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Altruísmo – Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre

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class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Altruísmo patológico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altruísmo_patológico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Características_dos_Altruístas_Extremos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Características_dos_Altruístas_Extremos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Características dos Altruístas Extremos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Características_dos_Altruístas_Extremos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possíveis_explicações" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possíveis_explicações"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Possíveis explicações</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possíveis_explicações-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Altruísmo_digital" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altruísmo_digital"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Altruísmo digital</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altruísmo_digital-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ver_também" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ver_também"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ver também</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ver_também-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Alternar a subsecção Ver também</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ver_também-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antônimos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antônimos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Antônimos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antônimos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Referências" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Referências"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Referências</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Referências-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ligações_externas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ligações_externas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ligações externas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ligações_externas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Altruísmo</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Ir para um artigo noutra língua. Disponível em 77 línguas" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 línguas</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru%C3%AFsme" title="Altruïsme — africanês" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Altruïsme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="africanês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismus" title="Altruismus — alemão suíço" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Altruismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="alemão suíço" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="إيثار — árabe" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إيثار" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="árabe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru%C3%ADsmu" title="Altruísmu — asturiano" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Altruísmu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizm" title="Altruizm — azerbaijano" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Altruizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaijano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo — Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруізм — bielorrusso" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Альтруізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="bielorrusso" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруізм — Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Альтруізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Алтруизъм — búlgaro" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Алтруизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="búlgaro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%9E%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%95%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%96%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="གཞན་ཕན་གྱི་བསམ་པ། — tibetano" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གཞན་ཕན་གྱི་བསམ་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="tibetano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizam" title="Altruizam — bósnio" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Altruizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bósnio" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme — catalão" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalão" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismus" title="Altruismus — checo" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Altruismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="checo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme — dinamarquês" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="dinamarquês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismus" title="Altruismus — alemão" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Altruismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="alemão" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Αλτρουισμός — grego" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλτρουισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="grego" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism — inglês" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Altruism" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="inglês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo — esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo — espanhol" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="espanhol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism — estónio" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Altruism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estónio" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo — basco" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ایثار — persa" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایثار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="artigo bom"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismi" title="Altruismi — finlandês" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Altruismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finlandês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme — francês" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="francês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru%C3%ADsmo" title="Altruísmo — galego" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Altruísmo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galego" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="זולתנות — hebraico" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זולתנות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="hebraico" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="परहितवाद — hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परहितवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizam" title="Altruizam — croata" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Altruizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croata" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizmus" title="Altruizmus — húngaro" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Altruizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="húngaro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B5%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Այլասիրություն — arménio" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Այլասիրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="arménio" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme — indonésio" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonésio" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93s%C3%A9rpl%C3%A6gni" title="Ósérplægni — islandês" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ósérplægni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo — italiano" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="italiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="利他主義 — japonês" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="利他主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="japonês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ალტრუიზმი — georgiano" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ალტრუიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="georgiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруизм — cazaque" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Альтруизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="cazaque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%9A%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86" title="ಪರಹಿತ ಚಿಂತನೆ — canarim" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಹಿತ ಚಿಂತನೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="canarim" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%ED%83%80%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="이타주의 — coreano" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이타주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coreano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруизм — quirguiz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Альтруизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="quirguiz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismus" title="Altruismus — latim" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Altruismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latim" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizmas" title="Altruizmas — lituano" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Altruizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisms" title="Altruisms — letão" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Altruisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="letão" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Алтруизам — macedónio" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Алтруизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macedónio" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7" title="പരോപകാരകാംക്ഷ — malaiala" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പരോപകാരകാംക്ഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malaiala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE" title="निःस्वार्थीपणा — marata" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="निःस्वार्थीपणा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marata" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme — malaio" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malaio" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altru%C3%AFsme" title="Altruïsme — neerlandês" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Altruïsme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="neerlandês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme — norueguês nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norueguês nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme — norueguês bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norueguês bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruisme" title="Altruisme — occitano" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Altruisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="occitano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizm" title="Altruizm — polaco" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Altruizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polaco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism — romeno" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Altruism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="romeno" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруизм — russo" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Альтруизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83" title="परोपकारः — sânscrito" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="परोपकारः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="sânscrito" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%BE%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="ايثارپسندي — sindi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ايثارپسندي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="sindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizam" title="Altruizam — servo-croata" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Altruizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="servo-croata" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism — Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Altruism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizmus" title="Altruizmus — eslovaco" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Altruizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="eslovaco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizem" title="Altruizem — esloveno" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Altruizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="esloveno" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samotaliye" title="Samotaliye — somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Samotaliye" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizmi" title="Altruizmi — albanês" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Altruizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="albanês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Доброчинство — sérvio" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Доброчинство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="sérvio" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism — sueco" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Altruism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="sueco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="ஒப்புரவாண்மை — tâmil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒப்புரவாண்மை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="tâmil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Алтруизм — tajique" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Алтруизм" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="tajique" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="ปรัตถนิยม — tailandês" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัตถนิยม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="tailandês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruismo" title="Altruismo — tagalo" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Altruismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C4%9Ferk%C3%A2ml%C4%B1k" title="Diğerkâmlık — turco" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Diğerkâmlık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Альтруистлык — tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Альтруистлык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%97%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Альтруїзм — ucraniano" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Альтруїзм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ucraniano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%92_%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB%DB%8C" title="بے لوثی — urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بے لوثی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruizm" title="Altruizm — usbeque" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Altruizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="usbeque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_v%E1%BB%8B_tha" title="Chủ nghĩa vị tha — vietnamita" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chủ nghĩa vị tha" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamita" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="利他主义 — wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="利他主义" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="利他主义 — chinês" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="利他主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="chinês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%AB-tha%E2%81%BF-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Lī-thaⁿ-chú-gī — min nan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lī-thaⁿ-chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="min nan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E4%BB%96%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="利他主義 — cantonês" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="利他主義" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantonês" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q167323#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Editar hiperligações interlínguas" class="wbc-editpage">Editar hiperligações</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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.tmbox.mbox-small{clear:right;float:right;margin:4px 0 4px 1em;width:238px}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmbox{background-color:#2e2505}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmbox-speedy{background-color:#310402}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmbox{background-color:#2e2505}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmbox-speedy{background-color:#310402}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.tmbox img{max-width:none!important}</style><table class="box-Uma-fonte plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-uma_fonte" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Question_book-4.svg/50px-Question_book-4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Question_book-4.svg/75px-Question_book-4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Question_book-4.svg/100px-Question_book-4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="204" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">Este artigo <b>apresenta apenas <a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Artigos_com_apenas_uma_fonte" title="Wikipédia:Artigos com apenas uma fonte">uma fonte</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Ajude a <a class="external text" href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit">melhorar este artigo</a> inserindo <a href="/wiki/Wikip%C3%A9dia:Livro_de_estilo/Cite_as_fontes" title="Wikipédia:Livro de estilo/Cite as fontes">fontes adicionais</a>.—<small><i>Encontre fontes:</i> <span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/">ABW</a> &#160;&#8226;&#32; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.periodicos.capes.gov.br">CAPES</a> &#160;&#8226;&#32; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&amp;as_epq=Altru%C3%ADsmo">Google</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?hl=pt&amp;tbm=nws&amp;q=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;oq=Altru%C3%ADsmo">N</a>&#160;&#8226;&#32;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?&amp;as_brr=0&amp;as_epq=Altru%C3%ADsmo">L</a>&#160;&#8226;&#32;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=pt&amp;q=Altru%C3%ADsmo">A</a>)</span></small></span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">Novembro de 2023</span>)</i></small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Helping_the_homeless.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Helping_the_homeless.jpg/240px-Helping_the_homeless.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Helping_the_homeless.jpg/360px-Helping_the_homeless.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Helping_the_homeless.jpg/480px-Helping_the_homeless.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3285" data-file-height="2182" /></a><figcaption>Um exemplo de altruísmoː uma mulher dá comida a um <a href="/wiki/Sem-teto" title="Sem-teto">sem-teto</a> em <a href="/wiki/Nova_Iorque" title="Nova Iorque">Nova Iorque</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Altruísmo</b> é um tipo de <a href="/wiki/Comportamento" title="Comportamento">comportamento</a> encontrado em <a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">seres humanos</a> e outros <a href="/wiki/Organismo" title="Organismo">seres vivos</a>, em que as ações voluntárias de um indivíduo beneficiam outros. É sinônimo de <a href="/wiki/Filantropia" title="Filantropia">filantropia</a>. No sentido comum do termo, é, muitas vezes, percebida como <a href="/wiki/Sin%C3%B4nimo" title="Sinônimo">sinônimo</a> de <b><a href="/wiki/Solidariedade" title="Solidariedade">solidariedade</a></b>. A palavra "altruísmo" foi criada em <a href="/wiki/1831" title="1831">1831</a> pelo filósofo francês <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> para caracterizar o conjunto das disposições humanas (individuais e coletivas) que inclinam os seres humanos a dedicarem-se aos outros. Esse <a href="/wiki/Conceito" title="Conceito">conceito</a> opõe-se, portanto, ao <a href="/wiki/Ego%C3%ADsmo" title="Egoísmo">egoísmo</a>, que são as inclinações específica e exclusivamente individuais (pessoais ou coletivas). </p><p>O conceito do altruísmo tem a importância <a href="/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia">filosófica</a> de referir-se às disposições naturais do ser humano, indicando que o homem pode ser - e é - bom e generoso naturalmente, sem necessidade de intervenções culturais (como <a href="/wiki/Religi%C3%A3o" title="Religião">religião</a> e crença). </p><p>Na <a href="/wiki/Doutrina" title="Doutrina">doutrina</a> cotidiana, o altruísmo pode apresentar-se em três modalidades básicas: o <a href="/wiki/Teoria_do_apego#Apego" title="Teoria do apego">apego</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Venera%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Veneração">veneração</a> e a <a href="/wiki/Bondade" title="Bondade">bondade</a>. Do primeiro para o último, sua intensidade diminui e, por isso mesmo, sua importância e sua nobreza aumentam. O apego refere-se ao vínculo que os iguais mantêm entre si; a veneração refere-se ao vínculo que os mais fracos têm para com os mais fortes (ou os que vieram depois têm com os que vieram antes); por fim, a bondade é o sentimento que os mais fortes têm em relação aos mais fracos (ou aos que vieram depois). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Budismo">Budismo</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=1" title="Editar secção: Budismo" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Budismo"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="hatnote"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Magnifying_glass_01.svg/17px-Magnifying_glass_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Magnifying_glass_01.svg/26px-Magnifying_glass_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Magnifying_glass_01.svg/34px-Magnifying_glass_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="659" /></span></span>Ver artigo&#32;principal: <a href="/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo">Budismo</a></div> <p><small><i>Atenção: O texto abaixo contém resquícios de estrita argumentação.