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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Israel_and_Judah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel_and_Judah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Israel and Judah </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel_and_Judah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Temple_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Temple_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Second Temple period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Temple_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Babylon_and_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Babylon_and_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Babylon and Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Babylon_and_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Modern period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_on_ancient_Jewish_national_identity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_on_ancient_Jewish_national_identity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Theories on ancient Jewish national identity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_on_ancient_Jewish_national_identity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ethnic_divisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_divisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Ethnic divisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_divisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Genetic studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_centers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_centers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Population centers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_centers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Israel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diaspora_(outside_Israel)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diaspora_(outside_Israel)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Diaspora (outside Israel) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diaspora_(outside_Israel)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographic_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographic_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Demographic changes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demographic_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assimilation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assimilation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Assimilation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assimilation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_and_persecution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_and_persecution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.2 War and persecution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_and_persecution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.3 Migrations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.4 Growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contributions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contributions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Contributions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contributions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Citations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Citations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Citations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Jews</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 151 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-151" aria-hidden="true" > 151 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jode" title="Jode – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Jode" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="يهود – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="يهود" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chodigos" title="Chodigos – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Chodigos" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9D%DC%97%DC%98%DC%95%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܝܗܘܕܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܝܗܘܕܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblu_xud%C3%ADu" title="Pueblu xudíu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pueblu xudíu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudioku%C3%A9ra" title="Hudiokuéra – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Hudiokuéra" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%8C%D1%83%D1%82%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="ЖугьутӀал – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ЖугьутӀал" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C9%99hudil%C9%99r" title="Yəhudilər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yəhudilər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="یهودیلر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یهودیلر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF" title="ইহুদি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইহুদি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%BB-th%C3%A0i-l%C3%A2ng" title="Iû-thài-lâng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iû-thài-lâng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D3%99%D2%BB%D2%AF%D0%B4%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80" title="Йәһүдтәр – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Йәһүдтәр" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D1%9E%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%96" title="Яўрэі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Яўрэі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%96" title="Габрэі – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Габрэі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Евреи – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Евреи" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judn" title="Judn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Judn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jevreji" title="Jevreji – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Jevreji" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuzevien" title="Yuzevien – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yuzevien" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D2%AF%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8D%D2%BB%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Еврей үндэһэтэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Еврей үндэһэтэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jueus" title="Jueus – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Jueus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Еврейсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Еврейсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudiyo" title="Hudiyo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Hudiyo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDid%C3%A9" title="Židé – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Židé" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vajudha" title="Vajudha – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Vajudha" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebreu" title="Ebreu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Ebreu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iddewon" title="Iddewon – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Iddewon" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahuda" title="Yahuda – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Yahuda" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8der" title="Jøder – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jøder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="يهود – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="يهود" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juden" title="Juden – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Juden" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juudid" title="Juudid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Juudid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B9" title="Εβραίοι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εβραίοι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_jud%C3%ADo" title="Pueblo judío – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pueblo judío" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judoj" title="Judoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Judoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judu" title="Judu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Judu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="یهودیان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="یهودیان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dar" title="Jødar – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Jødar" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juifs" title="Juifs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Juifs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaden" title="Joaden – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Joaden" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ff mw-list-item"><a href="https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahuudinko%27en" title="Yahuudinko'en – Fula" lang="ff" hreflang="ff" data-title="Yahuudinko'en" data-language-autonym="Fulfulde" data-language-local-name="Fula" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fulfulde</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewnyn" title="Ewnyn – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Ewnyn" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C4%B1f%C4%B1tlar" title="Çıfıtlar – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Çıfıtlar" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobo_xudeu" title="Pobo xudeu – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobo xudeu" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Жугтий – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Жугтий" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8A%D9%87%DB%8A%D8%AF" title="جۊهۊد – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="جۊهۊد" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8C%B4%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83" title="𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰𐌹𐌴𐌹𐍃 