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class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Offshoring" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Motivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Motivation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Motivation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Motivation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Motivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Criteria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Variations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Variations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Variations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Offshore_outsourcing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Offshore_outsourcing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Offshore outsourcing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Offshore_outsourcing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nearshoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nearshoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Nearshoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nearshoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reasons_to_nearshore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reasons_to_nearshore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Reasons to nearshore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reasons_to_nearshore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.1</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.2</span> <span>Communication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_advantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_advantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1.3</span> <span>Other advantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_advantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production_offshoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_offshoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Production offshoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_offshoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IT-enabled_services_offshoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IT-enabled_services_offshoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>IT-enabled services offshoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IT-enabled_services_offshoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Re-shoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Re-shoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Re-shoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Re-shoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Practices</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practices-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Practices subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Destinations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Destinations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Destinations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Destinations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Government_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Government response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Success_stories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Success_stories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Success stories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Success_stories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avoiding_failure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avoiding_failure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Avoiding failure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avoiding_failure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-R&D_offshoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#R&D_offshoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>R&D offshoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-R&D_offshoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transfer_of_intellectual_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transfer_of_intellectual_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Transfer of intellectual property</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transfer_of_intellectual_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Debate</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Debate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Debate subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Source_of_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Source_of_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Source of conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Source_of_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U.S._labor_market" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U.S._labor_market"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>U.S. labor market</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U.S._labor_market-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_jobs_in_western_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_jobs_in_western_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Impact on jobs in western countries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_jobs_in_western_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_opinion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_opinion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Public opinion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_opinion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Theory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_of_factor_of_production_mobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_factor_of_production_mobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Effects of factor of production mobility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_factor_of_production_mobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Impact_of_the_Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_the_Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Impact of the Internet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_the_Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-NAFTA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#NAFTA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>NAFTA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-NAFTA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Related</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Offshoring</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الاستثمار في الدول النامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الاستثمار في الدول النامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deslocalitzaci%C3%B3" title="Deslocalització – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Deslocalització" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Offshoring" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Offshoring" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Offshoring" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deslokalizazio" title="Deslokalizazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Deslokalizazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="دورسپاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دورسپاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9localisation" title="Délocalisation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Délocalisation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seachfhoinsi%C3%BA_thar_lear" title="Seachfhoinsiú thar lear – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Seachfhoinsiú thar lear" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%85%EB%AC%B4%EC%9C%84%ED%83%81" title="업무위탁 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="업무위탁" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="ऑफ़शोरिंग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ऑफ़शोरिंग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alih_keluar" title="Alih keluar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Alih keluar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delocalizzazione_(economia)" title="Delocalizzazione (economia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Delocalizzazione (economia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A3-%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92" title="אוף-שורינג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אוף-שורינג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of%C5%A1orinis_verslas" title="Ofšorinis verslas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ofšorinis verslas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delocalizzazion" title="Delocalizzazion – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Delocalizzazion" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delokalisatie_(economie)" title="Delokalisatie (economie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Delokalisatie (economie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%83%95%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AA%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0" title="オフショアリング – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オフショアリング" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utaskj%C3%A6rs" title="Utaskjærs – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Utaskjærs" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshore" title="Offshore – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Offshore" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Offshoring" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deslocaliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o_industrial" title="Deslocalização industrial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Deslocalização industrial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%84%D1%88%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Офшоринг – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Офшоринг" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%84%D1%88%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Офшоринг – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the business process involving a single company. For offshore outsourcing, see <a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">Outsourcing</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Offshore_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Offshore (disambiguation)">Offshore (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p><b>Offshoring</b> is the relocation of a <a href="/wiki/Business_process" title="Business process">business process</a> from one country to another—typically an operational process, such as manufacturing, or supporting processes, such as accounting. Usually this refers to a <a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">company</a> business, although state governments may also employ offshoring.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, technical and administrative services have been offshored. </p><p>Offshoring neither implies nor precludes involving a different company to be responsible for a business process. Therefore, offshoring should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">outsourcing</a> which does imply one company relying on another. In practice, the concepts can be intertwined, i.e <a href="/wiki/Offshore_outsourcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore outsourcing">offshore outsourcing</a>, and can be individually or jointly, partially or completely reversed, as described by terms such as <a href="#Re-shoring">reshoring</a>, <a href="#Reshoring_terminology">inshoring</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Insourcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Insourcing">insourcing</a>. </p><p>In-house offshoring is when the offshored work is done by means of an internal (captive) delivery model.<sup id="cite_ref-Papers.ssrn.com_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papers.ssrn.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-InH.off_CIO_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InH.off_CIO-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Imported services from subsidiaries or other closely related suppliers are included, whereas intermediate goods, such as partially completed cars or computers, may not be.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motivation">Motivation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Motivation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lower cost and increased profitability are often the motivation for offshoring. Economists call this <a href="/wiki/Labor_arbitrage" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor arbitrage">labor arbitrage</a>. More recently, offshoring incentives also include access to qualified personnel abroad, in particular in technical professions, and decreasing the time to market.<sup id="cite_ref-Papers.ssrn.com_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Papers.ssrn.com-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jobs are added in the destination country providing the goods or services and are subtracted from the higher-cost labor country.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increased safety net costs of the unemployed may be absorbed by the government (taxpayers) in the high-cost country or by the company doing the offshoring. Europe experienced less offshoring than the United States due to policies that applied more costs to corporations and cultural barriers.<sup id="cite_ref-economist.com_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economist.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criteria">Criteria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Criteria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some criteria for a job to be offshore-able are: </p> <ul><li>There is a significant wage difference between the original and offshore countries</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_work" title="Remote work">Remote work</a> is possible in the job</li></ul> <ul><li>The work can be transmitted over the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul> <ul><li>The work is repeatable<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variations">Variations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Variations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Offshore_outsourcing">Offshore outsourcing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Offshore outsourcing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Subcontracting in the same country would be outsourcing, but not offshoring. A company moving an internal business unit from one country to another would be offshoring or <a href="/wiki/Physical_restructuring" title="Physical restructuring">physical restructuring</a>, but not outsourcing. A company subcontracting a business unit to a different company in another country would be both outsourcing and offshoring, <i>offshore outsourcing</i>. </p><p>Types of offshore outsourcing include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_outsourcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Information technology outsourcing">Information technology outsourcing</a> (ITO) is where outsourcing is related to technology or the internet, such as computer programming.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_process_outsourcing" title="Business process outsourcing">Business process outsourcing</a> (BPO) involves contracting out operational functions to a third-party service provider.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_Software_R%26D" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore Software R&D">Offshore Software development</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_Process_Outsourcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Knowledge Process Outsourcing">Knowledge Process Outsourcing</a> (KPO) is a type of outsourcing that involves or requires more advanced technical skills and a higher level of expertise.</li></ul> <ul><li>Customer Support Outsourcing (CSO) involves delegating customer service functions to offshore call centres or service providers to handle inquiries, complaints, and assistance.</li></ul> <ul><li>Recruitment Process Outsourcing (RPO) is a workforce solution in which a business transfers all or part of its recruitment to an external provider. Businesses can deliver a standalone service or the entire operations.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nearshoring">Nearshoring <span class="anchor" id="nearshoring"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nearshoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nearshoring" title="Nearshoring">Nearshoring</a> is a form of offshoring in which the other country is relatively close such as one sharing a border. </p><p>Being nearby results in potentially beneficial commonalities such as temporal (time zone), cultural, social, linguistic, economic, political, or historical linkages.