</i></small> </p><p>No <a href="/wiki/Budismo" title="Budismo">budismo</a>, o altruísmo é considerado o caminho que nos leva à <a href="/wiki/Bodhi" title="Bodhi">iluminação</a>. Uma atitude altruísta pode ser interpretada como <a href="/wiki/Caridade" title="Caridade">caridade</a>, se relacionada com os interesses do próximo. Agir de forma altruísta, é dar-se ou beneficiar alguém. Uma atitude altruísta pode ser confundida com <a href="/wiki/Ego%C3%ADsmo" title="Egoísmo">egoísmo</a>, quando misturamos nossos prazeres pessoais com a satisfação de quem os recebe. </p><p>No budismo, ser altruísta em geral é muito positivoː além do grande prazer em dedicar-se ao outro, cria laços de <a href="/w/index.php?title=Confraterniza%C3%A7%C3%A3o&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Confraternização (página não existe)">confraternização</a>, o que nos faz crescer interna e externamente. Quando reconhecemos as necessidades alheias, sentimos nossa percepção do mundo ampliar. A vida tem significados maiores quando somos úteis e nos sentimos mais ativos socialmente. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolução"><span id="Evolu.C3.A7.C3.A3o"></span>Evolução</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=2" title="Editar secção: Evolução" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Evolução"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Em biologia, comportamentos altruístas não necessitam de ter uma vontade consciente de beneficiar outros por trás deles. Comportamentos são considerados altruístas quando significam gastos para a <a href="/wiki/Aptid%C3%A3o" title="Aptidão">aptidão</a> reprodutiva do organismo e uma vantagem para outro organismo. Altruísmo é comum em organismo com estruturas sociais complexas, como <a href="/wiki/Mam%C3%ADfero" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamífero">mamíferos</a> ou <a href="/wiki/Inseto" class="mw-redirect" title="Inseto">insetos</a>. <a href="/wiki/Morcego-vampiro" title="Morcego-vampiro">Morcegos-vampiro</a> são conhecidos por <a href="/wiki/Regurgita%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Regurgitação">regurgitar</a> <a href="/wiki/Sangue" title="Sangue">sangue</a> para o dar a outros vampiros que não se conseguiram alimentar na mesma noite, para evitar que morram de fome. Este tipo de comportamento foi considerado um <a href="/wiki/Puzzle" class="mw-redirect" title="Puzzle">puzzle</a> por <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> quando da elaboração da sua teoria de <a href="/wiki/Evolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o_por_sele%C3%A7%C3%A3o_natural" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolução por seleção natural">evolução por seleção natural</a>, pois comportamentos deste tipo trazem prejuízo para quem o produz, mas a seleção natural não elimina estes comportamentos. Uma solução apontada é que o comportamento traria benefício para um grupo de organismos, surgindo, então, o conceito de <a href="/wiki/Sele%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_parentesco" title="Seleção de parentesco">seleção de parentesco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Altruísmo_eficaz"><span id="Altru.C3.ADsmo_eficaz"></span>Altruísmo eficaz</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=3" title="Editar secção: Altruísmo eficaz" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Altruísmo eficaz"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>O <a href="/wiki/Altru%C3%ADsmo_eficaz" title="Altruísmo eficaz">altruísmo eficaz</a> é uma <a href="/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia">filosofia</a> e um <a href="/wiki/Movimento_social" title="Movimento social">movimento social</a> que utiliza evidências e raciocínio para determinar as formas mais eficazes de beneficiar os outros.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> O altruísmo eficaz incentiva os indivíduos a considerar todas as causas e ações e a agir da forma que produza o maior impacto positivo, com base nos seus valores.<sup id="cite_ref-vox_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vox-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> É a abordagem ampla, baseada em evidências e de causa neutra que distingue o altruísmo eficaz do altruísmo tradicional ou da <a href="/wiki/Caridade" title="Caridade">caridade</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bcg_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bcg-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> O altruísmo eficaz faz parte de um movimento mais amplo em direção a <a href="/wiki/Pr%C3%A1tica_baseada_em_evid%C3%AAncias" title="Prática baseada em evidências">práticas baseadas em evidências</a>. </p><p>Embora uma proporção substancial de altruístas eficazes tenha se concentrado no <a href="/wiki/Terceiro_setor" title="Terceiro setor">setor sem fins lucrativos</a>, a filosofia do altruísmo eficaz aplica-se de forma mais ampla à priorização de projetos científicos, empresas e iniciativas políticas que podem ser estimadas como salvando vidas, ajudando pessoas ou de outra forma tendo o maior benefício.<sup id="cite_ref-doing-good-better_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doing-good-better-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> Pessoas associadas ao movimento incluem o filósofo <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-blog.ted.com_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blog.ted.com-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> o co-fundador do Facebook, <a href="/wiki/Dustin_Moskovitz" title="Dustin Moskovitz">Dustin Moskovitz</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Washington_Post_on_Dustin_Moskovitz_and_Cari_Tuna_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Washington_Post_on_Dustin_Moskovitz_and_Cari_Tuna-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cari_Tuna" title="Cari Tuna">Cari Tuna</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> os pesquisadores de <a href="/wiki/Universidade_de_Oxford" title="Universidade de Oxford">Oxford</a> <a href="/wiki/William_MacAskill" title="William MacAskill">William MacAskill</a><sup id="cite_ref-The_Atlantic_article_The_Greatest_Good_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Atlantic_article_The_Greatest_Good-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> e <a href="/wiki/Toby_Ord" title="Toby Ord">Toby Ord</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Peter_Singer_The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peter_Singer_The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> e a jogadora profissional de póquer <a href="/wiki/Liv_Boeree" title="Liv Boeree">Liv Boeree.</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Altruísmo_Extremo"><span id="Altru.C3.ADsmo_Extremo"></span>Altruísmo Extremo</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=4" title="Editar secção: Altruísmo Extremo" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Altruísmo Extremo"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Altruísmo_patológico"><span id="Altru.C3.ADsmo_patol.C3.B3gico"></span>Altruísmo patológico</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=5" title="Editar secção: Altruísmo patológico" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Altruísmo patológico"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>O altruísmo patológico é o altruísmo levado a um extremo não saudável, de tal forma que prejudica a pessoa altruísta ou as ações bem-intencionadas da pessoa causam mais danos do que benefícios. </p><p>O termo "altruísmo patológico" foi popularizado pelo livro <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pathological_Altruism&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Pathological Altruism (página não existe)">Pathological Altruism</a>.</i> </p><p>Os exemplos incluem <a href="/wiki/Depress%C3%A3o_(humor)" title="Depressão (humor)">depressão</a> e <a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADndrome_de_burnout" title="Síndrome de burnout">esgotamento</a> observados em profissionais de saúde, um foco prejudicial nos outros em detrimento das próprias necessidades, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%ADndrome_de_No%C3%A9" title="Síndrome de Noé">acumulação de animais</a> e programas filantrópicos e sociais ineficazes que, em última análise, pioram as situações que deveriam ajudar.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> O altruísmo extremo, também conhecido como altruísmo dispendioso, altruísmo extraordinário ou comportamentos heroicos (devem ser distinguidos do <a href="/wiki/Her%C3%B3i" title="Herói">heroísmo</a>), refere-se a atos altruístas dirigidos a um estranho que excedem significativamente os comportamentos altruístas normais, muitas vezes envolvendo riscos ou grandes custos para os próprios altruístas.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> Dado que os atos de altruísmo extremo são frequentemente dirigidos a estranhos, muitos modelos comummente aceites de altruísmo simples parecem inadequados para explicar este fenómeno.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Um dos conceitos iniciais foi introduzido por Wilson em 1976, ao qual ele se referiu como altruísmo “<i>hard-core</i>”.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> Esta forma é caracterizada por ações impulsivas dirigidas a outras pessoas, normalmente um estranho e sem incentivos para recompensa. Desde então, vários artigos mencionaram a possibilidade de tal altruísmo.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Características_dos_Altruístas_Extremos"><span id="Caracter.C3.ADsticas_dos_Altru.C3.ADstas_Extremos"></span>Características dos Altruístas Extremos</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=6" title="Editar secção: Características dos Altruístas Extremos" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Características dos Altruístas Extremos"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Normas</li></ul> <p>Em 1970, Schwartz levantou a hipótese de que o altruísmo extremo está positivamente relacionado com as normas morais de uma pessoa e não é influenciado pelo custo associado à ação.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> Esta hipótese foi apoiada no mesmo estudo que examinou doadores de medula óssea. Schwartz descobriu que indivíduos com normas pessoais fortes e aqueles que atribuem mais responsabilidades a si próprios estão mais inclinados a participar na doação de medula óssea.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> Descobertas semelhantes foram observadas num estudo de 1986 realizado por Piliavin e Libby com foco em doadores de sangue.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> Estes estudos sugerem que as normas pessoais levam à ativação de normas morais, levando os indivíduos a sentirem-se compelidos a ajudar os outros.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Reconhecimento Aprimorado do Medo</li></ul> <p>Abigail Marsh descreveu os psicopatas como o grupo "oposto" de pessoas aos altruístas extremos<sup id="cite_ref-:82_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:82-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> e conduziu algumas investigações comparando esses dois grupos de indivíduos. Utilizando técnicas como imagens cerebrais e experiências comportamentais, a equipe de Marsh observou que os doadores de rim tendem a ter amígdalas maiores e apresentam melhores habilidades no reconhecimento de expressões de medo em comparação com indivíduos psicopatas.