CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Geʽez - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"384b28aa-61a5-4987-add5-3e7e3914cab0","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Geʽez","wgTitle":"Geʽez","wgCurRevisionId":1275728143,"wgRevisionId":1275728143,"wgArticleId":69495,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages using the Phonos extension","Pages with plain IPA","Articles containing Ge'ez-language text","Articles containing French-language text","CS1 German-language sources (de)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles needing additional references from September 2022","All articles needing additional references","Pages with Ge'ez IPA","Languages with ISO 639-2 code","Extinct ISO language articles citing sources other than Ethnologue", "Pages including recorded pronunciations","Webarchive template wayback links","Ge'ez language","Christian liturgical languages","Verb–subject–object languages","Extinct languages of Africa","Languages of Eritrea","Languages of Ethiopia","Languages attested from the 5th century BC","Languages extinct in the 1st millennium","Semitic linguistics","Semitic languages","Languages written in Geʽez script"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Geʽez","wgRelevantArticleId":69495,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"}, "wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":70000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q35667","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.styles":"ready","ext.phonos.icons":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.phonos.init","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.phonos.icons%2Cstyles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg/1200px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="815"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg/800px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="543"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg/640px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="435"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Geʽez - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Geʽez rootpage-Geʽez skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Ge%CA%BDez" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Ge%CA%BDez" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Ge%CA%BDez" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Ge%CA%BDez" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transliteration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transliteration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Transliteration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transliteration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonemes_of_Geʽez" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonemes_of_Geʽez"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Phonemes of Geʽez</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonemes_of_Geʽez-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geʽez_consonants_in_relation_to_Proto-Semitic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geʽez_consonants_in_relation_to_Proto-Semitic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.3</span> <span>Geʽez consonants in relation to Proto-Semitic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geʽez_consonants_in_relation_to_Proto-Semitic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Internal_plural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_plural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Internal plural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_plural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronominal_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronominal_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Pronominal morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronominal_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_conjugation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_conjugation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Verb conjugation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_conjugation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Syntax subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noun_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Noun phrases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prepositional_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prepositional_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Prepositional phrases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prepositional_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sentences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sentences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Sentences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sentences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Negation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Writing system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>History and literature</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_and_literature-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History and literature subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History_and_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-5th_to_7th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#5th_to_7th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>5th to 7th centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-5th_to_7th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-13th_to_14th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#13th_to_14th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>13th to 14th centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-13th_to_14th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-15th_to_16th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#15th_to_16th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>15th to 16th centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-15th_to_16th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_usage_in_Eritrea,_Ethiopia_and_Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_usage_in_Eritrea,_Ethiopia_and_Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Current usage in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Israel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_usage_in_Eritrea,_Ethiopia_and_Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sample</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-External_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>External history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology_and_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology_and_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Phonology and grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology_and_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dictionaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dictionaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Dictionaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dictionaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geʽez</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez" title="Ge'ez – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%8D%E1%8B%95%E1%8B%9D" title="ግዕዝ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ግዕዝ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة الجعزية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الجعزية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_ge%27ez" title="Idioma ge'ez – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9C_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="গিয়েজ ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গিয়েজ ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Геез – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Геез" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geuzeg" title="Geuzeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Geuzeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gueez" title="Gueez – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gueez" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez" title="Ge'ez – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chige%27ezi" title="Chige'ezi – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chige'ezi" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez" title="Ge'ez – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alt%C3%A4thiopische_Sprache" title="Altäthiopische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altäthiopische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etioopia_keel" title="Etioopia keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Etioopia keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez" title="Ge'ez – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geeza_lingvo" title="Geeza lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Geeza lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez" title="Ge'ez – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%AF%D8%B9%D8%B2" title="زبان گعز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان گعز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gu%C3%A8ze" title="Guèze – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Guèze" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ge%27ez" title="Lingua ge'ez – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%B8%EC%9C%BC%EC%A6%88%EC%96%B4" title="그으즈어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="그으즈어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%A9%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Եթովպական գրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եթովպական գրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="गिइज़ भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="गिइज़ भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geez" title="Geez – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geez" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" title="Ge'ez language – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ge'ez language" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ge%CA%BDez" title="Bahasa Geʽez – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Geʽez" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ge%27ez" title="Lingua ge'ez – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%96" title="געז – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="געז" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="გეეზი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გეეზი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kige%27ez" title="Kige'ez – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kige'ez" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%8B%D1%8B%D0%B7_(%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2)" title="Гыыз (кыв) – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Гыыз (кыв)" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BF_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Эфиоп тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эфиоп тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Aethiopica" title="Lingua Aethiopica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Aethiopica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gezo_kalba" title="Gezo kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gezo kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Гиз – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Гиз" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_geezy" title="Fiteny geezy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny geezy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="ഗീയസ് ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗീയസ് ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="გეეზი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გეეზი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%89" title="جعزى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جعزى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Ge%27ez" title="Bahasa Ge'ez – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez" title="Ge'ez – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%82%A8%E3%82%BA%E8%AA%9E" title="ゲエズ語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ゲエズ語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geez" title="Geez – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geez" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geez" title="Geez – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Geez" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gueez" title="Gueez – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Gueez" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efiop_tili" title="Efiop tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Efiop tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_Geez" title="Lenga Geez – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga Geez" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_gyyz" title="Język gyyz – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język gyyz" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_ge%27ez" title="Língua ge'ez – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_g%C3%AE%27%C3%AEz" title="Limba gî'îz – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba gî'îz" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%8D%D0%B7" title="Геэз – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геэз" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_ge%27ez" title="Limba ge'ez – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limba ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Geʽez" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giz" title="Giz – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Giz" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%B7_(%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA)" title="Гиз (језик) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Гиз (језик)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giz" title="Giz – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Giz" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%E2%80%99ezin_kieli" title="Ge’ezin kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ge’ezin kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez" title="Ge'ez – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ge'ez" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B6%E0%B8%8B" title="ภาษากืออึซ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษากืออึซ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geez_dili" title="Geez dili – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Geez dili" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Геез – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Геез" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B9%D8%B2" title="گعز – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="گعز" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Ge%CA%BDez" title="Tiếng Geʽez – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Geʽez" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%89%E5%85%B9%E8%AF%AD" title="吉兹语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="吉兹语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%89%E8%8C%B2%E6%96%87" title="吉茲文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="吉茲文" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%89%E8%8C%B2%E8%AA%9E" title="吉茲語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="吉茲語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q35667#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Ge%CA%BDez" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Ge%CA%BDez" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Ge%CA%BDez" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&oldid=1275728143" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Ge%CA%BDez&id=1275728143&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGe%25CA%25BDez"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGe%25CA%25BDez"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Ge%CA%BDez&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikifunctions mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikifunctions.org/wiki/Z1036" hreflang="en"><span>Wikifunctions</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q35667" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient Semitic language of Eritrea and Ethiopia</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ethiopic language" redirects here. For the various languages spoken in Ethiopia, see <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ethiopia" title="Languages of Ethiopia">Languages of Ethiopia</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the language. For the writing script, see <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Geez" redirects here. For the Canadian cultural magazine, see <a href="/wiki/Geez_(magazine)" title="Geez (magazine)">Geez (magazine)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Special:EditPage/Geʽez">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Ge%CA%BDez%22">"Geʽez"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Ge%CA%BDez%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Ge%CA%BDez%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Ge%CA%BDez%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Ge%CA%BDez%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Ge%CA%BDez%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Geʽez</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ግዕዝ</span></span> <i><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">Gəʽ(ə)z</i></span></i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Ge%27ez.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ge%27ez.svg/200px-Ge%27ez.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ge%27ez.svg/300px-Ge%27ez.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ge%27ez.svg/400px-Ge%27ez.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="232" data-file-height="102" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="gez-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ˈɡɨʕ(ɨ)z]</a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">Extinct</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Before 10th century to 14th century<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Remains in use as a <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CHA_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHA-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiopic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">North</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Geʽez</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">Liturgical language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Catholic_Church" title="Eritrean Catholic Church">Eritrean Catholic Church</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CHA_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHA-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Catholic_Church" title="Ethiopian Catholic Church">Ethiopian Catholic Church</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a><sup id="cite_ref-PER_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PER-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=161">gez</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/gez" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:gez">gez</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/geez1241">geez1241</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ge%27ez.svg/40px-Ge%27ez.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ge%27ez.svg/60px-Ge%27ez.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Ge%27ez.svg/80px-Ge%27ez.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="232" data-file-height="102" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez script">Ethiopic text</a>.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support_(Ethiopic)" title="Help:Multilingual support (Ethiopic)">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of Ethiopic characters.</div></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aksum,_iscrizione_di_re_ezana,_in_greco,_sabeo_e_ge%27ez,_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg/220px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg/330px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg/440px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3816" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Ezana stone, written in Geʽez explaining his conquests and accomplishments</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Geʽez</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ግዕዝ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">Gəʽ(ə)z</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="gez-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ˈɡɨʕ(ɨ)z]</a></span> <span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/0\/0c\/Ge%27ez.ogg\/Ge%27ez.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Ge'ez.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/0c/Ge%27ez.ogg/Ge%27ez.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Ge%27ez.ogg" title="File:Ge'ez.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span>, and sometimes referred to in scholarly literature as <b>Classical Ethiopic</b>) is an ancient <a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South Semitic language</a>. The language originates from what is now <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>. </p><p>Today, Geʽez is used as the main <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Catholic_Church" title="Ethiopian Catholic Church">Ethiopian Catholic Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Catholic_Church" title="Eritrean Catholic Church">Eritrean Catholic Church</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> Jewish community. