1341,1644,1652,1916,1240,1553,2682,3013,1327,1716,2382,3273,1193,3727,1591,2490,1170,3562"></div></div></span></a></div></div><div class="T1l3pf VIljyd"><div class="am7Xye NTEZTb"><div class="Aw3eme"><h2>Thousands of posters all in one place</h2><p>Learn how posters functioned as valuable political tools during wartime</p><a class="e0WtYb U8AC8d" href="/project/world-war-ii-posters" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_viewAll_/project/world-war-ii-posters" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Explore" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR"><span>Explore</span></span></a></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/admiral-lord-louis-mountbatten-g-c-v-o-c-b-d-s-o/fwGyHuV6kjHBSA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item3_/asset/admiral-lord-louis-mountbatten-g-c-v-o-c-b-d-s-o/fwGyHuV6kjHBSA" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #d3cec6;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SS0T5iqzpBm59eGUz2O9xlHORKx_j8dkIeBJZcrhah1sm6aMiMHilYJPMFkK-HYt-OKY7R6aCt" data-ct="c" data-ia="4888,6401,1462,3592,1146,3628"></div></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/l-amiral-lord-louis-mountbatten/pgGlvBP1gpS6AA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="L'Amiral Lord Louis Mountbatten" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item4_/asset/l-amiral-lord-louis-mountbatten/pgGlvBP1gpS6AA" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #d0cdc9;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_SXFki13TDH7WEkJY2jsn3PqMfCCc_qKxtqEONY66VKtB46Cau8Z2z5CjqsuLowZwEq0rkfiw" data-ct="c" data-ia="4860,6457,1431,3569,1119,3606"></div></div></span></a></div></div><div class="T1l3pf w8kSXe"><div class="GDYgCd"><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/project/world-war-ii-posters" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Explore" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item0_/project/world-war-ii-posters" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RolJg8R_stscLAaUxKjUvLITCSG3ZqzCsQxAvmYfOUfsAZN9qcaQ2PkD2zAHnig_tqsxFROg" data-ct="c" data-cw="0.3247385323047638" data-ch="0.14323017001152039" data-mw="5082" data-mh="6663" data-xp="0.5005911588668823" data-yp="0.39734920859336853"></div></div></span></a></div><div class="G0x67d"><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/tuskegee-airmen/GQFHDWgPN-1eEg" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Tuskegee Airmen" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item7_/asset/tuskegee-airmen/GQFHDWgPN-1eEg" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #f0f0f0;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_RGEfJokJ4-cNZqvw9jwwdEg7JR2qQRbJjCx7jny5iXq2KdNFZufXqom0WcF6MjiJD1Xi-s_w" data-ct="c" data-ia="2692,2088,2263,2432,679,877,2039,2203,689,933,567,709,688,855,1451,1591,645,808,199,355,719,900,1967,2114,643,815,1707,1856,630,803,1188,1335,592,763,1916,2325,689,1906,2241,2664,689,1956"></div></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/h-r-h-the-princess-elizabeth-beloved-throughout-the-british-empire-she-is-the-elder-daughter-of-king-george-vi-and-heir-presumptive-to-the-throne/BgEgFYHTNvZm_Q" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; 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The Princess Elizabeth Beloved Throughout the British Empire, She is the Elder Daughter of King George Vi and Heir-Presumptive to the Throne" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item8_/asset/h-r-h-the-princess-elizabeth-beloved-throughout-the-british-empire-she-is-the-elder-daughter-of-king-george-vi-and-heir-presumptive-to-the-throne/BgEgFYHTNvZm_Q" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #e1cfb8;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T91GTj5iZN9tDvXjTrocEJmE8JXsrOq-CaohbqgfYbDNcjcSPzAnKGGRvrZ_aBofN4LluSjv6W" data-ct="c" data-ia="2748,4608,982,1747,695,1586,384,2284,645,3629"></div></div></span></a></div></div></div><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/admiral-lord-louis-mountbatten-g-c-v-o-c-b-d-s-o-海軍總司令-路易摩特巴登/fwHIjBaaAU16rQ" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O 