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> Além disso, uma melhor capacidade de reconhecer o medo tem sido associada a um aumento nos comportamentos pró-sociais, incluindo uma maior contribuição para a caridade.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Decisões Rápidas ao Realizar Atos de Altruísmo Extremo</li></ul> <p>Rand e Epstein exploraram os comportamentos de 51 ganhadores da Medalha Carnegie Hero, demonstrando como comportamentos altruístas extremos muitas vezes resultam do sistema I da <a href="/w/index.php?title=Teoria_do_processo_dual&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Teoria do processo dual (página não existe)">Teoria do Processo Dual</a>, que leva a comportamentos rápidos e intuitivos.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> Além disso, um artigo separado de Carlson et al. indicaram que tais comportamentos pró-sociais são predominantes em emergências onde são necessárias ações imediatas.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Esta descoberta levou a debates éticos, particularmente no contexto da doação de órgãos vivos, onde as leis relativas a esta questão diferem consoante o país.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> Tal como observado nos altruístas extremos, estas decisões são tomadas intuitivamente, o que pode refletir consideração insuficiente. Os críticos estão preocupados com a questão de saber se esta decisão rápida abrange uma análise exaustiva de custo-benefício e questionam a adequação de expor os doadores a tal risco.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Desconto social</li></ul> <p>Uma descoberta sugere como os altruístas extremos apresentam níveis mais baixos de descontos sociais em comparação com outros. Com esse significado, os altruístas extremos valorizam mais o bem-estar de estranhos do que uma pessoa típica.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Baixo estatuto socioeconómico</li></ul> <p>A análise de 676 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fundo_Carnegie_Hero&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Fundo Carnegie Hero (página não existe)">ganhadores do Prêmio Carnegie Hero</a> <sup id="cite_ref-:5_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup> e outro estudo sobre 243 atos de resgate <sup id="cite_ref-:6_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> revelam que uma proporção significativa de socorristas vem de meios socioeconómicos mais baixos. Johnson atribui a distribuição às ocupações de alto risco que são mais prevalentes entre os grupos socioeconómicos mais baixos.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup> Outra hipótese proposta por Lyons é que os indivíduos destes grupos podem perceber que têm menos a perder quando se envolvem em comportamentos altruístas extremos de alto risco.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Possíveis_explicações"><span id="Poss.C3.ADveis_explica.C3.A7.C3.B5es"></span>Possíveis explicações</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=7" title="Editar secção: Possíveis explicações" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Possíveis explicações"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Teorias evolucionistas como a seleção de parentesco, a reciprocidade, os interesses adquiridos e a punição contradizem ou não explicam completamente o conceito de altruísmo extremo.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup> Como resultado, uma investigação considerável tentou encontrar uma explicação separada para esse comportamento. </p> <ul><li>Teoria de Sinalização Cara para Comportamentos Extremos</li></ul> <p>A investigação sugere que os homens são mais propensos a envolverem-se em comportamentos heroicos e de risco devido à preferência das mulheres por tais características.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup> Estes comportamentos altruístas extremos poderiam servir como um “sinal” inconsciente para demonstrar poder e habilidade superiores em comparação aos indivíduos comuns.<sup id="cite_ref-:72_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:72-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> Quando um altruísta extremo sobrevive a uma situação de alto risco, envia um “sinal honesto” de qualidade.<sup id="cite_ref-:72_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:72-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> Três qualidades que se supõe serem exibidas por altruístas extremos, que poderiam ser interpretadas como "sinais", são: (1) características que são difíceis de falsificar, (2) disposição para ajudar e (3) comportamentos generosos.<sup id="cite_ref-:72_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:72-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Hipótese Empatia-Altruísmo</li></ul> <p>A hipótese do altruísmo empático parece alinhar-se com o conceito de altruísmo extremo sem contradição. A hipótese foi apoiada por mais investigações de scaneamento cerebral, que indicam como este grupo de pessoas demonstra um nível mais alto de preocupação com empatia. O nível de preocupação com a empatia desencadeia então a ativação em regiões específicas do cérebro, incitando o indivíduo a se envolver em comportamentos heroicos.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Erros e atípicos</li></ul> <p>Embora a maioria dos comportamentos altruístas ofereça alguma forma de benefício, o altruísmo extremo pode por vezes resultar de um erro em que a vítima não retribui.<sup id="cite_ref-:73_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:73-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> Considerando a característica impulsiva dos altruístas extremos, alguns investigadores sugerem que estes indivíduos fizeram um julgamento errado durante a análise de custo-benefício.<sup id="cite_ref-:42_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup> Além disso, o altruísmo extremo pode ser uma variação rara do altruísmo quando se situa nos extremos de uma distribuição normal.<sup id="cite_ref-:73_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:73-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> Nos EUA, a taxa de prevalência anual per capita é inferior a 0,00005%, o que mostra a raridade de tais comportamentos.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Altruísmo_digital"><span id="Altru.C3.ADsmo_digital"></span>Altruísmo digital</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=8" title="Editar secção: Altruísmo digital" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Altruísmo digital"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>O <b>altruísmo digital</b> é a noção de que alguns estão dispostos a partilhar livremente informações com base no princípio da <a href="/wiki/Reciprocidade" title="Reciprocidade">reciprocidade</a> e na crença de que, no final, todos beneficiam da partilha de informações através da <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Klisanin_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klisanin-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Existem três tipos de altruísmo digital: (1) “altruísmo digital diário”, envolvendo conveniência, facilidade, envolvimento moral e conformidade; (2) “altruísmo digital criativo”, envolvendo criatividade, maior envolvimento moral e cooperação; e (3) “altruísmo digital co-criativo” envolvendo criatividade, envolvimento moral e esforços metacooperativos.<sup id="cite_ref-Klisanin2_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klisanin2-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ver_também"><span id="Ver_tamb.C3.A9m"></span>Ver também</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=9" title="Editar secção: Ver também" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Ver também"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="noprint" style="clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: var(--background-color-neutral-subtle, #f9f9f9); color: inherit; width: 238px; padding: 5px; spacing: 2px; text-align: center; float: right;"> <div style="float: left; vertical-align:middle;"><figure class="mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Commons"><img alt="Commons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/22px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/33px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/44px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption>Commons</figcaption></figure></div> <div style="margin-left: 30px; line-height:normal; vertical-align:middle;">O <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A1gina_principal" class="extiw" title="commons:Página principal">Commons</a> possui imagens e outros ficheiros sobre <b><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category%3AAltruism&amp;uselang=pt">Altruísmo</a></span></b></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altru%C3%ADsmo_rec%C3%ADproco" title="Altruísmo recíproco">Altruísmo recíproco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altru%C3%ADsmo_eficaz" title="Altruísmo eficaz">Altruísmo eficaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desapego_(filosofia)" title="Desapego (filosofia)">Desapego (filosofia)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antônimos"><span id="Ant.C3.B4nimos"></span>Antônimos</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=10" title="Editar secção: Antônimos" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Antônimos"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ci%C3%BAme" title="Ciúme">Ciúme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ego%C3%ADsmo" title="Egoísmo">Egoísmo</a></li></ul> <h2 id="Referências" style="cursor: help;" title="Esta seção foi configurada para não ser editável diretamente. Edite a página toda ou a seção anterior em vez disso."><span id="Refer.C3.AAncias"></span>Referências</h2> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"><div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Okasha, Samir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/">«Biological Altruism»</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado em 14 de outubro de 2010</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.aufirst=Samir&amp;rft.aulast=Okasha&amp;rft.btitle=Biological+Altruism&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Faltruism-biological%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">MacAskill, William (2017). «Effective Altruism: Introduction». <i>Essays in Philosophy</i>. <b>18</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.7710%2F1526-0569.1580">10.7710/1526-0569.1580</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Effective+Altruism%3A+Introduction&amp;rft.aufirst=William&amp;rft.aulast=MacAskill&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Essays+in+Philosophy&amp;rft.volume=18&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7710%2F1526-0569.1580&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vox-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-vox_3-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dylan_Matthews&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dylan Matthews (página não existe)">Matthews, Dylan</a> (24 de abril de 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/2015/4/24/8457895/givewell-open-philanthropy-charity">«You have $8 billion. You want to do as much good as possible. What do you do?»