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hawulti_(monument)" title="Hawulti (monument)">Hawulti Obelisk</a> is an ancient pre-Aksumite Obelisk located in <a href="/wiki/Matara,_Eritrea" title="Matara, Eritrea">Matara</a>, Eritrea. The monument dates to the early Aksumite period and bears an example of the ancient Geʽez script. </p><p>In one study, <a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a> was found to have a 71% lexical similarity to Geʽez, while <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a> had a 68% lexical similarity to Geʽez, followed by <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a> at 62%.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most linguists believe that Geʽez does not constitute a common ancestor of modern <a href="/wiki/Ethio-Semitic_languages" title="Ethio-Semitic languages">Ethio-Semitic languages</a> but became a separate language early on from another hypothetical unattested common language.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Geʽez vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>/ <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">i</i></span></td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a></span>/ <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ə</i></span></td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>/ <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">u</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span>/ <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">e</i></span></td> <td></td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>/ <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">o</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Near-open_vowel" title="Near-open vowel">Near-open</a> </th> <td colspan="2">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a></span> ~ <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a></span>/<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">a</i></span></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td></td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> ~ <span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a></span>/<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ā</i></span></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span> in the Amharic liturgical pronunciation,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɐ/</span><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (as in <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Lambdin.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>Historically, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɨ/</span> has a basic correspondence with Proto-Semitic short <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">*i</i></span> and <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">*u</i></span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>ɐ/</span> with short <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">*a</i></span>, the vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i,<span class="wrap"> </span>u,<span class="wrap"> </span>a/</span> with Proto-Semitic long <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">*ī, *ū, *ā</i></span> respectively, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e,<span class="wrap"> </span>o/</span> with the Proto-Semitic diphthongs <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">*ay</i></span> and <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">*aw</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997a177–178_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997a177–178-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b246_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b246-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Geʽez there still exist many alternations between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aw/</span>, less so between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aj/</span>, e.g. <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ተሎኩ</span></span> <i>taloku</i> ~ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ተለውኩ</span></span> <i>talawku</i> ("I followed").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin19782_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin19782-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the transcription employed by the <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Aethiopica" title="Encyclopaedia Aethiopica">Encyclopaedia Aethiopica</a>, which is widely employed in academia, the contrast here represented as a/ā is represented as ä/a. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transliteration">Transliteration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Transliteration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geʽez is transliterated according to the following system (see the phoneme table below for IPA values): </p> <div style="float:left"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th>translit. </th> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">h</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">l</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḥ</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">m</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ś</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">r</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">s</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">q</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">b</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">t</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḫ</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">n</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ʼ</i></span> </td></tr> <tr style="font-size:2em"> <th style="font-size:0.5em">Geʽez </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሀ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ለ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሐ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">መ</span></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሠ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ረ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሰ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቀ</span></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">በ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ተ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ኀ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ነ</span></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አ</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div style="float:left"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th>translit. </th> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">k</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">w</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ʽ</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">z</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">y</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">d</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">g</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ṭ</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">p̣</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ṣ</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḍ</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">f</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">p</i></span> </td></tr> <tr style="font-size:2em"> <th style="font-size:0.5em">Geʽez </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ከ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ወ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ዐ</span></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ዘ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">የ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ደ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ገ</span></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጠ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጰ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጸ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ፀ</span></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ፈ</span></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ፐ</span></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <p>Because Geʽez is no longer spoken in daily life by large communities, the early pronunciation of some consonants is not completely certain. Gragg writes that "[t]he consonants corresponding to the graphemes <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ś</i></span> (Geʽez <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሠ</span></span>) and <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḍ</i></span> (Geʽez <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ፀ</span></span>) have merged with ሰ and ጸ respectively in the phonological system represented by the traditional pronunciation—and indeed in all modern Ethiopian Semitic. ... There is, however, no evidence either in the tradition or in Ethiopian Semitic [for] what value these consonants may have had in Geʽez."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b244_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b244-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar problem is found for the consonant transliterated <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḫ</i></span>. Gragg notes that it corresponds in etymology to velar or uvular fricatives in other Semitic languages, but it is pronounced exactly the same as <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḥ</i></span> in the traditional pronunciation. Though the use of a different letter shows that it must originally have had some other pronunciation, what that pronunciation was is not certain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b245_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b245-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chart below lists <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɬ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡ɬʼ/</span> as possible values for <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ś</i></span> (<span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሠ</span></span>) and <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḍ</i></span> (<span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ፀ</span></span>) respectively. It also lists <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/χ/</span> as a possible value for <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḫ</i></span> (<span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ኀ</span></span>). These values are tentative, but based on the reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> consonants that they are descended from. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phonemes_of_Geʽez"><span id="Phonemes_of_Ge.CA.BDez"></span>Phonemes of Geʽez</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Phonemes of Geʽez"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table presents the <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> of the Geʽez language. The reconstructed phonetic value of a <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> is given in <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> transcription, followed by its representation in the Geʽez script and scholarly transliteration. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Geʽez consonants<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Central_consonant" title="Central consonant">central</a></span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a></span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;">plain</span> </th> <th><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialized</a></span> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">መ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">m</i></span> </td> <td colspan="2">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ነ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">n</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Stop</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ፐ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">p</i></span> </td> <td colspan="2">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ተ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">t</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ከ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">k</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ʷ</a>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ኰ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">kʷ</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="3">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ʼ</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">በ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">b</i></span> </td> <td colspan="2">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ደ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">d</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ገ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">g</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a></span><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ʷ</a>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጐ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gʷ</i></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a></small><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_ejective_stop" title="Bilabial ejective stop">pʼ</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጰ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">p̣</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">t’</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጠ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ṭ</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar ejective affricate">t͡sʼ</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጸ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ṣ</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_affricate" title="Alveolar lateral ejective affricate">t͡ɬʼ</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ፀ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḍ</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">k’</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቀ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">q</i></span> </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">k</a><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ʷ</a><a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">’</a>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቈ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">qʷ</i></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiceless</a></small> </th> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ፈ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">f</i></span> </td> <td colspan="2">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሰ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">s</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሠ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ś</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ኀ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḫ</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">ʷ</a>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ኈ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḫʷ</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሐ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḥ</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሀ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">h</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">voiced</a></small> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ዘ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">z</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ዐ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ʽ</i></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2">/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ረ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">r</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ለ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">l</i></span> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">የ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">y</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>/<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span>/ <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ወ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">w</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic consonants</a> of Geʽez were likely realized as <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejectives</a>, as in the modern Ethiopian Semitic languages.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geʽez_consonants_in_relation_to_Proto-Semitic"><span id="Ge.CA.BDez_consonants_in_relation_to_Proto-Semitic"></span>Geʽez consonants in relation to Proto-Semitic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Geʽez consonants in relation to Proto-Semitic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Psalms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a verse from Psalm written in Geʽez" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Psalms.jpg" decoding="async" width="215" height="207" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="215" data-file-height="207" /></a><figcaption>A verse from <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">the book of Psalms</a> written in Geʽez</figcaption></figure> <p>Geʽez consonants have a triple opposition between voiceless, voiced, and <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a>) obstruents. The Proto-Semitic "emphasis" in Geʽez has been generalized to include emphatic <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">p̣</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/pʼ/</span>. Geʽez has phonologized <a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">labiovelars</a>, descending from Proto-Semitic biphonemes. Geʽez ś <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሠ</span></span> Sawt (in Amharic, also called <i>śe-nigūś</i>, i.e. the <i>se</i> letter used for spelling the word <i>nigūś</i> "king") is reconstructed as descended from a Proto-Semitic <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless lateral fricative">voiceless lateral fricative</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɬ]</span>. Like Arabic, Geʽez merged Proto-Semitic <a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">š</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">s</a> in <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሰ</span></span> (also called <i>se-isat</i>: the <i>se</i> letter used for spelling the word <i>isāt</i> "fire"). Apart from this, Geʽez phonology is comparably conservative; the only other Proto-Semitic phonological contrasts lost may be the interdental fricatives and <a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">ghayn</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress">Stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is no evidence within the script of stress rules in the ancient period, but stress patterns exist within the liturgical tradition(s). Accounts of these patterns are, however, contradictory. One early 20th-century account<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may be broadly summarized as follows: </p> <ul><li>primary stress only falls on the ultima (the last syllable) or the penult (the second-to-last syllable)</li> <li>in finite verbs (including the imperative), stress falls on the penult: <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቀተለት</span></span> <i>qatálat</i> ("she killed"), <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ንግር</span></span> <i>nə́gər</i> ("speak!", masculine singular), with the important exception of the 2nd-person feminine plural suffix <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ክን</span></span> <i>-kə́n</i></li> <li>in nouns and adjectives (in citation form), and most adverbs, stress falls on the ultima: <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ንጉሥ</span></span> <i>nəgúś</i> ("king"), <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሀገር</span></span> <i>hagár</i> ("city"), <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ግዕዝ</span></span> <i>Gə́ʽz</i> ("Geʽez"), <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጠቢብ</span></span> <i>ṭabíb</i> ("wise"), <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ህየ</span></span> <i>həyyá</i> ("there"); an exception among adverbs is <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ዝየ</span></span> <i>zə́ya</i> ("here")</li> <li>the suffix <i>-a</i>, marking the construct state or the accusative case (or both), is not stressed: <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ንጉሠ</span></span> <i>nəgúśa</i>, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሀገረ</span></span> <i>hagára</i>, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ግዕዘ</span></span> <i>Gə́ʽza</i>, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጠቢበ</span></span> <i>ṭabíba</i></li> <li>cardinal numbers are stressed on the ultima, even in the accusative, e.g. <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሠለስቱ</span></span> <i>śalastú</i> accusative <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሠለስተ</span></span> <i>śalastá</i> ("three")</li> <li>pronouns have rather unpredictable stress, so stress is learned for each form</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">enclitic</a> particles (such as <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሰ</span></span> <i>-(ə)ssá</i>) are stressed</li> <li>various grammatical words (short prepositions, conjunctions) and short nouns in the construct state are unstressed</li></ul> <p>As one example of a discrepancy, a different late 19th-century account<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> says the masculine singular imperative is stressed on the ultima (e.g. <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ንግር</span></span> <i>nəgə́r</i>, "speak!"), and that, in some patterns, words can be stressed on the third-, fourth- or even fifth-to-last syllable (e.g. <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">በረከተ</span></span> <i>bárakata</i>). </p><p>Due to the high predictability of stress location in most words, textbooks, dictionaries and grammars generally do not mark it. Minimal pairs do exist, however, such as <i>yənaggərā́</i> ("he speaks to her", with the pronoun suffix <i>-(h)ā́</i> "her") vs. <i>yənaggə́rā</i> ("they speak", feminine plural), both written <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ይነግራ</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b246_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b246-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geʽez distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine, the latter of which is sometimes marked with the suffix <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">-t</i></span>, e.g. <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እኅት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ʼəxt</i></span> ("sister"). These are less strongly distinguished than in other Semitic languages, as many nouns not denoting humans can be used in either gender: in translated Christian texts there is even a tendency for nouns to follow the gender of the noun with a corresponding meaning in Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197826_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197826-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two numbers, singular and plural. The plural can be constructed either by suffixing <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ኣት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">-āt</i></span> to a word (regardless of gender, but often <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ኣን</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">-ān</i></span> if it is a male human noun), or by using an <a href="/wiki/Internal_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal plural">internal plural</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197821_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197821-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Plural using suffix: <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ዓመት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ʿāmat</i></span> ("year") plural <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ዓመታት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ʿāmatāt</i></span>, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ገዳም</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gadām</i></span> ("wilderness, uninhabited area") plural <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ገዳማት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gadāmāt</i></span>, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቅ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liq</i></span> ("elder, chief") plural <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቃን</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqān</i></span>, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጳጳስ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">p̣āp̣p̣ās</i></span> ("(arch)bishop") plural <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጳጳሳት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">p̣āp̣p̣āsāt</i></span>.