<sup id="cite_ref-cacm_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cacm-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the 1913 <i>New York Times</i> article "Near Source of Supplies the Best Policy",<sup id="cite_ref-Near.NYT_1913_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Near.NYT_1913-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the main focus was then on "cost of production." Although transportation cost was addressed, they did not choose among: </p> <ul><li>transporting supplies to place of production<sup id="cite_ref-TransP.NYT_1939_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TransP.NYT_1939-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>transporting finished goods to place(s) of sale</li> <li>cost and availability of labor</li></ul> <p>The term <i>nearshoring</i> derives from <i>offshoring</i>. When combined with outsourcing, <i>nearshore outsourcing</i>, the nearshore workers are not employees of the company for which the work is performed. </p><p>Nearshoring can involve business strategy to locate operations close to where product is sold. This is contrasted with using low-wage manufacturing operations in developing nations and shipping product back to the country that offshored the work. </p><p>With nearshore outsourcing, the work is done by an outside company rather than internally, but in contrast to typical offshore outsourcing, the work is done in fairly close proximity to the company headquarters and its target market. </p><p>Nearshoring is often used for <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a> (IT) processes such as application development, maintenance and testing. </p><p>In Europe, nearshore outsourcing relationships are between clients in larger European economies and various providers in smaller European nations. The attraction is lower-cost skilled labor forces, and a less stringent regulatory environment, but crucially they allow for more day to day physical oversight. These countries also have strong cultural ties to the major economic centers in Europe as they are part of EU. For example, as of 2020 Portugal is considered to be the most trending outsourcing destination<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as big companies like Mercedes, Google,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jaguar, Sky News, Natixis and BNP Paribas opening development centers in Lisbon and Porto, where labor costs are lower, talent comes from excellent Universities, there's availability of skills and the time zone is GMT (the same as London).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>US clients nearshore to countries such as Canada, Mexico and nations in Central and South America. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reasons_to_nearshore">Reasons to nearshore</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reasons to nearshore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Culture">Culture</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cultural alignment with the business is often more readily achieved through near-sourcing due to there being similarities between the cultures in which the business is located and in which services are sub-contracted, including for example proficiency with the language used in that culture.<sup id="cite_ref-GrailComm.cio_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrailComm.cio-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Communication">Communication</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Communication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Constraints imposed by time zones can complicate communication; near-sourcing or nearshoring offers a solution. English language skills are the cornerstone of Nearshore and IT services. Collaboration by universities, industry, and government has slowly produced improvements. Proximity also facilitates in-person interaction regularly and/or when required.<sup id="cite_ref-NearZone.FT_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NearZone.FT-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CommTimeZone_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CommTimeZone-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Other_advantages">Other advantages</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Software development nearshoring is mainly due to flexibility when it comes to upscale or downscale<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> teams or availability of low cost skilled developers. The nearshoring of call centers, shared services centers, and business process outsourcing (BPO) rose as offshore outsourcing was seen to be relatively less valuable. More recently, companies have explored nearshoring as a risk mitigation strategy for operational and supply chain weaknesses uncovered during the COVID-19 global pandemic crisis, when offshore BPOs experienced sudden closures and disruptive quarantine restrictions which hampered their ability to conduct day-to-day business operations.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The complexities of offshoring stem from language and cultural differences, travel distances, workday/time zone mismatches, and greater effort for needed for establishing trust and long-term relationships. Many nearshore providers attempted to circumvent communication and project management barriers by developing new ways to align organizations. As a result, concepts such as remote insourcing were created to give clients more control in managing their own projects. Nearshoring still has not overcome all barriers, but proximity allows more flexibility to align organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-sam_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sam-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_offshoring">Production offshoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Production offshoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Production offshoring, also known as <a href="/wiki/Physical_restructuring" title="Physical restructuring">physical restructuring</a>, of established products involves relocation of physical manufacturing processes overseas,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> usually to a lower-cost destination or one with fewer regulatory restrictions. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Physical_restructuring" title="Physical restructuring">Physical restructuring</a> arrived when the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a> (NAFTA) made it easier for manufacturers to shift production facilities from the US to <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. </p><p>This trend later shifted to China, which offered cheap prices through very low wage rates, few <a href="/wiki/Workers%27_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Workers' rights">workers' rights</a> laws, a <a href="/wiki/Fixed_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed currency">fixed currency</a> pegged to the US dollar, (currently fixed to a basket of economies) cheap loans, cheap land, and factories for new companies, few environmental regulations, and huge <a href="/wiki/Economies_of_scale" title="Economies of scale">economies of scale</a> based on cities with populations over a million workers dedicated to producing a single kind of product. However, many companies are reluctant to move high value-added production of leading-edge products to China because of lax enforcement of intellectual property laws.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IT-enabled_services_offshoring">IT-enabled services offshoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: IT-enabled services offshoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Growth of offshoring has been linked to the availability of reliable and affordable communication infrastructure following the <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">telecommunication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> expansion of the late 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-Telcom.out_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telcom.out-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of the job movement was to outside companies, <a href="/wiki/Offshore_outsourcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore outsourcing">offshore outsourcing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Re-shoring">Re-shoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Re-shoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Reshoring</b>, also known as <b>onshoring</b>, <b>backshoring</b> <sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>inshoring</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the act of reversing an offshoring change; moving a business process that was offshored, back to the original country.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John Urry, professor of sociology at <a href="/wiki/Lancaster_University" title="Lancaster University">Lancaster University</a>, argues that the concealment of income, the avoidance of taxation and eluding legislation relating to work, finance, pleasure, waste, energy and security may be becoming a serious concern for democratic governments and ordinary citizens who may be adversely affected by unregulated, offshore activities. Further, the rising costs of transportation could lead to production nearer the point of consumption becoming more economically viable, particularly as new technologies such as <a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">additive manufacturing</a> mature.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>'s 2019 <a href="/wiki/World_Development_Report" title="World Development Report">World Development Report</a> on the future of work<sup id="cite_ref-documents.worldbank.org_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-documents.worldbank.