</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Vox_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vox (website)">Vox</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado em 27 de abril de 2015</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=You+have+%248+billion.+You+want+to+do+as+much+good+as+possible.+What+do+you+do%3F&amp;rft.aufirst=Dylan&amp;rft.aulast=Matthews&amp;rft.date=2015-04-24&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Vox&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2F2015%2F4%2F24%2F8457895%2Fgivewell-open-philanthropy-charity&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bcg-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-bcg_4-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Bennett, Nicole; Carter, Ashley; Resney, Romney; Woods, Wendy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/innovation-strategy-how-tech-entrepreneurs-are-disrupting-philanthropy/">«How Tech Entrepreneurs Are Disrupting Philanthropy»</a>. <i>BCG Perspectives</i>. Boston Consulting Group<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado em 11 de março de 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=How+Tech+Entrepreneurs+Are+Disrupting+Philanthropy&amp;rft.au=Carter%2C+Ashley&amp;rft.au=Resney%2C+Romney&amp;rft.au=Woods%2C+Wendy&amp;rft.aufirst=Nicole&amp;rft.aulast=Bennett&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=BCG+Perspectives&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcgperspectives.com%2Fcontent%2Farticles%2Finnovation-strategy-how-tech-entrepreneurs-are-disrupting-philanthropy%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-doing-good-better-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-doing-good-better_5-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">MacAskill, William (2015). <i>Doing Good Better</i>. [S.l.]: Avery. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_de_livros/978-1-59240-910-5" title="Especial:Fontes de livros/978-1-59240-910-5">978-1-59240-910-5</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.aufirst=William&amp;rft.aulast=MacAskill&amp;rft.btitle=Doing+Good+Better&amp;rft.date=2015&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-59240-910-5&amp;rft.pub=Avery&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-blog.ted.com-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-blog.ted.com_6-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Walters, Helen (19 de setembro de 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.ted.com/why-how-effective-altruism-peter-singer-visualized/">«The why and how of effective altruism: Peter Singer's talk visualized»</a>. <i>TED Blog</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=The+why+and+how+of+effective+altruism%3A+Peter+Singer%27s+talk+visualized&amp;rft.aufirst=Helen&amp;rft.aulast=Walters&amp;rft.date=2013-09-19&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=TED+Blog&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.ted.com%2Fwhy-how-effective-altruism-peter-singer-visualized%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Washington_Post_on_Dustin_Moskovitz_and_Cari_Tuna-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Washington_Post_on_Dustin_Moskovitz_and_Cari_Tuna_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/billionaire-couple-give-plenty-to-charity-but-they-do-quite-a-bit-of-homework/2014/12/26/19fae34c-86d6-11e4-b9b7-b8632ae73d25_story.html">«Cari Tuna and Dustin Moskovitz: Young Silicon Valley billionaires pioneer new approach to philanthropy»</a>. The Washington Post. 26 de dezembro de 2014</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Cari+Tuna+and+Dustin+Moskovitz%3A+Young+Silicon+Valley+billionaires+pioneer+new+approach+to+philanthropy&amp;rft.date=2014-12-26&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fbusiness%2Fbillionaire-couple-give-plenty-to-charity-but-they-do-quite-a-bit-of-homework%2F2014%2F12%2F26%2F19fae34c-86d6-11e4-b9b7-b8632ae73d25_story.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Callahan, Favid (12 de setembro de 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/tech-philanthropy/2013/9/12/meet-cari-tuna-the-woman-giving-away-dustin-moskovitzs-faceb.html">«Meet Cari Tuna, the Woman Giving Away Dustin Moskovitz's Facebook Fortune»</a>. <i>Inside Philanthropy</i> (em inglês)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado em 1 de março de 2018</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Meet+Cari+Tuna%2C+the+Woman+Giving+Away+Dustin+Moskovitz%27s+Facebook+Fortune&amp;rft.aufirst=Favid&amp;rft.aulast=Callahan&amp;rft.date=2013-09-12&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Inside+Philanthropy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insidephilanthropy.com%2Ftech-philanthropy%2F2013%2F9%2F12%2Fmeet-cari-tuna-the-woman-giving-away-dustin-moskovitzs-faceb.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Atlantic_article_The_Greatest_Good-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Atlantic_article_The_Greatest_Good_9-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">Thompson, Derek (15 de junho de 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/06/what-is-the-greatest-good/395768/#b06g25t20w15">«The Greatest Good»</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=The+Greatest+Good&amp;rft.aufirst=Derek&amp;rft.aulast=Thompson&amp;rft.date=2015-06-15&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fbusiness%2Farchive%2F2015%2F06%2Fwhat-is-the-greatest-good%2F395768%2F%23b06g25t20w15&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peter_Singer_The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Peter_Singer_The_Most_Good_You_Can_Do_10-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBWWX4ViD3E">«Peter Singer: "The Most Good You Can Do" &#124; Talks at Google»</a>. <i>YouTube</i>. 22 de abril de 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Peter+Singer%3A+%22The+Most+Good+You+Can+Do%22+%26%23124%3B+Talks+at+Google&amp;rft.date=2015-04-22&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=YouTube&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DNBWWX4ViD3E&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Oakley; Knafo, Ariel; Madhavan, Guruprasad; Wilson, David Sloan, eds. (2011). <i>Pathological Altruism</i>. [S.l.: s.n.] <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_de_livros/978-0-19-973857-1" title="Especial:Fontes de livros/978-0-19-973857-1">978-0-19-973857-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199738571.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199738571.001.0001</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.btitle=Pathological+Altruism&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-973857-1&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199738571.001.0001&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_12-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Marsh, Abigail A.; Stoycos, Sarah A.; Brethel-Haurwitz, Kristin M.; Robinson, Paul; VanMeter, John W.; Cardinale, Elise M. (21 de outubro de 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4210306">«Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists»</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> (em inglês). <b>111</b> (42): 15036–15041. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..11115036M">2014PNAS..11115036M</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4210306">4210306</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25225374">25225374</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1408440111">10.1073/pnas.1408440111</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Neural+and+cognitive+characteristics+of+extraordinary+altruists&amp;rft.au=Brethel-Haurwitz%2C+Kristin+M.&amp;rft.au=Cardinale%2C+Elise+M.&amp;rft.au=Robinson%2C+Paul&amp;rft.au=Stoycos%2C+Sarah+A.&amp;rft.au=VanMeter%2C+John+W.&amp;rft.aufirst=Abigail+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Marsh&amp;rft.date=2014-10-21&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issn=0027-8424&amp;rft.issue=42&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&amp;rft.pages=15036-15041&amp;rft.volume=111&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4210306&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4210306&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PNAS..11115036M&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1408440111&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25225374&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">de Waal, Frans B.M. (1 de janeiro de 2008). «Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy». <i>Annual Review of Psychology</i>. <b>59</b> (1): 279–300. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17550343">17550343</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.59.103006.093625">10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Putting+the+Altruism+Back+into+Altruism%3A+The+Evolution+of+Empathy&amp;rft.aufirst=Frans+B.M.&amp;rft.aulast=de+Waal&amp;rft.date=2008-01-01&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Psychology&amp;rft.pages=279-300&amp;rft.volume=59&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.59.103006.093625&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17550343&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Wilson, John P. (dezembro de 1976). «Motivation, modeling, and altruism: A Person × Situation analysis.». <i>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</i>. <b>34</b> (6): 1078–1086. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-3514.34.6.1078">10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1078</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Motivation%2C+modeling%2C+and+altruism%3A+A+Person+%C3%97+Situation+analysis.&amp;rft.aufirst=John+P.&amp;rft.aulast=Wilson&amp;rft.date=1976-12&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Personality+and+Social+Psychology&amp;rft.pages=1078-1086&amp;rft.volume=34&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-3514.34.6.1078&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Piliavin, Jane Allyn; Charng, Hong-Wen (1990). «Altruism: A Review of Recent Theory and Research». <i>Annual Review of Sociology</i>. <b>16</b>: 27–65. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/2083262">2083262</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.so.16.080190.000331">10.1146/annurev.so.16.080190.000331</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Altruism%3A+A+Review+of+Recent+Theory+and+Research&amp;rft.au=Charng%2C+Hong-Wen&amp;rft.aufirst=Jane+Allyn&amp;rft.aulast=Piliavin&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Sociology&amp;rft.pages=27-65&amp;rft.volume=16&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2083262&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.so.16.080190.000331&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Krebs, Dennis L. (1991). «Altruism and Egoism: A False Dichotomy?». <i>Psychological Inquiry</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 137–139. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1449250">1449250</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15327965pli0202_9">10.1207/s15327965pli0202_9</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Altruism+and+Egoism%3A+A+False+Dichotomy%3F&amp;rft.aufirst=Dennis+L.