</li> <li>Internal plural: <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቤት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">bet</i></span> ("house") plural <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አብያት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ʾabyāt</i></span>, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቅርንብ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">qərnəb</i></span> ("eyelid") plural <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቀራንብት</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">qarānəbt</i></span>.</li></ul> <p>Nouns also have two cases: the nominative, which is not marked, and the accusative, which is marked with final <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">-a</i></span>. As in other Semitic languages, there are at least two "states", absolute (unmarked) and <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct</a> (marked with <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">-a</i></span> as well). </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Declension of <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቅ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liq</i></span> ("elder, chief") </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th colspan="2">Singular</th> <th colspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th>Absolute<br />state</th> <th>Construct<br />state</th> <th>Absolute<br />state</th> <th>Construct<br />state </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቅ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liq</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቀ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liq<b>a</b></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቃን</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqān</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቃነ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqān<b>a</b></i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቀ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liq<b>a</b></i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቀ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liq<b>a</b></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቃነ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqān<b>a</b></i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቃነ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqān<b>a</b></i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As in <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Classical/Standard Arabic</a>, singular and plural nouns often take the same final inflectional affixes for case and state, as number morphology is achieved via attaching a suffix to the stem and/or an internal change in the stem. </p><p>There is some morphological interaction between consonant-final nouns and a pronoun suffix (see the table of suffix pronouns below). For example, when followed by <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">የ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">-ya</i></span> ("my"), in both nominative and accusative the resulting form is <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቅየ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqə́ya</i></span> (i.e. the accusative is <i>not</i> <span title="Ge'ez-language text">*<span lang="gez">ሊቀየ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">*liqáya</i></span>), but with <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ከ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">-ka</i></span> ("your", masculine singular) there's a distinction between nominative <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቅከ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqə́ka</i></span> and accusative <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቀከ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqáka</i></span>, and similarly with <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">-hu</i></span> ("his") between nominative <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቁ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqú</i></span> (< <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">*liq-ə-hu</i></span>) and accusative <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሊቆ</span></span> <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">liqó</i></span> (< <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">*liqa-hu</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197840_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197840-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_plural">Internal plural</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Internal plural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Internal plurals follow certain patterns. Triconsonantal nouns follow one of the following patterns. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Patterns of internal plural for triconsonantal nouns<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008440_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008440-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />(C=Consonant, V=Vowel) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pattern </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5"><b>ʾaCCāC</b> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ልብስ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ləbs</i></span> </td> <td>'garment' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አልባስ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾalbās</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ፈረስ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">faras</i></span> </td> <td>'horse' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አፍራስ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾafrās</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቤት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">bet</i></span> </td> <td>'house' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አብያት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾabyāt</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጾም</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ṣom</i></span> </td> <td>'fast' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አጽዋም</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾaṣwām</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ስም</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">səm</i></span> </td> <td>'name' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አስማት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾasmāt</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><b>ʾaCCuC</b> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሀገር</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">hagar</i></span> </td> <td>'country' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አህጉር</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾahgur</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አድግ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾadg</i></span> </td> <td>'ass' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አእዱግ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾaʾdug</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><b>ʾaCCəC(t)</b> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">በትር</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">batr</i></span> </td> <td>'rod' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አብትር</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾabtər</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ርእስ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">rə's</i></span> </td> <td>'head' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አርእስት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾarʾəst</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ገብር</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">gabr</i></span> </td> <td>'servant, slave' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አግብርት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾagbərt</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><b>ʾaCāCəC(t)</b> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">በግዕ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">bagʽ</i></span> </td> <td>'sheep' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አባግዕ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’abāgəʽ</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጋንን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">gānən</i></span> </td> <td>'devil' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አጋንንት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’agānənt</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><b>CVCaC</b> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እዝን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’əzn</i></span> </td> <td>'ear' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እዘን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’əzan</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እግር</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’əgr</i></span> </td> <td>'foot' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እገር</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’əgar</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"><b>CVCaw</b> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እድ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’əd</i></span> </td> <td>'hand' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እደው</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’ədaw</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አብ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’ab</i></span> </td> <td>'father' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አበው</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’abaw</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እኍ/እኅው</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’əḫʷ/’əḫəw</i></span> </td> <td>'brother' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አኀው</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">’aḫaw</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Quadriconsonantal and some triconsonantal nouns follow the following pattern. Triconsonantal nouns that take this pattern must have at least one "long" vowel (namely <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i<span class="wrap"> </span>e<span class="wrap"> </span>o<span class="wrap"> </span>u/</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Patterns of internal plural for quadriconsonantal nouns<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008440_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008440-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />(C=Consonant, V=Vowel) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pattern </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="9"><b>CaCāCəC(t)</b> </td> <td>'virgin' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ድንግል</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">dəngəl</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ደናግል</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">danāgəl</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'prince' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">መስፍን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">masfən</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">መሳፍንት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">masāfənt</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'star' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ኮከብ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">kokab</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ከዋክብት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">kawākəbt</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'window' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">መስኮት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">maskot</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">መሳኩት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">masākut < masākəwt</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'chicken' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ዶርሆ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">dorho</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ደራውህ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">darāwəh</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'night' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሌሊት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">lelit</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ለያልይ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">layāləy</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'earth' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ብሔር</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">bəḥer</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">በሓውርት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">baḥāwərt</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'river' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ውሒዝ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">wəḥiz</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ወሓይዝት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">waḥāyəzt</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>'priest' </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቀሲስ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qasis</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ቀሳውስት</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qasāwəst</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronominal_morphology">Pronominal morphology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Pronominal morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the independent pronouns, gender is not distinguished in the 1st person, and case is only distinguished in the 3rd person singular. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Personal independent pronouns<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197829_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197829-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3"> </th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3"><small>1st person</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አነ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʼána</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ንሕነ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">nə́ḥna</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small>2nd person</small> </th> <th colspan="2"><small>masculine</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አንተ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʼánta</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አንትሙ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʼantə́mu</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><small>feminine</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አንቲ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʼánti</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">አንትን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʼantə́n</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4"><small>3rd person</small> </th> <th rowspan="2"><small>masculine</small> </th> <th><small>nominative</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ውእቱ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">wəʼə́tu</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ውእቶሙ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">wəʼətómu</i></span>, <br /><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እሙንቱ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʼəmuntú</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>accusative</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ውእተ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">wəʼə́ta</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small>feminine</small> </th> <th><small>nominative</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ይእቲ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">yəʼə́ti</i></span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ውእቶን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">wəʼətón</i></span>, <br /><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">እማንቱ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʼəmāntú</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>accusative</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ይእተ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">yə’ə́ta</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Suffix pronouns attach at the end of a noun, preposition or verb. The accusative/construct <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-a</i></span> is lost when a plural noun with a consonant-final stem has a pronoun suffix attached (generally replaced by the added <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-i-</i></span>, as in <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-i-hu</i></span>, "his"), thereby losing the case/state distinction,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the distinction may be retained in the case of consonant-final singular nouns. Furthermore, suffix pronouns may or may not attract stress to themselves. In the following table, pronouns without a stress mark (an acute) are not stressed, and vowel-initial suffixes have also been given the base <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">በ</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> in the script. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Suffix pronouns<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197840–41_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197840–41-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="3"></th> <th colspan="2"><small>Default</small></th> <th colspan="2"><small>With consonant-final <br />singular nouns</small></th> <th rowspan="2"><small>With consonant-final <br />plural nouns</small> </th></tr> <tr> <th><small>noun/prep.