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> considers the potential for automation to drive companies to reshore production, reducing the role of labor in the process, and offers suggestions as to how governments can respond. A similar movement can be seen related to <a href="/wiki/Robotic_Process_Automation" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic Process Automation">Robotic Process Automation</a>, called RPA or RPAAI for self-guided RPA 2.0 based on <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>, where the incentive to move repetitive shared services work to lower cost countries is partially taken away by the progression of technology. </p><p>Melanie Rojas <i>et al</i> in a 2022 <a href="/wiki/Deloitte" title="Deloitte">Deloitte</a>'s report commend adopting a combination of re-shoring and <a href="/wiki/Friendshoring" title="Friendshoring">friendshoring</a> - "working with other nations and trusted supply sources" - as a business practice and policy initiative aiming to promote <a href="/wiki/Supply_chain_resilience" title="Supply chain resilience">supply chain resilience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practices">Practices</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Practices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Destinations">Destinations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Destinations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After its accession to the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> (WTO) in 2001, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> emerged as a prominent destination for production offshoring. Another focus area has been the <a href="/wiki/Software_industry" title="Software industry">software industry</a> as part of global <a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">software development</a> and developing <a href="/wiki/Global_information_system" title="Global information system">global information systems</a>. After technical progress in telecommunications improved the possibilities of <a href="/wiki/Trade_in_services" title="Trade in services">trade in services</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> became one prominent destination for such offshoring, though many parts of the world are now emerging as offshore destinations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the 1980s<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American companies have been "offshoring" and outsourcing manufacturing to low cost countries such as <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Government_response">Government response</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Government response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>President Obama's 2011 <a href="/wiki/SelectUSA" class="mw-redirect" title="SelectUSA">SelectUSA</a> program was the first federal program to promote and facilitate U.S. investment in partnership with the states. This program and website helps companies connect with resources available on a Federal, State and local level. In January 2012, President Obama issued a call to action to "invest in America" at the White House "Insourcing American Jobs" Forum.<sup id="cite_ref-whitehouse1_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whitehouse1-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Success_stories">Success stories</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Success stories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Advances in <a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a> technologies brought manufacturers closer to their customers.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There have been several very successful stories of companies. In most cases hundreds if not thousands of jobs were created or reinstated. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Starbucks" title="Starbucks">Starbucks</a>, in 2012 it saved American Mug and Stein Company in East Liverpool, Ohio from bankruptcy.<sup id="cite_ref-strb1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strb1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Avoiding_failure">Avoiding failure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Avoiding failure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some cases of reshoring have not been successful. Otis Elevators' reshoring effort did not go well.<sup id="cite_ref-bsc2_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bsc2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Otis says it failed to consider the consequences of the new location and tried to do too much at once, including a supply-chain software implementation. This is not an uncommon reshoring scenario. Bringing manufacturing back to the United States isn't so simple, and there are a lot of considerations and analyses that companies must do to determine the costs and feasibility of reshoring. Some companies pursue reshoring with their own internal staff. But reshoring projects are complicated and involve engineering, marketing, production, finance, and procurement. In addition, there are real estate concerns, government incentives and training requirements that require outreach to the community. To help with these projects, companies often turn to consultants that specialize in reshoring.<sup id="cite_ref-bsc3_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bsc3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, companies have used the reintroduction of domestic <a href="/wiki/Call_centres" class="mw-redirect" title="Call centres">call centres</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Unique_selling_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Unique selling point">unique selling point</a>. In 2014, the <a href="/wiki/RSA_Insurance_Group" title="RSA Insurance Group">RSA Insurance Group</a> completed a move of call centres back to Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The call centre industry in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> has been hit by reshoring, as businesses including <a href="/wiki/British_Telecom" class="mw-redirect" title="British Telecom">British Telecom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Santander_UK" title="Santander UK">Santander UK</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aviva" title="Aviva">Aviva</a> all announced they would move operations back to Britain in order to boost the economy and regain customer satisfaction.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="R&D_offshoring"><span id="R.26D_offshoring"></span>R&D offshoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: R&D offshoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Product design, research and the development (R&D) process is relatively difficult to offshore because R&D, to improve products and create new reference designs, requires a higher skill set not associated with cheap labor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transfer_of_intellectual_property">Transfer of intellectual property</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Transfer of intellectual property"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a relationship between offshoring and patent-system strength. Companies under a strong patent system are not afraid to move work offshore because their work will remain their property. Conversely, companies in countries with weak patent systems have an increased fear of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_theft" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual property theft">intellectual property theft</a> from foreign vendors or workers, and, therefore, have less offshoring. </p><p>Offshoring is often enabled by the transfer of valuable information to the offshore site. Such information and training enables the remote workers to produce results of comparable value previously produced by internal employees. When such transfer includes protected materials, as confidential documents and trade secrets, protected by <a href="/wiki/Non-disclosure_agreement" title="Non-disclosure agreement">non-disclosure agreements</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> has been transferred or exported. The documentation and valuation of such exports is quite difficult, but should be considered since it comprises items that may be regulated or taxable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Debate">Debate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Offshoring to foreign subsidiaries has been a controversial issue spurring heated debates among economists. Jobs go to the destination country and lower cost of goods and services to the origin country. </p><p>On the other hand, job losses and wage erosion in developed countries have sparked opposition. Free trade with low-wage countries is win-lose for many employees who find their jobs offshored or with stagnating wages.