海軍總司令路易摩特巴登" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item5_/asset/admiral-lord-louis-mountbatten-g-c-v-o-c-b-d-s-o-海軍總司令-路易摩特巴登/fwHIjBaaAU16rQ" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #d0cdc8;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_T2BgE2mVNLkc4ICN9VeFAtqhvSMU82GpM4RdECjJyMkLrPSsS3dX-ItdqEq7pQKXKeJtabo0w" data-ct="c" data-ia="4856,6457,1410,3586,1119,3649"></div></div></span></a></div><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/the-right-hon-clement-richard-atlee-c-h-m-p-prime-minister-of-great-britain-repeated-in-arabic-or-persian/AgHFWMTlh4xKrw" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="The Right Hon. 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Prime Minister of Great Britain [Repeated in Arabic or Persian]" data-gacategory="editorial_projectpage" data-gaaction="section_23_clicked" data-galabel="smithsonian-world-war-ii_FullBleedMosaic_Item6_/asset/the-right-hon-clement-richard-atlee-c-h-m-p-prime-minister-of-great-britain-repeated-in-arabic-or-persian/AgHFWMTlh4xKrw" data-gaeditorialindex="23" data-gaeditorialname="MosaicDetailsInsetFullBleed" data-gaeditorialpers="false" jsshadow><div class="TgRqnd" jsname="ksKsZd" aria-hidden="true"></div><span jsslot class="WMuzR NRZ8Qd"><div class="C5m2fc" style="background-color: #cfccca;"><div class="mRtnL" data-bgsrc="//lh3.googleusercontent.com/ci/AL18g_Tu4uz6woUfZupsF_y_FjVqgOY0pK0rco13LhTCp8fw0Gv-BUsYUp8NM9SWex5a0KB6LEmIiQ" data-ct="c" data-ia="4864,6434,927,3722,804,4049"></div></div></span></a></div></div><div class="T1l3pf Z94W9e"><div class="c2Yf5e iABq8e sulpxf lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/asset/at-war-against-the-axis/kAH1HT2MkJAUgA" jsmodel="nDkrdf" 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data-ia="5053,6449,1010,1742,1365,2220,3348,4011,1531,2295,2349,3108,908,1785,2456,3086,2692,3424,3036,4476,1331,5664,2093,3347,2466,5748,620,2314,861,5828"></div></div></span></a></div></div></div></div></div></section><section jscontroller="TMXtO" jsaction="B0tf1d:UVxRE;BVcIYb:xriZZd;BilGBc:CREi5e;htGtEd:zBFPOe;MFzXR:IF3MFb;JZCswc:PkMYQd;" data-lazy-load="true" jsmodel="nDkrdf" data-index="24" data-name="NavigationCards" data-edu="09_09_20" data-pers="false" class="wWQRF aiEHve LwLTbf"><div class="wsxVE LWxO0d"><div class="VDJ8te"><h2 class="erzEIf bHI58b"><span>Explore more</span></h2></div><div class="yOHDud p0TSbe"><div class="U1DIvc"><div class="c2Yf5e U3el0b zadR0d lXkFp"><a class="e0WtYb" href="/search/exhibit?project=smithsonian-world-war-ii" jsmodel="nDkrdf" jsaction="rcuQ6b:npT2md; mousedown:jScpfc; touchstart:jScpfc; touchmove:NI7Syc; mouseup:nHXBQb; touchend:nHXBQb; mouseleave:FfcXAd; blur:ll011b;" jscontroller="V99V9" title="Stories" 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_.f.yC=function(a,b){var c=this.C[a];c&&c.isLoaded()?this.load(b):(this.G[a]||(this.G[a]={}),this.G[a][b]=!0)};_.f.OG=function(a,b){if(this.G[a]){delete this.G[a][b];for(var c in this.G[a])return;delete this.G[a]}};_.f.iA=function(a){Cx.Nb.iA.call(this,a);Isa(this)};_.f.isActive=function(){return this.J.length>0};_.f.rO=function(){return this.N.length>0}; var Dx=function(a){var b=a.Ea,c=a.isActive();c!=b&&(Jsa(a,c?"active":"idle"),a.Ea=c);b=a.rO();b!=a.Ia&&(Jsa(a,b?"userActive":"userIdle"),a.Ia=b)},Hsa=function(a,b,c){a.C[b]?(a=a.C[b].getDependencies(),a!