</small></th> <th><small>verb</small></th> <th><small>nominative</small></th> <th><small>accusative</small> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><small>Singular</small> </th> <th colspan="2"><small>1st person</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-የ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ya</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ኒ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ni</i></span></td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ብየ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ə́ya</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ብየ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ə́ya</i></span>, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢየ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-íya</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small>2nd person</small> </th> <th><small>masculine</small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ከ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ka</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ብከ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ə́ka</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-በከ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-áka</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢከ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-íka</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>feminine</small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ኪ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ki</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ብኪ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ə́ki</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-በኪ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-áki</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢኪ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-íki</i></span>, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ብኪ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ə́ki</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small>3rd person</small> </th> <th><small>masculine</small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ሁ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-hú</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቡ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ú</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቦ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ó</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢሁ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ihú</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>feminine</small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ሃ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-hā́</i></span></td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ባ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ā́</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢሃ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ihā́</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><small>Plural</small> </th> <th colspan="2"><small>1st person</small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ነ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-na</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ብነ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ə́na</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-በነ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ána</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢነ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ína</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small>2nd person</small> </th> <th><small>masculine</small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ክሙ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-kə́mu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ብክሙ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-əkə́mu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-በክሙ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-akə́mu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢክሙ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ikə́mu</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>feminine</small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ክን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-kə́n</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ብክን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-əkə́n</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-በክን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-akə́n</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢክን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ikə́n</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small>3rd person</small> </th> <th><small>masculine</small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ሆሙ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-hómu</i></span></td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቦሙ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ómu</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢሆሙ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ihómu</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>feminine</small> </th> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ሆን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-hón</i></span></td> <td colspan="2"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቦን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ón</i></span></td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢሆን</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-ihón</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">-ቢየ</span></span> <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-íya</i></span> is a variant mostly found in older manuscripts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These two forms are in free variation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.1_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_conjugation">Verb conjugation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Verb conjugation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="3">Person </th> <th rowspan="2">Perfect<br /><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-nn</i></span> </th> <th colspan="2">Imperfect </th></tr> <tr> <th>Indicative<br /><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-qattəl</i></span> </th> <th>Jussive<br /><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-qtəl</i></span> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" colspan="2">1st person </th> <th><small>singular</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-ku</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾə-qattəl</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">ʾə-qtəl</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>plural</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-na</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">nə-qattəl</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">nə-qtəl</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">2nd<br />person </th> <th rowspan="2"><small>masculine</small> </th> <th><small>singular</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-ka</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qattəl</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qtəl</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>plural</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-kəmmu</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qattəl-u</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qtəl-u</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small>feminine</small> </th> <th><small>singular</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-ki</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qattəl-i</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qtəl-i</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>plural</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-kən</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qattəl-ā</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qtəl-ā</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">3rd<br />person </th> <th rowspan="2"><small>masculine</small> </th> <th><small>singular</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-a</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">yə-qattəl</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">yə-qtəl</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>plural</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-u</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">yə-qattəl-u</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">yə-qtəl-u</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><small>feminine</small> </th> <th><small>singular</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-at</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qattəl</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">tə-qtəl</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>plural</small> </th> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">qatal-ā</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">yə-qattəl-ā</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">yə-qtəl-ā</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noun_phrases">Noun phrases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Noun phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Noun phrases have the following overall order: </p> <dl><dd>(demonstratives) noun (adjective)-(relative clause)</dd></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">በዛ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ba-zā</p><p style="margin: 0px;">in-this:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">F</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ሀገር</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hagar</p><p style="margin: 0px;">city</p></div><p style="display: none;">በዛ ሀገር</p><p style="display: none;">ba-zā hagar</p><p style="display: none;">in-this:F city</p><p style="clear: left;">in this city</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ንጉሥ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nəguś</p><p style="margin: 0px;">king</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ክቡር</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kəbur</p><p style="margin: 0px;">glorious</p></div><p style="display: none;">ንጉሥ ክቡር</p><p style="display: none;">nəguś kəbur</p><p style="display: none;">king glorious</p><p style="clear: left;">a/the glorious king</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Adjectives and determiners agree with the noun in gender and number: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ዛቲ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zāti</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ንግሥት</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nəgəśt</p><p style="margin: 0px;">queen</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ክብርት</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kəbərt</p><p style="margin: 0px;">glorious:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="feminine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">FEM</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ዛቲ ንግሥት ክብርት</p><p style="display: none;">zāti nəgəśt kəbərt</p><p style="display: none;">this:FEM queen glorious:FEM</p><p style="clear: left;">this glorious queen</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">እሉ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʼəllu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">these:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ነገሥት</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nagaśt</p><p style="margin: 0px;">kings</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ክቡራን</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kəburān</p><p style="margin: 0px;">glorious:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">እሉ ነገሥት ክቡራን</p><p style="display: none;">ʼəllu nagaśt kəburān</p><p style="display: none;">these:M.PL kings glorious:PL</p><p style="clear: left;">these glorious kings</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Relative clauses are introduced by a pronoun which agrees in gender and number with the preceding noun: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ብእሲ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bəʾsi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ዘቀተልዎ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">za=qatal-əww-o</p><p style="margin: 0px;">which:<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">MASC</abbr>=kill-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ለወልዱ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la=wald-u</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to=son=<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ብእሲ ዘቀተልዎ ለወልዱ</p><p style="display: none;">bəʾsi za=qatal-əww-o la=wald-u</p><p style="display: none;">man which:MASC=kill-3.M.PL-3.M.SG to=son=3.M.SG</p><p style="clear: left;">the man whose son they killed</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>As in many Semitic languages, possession by a noun phrase is shown through the <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct state</a>. In Geʽez, this is formed by suffixing the construct suffix <span title="Ge'ez-language romanization"><i lang="gez-Latn">-a</i></span> to the possessed noun, which is followed by the possessor, as in the following examples:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197823_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197823-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ወልደ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wald-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">son-construct</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ንጉሥ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nəguś</p><p style="margin: 0px;">king</p></div><p style="display: none;">ወልደ ንጉሥ</p><p style="display: none;">wald-a nəguś</p><p style="display: none;">son-construct king</p><p style="clear: left;">the son of the king</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ስመ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">səm-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">name-construct</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">መልአክ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">malʼak</p><p style="margin: 0px;">angel</p></div><p style="display: none;">ስመ መልአክ</p><p style="display: none;">səm-a malʼak</p><p style="display: none;">name-construct angel</p><p style="clear: left;">the name of the angel</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Another common way of indicating possession by a noun phrase combines the pronominal suffix on a noun with the possessor preceded by the preposition /la=/ 'to, for':<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197844_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197844-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ስሙ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">səm-u</p><p style="margin: 0px;">name-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ለንጉሥ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">la=nəguś</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to=king</p></div><p style="display: none;">ስሙ ለንጉሥ</p><p style="display: none;">səm-u la=nəguś</p><p style="display: none;">name-3SG to=king</p><p style="clear: left;">'the king's name; the name of the king'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Lambdin<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197845_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197845-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> notes that in comparison to the construct state, this kind of possession is only possible when the possessor is definite and specific. Lambdin also notes that the construct state is the unmarked form of possession in Geʽez. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prepositional_phrases">Prepositional phrases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Prepositional phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geʽez is a prepositional language, as in the following example:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197816_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197816-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ውስተ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wəsta</p><p style="margin: 0px;">to</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ሀገር</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hagar</p><p style="margin: 0px;">city</p></div><p style="display: none;">ውስተ ሀገር</p><p style="display: none;">wəsta hagar</p><p style="display: none;">to city</p><p style="clear: left;">to the city</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>There are three special prepositions, /ba=/ 'in, with', /la=/ 'to, for', /ʼəm=/ 'from', which always appear as clitics, as in the following examples: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">እምሀገር</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʼəm=hagar</p><p style="margin: 0px;">from=city</p></div><p style="display: none;">እምሀገር</p><p style="display: none;">ʼəm=hagar</p><p style="display: none;">from=city</p><p style="clear: left;">from the city</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">በሀገር</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ba=hagar</p><p style="margin: 0px;">in=city</p></div><p style="display: none;">በሀገር</p><p style="display: none;">ba=hagar</p><p style="display: none;">in=city</p><p style="clear: left;">in the city</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">እምዲበ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">’əm=diba</p><p style="margin: 0px;">from=on</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ደብር</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dabr</p><p style="margin: 0px;">mountain</p></div><p style="display: none;">እምዲበ ደብር</p><p style="display: none;">’əm=diba dabr</p><p style="display: none;">from=on mountain</p><p style="clear: left;">down from the mountain</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">በዝ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ba=zə</p><p style="margin: 0px;">in=this</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ቤት</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bet</p><p style="margin: 0px;">house</p></div><p style="display: none;">በዝ ቤት</p><p style="display: none;">ba=zə bet</p><p style="display: none;">in=this house</p><p style="clear: left;">in this house</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>These proclitic prepositions in Geʽez are similar to the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language#Morphology" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew inseparable prepositions</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sentences">Sentences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sentences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The normal word order for declarative sentences is VSO. Objects of verbs show <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative case</a> marked with the suffix /-a/: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ተከለ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">takal-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">plant-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="masculine gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">M</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ብእሲ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bəʾsi</p><p style="margin: 0px;">man</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ዕፀ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʿəḍ-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">tree-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">ተከለ ብእሲ ዕፀ</p><p style="display: none;">takal-a bəʾsi ʿəḍ-a</p><p style="display: none;">plant-3.M.SG man tree-ACC</p><p style="clear: left;">The man planted a tree</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>Questions with a wh-word ('who', 'what', etc.) show the question word at the beginning of the sentence: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">አየ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʾayy-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">which-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ሀገረ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hagar-a</p><p style="margin: 0px;">city-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="accusative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ACC</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ሐነጹ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ḥanaṣ-u</p><p style="margin: 0px;">build-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">አየ ሀገረ ሐነጹ</p><p style="display: none;">ʾayy-a hagar-a ḥanaṣ-u</p><p style="display: none;">which-ACC city-ACC build-3PL</p><p style="clear: left;">Which city did they build?