<sup id="cite_ref-Paul_Krugman_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul_Krugman-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currency manipulation by governments and their central banks cause differences in labor cost. On May 1, 2002, Economist and former Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Ernest_H._Preeg" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest H. Preeg">Ernest H. Preeg</a> testified before the Senate committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs that China, for instance, pegs its currency to the dollar at a sub-par value in violation of Article IV of the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> Articles of Agreement which state that no nation shall manipulate its currency to gain a market advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Source_of_conflict">Source of conflict</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Source of conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The opposing sides regarding offshoring, outsourcing, and offshore outsourcing are those seeking government intervention and <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">Protectionism</a> versus the side advocating <a href="/wiki/Free_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Free Trade">Free Trade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jobs formerly held by U.S. workers have been lost, even as underdeveloped countries such as Brazil and Turkey flourish.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Free-trade advocates suggest economies as a whole will obtain a net benefit from labor offshoring,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is unclear if the displaced receive a net benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some wages overseas are rising. A study by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics found that Chinese wages were almost tripled in the seven years following 2002. Research suggests that these wage increases could redirect some offshoring elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increased training and education has been advocated to offset trade-related displacements, but it is no longer a <a href="/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">comparative advantage</a> of high-wage nations because education costs are lower in low-wage countries.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U.S._labor_market">U.S. labor market</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: U.S. labor market"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2015, IT employment in the United States has recently reached pre-2001 levels<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been rising since. </p><p>The number of jobs lost to offshoring is less than 1 percent of the total US labor market.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total number of jobs lost to offshoring, both manufacturing and technical represent only 4 percent of the total jobs lost in the US. Major reasons for cutting jobs are from contract completion and downsizing.<sup id="cite_ref-newsweek.com_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newsweek.com-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some economists and commentators claim that the offshoring phenomenon is way overblown.<sup id="cite_ref-newsweek.com_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newsweek.com-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_jobs_in_western_countries">Impact on jobs in western countries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Impact on jobs in western countries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>The Economist</i> reported in January 2013 that "High levels of unemployment in Western countries after the 2007-2008 financial crisis have made the public in many countries so hostile towards offshoring that many companies are now reluctant to engage in it."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Krugman" title="Paul Krugman">Paul Krugman</a> wrote in 2007 that while free trade among high-wage countries is viewed as win-win, free trade with low-wage countries is win-lose for many employees who find their jobs offshored or with stagnating wages.<sup id="cite_ref-Paul_Krugman_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Paul_Krugman-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two estimates of the impact of offshoring on U.S. jobs were between 150,000 and 300,000 per year from 2004 to 2015. This represents 10-15% of U.S. job creation.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The increased safety net costs of the unemployed may be absorbed by the government (taxpayers) in the high-cost country or by the company doing the offshoring. Europe experienced less offshoring than the U.S. due to policies that applied more costs to corporations and cultural barriers.<sup id="cite_ref-economist.com_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-economist.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the area of service research has found that offshoring has mixed effects on wages and employment.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>'s 2019 <a href="/wiki/World_Development_Report" title="World Development Report">World Development Report</a> on the future of work <sup id="cite_ref-documents.worldbank.org_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-documents.worldbank.org-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> highlights how offshoring can shape the demand for skills in receiving countries and explores how increasing automation can lead to <a href="/wiki/Reshoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Reshoring">reshoring</a> of production in some cases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_opinion">Public opinion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Public opinion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>U.S. opinion polls indicate that between 76-95% of Americans surveyed agreed that "outsourcing of production and manufacturing work to foreign countries is a reason the U.S. economy is struggling and more people aren't being hired."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gallup.com_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gallup.com-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_factor_of_production_mobility">Effects of factor of production mobility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Effects of factor of production mobility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a>, the three <a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production" title="Factors of production">factors of production</a> are <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labor_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor (economics)">labor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>. Offshoring relies heavily on the mobility of labor and <a href="/wiki/Capital_mobility" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital mobility">capital</a>; land has little or no mobility potential. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Working_capital" title="Working capital">working capital</a> funds the initial costs of offshoring. If the state heavily <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulates</a> how a corporation can spend its working capital, it will not be able to offshore its operations. For the same reason the <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomy</a> must be free for offshoring to succeed. </p><p>Computers and the Internet made work in the services industry electronically portable. Most theories that argue offshoring eventually benefits domestic workers assume that those workers will be able to obtain new jobs, even if by accepting lower salaries or by retraining themselves in a new field. Foreign workers benefit from new jobs and higher wages when the work moves to them. </p><p>Labor scholars argue that <a href="/wiki/Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">global labor arbitrage</a> leads to unethical practices, connected to exploitation of workers, eroding work conditions and decreasing <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the developed world, moving manufacturing jobs out of the country dates to at least the 1960s<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while moving knowledge service jobs offshore dates to the 1970s<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has continued since then. It was characterized primarily by the transferring of factories from the developed to the developing world. This offshoring and closing of factories has caused a structural change in the developed world from an industrial to a post-industrial service society. </p><p>During the 20th century, the decreasing costs of transportation and communication combined with great disparities on pay rates made increased offshoring from wealthier countries to less wealthy countries financially feasible for many companies. Further, the growth of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, particularly fiber-optic intercontinental long haul capacity, and the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a> reduced "transportation" costs for many kinds of information work to near zero.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_the_Internet">Impact of the Internet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Impact of the Internet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Regardless of size, companies benefit from accessibility to labor resources across the world.