=c&&a.splice.apply(a,[0,a.length].concat(_.Je(c)))):a.C[b]=new Ax(c,b)},xx=function(a,b,c){var d=[];_.ab(b,d);b=[];for(var e={},g=0;g<d.length;g++){var h=d[g],l=a.C[h];if(!l)throw Error("Wb`"+h);var m=new _.Me;e[h]=m;l.isLoaded()?m.callback(a.la):(Ksa(a,h,l,!!c,m),Lsa(a,h)||b.push(h))}b.length>0&& (a.J.length===0?a.Cc(b):(a.D.push(b),Dx(a)));return e},Ksa=function(a,b,c,d,e){c.G.push(new zx(e.callback,e));Csa(c,function(g){e.C(new Gsa(b,g))});Lsa(a,b)?d&&(Msa(a,b),Dx(a)):d&&Msa(a,b)}; Cx.prototype.Cc=function(a,b,c){var d=this;b||(this.aa=0);var e=Nsa(this,a);this.J=e;this.K=this.oa?a:_.Ta(e);Dx(this);if(e.length!==0){this.qa.push.apply(this.qa,e);if(Object.keys(this.G).length>0&&!this.P.qa)throw Error("Xb");a=(0,_.eg)(this.P.ea,this.P,_.Ta(e),this.C,{p5:this.G,N5:!!c,onError:function(g,h){var l=d.K;g=g!=null?g:void 0;d.aa++;var m=_.Ta(e);d.K=l;e.forEach(_.Zg(_.Ra,d.qa),d);g==401?(Ex(d,new ai.nh(ai.nh.C.wK,g)),d.D.length=0):g==410?(Osa(d,new ai.nh(ai.nh.C.nK,g)),Fx(d)):d.aa>=3? (Osa(d,new ai.nh(ai.nh.C.zI,g,m,h)),Fx(d)):d.Cc(d.K,!0,g==8001||!1)},Oda:(0,_.eg)(this.Ja,this)});(b=Math.pow(this.aa,2)*5E3)?_.ca.setTimeout(a,b):a()}}; var Nsa=function(a,b){b=b.filter(function(e){return a.C[e].isLoaded()?(_.ca.setTimeout(function(){return Error("Yb`"+e)},0),!1):!0});for(var c=[],d=0;d<b.length;d++)c=c.concat(Psa(a,b[d]));_.ab(c);return!a.oa&&c.length>1?(b=c.shift(),a.D=c.map(function(e){return[e]}).concat(a.D),[b]):c},Psa=function(a,b){var c=wca(a.qa),d=[];c[b]||d.push(b);b=[b];for(var e=0;e<b.length;e++)for(var g=a.C[b[e]].getDependencies(),h=g.length-1;h>=0;h--){var l=g[h];a.C[l].isLoaded()||c[l]||(d.push(l),b.push(l))}d.reverse(); _.ab(d);return d},Isa=function(a){a.F==a.T&&(a.F=null,a.T.onLoad((0,_.eg)(a.aN,a))&&Ex(a,new ai.nh(ai.nh.C.fB)),Dx(a))},qca=function(a){if(a.F){var b=a.F.getId(),c=[];if(a.G[b]){for(var d=_.Nb(Object.keys(a.G[b])),e=d.next();!e.done;e=d.next()){e=e.value;var g=a.C[e];g&&!g.isLoaded()&&(a.OG(b,e),c.push(e))}xx(a,c)}a.isDisposed()||(a.C[b].onLoad((0,_.eg)(a.aN,a))&&Ex(a,new ai.nh(ai.nh.C.fB)),_.Ra(a.N,b),_.Ra(a.J,b),a.J.length===0&&Fx(a),a.ac&&b==a.ac&&(a.ea.D||a.ea.callback()),Dx(a),a.F=null)}},Lsa= function(a,b){if(_.Oa(a.J,b))return!0;for(var c=0;c<a.D.length;c++)if(_.Oa(a.D[c],b))return!0;return!1};Cx.prototype.load=function(a,b){return xx(this,[a],b)[a]};_.zma=function(a,b){return xx(a,b)};Msa=function(a,b){_.Oa(a.N,b)||a.N.push(b)};pca=function(a){var b=_.cd;b.F&&b.F.getId()==="synthetic_module_overhead"&&(qca(b),delete b.C.synthetic_module_overhead);b.C[a]&&Qsa(b,b.C[a].getDependencies()||[],function(c){c.C=new yx;_.Ra(b.J,c.getId())},function(c){return!c.isLoaded()});b.F=b.C[a]}; Cx.prototype.NP=function(a){this.F||(this.C.synthetic_module_overhead=new Ax([],"synthetic_module_overhead"),this.F=this.C.synthetic_module_overhead);this.F.D.push(new zx(a))};Cx.prototype.Ja=function(){Osa(this,new ai.nh(ai.nh.C.TIMEOUT));Fx(this)}; var Osa=function(a,b){a.K.length>1?a.D=a.K.map(function(c){return[c]}).concat(a.D):Ex(a,b)},Ex=function(a,b){var c=a.K;a.J.length=0;for(var d=[],e=0;e<a.D.length;e++){var g=a.D[e].filter(function(m){var q=Psa(this,m);return _.fi(c,function(r){return _.Oa(q,r)})},a);_.Wa(d,g)}for(e=0;e<c.length;e++)_.Pa(d,c[e]);for(e=0;e<d.length;e++){for(g=0;g<a.D.length;g++)_.Ra(a.D[g],d[e]);_.Ra(a.N,d[e])}if(e=a.xa.error)for(g=0;g<e.length;g++)for(var h=e[g],l=0;l<d.length;l++)h("error",d[l],b);for(d=0;d<c.length;d++)if(a.C[c[d]])a.C[c[d]].onError(b); a.K.length=0;Dx(a)},Fx=function(a){for(;a.D.length;){var b=a.D.shift().filter(function(c){return!this.C[c].isLoaded()},a);if(b.length>0){a.Cc(b);return}}Dx(a)},Jsa=function(a,b){a=a.xa[b];for(var c=0;a&&c<a.length;c++)a[c](b)},Qsa=function(a,b,c,d,e){d=d===void 0?function(){return!0}:d;e=e===void 0?{}:e;b=_.Nb(b);for(var g=b.next();!g.done;g=b.next()){g=g.value;var h=a.C[g];!e[g]&&d(h)&&(e[g]=!0,Qsa(a,h.getDependencies()||[],c,d,e),c(h))}}; 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