</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negation">Negation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Negation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The common way of negation is the prefix <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ኢ</span></span> <i>ʾi-</i> which descends from <i>ʾəy-</i> (which is attested in Axum inscriptions), from earlier *<i>ʾay</i>, from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> <i>*ʾal</i> by <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b257_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b257-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is prefixed to verbs as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ንሕነ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nəḥna</p><p style="margin: 0px;">we</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ኢንክል</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʾi-nəkl</p><p style="margin: 0px;">(we) cannot</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ሐዊረ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ḥawira</p><p style="margin: 0px;">go</p></div><p style="display: none;">ንሕነ ኢንክል ሐዊረ</p><p style="display: none;">nəḥna ʾi-nəkl ḥawira</p><p style="display: none;">we {(we) cannot} go</p><p style="clear: left;">we cannot go</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Writing system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ethiopic_genesis_(ch._29,_v._11-16),_15th_century_(The_S.S._Teacher%27s_Edition-The_Holy_Bible_-_Plate_XII,_1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Ethiopic_genesis_%28ch._29%2C_v._11-16%29%2C_15th_century_%28The_S.S._Teacher%27s_Edition-The_Holy_Bible_-_Plate_XII%2C_1%29.jpg/220px-Ethiopic_genesis_%28ch._29%2C_v._11-16%29%2C_15th_century_%28The_S.S._Teacher%27s_Edition-The_Holy_Bible_-_Plate_XII%2C_1%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Ethiopic_genesis_%28ch._29%2C_v._11-16%29%2C_15th_century_%28The_S.S._Teacher%27s_Edition-The_Holy_Bible_-_Plate_XII%2C_1%29.jpg/330px-Ethiopic_genesis_%28ch._29%2C_v._11-16%29%2C_15th_century_%28The_S.S._Teacher%27s_Edition-The_Holy_Bible_-_Plate_XII%2C_1%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Ethiopic_genesis_%28ch._29%2C_v._11-16%29%2C_15th_century_%28The_S.S._Teacher%27s_Edition-The_Holy_Bible_-_Plate_XII%2C_1%29.jpg/440px-Ethiopic_genesis_%28ch._29%2C_v._11-16%29%2C_15th_century_%28The_S.S._Teacher%27s_Edition-The_Holy_Bible_-_Plate_XII%2C_1%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> 29.11–16 in Geʽez</figcaption></figure> <p>Geʽez is written with Ethiopic or the Geʽez <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a>, a script that was originally developed specifically for this language. In languages that use it, such as Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called <i><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">Fidäl</i></span></i>, which means script or alphabet. </p><p>Geʽez is read from left to right. </p><p>The Geʽez script has been adapted to write other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread use is for Amharic in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and Tigrinya in <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> and Ethiopia. It is also used for <a href="/wiki/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language" title="Sebat Bet Gurage language">Sebatbeit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Me%CA%BCen_language" title="Meʼen language">Meʼen</a>, Agew, and most other languages of Ethiopia. In Eritrea it is used for Tigre, and it is often used for <a href="/wiki/Bilen_language" title="Bilen language">Bilen</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic language</a>. Some other languages in the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Oromo_language" title="Oromo language">Oromo</a>, used to be written using Geʽez but have switched to <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a>-based alphabets. It also uses four series of consonant signs for <a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">labialized velar</a> consonants, which are variants of the non-labialized velar consonants: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Basic sign </th> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">q(a)</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḫ(a)</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">k(a)</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">g(a)</i></span> </td></tr> <tr style="font-size:2em"> <td>ቀ</td> <td>ኀ</td> <td>ከ</td> <td>ገ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Labialized variant </th> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">qʷ(a)</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">ḫʷ(a)</i></span></td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">kʷ(a)</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gʷ(a)</i></span> </td></tr> <tr style="font-size:2em"> <td>ቈ</td> <td>ኈ</td> <td>ኰ</td> <td>ጐ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_literature">History and literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: History and literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Ge%CA%BDez" title="Bible translations into Geʽez">Bible translations into Geʽez</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sample_of_Ge%27ez_writing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sample_of_Ge%27ez_writing.jpg/220px-Sample_of_Ge%27ez_writing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sample_of_Ge%27ez_writing.jpg/330px-Sample_of_Ge%27ez_writing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sample_of_Ge%27ez_writing.jpg/440px-Sample_of_Ge%27ez_writing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2192" data-file-height="2384" /></a><figcaption>Example of Geʽez taken from a 15th-century Ethiopian Coptic prayer book</figcaption></figure> <p>In addition to the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">Deuterocanonical books</a> there are many medieval and early modern original texts. Most important works are also the literature of the <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church</a>, which include Christian liturgy (service books, prayers, hymns), <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiographies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Patristics" title="Patristics">Patristic literature</a>. For example, around 200 texts were written about indigenous Ethiopian saints from the fourteenth through the nineteenth century. Traditional education was the responsibility of priests and monks. "The Church thus constituted the custodian of the nation's culture", says <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pankhurst_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Pankhurst (academic)">Richard Pankhurst</a>, who describes the traditional education as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Traditional education was largely biblical. It began with the learning of the alphabet, or more properly, syllabary... The student's second grade comprised the memorization of the first chapter of the <a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_John" title="First Epistle of John">first Epistle General of St. John</a> in Geez. The study of writing would probably also begin at this time, and particularly in more modern times some arithmetic might be added. In the third stage the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a> were studied, while certain prayers were also learnt, and writing and arithmetic continued. ... The fourth stage began with the study of the <a href="/wiki/Psalms" title="Psalms">Psalms</a> of David and was considered an important landmark in a child's education, being celebrated by the parents with a feast to which the teacher, father confessor, relatives and neighbours were invited. A boy who had reached this stage would moreover usually be able to write, and might act as a letter writer.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>However, works of history and chronography, ecclesiastical and civil law, philology, medicine, and letters were also written in Geʽez.<sup id="cite_ref-internationalstandardbible.com_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-internationalstandardbible.com-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Significant <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_manuscript_collections" title="Ethiopian manuscript collections">collections of Ethiopian manuscripts</a> are found outside of Ethiopia in France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The collection in the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a> comprises some 800 manuscripts dating from the 15th to the 20th centuries, notably including magical and divinatory scrolls, and illuminated manuscripts of the 16th to 17th centuries. It was initiated by a donation of 74 codices by the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England_Missionary_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Church of England Missionary Society">Church of England Missionary Society</a> in the 1830s and 1840s, and substantially expanded by 349 codices, looted by the British from the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Tewodros_II_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tewodros II of Ethiopia">Tewodros II</a>'s capital at <a href="/wiki/Amba_Mariam" title="Amba Mariam">Magdala</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1868_Expedition_to_Abyssinia" class="mw-redirect" title="1868 Expedition to Abyssinia">1868 Expedition to Abyssinia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> in New York City has at least two <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/search-results?ft=Geez">illuminated manuscripts in Geʽez</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aksum,_iscrizione_di_re_ezana,_in_greco,_sabeo_e_ge%27ez,_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg/220px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg/330px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg/440px-Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5022" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ezana_Stone" title="Ezana Stone">Ezana Stone</a>, engraved from AD 330 to 356, is written in ancient Geʽez, <a href="/wiki/Sabaean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaean language">Sabaean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Geʽez language is classified as a <a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="South Semitic language">South Semitic language</a>, though an alternative hypothesis posits that the Semitic languages of Eritrea and Ethiopia may best be considered an independent branch of Semitic,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with Geʽez and the closely related <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a> languages forming a northern branch while <a href="/wiki/Amharic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Amharic language">Amharic</a>, Argobba, Harari and the Gurage languages form the southern branch.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008428_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008428-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inscriptions dating to the mid-1st millennium BCE, written in the <a href="/wiki/Sabaean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaean language">Sabaean language</a> in the <a href="/wiki/South_Arabian_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="South Arabian alphabet">epigraphic South Arabian script</a>, have been found in the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a>, serving at least as a witness to a presence of speakers of Semitic languages in the region. There is some evidence of Semitic languages being spoken in <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> since approximately 2000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStuart199157_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStuart199157-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike previously assumed, the Geʽez language is now not regarded as an offshoot of <a href="/wiki/Sabaean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaean language">Sabaean</a> or any other forms of <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" class="mw-redirect" title="Old South Arabian">Old South Arabian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008428_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008428-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early inscriptions in Geʽez from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a> (appearing varyingly in the epigraphic South Arabian script, and unvocalized or vocalized Ethiopic/Geʽez script<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) have been dated to as early as the 4th century CE. The surviving Geʽez literature properly begins in the same century with the Christianization of the Aksum, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ezana_of_Axum" title="Ezana of Axum">Ezana of Aksum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-internationalstandardbible.com_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-internationalstandardbible.com-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest known example of the Geʽez script, unvocalized and containing religiously <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">pagan</a> references, is found on the <a href="/wiki/Hawulti_(monument)" title="Hawulti (monument)">Hawulti</a> obelisk in <a href="/wiki/Matara,_Eritrea" title="Matara, Eritrea">Matara, Eritrea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There exist about a dozen long inscriptions dating to the 4th and 5th centuries, and over 200 short ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="5th_to_7th_centuries">5th to 7th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 5th to 7th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The oldest surviving Geʽez manuscript is thought to be the second of the <a href="/wiki/Garima_Gospels" title="Garima Gospels">Garima Gospels</a>, dating to the 5th or 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Almost all transmitted texts from this early "<a href="/wiki/Aksumite" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksumite">Aksumite</a>" period are religious (<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a>) in nature, and translated from Greek. Indeed, the range and scope of the translation enterprise undertaken in the first century of the new Axumite church has few parallels in the early centuries of Christian history. The outcome was an Ethiopic Bible containing 81 Books: 46 of the Old Testament and 35 of the New. A number of these Books are called "deuterocanonical" (or "apocryphal" according to certain Western theologians), such as the <a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Isaiah" title="Ascension of Isaiah">Ascension of Isaiah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jubilees" class="mw-redirect" title="Jubilees">Jubilees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">Enoch</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Paralipomena_of_Baruch" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralipomena of Baruch">Paralipomena of Baruch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Noah" title="Book of Noah">Noah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nehemiah" title="Nehemiah">Nehemiah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maccabees" title="Maccabees">Maccabees</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Tobit" title="Book of Tobit">Tobit</a>. The Book of Enoch in particular is notable since its complete text has survived in no other language; and, for the other works listed, the Ethiopic version is highly regarded as a witness to the original text. </p><p>Also to this early period dates <a href="/wiki/Qerlos" title="Qerlos">Qerlos</a>, a collection of Christological writings beginning with the treatise of <a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Saint Cyril</a> (known as <i>Hamanot Reteʼet</i> or <i>De Recta Fide</i>). These works are the theological foundation of the Ethiopic Church. In the later 5th century, the Aksumite Collection—an extensive selection of liturgical, theological, synodical and historical materials—was translated into Geʽez from Greek, providing a fundamental set of instructions and laws for the developing Axumite Church. Included in this collection is a translation of the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Tradition" title="Apostolic Tradition">Apostolic Tradition</a> (attributed to <a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome" title="Hippolytus of Rome">Hippolytus of Rome</a>, and lost in the original Greek) for which the Ethiopic version provides much the best surviving witness. Another important religious document is <i>Serʼata Paknemis</i>, a translation of the monastic Rules of <a href="/wiki/Pachomius" class="mw-redirect" title="Pachomius">Pachomius</a>. Non-religious works translated in this period include <i><a href="/wiki/Physiologus" title="Physiologus">Physiologus</a></i>, a work of natural history also very popular in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBudge1928566f._55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBudge1928566f.-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="13th_to_14th_centuries">13th to 14th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: 13th to 14th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the decline of the Aksumites, a lengthy gap follows; Some writers consider the period beginning from the 14th century an actual "Golden Age" of Geʽez literature—although by this time Geʽez was no longer a living language; in particular in the major enterprise of translating an extensive library of Coptic <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> religious works into Geʽez. </p><p>While there is ample evidence that it had been replaced by Amharic in the south and by Tigrinya and Tigre in the north, Geʽez remained in use as the official written language until the 19th century, its status comparable to that of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> in Europe. </p><p>At this time a lot of works of the <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> had been turned into Hebraized (i.e. written in the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>) Geʽez, which made the gradual process of Geʽez being the liturgical language of the Beta Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBudge1928574_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBudge1928574-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Important <a href="/wiki/Hagiographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Hagiographies">hagiographies</a> from this period include: </p> <ul><li>the <i>Gadle Samaʼetat</i> "Acts of the Martyrs"</li> <li>the <i>Gadle Hawaryat</i> "Acts of the Apostles"</li> <li>the <i>Senkessar</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Synaxarium" title="Synaxarium">Synaxarium</a></i>, translated as "The Book of the Saints of the Ethiopian Church"</li> <li>Other Lives of <a href="/wiki/Anthony_the_Great" title="Anthony the Great">Saint Anthony</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_George" title="Saint George">Saint George</a>, Saint <a href="/wiki/Tekle_Haymanot" title="Tekle Haymanot">Tekle Haymanot</a>, Saint <a href="/wiki/Gabra_Manfas_Qeddus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabra Manfas Qeddus">Gabra Manfas Qeddus</a></li></ul> <p>Also at this time the <i><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Constitutions" title="Apostolic Constitutions">Apostolic Constitutions</a></i> was retranslated into Geʽez from Arabic. Another translation from this period is Zena ʼAyhud, a translation (probably from an Arabic translation) of Joseph ben Gurion's "History of the Jews" ("Sefer <a href="/wiki/Josippon" title="Josippon">Josippon</a>") written in Hebrew in the 10th century, which covers the period from the Captivity to the capture of Jerusalem by Titus. Apart from theological works, the earliest contemporary Royal Chronicles of Ethiopia are date to the reign of <a href="/wiki/Amda_Seyon_I" title="Amda Seyon I">Amda Seyon I</a> (1314–44). With the appearance of the "Victory Songs" of Amda Seyon, this period also marks the beginning of Amharic literature. The 14th century <i><a href="/wiki/Kebra_Nagast" title="Kebra Nagast">Kebra Nagast</a></i> or "Glory of the Kings" by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nebura%CA%BCed_Yeshaq&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neburaʼed Yeshaq (page does not exist)">Neburaʼed Yeshaq</a> of Aksum is among the most significant works of Ethiopian literature, combining history, allegory and symbolism in a retelling of the story of the <a href="/wiki/Queen_of_Sheba" title="Queen of Sheba">Queen of Sheba</a> (i.e., Saba), <a href="/wiki/King_Solomon" class="mw-redirect" title="King Solomon">King Solomon</a>, and their son <a href="/wiki/Menelik_I_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Menelik I of Ethiopia">Menelik I of Ethiopia</a>. Another work that began to take shape in this period is the <i>Mashafa Aksum</i> or "<a href="/wiki/Book_of_Axum" title="Book of Axum">Book of Axum</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBudge1928574_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBudge1928574-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="15th_to_16th_centuries">15th to 16th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: 15th to 16th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early 15th century <i>Fekkare Iyasus</i> "The Explication of Jesus" contains a prophecy of a king called <i>Tewodros</i>, which rose to importance in 19th century Ethiopia as <a href="/wiki/Tewodros_II_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Tewodros II of Ethiopia">Tewodros II</a> chose this throne name. </p><p>Literature flourished especially during the reign of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Zara_Yaqob" title="Zara Yaqob">Zara Yaqob</a>. Written by the Emperor himself were <i>Matsʼhafe Berhan</i> ("The Book of Light") and <i>Matshafe Milad</i> ("The Book of Nativity"). Numerous homilies were written in this period, notably <i>Retuʼa Haimanot</i> ("True Orthodoxy") ascribed to <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a>. Also of monumental importance was the appearance of the Geʽez translation of the <a href="/wiki/Fetha_Negest" title="Fetha Negest">Fetha Negest</a> ("Laws of the Kings"), thought to have been around 1450, and ascribed to one Petros Abda Sayd — that was later to function as the supreme Law for Ethiopia, until it was replaced by a <a href="/wiki/1931_Constitution_of_Ethiopia" title="1931 Constitution of Ethiopia">modern Constitution in 1931</a>. </p><p>By the beginning of the 16th century, the Islamic invasions put an end to the flourishing of Ethiopian literature. A letter of Abba ʼ<a href="/wiki/Enbaqom" title="Enbaqom">Enbaqom</a> (or "Habakkuk") to <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Ghazi" title="Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi">Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi</a>, entitled <i>Anqasa Amin</i> ("Gate of the Faith"), giving his reasons for abandoning <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, although probably first written in Arabic and later rewritten in an expanded Geʽez version around 1532, is considered one of the classics of later Geʽez literature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPankhurst2003_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankhurst2003-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, Ethiopian writers begin to address differences between the Ethiopian and the Roman Catholic Church in such works as the <i>Confession</i> of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Gelawdewos" title="Gelawdewos">Gelawdewos</a>, <i>Sawana Nafs</i> ("Refuge of the Soul"), <i>Fekkare Malakot</i> ("Exposition of the Godhead") and <i>Haymanote Abaw</i> ("Faith of the Fathers"). Around the year 1600, a number of works were translated from Arabic into Geʽez for the first time, including the <i>Chronicle</i> of <a href="/wiki/John_of_Nikiu" class="mw-redirect" title="John of Nikiu">John of Nikiu</a> and the <i>Universal History</i> of <a href="/wiki/George_Elmacin" class="mw-redirect" title="George Elmacin">George Elmacin</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_usage_in_Eritrea,_Ethiopia_and_Israel"><span id="Current_usage_in_Eritrea.2C_Ethiopia_and_Israel"></span>Current usage in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Israel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Current usage in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Israel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geʽez is the liturgical language of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Catholic_Church" title="Ethiopian Catholic Church">Ethiopian Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Catholic_Church" title="Eritrean Catholic Church">Eritrean Catholic</a> Christians and the <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a>, and is used in prayer and in scheduled public celebrations. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical rite">liturgical rite</a> used by the Christian churches is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopic_Rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopic Rite">Ethiopic Rite</a><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_Rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Geʽez Rite">Geʽez Rite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample">Sample</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sample"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first sentence of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">Book of Enoch</a>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ቃለ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Qāla</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">በረከት</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">barakat</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ዘሄኖክ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">za-Henok</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ዘከመ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">zakama</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ባረከ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">bāraka</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ኅሩያነ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ḫəruyāna</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ወጻድቃነ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">waṣādəqāna</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">እለ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʾəlla</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ሀለዉ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hallawu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ይኩኑ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yəkunu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">በዕለተ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">baʿəlata</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ምንዳቤ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">məndābe</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ለአሰስሎ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">laʾasassəlo</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ኵሉ</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kʷəllu</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">እኩያን</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ʾəkuyān</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">፡</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">ወረሲዓን</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">warasiʿān</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="gez" style="margin: 0px;">።</p><p lang="gez-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"> </p></div><p style="display: none;">ቃለ ፡ በረከት ፡ ዘሄኖክ ፡ ዘከመ ፡ ባረከ ፡ ኅሩያነ ፡ ወጻድቃነ ፡ እለ ፡ ሀለዉ ፡ ይኩኑ ፡ በዕለተ ፡ ምንዳቤ ፡ ለአሰስሎ ፡ ኵሉ ፡ እኩያን ፡ ወረሲዓን ።</p><p style="display: none;">Qāla {} barakat {} za-Henok {} zakama {} bāraka {} ḫəruyāna {} waṣādəqāna {} ʾəlla {} hallawu {} yəkunu {} baʿəlata {} məndābe {} laʾasassəlo {} kʷəllu {} ʾəkuyān {} warasiʿān {}</p><p style="clear: left;">"Word of blessing of <a href="/wiki/Enoch_(ancestor_of_Noah)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enoch (ancestor of Noah)">Henok</a>, wherewith he blessed the chosen and righteous who would be alive in the day of tribulation for the removal of all wrongdoers and backsliders."</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_chant" title="Ethiopian chant">Ethiopian chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Eritrea" title="Languages of Eritrea">Languages of Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ethiopia" title="Languages of Ethiopia">Languages of Ethiopia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg1997b">Gragg 1997b</a>, p. 242, "Ge‘ez disappeared as a spoken language probably some time before the tenth century CE."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/De_Lacy_O%27Leary" title="De Lacy O'Leary">De Lacy O'Leary</a>, 2000 <i>Comparative grammar of the Semitic languages</i>. Routledge. p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CHA-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CHA_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CHA_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChain1909">Chain 1909</a>, "No longer in popular use, Geʽez has always remained the language of the Church".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PER-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PER_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"They read the Bible in Geez" (Leaders and Religion of the Beth Israel); "after each passage, recited in Geez, the translation is read in Kailina" (Festivals). [PER], publication date 1901–1906.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li>Laurie Bauer, 2007, <i>The Linguistics Student's Handbook</i>, Edinburgh</li><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-Geez" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=Geez">"Geez"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geez&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3DGeez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Geez">"Geez"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Geez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2FGeez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Geez">"Geez"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary.com" title="Dictionary.com">Dictionary.com Unabridged</a></i> (Online). n.d.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Geez&rft.btitle=Dictionary.com+Unabridged&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionary.com%2Fbrowse%2FGeez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 400: Ge‘z</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLeslau1989">Leslau 1989</a>, p. 209: gəʽəz</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLeslau1987">Leslau 1987</a>, p. 175: gəʿz</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCohen1921">Cohen 1921</a>, p. 217, <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr">«il vaut mieux préciser en <em>éthiopien classique</em> ou employer le nom indigène; celui-ci est <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ግእዝ፡</span></span>, c’est-à-dire en prononciation restituée <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gə‘əz</i></span> ou <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gə‘z</i></span>, et <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gəəz</i></span> dans la prononciation abyssine actuelle»</span></span><div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div>[it is worth it to be precise using <i>Classical Ethiopic</i> or the indigenous name, which is <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ግእዝ፡</span></span>, that is (in reconstructed pronunciation <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gə‘əz</i></span> or <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gə‘z</i></span>, and <span title="Semitic languages romanization"><i lang="sem-Latn">gəəz</i></span> {i.e. IPA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="gez-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈgɨʔɨz]</span> with a glottal stop} in today's Abyssinian pronunciation]</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBender1971" class="citation journal cs1">Bender, M. L. (May 1971). "The Languages of Ethiopia: A New Lexicostatistic Classification and Some Problems of Diffusion". <i>Anthropological Linguistics</i>. <b>13</b> (5): 173. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30029540">30029540</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropological+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+Languages+of+Ethiopia%3A+A+New+Lexicostatistic+Classification+and+Some+Problems+of+Diffusion&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=173&rft.date=1971-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30029540%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bender&rft.aufirst=M.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnellKillion2010" class="citation book cs1">Connell, Dan; Killion, Tom (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SYsgpIc3mrsC&pg=PA508"><i>Historical Dictionary of Eritrea</i></a> (2nd ed.). Scarecrow. p. 508. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7505-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7505-0"><bdi>978-0-8108-7505-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Eritrea&rft.pages=508&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Scarecrow&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-7505-0&rft.aulast=Connell&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft.au=Killion%2C+Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSYsgpIc3mrsC%26pg%3DPA508&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaarmann2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Haarmann, Harald (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=astTBgYBTOQC&pg=PA76"><i>Lexikon der untergegangenen Sprachen</i></a> [<i>Lexicon of extinct languages</i>] (in German) (2nd ed.). C. H. Beck. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-47596-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-47596-2"><bdi>978-3-406-47596-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lexikon+der+untergegangenen+Sprachen&rft.pages=76&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=C.+H.+Beck&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-406-47596-2&rft.aulast=Haarmann&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DastTBgYBTOQC%26pg%3DPA76&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Amsalu Aklilu, Kuraz Publishing Agency, <span title="Ge'ez-language text"><span lang="gez">ጥሩ የአማርኛ ድርሰት እንዴት ያለ ነው!</span></span> p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg1997a">Gragg 1997a</a>, p. 177: "/ä/ is low central front, higher and more forward than /a/, secondarily perhaps also shorter; approximates IPA <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æ]</span>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 3: "a [æ, ä]"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 3: "ā [a, ɑ]"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997a177–178-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997a177–178_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg1997a">Gragg 1997a</a>, pp. 177–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b246-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b246_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b246_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg1997b">Gragg 1997b</a>, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin19782-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin19782_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b244-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b244_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg1997b">Gragg 1997b</a>, p. 244.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b245-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b245_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg1997b">Gragg 1997b</a>, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeninger2011" class="citation journal cs1">Weninger, Stefan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/aethiopica/article/view/39/20">"Sounds of Gǝʽǝz – How to Study the Phonetics and Phonology of an Ancient Language"</a>. <i>Aethiopica</i>. <b>13</b>: <span class="nowrap">75–</span>88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15460%2Faethiopica.13.1.39">10.15460/aethiopica.13.1.39</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aethiopica&rft.atitle=Sounds+of+G%C7%9D%26%23x02BD%3B%C7%9Dz+%E2%80%93+How+to+Study+the+Phonetics+and+Phonology+of+an+Ancient+Language&rft.volume=13&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E75-%3C%2Fspan%3E88&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15460%2Faethiopica.13.1.39&rft.aulast=Weninger&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sub.uni-hamburg.de%2Faethiopica%2Farticle%2Fview%2F39%2F20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMittwoch1926">Mittwoch 1926</a>, as used by <a href="#CITEREFTropper2021">Tropper 2021</a>, § 3.5, and largely identical to <a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, pp. 5, 29, 36, 40, 57, 97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDillmann1899">Dillmann 1899</a>, as cited by <a href="#CITEREFTropper2021">Tropper 2021</a>, § 3.5.2 in footnotes 45–46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197826-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197826_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197821-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197821_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.2-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.2_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTropper2021">Tropper 2021</a>, § 4.1.2.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197840-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197840_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b248_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg1997b">Gragg 1997b</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008440-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008440_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008440_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg2008">Gragg 2008</a>, p. 440.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.1-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.1_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTropper2021">Tropper 2021</a>, § 4.1.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197829-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197829_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 41: "Plural noun. All plural nouns have a suffix -i- added to the stem before the pronominal suffixes. [...] There are no distinct accusative forms."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTropper2021">Tropper 2021</a>, § 4.1.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197840–41-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197840–41_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, pp. 40–41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.1-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.1_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETropper2021§&nbsp;4.1.2.1_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTropper2021">Tropper 2021</a>, § 4.1.2.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197823-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197823_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197844-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197844_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197845-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197845_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELambdin197816-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELambdin197816_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLambdin1978">Lambdin 1978</a>, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b257-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg1997b257_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg1997b">Gragg 1997b</a>, p. 257.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPankhurst1968">Pankhurst 1968</a>, pp. 666f; cf. the EOTC's own account at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071102185031/http://www.eotc-patriarch.org/teachings.htm">its official website.</a> "Church Teachings". Retrieved from the Internet Archive on March 12, 2014.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-internationalstandardbible.com-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-internationalstandardbible.com_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-internationalstandardbible.com_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/E/ethiopic-language.html">"Ethiopic Language in the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia"</a>. <i>International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Standard+Bible+Encyclopedia+Online&rft.atitle=Ethiopic+Language+in+the+International+Standard+Bible+Encyclopedia.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalstandardbible.com%2FE%2Fethiopic-language.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM.1935" class="citation journal cs1">M., E. (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25639482">"Note on the Languages of Abyssinia"</a>. <i>Bulletin of International News</i>. <b>12</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>5. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2044-3986">2044-3986</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25639482">25639482</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+International+News&rft.atitle=Note+on+the+Languages+of+Abyssinia&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=1935&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25639482%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=2044-3986&rft.aulast=M.&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25639482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008428-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008428_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008428_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg2008">Gragg 2008</a>, p. 428.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStuart199157-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStuart199157_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStuart1991">Stuart 1991</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weninger, Stefan, "Geʽez" in <i>Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha</i>, p.732.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg2008430_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGragg2008">Gragg 2008</a>, p. 430.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Ullendorff, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25222457">"The Obelisk of Matara", <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland</i></a>, No. 1/2 (April, 1951), pp. 26–32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA_conservator_at_work_on_the_Garima_Gospels2010" class="citation web cs1">A conservator at work on the Garima Gospels (2010-07-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2010/07/discovery-of-earliest-illuminated.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Discovery of earliest illustrated manuscript," Martin Bailey, June 2010"</a>. Theartnewspaper.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Discovery+of+earliest+illustrated+manuscript%2C%22+Martin+Bailey%2C+June+2010&rft.pub=Theartnewspaper.com&rft.date=2010-07-14&rft.au=A+conservator+at+work+on+the+Garima+Gospels&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F07%2Fdiscovery-of-earliest-illuminated.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120501030359/http://ethiopianheritagefund.org/artsNewspaper.html">"The Arts Newspaper June 2010 – Abuna Garima Gospels"</a>. Ethiopianheritagefund.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ethiopianheritagefund.org/artsNewspaper.html">the original</a> on 2012-05-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Arts+Newspaper+June+2010+%E2%80%93+Abuna+Garima+Gospels&rft.pub=Ethiopianheritagefund.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fethiopianheritagefund.org%2FartsNewspaper.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBudge1928566f.-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBudge1928566f._55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBudge1928">Budge 1928</a>, pp. 566f..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBudge1928574-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBudge1928574_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBudge1928574_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBudge1928">Budge 1928</a>, p. 574.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPankhurst2003-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPankhurst2003_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPankhurst2003">Pankhurst 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bryan D. Spinks, <i>The Sanctus in the Eucharistic Prayer</i> (Cambridge University Press 2002 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52662-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52662-3">978-0-521-52662-3</a>), p. 