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This gave rise to business models such as <a href="/wiki/Remote_In-Sourcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote In-Sourcing">Remote In-Sourcing</a> that allow companies to tap into resources found abroad, without losing control over security of product quality. </p><p>New categories of work such as call centres, computer programming, reading medical data such as X-rays and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>, medical transcription, income tax preparation, and title searching are being offshored. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Ireland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the 1990s, Ireland was one of the poorest countries in the EU. Because of Ireland's relatively low corporate tax rates, US companies began offshoring of software, electronic, and pharmaceutical intellectual property to Ireland for export. This helped create a high-tech "boom" which led to Ireland becoming one of the richest EU countries.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="NAFTA">NAFTA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: NAFTA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1994 the <a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a> (NAFTA) went into effect, and it increased the velocity of <a href="/wiki/Physical_restructuring" title="Physical restructuring">physical restructuring</a>. </p><p>The plan to create free trade areas (such as <a href="/wiki/Free_Trade_Area_of_the_Americas" title="Free Trade Area of the Americas">Free Trade Area of the Americas</a>) has not yet been successful. In 2005, offshoring of skilled work, also referred to as knowledge work, dramatically increased from the US, which fed the growing worries about threats of job loss.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related">Related</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Related"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Inshoring – picking services in the same country</li></ul> <ul><li>Bestshoring or rightshoring – picking the best country for offshoring</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_process_outsourcing" title="Business process outsourcing">Business process outsourcing</a> (BPO) – outsourcing arrangements when entire business functions (such as <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">accounting</a>, and customer service) are outsourced. More specific terms can be found in the field of software development - for example <a href="/wiki/Global_Information_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Information System">Global Information System</a> as a class of systems being developed for / by globally distributed teams.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodyshopping" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodyshopping">Bodyshopping</a> – practice of using offshored resources and personnel to do small disaggregated tasks within a business environment, without any broader intention to offshore an entire business function.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borderless_selling" title="Borderless selling">Borderless selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_center_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Call center security">Call center security</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Decline_and_Fall_of_the_American_Programmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline and Fall of the American Programmer">Decline and Fall of the American Programmer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_sourcing" title="Domestic sourcing">Domestic sourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Follow-the-sun" title="Follow-the-sun">Follow-the-sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Free trade controversy">Free trade controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendshoring" title="Friendshoring">Friendshoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_delivery_model" title="Global delivery model">Global delivery model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">Global labor arbitrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_sourcing" title="Global sourcing">Global sourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globality" title="Globality">Globality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globally_integrated_enterprise" title="Globally integrated enterprise">Globally integrated enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guest_worker" class="mw-redirect" title="Guest worker">Guest worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology_consulting" title="Information technology consulting">Information technology consulting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_shortage" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor shortage">Labor shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_trade_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of international trade topics">List of international trade topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-cost_country_sourcing" title="Low-cost country sourcing">Low-cost country sourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_company" title="Offshore company">Offshore company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_custom_software_development" title="Offshore custom software development">Offshore custom software development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshoring_Research_Network" title="Offshoring Research Network">Offshoring Research Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmers_Guild" title="Programmers Guild">Programmers Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restructuring" title="Restructuring">Restructuring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_production" title="Runaway production">Runaway production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">Tax haven</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZuckerman2008" class="citation ssrn cs1">Zuckerman, Michael A. (November 2008). "The Offshoring of American Government". <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1143044">1143044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+Research+Network&rft.atitle=The+Offshoring+of+American+Government&rft.date=2008-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1143044%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Zuckerman&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Papers.ssrn.com-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Papers.ssrn.com_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Papers.ssrn.com_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephan_ManningSilvia_MassiniArie_Lewin2008" class="citation journal cs1">Stephan Manning; Silvia Massini; Arie Lewin (October 20, 2008). "SSRN-A Dynamic Perspective on Next-Generation Offshoring: The Global Sourcing of Science and Engineering Talent". <i><a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Management_Perspectives" title="Academy of Management Perspectives">Academy of Management Perspectives</a></i>. <b>22</b> (3): 35–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5465%2Famp.2008.34587994">10.5465/amp.2008.34587994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8998524">8998524</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1287369">1287369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Academy+of+Management+Perspectives&rft.atitle=SSRN-A+Dynamic+Perspective+on+Next-Generation+Offshoring%3A+The+Global+Sourcing+of+Science+and+Engineering+Talent&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=35-54&rft.date=2008-10-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8998524%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1287369%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5465%2Famp.2008.34587994&rft.au=Stephan+Manning&rft.au=Silvia+Massini&rft.au=Arie+Lewin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-InH.off_CIO-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-InH.off_CIO_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCliff_JusticeStan_Lepeak" class="citation magazine cs1">Cliff Justice; Stan Lepeak. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cio.com/article/2437922/captive-audience--how-to-partner-with-service-providers-to-improve-in-house-offshore-ope.html">"Captive Audience: How to Partner with Service Providers to Improve In-House Offshore Operations"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CIO_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="CIO magazine">CIO magazine</a></i>. <q>a.k.a. internal shared-services centers in low-cost locations</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CIO+magazine&rft.atitle=Captive+Audience%3A+How+to+Partner+with+Service+Providers+to+Improve+In-House+Offshore+Operations&rft.au=Cliff+Justice&rft.au=Stan+Lepeak&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cio.com%2Farticle%2F2437922%2Fcaptive-audience--how-to-partner-with-service-providers-to-improve-in-house-offshore-ope.