&amp;rft.aulast=Krebs&amp;rft.date=1991&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Psychological+Inquiry&amp;rft.pages=137-139&amp;rft.volume=2&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1449250&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2Fs15327965pli0202_9&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_17-0">a</a></b></i></sup> <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_17-1">b</a></b></i></sup> <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_17-2">c</a></b></i></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Rusch, Hannes (2022). «Heroic behavior: A review of the literature on high-stakes altruism in the wild». <i>Current Opinion in Psychology</i> (em inglês). <b>43</b>: 238–243. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34454246">34454246</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.copsyc.2021.07.024">10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.024</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Heroic+behavior%3A+A+review+of+the+literature+on+high-stakes+altruism+in+the+wild&amp;rft.aufirst=Hannes&amp;rft.aulast=Rusch&amp;rft.date=2022&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Psychology&amp;rft.pages=238-243&amp;rft.volume=43&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.copsyc.2021.07.024&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34454246&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:8_18-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Marsh, Abigail A. (junho de 2016). «Understanding amygdala responsiveness to fearful expressions through the lens of psychopathy and altruism». <i>Journal of Neuroscience Research</i>. <b>94</b> (6): 513–525. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26366635">26366635</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjnr.23668">10.1002/jnr.23668</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Understanding+amygdala+responsiveness+to+fearful+expressions+through+the+lens+of+psychopathy+and+altruism&amp;rft.aufirst=Abigail+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Marsh&amp;rft.date=2016-06&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neuroscience+Research&amp;rft.pages=513-525&amp;rft.volume=94&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjnr.23668&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26366635&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:82-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:82_19-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Marsh, Abigail A. (junho de 2016). «Understanding amygdala responsiveness to fearful expressions through the lens of psychopathy and altruism». <i>Journal of Neuroscience Research</i>. <b>94</b> (6): 513–525. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26366635">26366635</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fjnr.23668">10.1002/jnr.23668</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Understanding+amygdala+responsiveness+to+fearful+expressions+through+the+lens+of+psychopathy+and+altruism&amp;rft.aufirst=Abigail+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Marsh&amp;rft.date=2016-06&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=6&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neuroscience+Research&amp;rft.pages=513-525&amp;rft.volume=94&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjnr.23668&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26366635&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_20-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Marsh, Abigail A.; Stoycos, Sarah A.; Brethel-Haurwitz, Kristin M.; Robinson, Paul; VanMeter, John W.; Cardinale, Elise M. (21 de outubro de 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4210306">«Neural and cognitive characteristics of extraordinary altruists»</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i> (em inglês). <b>111</b> (42): 15036–15041. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..11115036M">2014PNAS..11115036M</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4210306">4210306</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25225374">25225374</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1408440111">10.1073/pnas.1408440111</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Neural+and+cognitive+characteristics+of+extraordinary+altruists&amp;rft.au=Brethel-Haurwitz%2C+Kristin+M.&amp;rft.au=Cardinale%2C+Elise+M.&amp;rft.au=Robinson%2C+Paul&amp;rft.au=Stoycos%2C+Sarah+A.&amp;rft.au=VanMeter%2C+John+W.&amp;rft.aufirst=Abigail+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Marsh&amp;rft.date=2014-10-21&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issn=0027-8424&amp;rft.issue=42&amp;rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&amp;rft.pages=15036-15041&amp;rft.volume=111&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4210306&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4210306&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PNAS..11115036M&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1408440111&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25225374&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Marsh, Abigail A.; Kozak, Megan N.; Ambady, Nalini (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743452">«Accurate identification of fear facial expressions predicts prosocial behavior»</a>. <i>Emotion</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 239–251. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2743452">2743452</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17516803">17516803</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F1528-3542.7.2.239">10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.239</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Accurate+identification+of+fear+facial+expressions+predicts+prosocial+behavior&amp;rft.au=Ambady%2C+Nalini&amp;rft.au=Kozak%2C+Megan+N.&amp;rft.aufirst=Abigail+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Marsh&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Emotion&amp;rft.pages=239-251&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2743452&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2743452&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F1528-3542.7.2.239&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17516803&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:4_22-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Rand, David G.; Epstein, Ziv G. (15 de outubro de 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4198114">«Risking Your Life without a Second Thought: Intuitive Decision-Making and Extreme Altruism»</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>9</b> (10): e109687. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...9j9687R">2014PLoSO...9j9687R</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4198114">4198114</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25333876">25333876</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0109687">10.1371/journal.pone.0109687</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Risking+Your+Life+without+a+Second+Thought%3A+Intuitive+Decision-Making+and+Extreme+Altruism&amp;rft.au=Epstein%2C+Ziv+G.&amp;rft.aufirst=David+G.&amp;rft.aulast=Rand&amp;rft.date=2014-10-15&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.pages=e109687&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4198114&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4198114&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PLoSO...9j9687R&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0109687&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25333876&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Carlson, Ryan W.; Aknin, Lara B.; Liotti, Mario (julho de 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4927032">«When is giving an impulse? An ERP investigation of intuitive prosocial behavior»</a>. <i>Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience</i>. <b>11</b> (7): 1121–1129. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4927032">4927032</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26084530">26084530</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fscan%2Fnsv077">10.1093/scan/nsv077</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=When+is+giving+an+impulse%3F+An+ERP+investigation+of+intuitive+prosocial+behavior&amp;rft.au=Aknin%2C+Lara+B.&amp;rft.au=Liotti%2C+Mario&amp;rft.aufirst=Ryan+W.&amp;rft.aulast=Carlson&amp;rft.date=2016-07&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=7&amp;rft.jtitle=Social+Cognitive+and+Affective+Neuroscience&amp;rft.pages=1121-1129&amp;rft.volume=11&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4927032&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4927032&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fscan%2Fnsv077&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26084530&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Lopp, Leonie (2013). <i>Regulations Regarding Living Organ Donation in Europe</i>. [S.l.: s.n.] <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_de_livros/978-3-642-33798-7" title="Especial:Fontes de livros/978-3-642-33798-7">978-3-642-33798-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-33799-4">10.1007/978-3-642-33799-4</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.aufirst=Leonie&amp;rft.aulast=Lopp&amp;rft.btitle=Regulations+Regarding+Living+Organ+Donation+in+Europe&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-642-33798-7&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-33799-4&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Friedman Ross, Lainie; Glannon, Walter; Josephson, Michelle A.; Thistlethwaite, J. Richard (agosto de 2002). «Should all living donors be treated equally?». <i>Transplantation</i>. <b>74</b> (3): 418–421. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12177627">12177627</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2F00007890-200208150-00025">10.1097/00007890-200208150-00025</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Should+all+living+donors+be+treated+equally%3F&amp;rft.au=Glannon%2C+Walter&amp;rft.au=Josephson%2C+Michelle+A.&amp;rft.au=Thistlethwaite%2C+J.+Richard&amp;rft.aufirst=Lainie&amp;rft.aulast=Friedman+Ross&amp;rft.date=2002-08&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Transplantation&amp;rft.pages=418-421&amp;rft.volume=74&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00007890-200208150-00025&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12177627&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_26-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Rhoads, Shawn A.; Vekaria, Kruti M.; O’Connell, Katherine; Elizabeth, Hannah S.; Rand, David G.; Kozak Williams, Megan N.; Marsh, Abigail A. (31 de março de 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10066349">«Unselfish traits and social decision-making patterns characterize six populations of real-world extraordinary altruists»</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i> (em inglês). <b>14</b> (1). 1807&#160;páginas. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10066349">10066349</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37002205">37002205</a> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Verifique <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#124;pmid=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Ajuda:Erros_nas_refer%C3%AAncias#bad_pmid" title="Ajuda:Erros nas referências">ajuda</a>)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-023-37283-5">10.1038/s41467-023-37283-5</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Unselfish+traits+and+social+decision-making+patterns+characterize+six+populations+of+real-world+extraordinary+altruists&amp;rft.au=Elizabeth%2C+Hannah+S.