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anscar J. Chupungco, <i>Handbook for Liturgical Studies</i> (Liturgical Press 1997 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8146-6161-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8146-6161-1">978-0-8146-6161-1</a>), p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Archdale King, <i>The Rites of Eastern Christendom</i>, vol. 1 (Gorgias Press LLC 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-391-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-391-1">978-1-59333-391-1</a>), p. 533</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul B. Henze, <i>Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia</i> (C. Hurst & Co. 2000 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-393-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85065-393-6">978-1-85065-393-6</a>), p. 127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley (editors), <i>The Encyclopedia of Christianity</i>, vol. 2 (Eerdmans 1999 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11695-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11695-5">978-90-04-11695-5</a>), p. 158</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David H. Shinn, Thomas P. Ofcansky (editors), <i>Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia</i> (Scarecrow Press 2013), p. 93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Raunig, Steffen Wenig (editors), <i>Afrikas Horn</i> (Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05175-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05175-0">978-3-447-05175-0</a>), p. 171</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_history">External history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBudge1928" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._A._Wallis_Budge" title="E. A. Wallis Budge">Budge, E. A. Wallis</a> (1928). <i>A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia</i>. Oosterhour, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315762722">10.4324/9781315762722</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-76272-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-76272-2"><bdi>978-1-315-76272-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ethiopia%3A+Nubia+and+Abyssinia&rft.place=Oosterhour%2C+the+Netherlands&rft.pub=Anthropological+Publications&rft.date=1928&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315762722&rft.isbn=978-1-315-76272-2&rft.aulast=Budge&rft.aufirst=E.+A.+Wallis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span> (republished 1970)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChain1909" class="citation book cs1">Chain, M. (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070206102731/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05566a.htm">"Ethiopia"</a>. <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. V. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05566a.htm">the original</a> on 2007-02-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethiopia&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Chain&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F05566a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStuart1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Munro-Hay" title="Stuart Munro-Hay">Stuart, Munro-Hay</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livingston.org/cms/lib4/NJ01000562/Centricity/Domain/602/aksum.pdf"><i>Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Edinburgh: University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0106-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0106-6"><bdi>978-0-7486-0106-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aksum%3A+An+African+Civilization+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-0106-6&rft.aulast=Stuart&rft.aufirst=Munro-Hay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livingston.org%2Fcms%2Flib4%2FNJ01000562%2FCentricity%2FDomain%2F602%2Faksum.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPankhurst1968" class="citation book cs1">Pankhurst, Richard K. P. (1968). <i>An Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935</i>. Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+History+of+Ethiopia%2C+1800%E2%80%931935&rft.place=Addis+Ababa&rft.pub=Haile+Selassie+I+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Pankhurst&rft.aufirst=Richard+K.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPankhurst2003" class="citation web cs1">Pankhurst, Richard K. P. (2003-11-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071209144227/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/11/14-11-03/Glimpse.htm">"Abba 'Enbaqom, Imam Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim, and the "Conquest of Abyssinia"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Addis Tribune</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/11/14-11-03/Glimpse.htm">the original</a> on 2007-12-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Addis+Tribune&rft.atitle=Abba+%27Enbaqom%2C+Imam+Ahmad+Ibn+Ibrahim%2C+and+the+%22Conquest+of+Abyssinia%22&rft.date=2003-11-14&rft.aulast=Pankhurst&rft.aufirst=Richard+K.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.addistribune.com%2FArchives%2F2003%2F11%2F14-11-03%2FGlimpse.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerruchonGottheil1901–1906" class="citation web cs1">Perruchon, J. D.; Gottheil, Richard (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180814213600/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5987-falashas">"Falashas"</a>. <i>The Jewish Encyclopedia</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5987-falashas">the original</a> on 2018-08-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Falashas&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft.aulast=Perruchon&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Gottheil%2C+Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F5987-falashas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonology_and_grammar">Phonology and grammar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Phonology and grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Cha%C3%AEne" title="Marius Chaîne">Chaîne, Marius</a>, <i>Grammaire éthiopienne</i>. Beyrouth (<a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>): Imprimerie catholique 1907, 1938 (Nouvelle édition). (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammairethiop00chauoft">electronic version</a> at the Internet Archive)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1921" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Cohen" title="Marcel Cohen">Cohen, Marcel</a> (1921). "la pronunciation traditionelle du Guèze (éthiopien classique)". <i>Journal Asiatique</i>. <b>11</b> (18).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+Asiatique&rft.atitle=la+pronunciation+traditionelle+du+Gu%C3%A8ze+%28%C3%A9thiopien+classique%29&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=18&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k932990">electronic version</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Gallica" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallica">Gallica</a> digital library of the <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a>, <a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillmann1899" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/August_Dillmann" title="August Dillmann">Dillmann, August</a> (1899). <i>Grammatik der äthiopischen Sprache</i> (2nd ed.). Leipzig: B. Tauchnitz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatik+der+%C3%A4thiopischen+Sprache&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=B.+Tauchnitz&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Dillmann&rft.aufirst=August&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Dillmann" title="August Dillmann">Dillmann, August</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bezold" title="Carl Bezold">Bezold, Carl</a>, <i>Ethiopic Grammar</i>, 2nd edition translated from German by James Crichton, London 1907. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59244-145-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59244-145-7">978-1-59244-145-7</a> (2003 reprint). (Published in German: ¹1857, ²1899). (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/EthiopicethiopianLanguageGrammarByAugustDillmann">Online version</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGragg1997a" class="citation book cs1">Gragg, Gene (1997a). "Ge'ez Phonology". In Kaye, Alan (ed.). <i>Phonologies of Asia and Africa</i>. Vol. 1. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. pp. <span class="nowrap">169–</span>186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57506-017-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-57506-017-5"><bdi>1-57506-017-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ge%E2%80%98ez+Phonology&rft.btitle=Phonologies+of+Asia+and+Africa&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E169-%3C%2Fspan%3E186&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-57506-017-5&rft.aulast=Gragg&rft.aufirst=Gene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGragg1997b" class="citation book cs1">Gragg, Gene (1997b). "Ge'ez (Ethiopic)". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). <i>The Semitic Languages</i>. London & New York: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">242–</span>260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-05767-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-05767-1"><bdi>0-415-05767-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ge%E2%80%98ez+%28Ethiopic%29&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E242-%3C%2Fspan%3E260&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-415-05767-1&rft.aulast=Gragg&rft.aufirst=Gene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGragg2008" class="citation book cs1">Gragg, Gene (2008). "Ge'ez". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages</i>. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0"><bdi>978-0-521-56256-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ge%E2%80%98ez&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+World%27s+Ancient+Languages&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York%2C+Melbourne%2C+Madrid%2C+Cape+Town%2C+Singapore%2C+S%C3%A3o+Paulo&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56256-0&rft.aulast=Gragg&rft.aufirst=Gene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kidanä Wäld Kəfle, <i>Maṣḥafa sawāsəw wagəss wamazgaba ḳālāt ḥaddis</i> ("A new grammar and dictionary"), Dire Dawa: Artistik Matämiya Bet 1955/6 (E.C. 1948).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambdin1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Oden_Lambdin" title="Thomas Oden Lambdin">Lambdin, Thomas</a> (1978). <i>Introduction to Classical Ethiopic</i>. Harvard Semitic Studies. Vol. 24. Missoula: Scholars Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89130-263-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89130-263-6"><bdi>978-0-89130-263-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Classical+Ethiopic&rft.place=Missoula&rft.series=Harvard+Semitic+Studies&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-89130-263-6&rft.aulast=Lambdin&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Mercer, Samuel Alfred Browne, "Ethiopic grammar: with chrestomathy and glossary" 1920 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ethiopicgrammarw00merc">Online version</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMittwoch1926" class="citation book cs1">Mittwoch, Eugen (1926). <i>Die traditionelle Aussprache des äthiopischen</i>. Abessinische Studien. Vol. 1. Berlin & Leipzig: Walter de Gruyter & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+traditionelle+Aussprache+des+%C3%A4thiopischen&rft.place=Berlin+%26+Leipzig&rft.series=Abessinische+Studien&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+%26+Co&rft.date=1926&rft.aulast=Mittwoch&rft.aufirst=Eugen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Praetorius, Franz, <i>Äthiopische Grammatik</i>, Karlsruhe: Reuther 1886.</li> <li>Prochazka, Stephan, <i>Altäthiopische Studiengrammatik</i>, Orbis Biblicus Et Orientalis – Subsidia Linguistica (OBO SL) 2, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlag 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-26409-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-26409-6">978-3-525-26409-6</a>.</li> <li>Tropper, Josef, <i>Altäthiopisch: Grammatik der Geʽez mit Übungstexten und Glossar</i>, Elementa Linguarum Orientis (ELO) 2, Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-934628-29-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-934628-29-8">978-3-934628-29-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTropper2021" class="citation book cs1">Tropper, Josef (2021). <i>Classical Ethiopic: A Grammar of Gǝˁǝz</i>. Translated by Hasselbach-Andee, Rebecca. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-841-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-841-1"><bdi>978-1-57506-841-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Ethiopic%3A+A+Grammar+of+G%C7%9D%CB%81%C7%9Dz&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=The+Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-841-1&rft.aulast=Tropper&rft.aufirst=Josef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Weninger, Stefan, <i>Geʽez grammar</i>, Munich: LINCOM Europa, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-929075-04-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-929075-04-5">978-3-929075-04-5</a> (1st edition, 1993), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-604-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-89586-604-3">978-3-89586-604-3</a> (2nd revised edition, 1999).</li> <li>Weninger, Stefan, <i>Das Verbalsystem des Altäthiopischen: Eine Untersuchung seiner Verwendung und Funktion unter Berücksichtigung des Interferenzproblems</i>, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04484-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-04484-4">978-3-447-04484-4</a>.</li> <li>Zerezghi Haile, Learn Basic Geez Grammar (2015) for Tigrinya readers available at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://uwontario.academia.edu/WedGdmhra">https://uwontario.academia.edu/WedGdmhra</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Adera, Taddesse, Ali Jimale Ahmed (eds.), <i>Silence Is Not Golden: A Critical Anthology of Ethiopian Literature</i>, Red Sea Press (1995), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-932415-47-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-932415-47-9">978-0-932415-47-9</a>.</li> <li>Bonk, Jon, <i>Annotated and Classified Bibliography of English Literature Pertaining to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church</i>, Atla Bibliography Series, Scarecrow Pr (1984), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-1710-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-1710-4">978-0-8108-1710-4</a>.</li> <li>Charles, Robert Henry, <i>The Ethiopic version of the book of Enoch</i>. Oxford 1906. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ethiopicversiono00charuoft">Online version</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Dillmann" title="August Dillmann">Dillmann, August</a>, <i>Chrestomathia Aethiopica</i>. Leipzig 1866. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chrestomathiaaet00dilluoft">Online version</a> at the Internet Archive)</li> <li>Dillmann, August, <i>Octateuchus Aethiopicus</i>. Leipzig 1853. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tau.ac.il/~hacohen/Biblia.html">The first eight books of the Bible in Geʽez. Online version</a>)</li> <li>Dillmann, August, <i>Anthologia Aethiopica, Herausgegeben und mit einem Nachwort versehen von Ernst Hammerschmidt</i>. Hildesheim: Olms Verlag 1988, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-487-07943-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-487-07943-1">978-3-487-07943-1</a> .</li> <li>The Royal Chronicles of <a href="/wiki/Zara_Yaqob" title="Zara Yaqob">Zara Yaqob</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baeda_Maryam_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia">Baeda Maryam</a> – French translation and edition of the Geʽez text Paris 1893 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5498437b/f13.image.r=Les%20chroniques%20de%20Zara%20Yaqob">electronic version</a> in Gallica digital library of the Bibliothèque nationale de France)</li> <li>Ethiopic <a href="/wiki/Recension" title="Recension">recension</a> of the Chronicle of John of Nikiû – Paris 1883 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k108650z.texteImage">electronic version</a>) in Gallica</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries">Dictionaries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Dictionaries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Dillmann" title="August Dillmann">Dillmann, August</a>, <i>Lexicon linguæ Æthiopicæ cum indice Latino</i>, Lipsiae 1865. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lexiconlinguaeae00dilluoft">Online version</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://betamasaheft.eu/Dillmann/">digitized and searchable</a> at the Beta Maṣāḥəft project)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeslau1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Leslau" title="Wolf Leslau">Leslau, Wolf</a> (1987). <i>Comparative Dictionary of Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic): Geez—English, English—Geez, with an Index of the Semitic Roots</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02592-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02592-8"><bdi>978-3-447-02592-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Dictionary+of+Ge%27ez+%28Classical+Ethiopic%29%3A+Geez%E2%80%94English%2C+English%E2%80%94Geez%2C+with+an+Index+of+the+Semitic+Roots&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3-447-02592-8&rft.aulast=Leslau&rft.aufirst=Wolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeslau1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Leslau" title="Wolf Leslau">Leslau, Wolf</a> (1989). <i>Concise Dictionary of Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic)</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02873-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02873-8"><bdi>978-3-447-02873-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+Dictionary+of+Ge%27ez+%28Classical+Ethiopic%29&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-3-447-02873-8&rft.aulast=Leslau&rft.aufirst=Wolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGe%CA%BDez" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Fonts for Geʽez script</b>: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fonts.google.com/noto/specimen/Noto+Sans+Ethiopic?query=ethiop"><i>Noto Sans Ethiopic</i></a> – (multiple weights and widths)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fonts.google.com/noto/specimen/Noto+Serif+Ethiopic?query=MCKL%2F"><i>Noto Serif Ethiopic</i></a> – (multiple weights and widths)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://software.sil.org/abyssinica/download/"><i>Abyssinica SIL</i></a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://software.sil.org/abyssinica/support/character-set-support/">Character set support</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211201154510/https://software.sil.org/abyssinica/support/character-set-support/">Archived</a> 2021-12-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060810221758/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/harden_ethiopic_literature.htm">J. M. Harden, <i>An Introduction to Ethiopic Christian Literature</i> (1926)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hmml.org/researcher-identifies-second-oldest-ethiopian-manuscript-in-existence-in-hmmls-archives/">Researcher identifies second-oldest Ethiopian manuscript in existence in HMML's archives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190311090223/http://hmml.org/researcher-identifies-second-oldest-ethiopian-manuscript-in-existence-in-hmmls-archives/">Archived</a> 2019-03-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (13 July 2010)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060219131216/http://enlil.ff.cuni.cz/ethiopian/shelf_noframe.htm">Library of Ethiopian Texts</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Ethiopia95" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Ethiopia" title="Template:Languages of Ethiopia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Ethiopia" title="Template talk:Languages of Ethiopia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Ethiopia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Ethiopia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Ethiopia95" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Ethiopia" title="Languages of Ethiopia">Languages of Ethiopia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afar_language" title="Afar language">Afar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_language" title="Oromo language">Oromo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional<br />languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argobba_language" title="Argobba language">Argobba</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurage languages">Gurage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harari_language" title="Harari language">Harari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inor_language" title="Inor language">Inor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesqan_language" title="Mesqan language">Mesqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muher_language" title="Muher language">Muher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language" title="Sebat Bet Gurage language">Sebat Bet Gurage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt%CA%BCe_language" title="Siltʼe language">Siltʼe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soddo_language" title="Soddo language">Soddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zay_language" title="Zay language">Zay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afar_language" title="Afar language">Afar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaba-K%CA%BCabeena_language" title="Alaba-Kʼabeena language">Alaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ale_language" title="Ale language">Ale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbore_language" title="Arbore language">Arbore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awngi_language" title="Awngi