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See "Appendix II: Definitions of Offshoring" in General Accounting Office: "International Trade: Current Government Data Provide Limited Insight into Offshoring of Services", September 2004. Imported intermediate goods are included in offshoring in "Swenson, D: "International Outsourcing", in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics" title="The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics">The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics</a></i>, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiszczynski2016" class="citation journal cs1">Miszczynski, Milosz (2016-06-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/896169">"Labour arbitrage: the lifecycle of a global production node"</a>. <i>Journal of Organizational Ethnography</i>. <b>5</b> (2): 106–122. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FJOE-04-2016-0009">10.1108/JOE-04-2016-0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2046-6749">2046-6749</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Organizational+Ethnography&rft.atitle=Labour+arbitrage%3A+the+lifecycle+of+a+global+production+node&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=106-122&rft.date=2016-06-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1108%2FJOE-04-2016-0009&rft.issn=2046-6749&rft.aulast=Miszczynski&rft.aufirst=Milosz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F896169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-economist.com-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-economist.com_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-economist.com_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21569567-european-jobs-are-not-coming-back-because-few-them-went-first-place-staying-put">"Staying put. 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Sep. 2010</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/offshoring" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/offshoring">offshoring</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040227234941/http://www.businessweek.com/smallbiz/content/feb2004/sb20040218_6502.htm">An Atlas of Offshore Outsourcing by David E. Gumpert (<i>BusinessWeek</i> online)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Offshoring&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Consulate General of the Kingdom of The Netherlands Guangzhou (2011). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agentschapnl.nl/sites/default/files/bijlagen/Outsourcing%20Comparison%20Study%20%20-%20April%202011.pdf">Outsourcing Comparison Study South-East Asia: China, India, Vietnam 2011-2012</a></i>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-347096212">"More Support to Push Reshoring"</a>. <i>Coventry Evening Telegraph</i>. October 28, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Coventry+Evening+Telegraph&rft.atitle=More+Support+to+Push+Reshoring&rft.date=2013-10-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Fread%2F1G1-347096212&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2021">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnie_Baxter2012" class="citation news cs1">Annie Baxter (March 13, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2012/03/13/148470066/factories-reshore-some-work-from-overseas">"Factories 'Reshore' Some Work From Overseas"</a>. <i>All Things Considered</i>. National Public Radio<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=All+Things+Considered&rft.atitle=Factories+%27Reshore%27+Some+Work+From+Overseas&rft.date=2012-03-13&rft.au=Annie+Baxter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2012%2F03%2F13%2F148470066%2Ffactories-reshore-some-work-from-overseas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdam_Belz2013" class="citation news cs1">Adam Belz (January 13, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.startribune.com/report-shows-u-s-manufacturers-continue-to-lag/186574671/">"Report shows U.S. manufacturers continue to lag"</a>. <i>Star Tribune</i>. Minneapolis.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Star+Tribune&rft.atitle=Report+shows+U.S.+manufacturers+continue+to+lag&rft.date=2013-01-13&rft.au=Adam+Belz&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.startribune.com%2Freport-shows-u-s-manufacturers-continue-to-lag%2F186574671%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_S._Blinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan S. Blinder">Alan S. Blinder</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2006-03-01/offshoring-next-industrial-revolution">Offshoring: The Next Industrial Revolution?</a>" in <i>Foreign Affairs</i>, Vol. 85, No. 2 (March/April 2006), pp. 113–128.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Bounds2013" class="citation news cs1">Andrew Bounds (May 10, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/jobs/survey-says-reshoring-symbolic-and-will-not-lead-to-jobs-boom/article11855864/">"Survey says reshoring 'symbolic' and will not lead to jobs boom"</a>. <i>Globe and Mail</i>. Toronto.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=Survey+says+reshoring+%27symbolic%27+and+will+not+lead+to+jobs+boom&rft.date=2013-05-10&rft.au=Andrew+Bounds&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Freport-on-business%2Feconomy%2Fjobs%2Fsurvey-says-reshoring-symbolic-and-will-not-lead-to-jobs-boom%2Farticle11855864%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_Carmichael2013" class="citation news cs1">Kevin Carmichael (June 4, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/canada-competes/canadas-reshoring-opportunity/article4230748">"Canada's 'reshoring' opportunity"</a>. <i>Globe and Mail</i>. Toronto.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=Canada%27s+%27reshoring%27+opportunity&rft.date=2013-06-04&rft.au=Kevin+Carmichael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Freport-on-business%2Feconomy%2Fcanada-competes%2Fcanadas-reshoring-opportunity%2Farticle4230748&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Thomas L. Friedman, <i><a href="/wiki/The_World_is_Flat:_A_Brief_History_of_the_Twenty-first_Century" class="mw-redirect" title="The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century">The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century</a></i> (2005).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJon_Griffin2014" class="citation news cs1">Jon Griffin (March 3, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160309030227/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-360322625.html">"Bosses Back to UK in Reshoring Moves"</a>. <i>Birmingham Mail</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-360322625.html">the original</a> on March 9, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Birmingham+Mail&rft.atitle=Bosses+Back+to+UK+in+Reshoring+Moves&rft.date=2014-03-03&rft.au=Jon+Griffin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.highbeam.com%2Fdoc%2F1G1-360322625.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Hennessy2014" class="citation news cs1">Mark Hennessy (March 5, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160308191114/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-35763238.html">"Wheels of Industry Turn Faster as UK Brings Manufacturing Back Home"</a>. <i>The Irish Times</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-35763238.html">the original</a> on March 8, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Wheels+of+Industry+Turn+Faster+as+UK+Brings+Manufacturing+Back+Home&rft.date=2014-03-05&rft.au=Mark+Hennessy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.highbeam.com%2Fdoc%2F1P2-35763238.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Catherine L. Mann & Jacob Funk Kirkegaard, <i>Accelerating the Globalization of America: The Role for Information Technology</i>, Institute for International Economics, Washington D.C., <a href="/wiki/Peterson_Institute_for_International_Economics" title="Peterson Institute for International Economics">Peterson Institute for International Economics</a> (June 2006).</li> <li>Stephan Manning, Silvia Massini & Arie Y. Lewin, A Dynamic Perspective on Next-Generation Offshoring: The Global Sourcing of Science and Engineering Talent, <i>Academy of Management Perspectives</i>, Vol. 22, No. 3 (October 2008), pp. 35–54. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27747462">27747462</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEd_Marcum2010" class="citation news cs1">Ed Marcum (August 7, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.knoxnews.com/business/no-place-like-home">"Some businesses learning value of bringing factories back to the U.S."</a> <i>Knoxville News Sentinel</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Knoxville+News+Sentinel&rft.atitle=Some+businesses+learning+value+of+bringing+factories+back+to+the+U.S.&rft.date=2010-08-07&rft.au=Ed+Marcum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.knoxnews.com%2Fbusiness%2Fno-place-like-home&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackie_Northam2014" class="citation news cs1">Jackie Northam (January 27, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/01/22/265080779/as-overseas-costs-rise-more-u-s-companies-are-reshoring">"As Overseas Costs Rise, More U.S. Companies Are 'Reshoring'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>All Things Considered</i>. National Public Radio<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=All+Things+Considered&rft.atitle=As+Overseas+Costs+Rise%2C+More+U.S.