&amp;rft.au=Kozak+Williams%2C+Megan+N.&amp;rft.au=Marsh%2C+Abigail+A.&amp;rft.au=O%99Connell%2C+Katherine&amp;rft.au=Rand%2C+David+G.&amp;rft.au=Vekaria%2C+Kruti+M.&amp;rft.aufirst=Shawn+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Rhoads&amp;rft.date=2023-03-31&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issn=2041-1723&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10066349&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10066349&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-023-37283-5&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37002205&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Vekaria, Kruti M.; Brethel-Haurwitz, Kristin M.; Cardinale, Elise M.; Stoycos, Sarah A.; Marsh, Abigail A. (28 de abril de 2017). «Social discounting and distance perceptions in costly altruism». <i>Nature Human Behaviour</i>. <b>1</b> (5). <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41562-017-0100">10.1038/s41562-017-0100</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Social+discounting+and+distance+perceptions+in+costly+altruism&amp;rft.au=Brethel-Haurwitz%2C+Kristin+M.&amp;rft.au=Cardinale%2C+Elise+M.&amp;rft.au=Marsh%2C+Abigail+A.&amp;rft.au=Stoycos%2C+Sarah+A.&amp;rft.aufirst=Kruti+M.&amp;rft.aulast=Vekaria&amp;rft.date=2017-04-28&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Human+Behaviour&amp;rft.volume=1&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41562-017-0100&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_28-0">a</a></b></i></sup> <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_28-1">b</a></b></i></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Johnson, Ronald C. (setembro de 1996). «Attributes of carnegie medalists performing acts of heroism and of the recipients of these acts». <i>Ethology and Sociobiology</i>. <b>17</b> (5): 355–362. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0162-3095%2896%2900059-3">10.1016/S0162-3095(96)00059-3</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Attributes+of+carnegie+medalists+performing+acts+of+heroism+and+of+the+recipients+of+these+acts&amp;rft.aufirst=Ronald+C.&amp;rft.aulast=Johnson&amp;rft.date=1996-09&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=5&amp;rft.jtitle=Ethology+and+Sociobiology&amp;rft.pages=355-362&amp;rft.volume=17&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0162-3095%2896%2900059-3&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:6_29-0">a</a></b></i></sup> <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:6_29-1">b</a></b></i></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Lyons, Minna T. (setembro de 2005). «Who are the Heroes? Characteristics of People Who Rescue Others». <i>Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 245–254. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1556%2FJCEP.3.2005.3-4.2">10.1556/JCEP.3.2005.3-4.2</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Who+are+the+Heroes%3F+Characteristics+of+People+Who+Rescue+Others&amp;rft.aufirst=Minna+T.&amp;rft.aulast=Lyons&amp;rft.date=2005-09&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cultural+and+Evolutionary+Psychology&amp;rft.pages=245-254&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1556%2FJCEP.3.2005.3-4.2&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:7_30-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Allison; Goethals, George R.; Kramer, Roderick M., eds. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/48727/6/Rotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf"><i>Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. [S.l.: s.n.] <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_de_livros/978-1-317-42611-0" title="Especial:Fontes de livros/978-1-317-42611-0">978-1-317-42611-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315690100">10.4324/9781315690100</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Heroism+and+Heroic+Leadership&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-317-42611-0&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.kingston.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F48727%2F6%2FRotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315690100&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Kelly, Susan; Dunbar, R. I. M. (junho de 2001). «Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in women's mate choice». <i>Human Nature</i>. <b>12</b> (2): 89–105. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26192164">26192164</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12110-001-1018-6">10.1007/s12110-001-1018-6</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Who+dares%2C+wins%3A+Heroism+versus+altruism+in+women%27s+mate+choice&amp;rft.au=Dunbar%2C+R.+I.+M.&amp;rft.aufirst=Susan&amp;rft.aulast=Kelly&amp;rft.date=2001-06&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.jtitle=Human+Nature&amp;rft.pages=89-105&amp;rft.volume=12&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12110-001-1018-6&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26192164&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:72-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:72_32-0">a</a></b></i></sup> <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:72_32-1">b</a></b></i></sup> <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:72_32-2">c</a></b></i></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Allison; Goethals, George R.; Kramer, Roderick M., eds. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/48727/6/Rotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf"><i>Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. [S.l.: s.n.] <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_de_livros/978-1-317-42611-0" title="Especial:Fontes de livros/978-1-317-42611-0">978-1-317-42611-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315690100">10.4324/9781315690100</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Heroism+and+Heroic+Leadership&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-317-42611-0&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.kingston.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F48727%2F6%2FRotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315690100&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">FeldmanHall, Oriel; Dalgleish, Tim; Evans, Davy; Mobbs, Dean (janeiro de 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4275572">«Empathic concern drives costly altruism»</a>. <i>NeuroImage</i> (em inglês). <b>105</b>: 347–356. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4275572">4275572</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25462694">25462694</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2014.10.043">10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.043</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Empathic+concern+drives+costly+altruism&amp;rft.au=Dalgleish%2C+Tim&amp;rft.au=Evans%2C+Davy&amp;rft.au=Mobbs%2C+Dean&amp;rft.aufirst=Oriel&amp;rft.aulast=FeldmanHall&amp;rft.date=2015-01&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&amp;rft.pages=347-356&amp;rft.volume=105&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4275572&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4275572&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2014.10.043&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25462694&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:73-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:73_34-0">a</a></b></i></sup> <sup><i><b><a href="#cite_ref-:73_34-1">b</a></b></i></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Allison; Goethals, George R.; Kramer, Roderick M., eds. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/48727/6/Rotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf"><i>Handbook of Heroism and Heroic Leadership</i></a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. [S.l.: s.n.] <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Especial:Fontes_de_livros/978-1-317-42611-0" title="Especial:Fontes de livros/978-1-317-42611-0">978-1-317-42611-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315690100">10.4324/9781315690100</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Heroism+and+Heroic+Leadership&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-317-42611-0&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.kingston.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F48727%2F6%2FRotella-A-48727-AAM.pdf&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315690100&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:42-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:42_35-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Rand, David G.; Epstein, Ziv G. (15 de outubro de 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4198114">«Risking Your Life without a Second Thought: Intuitive Decision-Making and Extreme Altruism»</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>9</b> (10): e109687. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PLoSO...9j9687R">2014PLoSO...9j9687R</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4198114">4198114</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25333876">25333876</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0109687">10.1371/journal.pone.0109687</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Risking+Your+Life+without+a+Second+Thought%3A+Intuitive+Decision-Making+and+Extreme+Altruism&amp;rft.au=Epstein%2C+Ziv+G.&amp;rft.aufirst=David+G.&amp;rft.aulast=Rand&amp;rft.date=2014-10-15&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=10&amp;rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&amp;rft.pages=e109687&amp;rft.volume=9&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4198114&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4198114&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PLoSO...9j9687R&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0109687&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25333876&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-:12_36-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Rhoads, Shawn A.; Vekaria, Kruti M.; O’Connell, Katherine; Elizabeth, Hannah S.; Rand, David G.; Kozak Williams, Megan N.; Marsh, Abigail A. (31 de março de 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10066349">«Unselfish traits and social decision-making patterns characterize six populations of real-world extraordinary altruists»</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i> (em inglês). <b>14</b> (1). 1807&#160;páginas. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/2041-1723">2041-1723</a>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a>&#160;<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10066349">10066349</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span>. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/37002205">37002205</a> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Verifique <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#124;pmid=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Ajuda:Erros_nas_refer%C3%AAncias#bad_pmid" title="Ajuda:Erros nas referências">ajuda</a>)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-023-37283-5">10.1038/s41467-023-37283-5</a><span style="margin-left:0.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="Acessível livremente"><img alt="Acessível livremente" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Unselfish+traits+and+social+decision-making+patterns+characterize+six+populations+of+real-world+extraordinary+altruists&amp;rft.au=Elizabeth%2C+Hannah+S.