language">Awngi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baiso_language" title="Baiso language">Baiso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bussa_language" title="Bussa language">Bussa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burji_language" title="Burji language">Burji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daasanach_language" title="Daasanach language">Daasanach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirasha_language" title="Dirasha language">Dirasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gedeo_language" title="Gedeo language">Gedeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadiyya_language" title="Hadiyya language">Hadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kambaata_language" title="Kambaata language">Kambaata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konso_language" title="Konso language">Konso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libido_language" title="Libido language">Libido</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromo_language" title="Oromo language">Oromo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qimant_language" title="Qimant language">Qimant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saho_language" title="Saho language">Saho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidamo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidamo language">Sidamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsamai_language" title="Tsamai language">Tsamai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xamtanga_language" title="Xamtanga language">Xamtanga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Omotic_languages" title="Omotic languages">Omotic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aari_language" title="Aari language">Aari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anfillo_language" title="Anfillo language">Anfillo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bambassi_language" title="Bambassi language">Bambassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketo_language" title="Basketo language">Basketo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_language" title="Bench language">Bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinasha_language" title="Shinasha language">Boro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chara_language" title="Chara language">Chara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dime_language" title="Dime language">Dime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dizin_language" title="Dizin language">Dizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorze_language" title="Dorze language">Dorze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamo-Gofa-Dawro_language" title="Gamo-Gofa-Dawro language">Gamo-Gofa-Dawro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganza_language" title="Ganza language">Ganza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gayil_language" title="Gayil language">Gayil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamer_language" title="Hamer language">Hamer-Banna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hozo_language" title="Hozo language">Hozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kachama-Ganjule_language" title="Kachama-Ganjule language">Kachama-Ganjule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafa_language" title="Kafa language">Kafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karo_language_(Ethiopia)" title="Karo language (Ethiopia)">Karo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koore_language" title="Koore language">Koorete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maale_language" title="Maale language">Maale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melo_language" title="Melo language">Melo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nayi_language" title="Nayi language">Nayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyda_language" title="Oyda language">Oyda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seze_language" title="Seze language">Seze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakacho_language" title="Shakacho language">Shekkacho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheko_language" title="Sheko language">Sheko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolaitta_language" title="Wolaitta language">Wolaitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yem_language" title="Yem language">Yemsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayse-Zergulla_language" title="Zayse-Zergulla language">Zayse-Zergulla</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anuak_language" title="Anuak language">Anuak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berta_language" title="Berta language">Berta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daats%CA%BCiin_language" title="Daatsʼiin language">Daatsʼiin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_language" title="Gumuz language">Gumuz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baale_language" title="Baale language">Kacipo-Balesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komo_language" title="Komo language">Komo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwama_language" title="Kwama language">Kwama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwegu_language" title="Kwegu language">Kwegu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majang_language" title="Majang language">Majang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%CA%BCen_language" title="Meʼen language">Meʼen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murle_language" title="Murle language">Murle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mursi_language" title="Mursi language">Mursi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuer_language" title="Nuer language">Nuer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyangatom_language" title="Nyangatom language">Nyangatom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opuo_language" title="Opuo language">Opuuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suri_language" title="Suri language">Suri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uduk_language" title="Uduk language">Uduk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foreign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_sign_languages" title="Ethiopian sign languages">Ethiopian sign languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Semitic_languages313" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Semitic_languages" title="Template talk:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Semitic_languages313" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Canaano-Akkadian_language" title="Canaano-Akkadian language">Canaano-Akkadian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dilmun#People,_language_and_religion" title="Dilmun">Dilmunite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kishite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kishite language">Kishite</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian#Dumaitic" title="Ancient North Arabian">Dumaitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hasaitic" title="Hasaitic">Hasaitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hismaic" title="Hismaic">Hismaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Safaitic#Language" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thamudic" title="Thamudic">Thamudic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Thamudic_B" title="Thamudic B">Thamudic B</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Dialect groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialect<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Armazic_language" title="Armazic language">Armazic</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hatran_Aramaic" title="Hatran Aramaic">Ashurian and Hatran</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Aramaic" title="Lebanese Aramaic">Lebanese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean</a></i></li> <li><i>Palestinian</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo-<br />Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Surayt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern</a> <ul><li>Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barwar" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barwar">Barwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hértevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Christian_Neo-Aramaic" title="Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Qaraqosh" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qaraqosh">Qaraqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Inter-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Koy_Sanjaq" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Koy Sanjaq">Koy Sanjaq Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanandaj_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Sanandaj Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Sanandaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Trans-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Zakho</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Northern <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Philistine_language" title="Philistine language">Philistine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Southern <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ammonite_language" title="Ammonite language">Ammonite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan dialect</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deir_Alla_inscription#Language" title="Deir Alla inscription">South Gileadite</a> (Deir Alla)</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast Semitic">Southeast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E1%B9%AD%E1%B8%A5ari_language" title="Baṭḥari language">Baṭḥari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4arsusi_language" title="Ḥarsusi language">Ḥarsusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoby%C3%B3t_language" title="Hobyót language">Hobyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehri_language" title="Shehri language">Shehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southwest</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abyssinian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian languages">Abyssinian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahalik_language" title="Dahalik language">Dahalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trans-<br />versal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Argobba_language" title="Argobba language">Argobba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harari_language" title="Harari language">Harari</a>–<a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">East Gurage</a> <ul><li>East Gurage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silt%CA%BCe_language" title="Siltʼe language">Siltʼe</a> <ul><li>Inneqor</li> <li>Ulbare</li> <li>Wolane</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zay_language" title="Zay language">Zay</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N-group <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gafat_language" title="Gafat language">Gafat</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soddo_language" title="Soddo language">Soddo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tt-group <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mesmes_language" title="Mesmes language">Mesmes</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muher_language" title="Muher language">Muher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">West Gurage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inor_language" title="Inor language">Inor</a> <ul><li>Endegen</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesqan_language" title="Mesqan language">Mesqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language" title="Sebat Bet Gurage language">Sebat Bet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaha_language" title="Chaha language">Chaha</a></li> <li>Ezha</li> <li>Gumer</li> <li>Gura</li> <li>Gyeto</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yemenite languages">Yemenite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faifi_language" title="Faifi language">Faifi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hadramautic_language" title="Hadramautic language">Hadramautic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minaean_language" title="Minaean language">Minaean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qatabanian_language" title="Qatabanian language">Qatabanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rijal_Alma_(speech_variety)" title="Rijal Alma (speech variety)">Rijal Alma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razihi_language" title="Razihi language">Razihi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct</a> or historical languages.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jewish_languages179" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_languages" title="Template talk:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_languages179" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" title="Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></i>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35667#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata922" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35667#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata922" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35667#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4133283-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85045159">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11974951n">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11974951n">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562058">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007555672905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/02778052X">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geʽez&oldid=1275728143">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geʽez&oldid=1275728143</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ge%27ez_language" title="Category:Ge'ez language">Ge'ez language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Christian_liturgical_languages" title="Category:Christian liturgical languages">Christian liturgical languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object_languages" title="Category:Verb–subject–object languages">Verb–subject–object languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Extinct_languages_of_Africa" title="Category:Extinct languages of Africa">Extinct languages of Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Eritrea" title="Category:Languages of Eritrea">Languages of Eritrea</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Ethiopia" title="Category:Languages of Ethiopia">Languages of Ethiopia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_attested_from_the_5th_century_BC" title="Category:Languages attested from the 5th century BC">Languages attested from the 5th century BC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_extinct_in_the_1st_millennium" title="Category:Languages extinct in the 1st millennium">Languages extinct in the 1st millennium</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Semitic_linguistics" title="Category:Semitic linguistics">Semitic linguistics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Semitic_languages" title="Category:Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_written_in_Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Category:Languages written in Geʽez script">Languages written in Geʽez script</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Phonos_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Phonos extension">Pages using the Phonos extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Ge%27ez-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Ge'ez-language text">Articles containing Ge'ez-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_September_2022" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from September 2022">Articles needing additional references from September 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_Ge%27ez_IPA" title="Category:Pages with Ge'ez IPA">Pages with Ge'ez IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_with_ISO_639-2_code" title="Category:Languages with ISO 639-2 code">Languages with ISO 639-2 code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Extinct_ISO_language_articles_citing_sources_other_than_Ethnologue" title="Category:Extinct ISO language articles citing sources other than Ethnologue">Extinct ISO language articles citing sources other than Ethnologue</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_including_recorded_pronunciations" title="Category:Pages including recorded pronunciations">Pages including recorded pronunciations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 14 February 2025, at 18:42<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ge%CA%BDez&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geʽez</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>65 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-92cc4","wgBackendResponseTime":128,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.175","walltime":"2.423","ppvisitednodes":{"value":17943,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":441157,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":12004,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":9,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":186766,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2112.316 1 -total"," 20.14% 425.453 231 Template:Lang"," 16.87% 356.383 269 Template:Transliteration"," 13.64% 288.091 4 Template:Reflist"," 11.93% 252.062 1 Template:Infobox_language"," 10.56% 223.139 1 Template:Infobox"," 7.16% 151.264 36 Template:Sfn"," 7.05% 148.860 3 Template:Multiref"," 6.73% 142.254 16 Template:Navbox"," 4.54% 95.855 1 Template:OED"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.378","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19979280,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFA_conservator_at_work_on_the_Garima_Gospels2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBender1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBudge1928\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChain1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnellKillion2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDillmann1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGragg1997a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGragg1997b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGragg2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaarmann2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLambdin1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeslau1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeslau1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM.1935\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMittwoch1926\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPankhurst1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPankhurst2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerruchonGottheil1901–1906\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStuart1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTropper2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeninger2011\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"=\"] = 15,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Ayin\"] = 27,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 5,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Contains special characters\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Ge'ez Language\"] = 1,\n [\"Dict.com\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 5,\n [\"Fs interlinear\"] = 17,\n [\"Hamza\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 16,\n [\"IPA\"] = 21,\n [\"IPA link\"] = 38,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 15,\n [\"Infobox language\"] = 1,\n [\"Jewish languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 231,\n [\"Languages of Ethiopia\"] = 1,\n [\"MW\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiref\"] = 3,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 3,\n [\"OED\"] = 1,\n [\"Pb\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 2,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 4,\n [\"Refend\"] = 4,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Semitic languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 36,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 4,\n [\"Tlit\"] = 6,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 269,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","260","18.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","12.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","12.7"],["?","160","11.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","140","9.9"],["(for generator)","80","5.6"],["type","60","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","40","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","40","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","40","2.8"],["[others]","240","16.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-786d8bd985-frzll","timestamp":"20250216074447","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Ge\u02bdez","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ge%CA%BDez","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35667","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q35667","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-08-08T21:16:39Z","dateModified":"2025-02-14T18:42:41Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/e\/e3\/Aksum%2C_iscrizione_di_re_ezana%2C_in_greco%2C_sabeo_e_ge%27ez%2C_330-350_dc_ca._11.jpg","headline":"ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia"}</script> </body> </html>