+Companies+Are+%27Reshoring%27&rft.date=2014-01-27&rft.au=Jackie+Northam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fparallels%2F2014%2F01%2F22%2F265080779%2Fas-overseas-costs-rise-more-u-s-companies-are-reshoring&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJon_Talton2014" class="citation news cs1">Jon Talton (February 22, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seattletimes.com/business/outsourcing-not-what-you-think-say-researchers/">"Outsourcing not what you think, say researchers"</a>. <i>Seattle Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seattle+Times&rft.atitle=Outsourcing+not+what+you+think%2C+say+researchers&rft.date=2014-02-22&rft.au=Jon+Talton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattletimes.com%2Fbusiness%2Foutsourcing-not-what-you-think-say-researchers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJim_Zarroli2014" class="citation news cs1">Jim Zarroli (December 16, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2014/12/16/371059896/reshoring-trend-has-little-impact-on-u-s-economy-study-finds">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Reshoring' Trend Has Little Impact On U.S. Economy, Study Finds"</a>. <i>Morning Edition</i>. National Public Radio<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Morning+Edition&rft.atitle=%27Reshoring%27+Trend+Has+Little+Impact+On+U.S.+Economy%2C+Study+Finds&rft.date=2014-12-16&rft.au=Jim+Zarroli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2014%2F12%2F16%2F371059896%2Freshoring-trend-has-little-impact-on-u-s-economy-study-finds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOffshoring" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-392302782">"Industrial Property Boost as Manufacturers Return Home"</a>. <i>Birmingham Post</i>. 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globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deglobalization" title="Deglobalization">Deglobalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_globalization" title="Democratic globalization">Democratic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_globalization" title="Environmental globalization">Environmental globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship" title="Global citizenship">Global citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship_education" title="Global citizenship education">education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_system" title="Global financial system">Global financial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">Global governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_migration" title="International migration">Global migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_politics" title="Global politics">Global politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_workforce" title="Global workforce">Global workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globality" title="Globality">Globality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_globalization" title="History of globalization">History of</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_globalization" title="Archaic globalization">archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-globalization" title="Proto-globalization">early modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_globalization" title="Military globalization">Military globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_globalization" title="Political globalization">Political globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_globalization" title="Trade globalization">Trade globalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Global</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_digital_divide" title="Global digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">Labor arbitrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_and_globalization" title="Multilingualism and globalization">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">Tax havens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_financial_centre" title="Offshore financial centre">Offshore financial centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_inversion" title="Tax inversion">Tax inversions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Other</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight" title="Human capital flight">Brain drain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_brain_drain" title="Reverse brain drain">reverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Care_drain" title="Care drain">Care drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_aid" title="Development aid">Development aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">Endangered languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_financial_flows" title="Illicit financial flows">Illicit financial flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_imperialism" title="Scientific imperialism">scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investor-state_dispute_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Investor-state dispute settlement">Investor-state disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonaldization" title="McDonaldization">McDonaldization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_international_division_of_labour" title="New international division of labour">New international division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="North–South divide in the World">North–South divide</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Offshoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_bottom" title="Race to the bottom">Race to the bottom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">pollution havens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_organized_crime" title="Transnational organized crime">Transnational crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">Capital accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_localism" title="Fiscal localism">Fiscal localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">Modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_modernisation_theory" title="History of modernisation theory">history of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable<br />scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Economics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Autor" title="David Autor">David Autor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Baldwin_(economist)" title="Richard Baldwin (economist)">Richard Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Batra" title="Ravi Batra">Ravi Batra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brenner" title="Robert Brenner">Robert Brenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayati_Ghosh" title="Jayati Ghosh">Jayati Ghosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Michael Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Milanovi%C4%87" title="Branko Milanović">Branko Milanović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_O%27Rourke" title="Kevin O'Rourke">Kevin O'Rourke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Thomas Piketty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dani_Rodrik" title="Dani Rodrik">Dani Rodrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey Sachs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Political <br />economy</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrighi" title="Giovanni Arrighi">Giovanni Arrighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Cox" title="Robert W. Cox">Robert W. Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gill_(political_scientist)" title="Stephen Gill (political scientist)">Stephen Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gowan" title="Peter Gowan">Peter Gowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronen_Palan" title="Ronen Palan">Ronen Palan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wade_(scholar)" title="Robert Wade (scholar)">Robert Wade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Politics / <br /> sociology</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Appadurai" title="Arjun Appadurai">Arjun Appadurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Archibugi" title="Daniele Archibugi">Daniele Archibugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">K. Anthony Appiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Beck" title="Ulrich Beck">Ulrich Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Bello" title="Walden Bello">Walden Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Manuel Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Chase-Dunn" title="Christopher Chase-Dunn">Christopher Chase-Dunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Crosby" title="Alfred W. 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