&amp;rft.au=Kozak+Williams%2C+Megan+N.&amp;rft.au=Marsh%2C+Abigail+A.&amp;rft.au=O%99Connell%2C+Katherine&amp;rft.au=Rand%2C+David+G.&amp;rft.au=Vekaria%2C+Kruti+M.&amp;rft.aufirst=Shawn+A.&amp;rft.aulast=Rhoads&amp;rft.date=2023-03-31&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issn=2041-1723&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&amp;rft.volume=14&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10066349&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10066349&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-023-37283-5&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37002205&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klisanin-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Klisanin_37-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dana_Klisanin&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dana Klisanin (página não existe)">Klisanin, Dana</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/files/attachments/85256/internetaltruism-klisanin.pdf">«Is the Internet Giving Rise to New Forms of Altruism»</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Media Psychology Review</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 1–11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.psychologytoday.com/files/attachments/85256/internetaltruism-klisanin.pdf">Cópia arquivada <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> em 9 de outubro de 2022</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Is+the+Internet+Giving+Rise+to+New+Forms+of+Altruism&amp;rft.aufirst=Dana&amp;rft.aulast=Klisanin&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Media+Psychology+Review&amp;rft.pages=1-11&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologytoday.com%2Ffiles%2Fattachments%2F85256%2Finternetaltruism-klisanin.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klisanin2-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Klisanin2_38-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dana_Klisanin&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dana Klisanin (página não existe)">Klisanin, Dana</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/files/attachments/85256/internetaltruism-klisanin.pdf">«Is the Internet Giving Rise to New Forms of Altruism»</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span>. <i>Media Psychology Review</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 1–11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.psychologytoday.com/files/attachments/85256/internetaltruism-klisanin.pdf">Cópia arquivada <span style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</span> em 9 de outubro de 2022</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.atitle=Is+the+Internet+Giving+Rise+to+New+Forms+of+Altruism&amp;rft.aufirst=Dana&amp;rft.aulast=Klisanin&amp;rft.date=2011&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.jtitle=Media+Psychology+Review&amp;rft.pages=1-11&amp;rft.volume=3&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.psychologytoday.com%2Ffiles%2Fattachments%2F85256%2Finternetaltruism-klisanin.pdf&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ligações_externas"><span id="Liga.C3.A7.C3.B5es_externas"></span>Ligações externas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=11" title="Editar secção: Ligações externas" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>editar</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Altru%C3%ADsmo&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Editar código-fonte da secção: Ligações externas"><span>editar código-fonte</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.in-mind.org/article/altruism-myth-or-reality">«Altruism: Myth or Reality?»</a> (em inglês)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.btitle=Altruism%3A+Myth+or+Reality%3F&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.in-mind.org%2Farticle%2Faltruism-myth-or-reality&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li> <li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://membres.lycos.fr/clotilde/">«Projeto Auguste Comte et le Positivisme»</a> (em francês)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.btitle=Projeto+Auguste+Comte+et+le+Positivisme&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmembres.lycos.fr%2Fclotilde%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li> <li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.augustecomte.org/">«Casa de Augusto Comte»</a> (em francês)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.btitle=Casa+de+Augusto+Comte&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.augustecomte.org%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li> <li><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.igrejapositivistabrasil.org.br/">«Igreja Positivista do Brasil»</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fpt.wikipedia.org%3AAltru%C3smo&amp;rft.btitle=Igreja+Positivista+do+Brasil&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.igrejapositivistabrasil.org.br%2F&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/ciencia/ult306u576977.shtml">Folha: Guerras modelaram altruísmo humano, dizem pesquisadores</a></li></ul> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Afetos,_emoções_e_sentimentos" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-ver"><a href="/wiki/Predefini%C3%A7%C3%A3o:Emo%C3%A7%C3%B5es" title="Predefinição:Emoções"><abbr title="Ver esta predefinição" 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(sentimento)">Paixão</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Paci%C3%AAncia" title="Paciência">Paciência</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A2nico" title="Pânico">Pânico</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/D%C3%B3_(sentimento)" title="Dó (sentimento)">Pena</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Piedade_(sentimento)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Piedade (sentimento) (página não existe)">Piedade</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Prazer" title="Prazer">Prazer</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Pregui%C3%A7a" title="Preguiça">Preguiça</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Preocupa%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Preocupação">Preocupação</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Raiva_(sentimento)" class="mw-redirect" title="Raiva (sentimento)">Raiva</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Remorso" title="Remorso">Remorso</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Repugn%C3%A2ncia" class="mw-redirect" title="Repugnância">Repugnância</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Resigna%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Resignação">Resignação</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Ressentimento" title="Ressentimento">Ressentimento</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Amor_rom%C3%A2ntico" title="Amor romântico">Romance</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <i><a href="/wiki/Saudade" title="Saudade">Saudade</a></i>&#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <i><a href="/wiki/Schadenfreude" title="Schadenfreude">Schadenfreude</a></i> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Simpatia" title="Simpatia">Simpatia</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Soberba" title="Soberba">Soberba</a>&#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Sofrimento" title="Sofrimento">Sofrimento</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Solid%C3%A3o" title="Solidão">Solidão</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Surpresa" title="Surpresa">Surpresa</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Susto" title="Susto">Susto</a>&#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9dio" title="Tédio">Tédio</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Timidez" title="Timidez">Timidez</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Tristeza" title="Tristeza">Tristeza</a> &#160;<b>&#183;</b>&#32; <a href="/wiki/Vergonha" title="Vergonha">Vergonha</a></div></td><td class="navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Plutchik-wheel_pt.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Plutchik-wheel_pt.svg/90px-Plutchik-wheel_pt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Plutchik-wheel_pt.svg/135px-Plutchik-wheel_pt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Plutchik-wheel_pt.svg/180px-Plutchik-wheel_pt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="715" data-file-height="725" /></a></span><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Plutchik_Dyads.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Plutchik_Dyads.svg/langpt-90px-Plutchik_Dyads.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Plutchik_Dyads.svg/langpt-135px-Plutchik_Dyads.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Plutchik_Dyads.svg/langpt-180px-Plutchik_Dyads.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="1356" /></a></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <ul class="noprint navigation-box" style="border-top: solid silver 1px; border-right: solid silver 1px; border-bottom:1px solid silver; border-left: solid silver 1px; padding:3px; background-color: #F9F9F9; text-align: center; margin-top:10px; margin-left: 0; clear: both;"><li style="display: inline;"><span style="white-space: nowrap; margin: auto 1.5em"><span style="margin-right: 0.5em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Trilobite_clipart-vector.svg" title="Portal da biologia"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Trilobite_clipart-vector.svg/25px-Trilobite_clipart-vector.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Trilobite_clipart-vector.svg/38px-Trilobite_clipart-vector.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Trilobite_clipart-vector.svg/50px-Trilobite_clipart-vector.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="537" data-file-height="548" /></a></span></span> <span style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biologia" title="Portal:Biologia">Portal da biologia</a></span></span></li> <li style="display: inline;"><span style="white-space: nowrap; margin: auto 1.5em"><span style="margin-right: 0.5em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Ficheiro:Charles-darwin-portrait-svg.svg" title="Portal da evolução"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Charles-darwin-portrait-svg.svg/24px-Charles-darwin-portrait-svg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Charles-darwin-portrait-svg.svg/36px-Charles-darwin-portrait-svg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Charles-darwin-portrait-svg.svg/47px-Charles-darwin-portrait-svg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1051" data-file-height="1328" /></a></span></span> <span style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolu%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Portal:Evolução">Portal da evolução</a></span></span></li> </ul> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.eqiad.main‐57b7bf8ff9‐cslqw Cached time: 20241113151840 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [show‐toc] CPU time usage: 0.348 seconds Real time usage: 0.471 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 3268/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 120756/2097152 bytes 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