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰𐌹𐌴𐌹𐍃" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%B9-thai-ng%C3%ACn" title="Yù-thai-ngìn – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yù-thai-ngìn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%8C%80%EC%9D%B8" title="유대인 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유대인" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudawa" title="Yahudawa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Yahudawa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հրեաներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հրեաներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="यहूदी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="यहूदी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDidovi" title="Židovi – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Židovi" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judi" title="Judi – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Judi" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew" title="Jew – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Jew" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Yahudi" title="Orang Yahudi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Orang Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo" title="Judeo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Judeo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%B0%D0%B4%C3%A6%D0%BC" title="Дзуттаг адæм – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Дзуттаг адæм" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gy%C3%B0ingar" title="Gyðingar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gyðingar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebrei" title="Ebrei – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ebrei" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9D" title="יהודים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יהודים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi" title="Yahudi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B9%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಯೆಹೂದ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಯೆಹೂದ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%83%D1%83%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Чууутлула – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Чууутлула" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ებრაელები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ებრაელები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Еврейлер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Еврейлер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayahudi" title="Wayahudi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Wayahudi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayuda" title="Bayuda – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Bayuda" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jwif" title="Jwif – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Jwif" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cih%C3%BB" title="Cihû – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Cihû" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D3%A9%D3%A9%D1%82%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%80" title="Жөөттөр – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жөөттөр" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_djudio" title="Pueblo djudio – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Pueblo djudio" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudaei" title="Iudaei – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iudaei" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebreji" title="Ebreji – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ebreji" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Чувудар – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Чувудар" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDydai" title="Žydai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Žydai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi" title="Yahudi – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zsid%C3%B3k" title="Zsidók – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Zsidók" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Евреи – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Евреи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiosy" title="Jiosy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Jiosy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%BB" title="ജൂതൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജൂതൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lhud" title="Lhud – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Lhud" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95" title="ज्यू लोक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ज्यू लोक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ურიეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ურიეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="يهود – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="يهود" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0" title="ဂျူ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဂျူ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="جهود – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="جهود" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Yahudi" title="Orang Yahudi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Orang Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urang_Yahudi" title="Urang Yahudi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Urang Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%B9-t%C3%A1i-n%C3%A8%CC%A4ng" title="Iù-tái-nè̤ng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Iù-tái-nè̤ng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Еврей – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Еврей" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joden" title="Joden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Joden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeuden" title="Jeuden – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Jeuden" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A6%E3%83%80%E3%83%A4%E4%BA%BA" title="ユダヤ人 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ユダヤ人" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%83%D1%8C%D0%B3%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Жуьгтий – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Жуьгтий" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jua" title="Jua – Pitcairn-Norfolk" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Jua" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Pitcairn-Norfolk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8der" title="Jøder – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jøder" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dar" title="Jødar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Jødar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juis" title="Juis – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Juis" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jusieus" title="Jusieus – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Jusieus" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudiylar" title="Yahudiylar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yahudiylar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80" title="ਯਹੂਦੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਯਹੂਦੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="یہودی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یہودی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF" title="یهود – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="یهود" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C" title="ជនជាតិជ្វីហ្វ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ជនជាតិជ្វីហ្វ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joden" title="Joden – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Joden" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BBydzi" title="Żydzi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Żydzi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeus" title="Judeus – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Judeus" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeudiler" title="Yeudiler – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Yeudiler" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evrei" title="Evrei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evrei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Евреи – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Евреи" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8" title="Евреи – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Евреи" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8C%D1%8D%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Дьэбириэйдэр – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Дьэбириэйдэр" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebreos" title="Ebreos – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Ebreos" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews" title="Jews – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Jews" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahudit%C3%AB" title="Jahuditë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Jahuditë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbreu" title="Ebbreu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ebbreu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%99%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9D" title="යුදෙවුවෝ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යුදෙවුවෝ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew" title="Jew – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jew" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDidia" title="Židia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Židia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judje" title="Judje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Judje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BBydy" title="Żydy – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Żydy" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%88" title="جوو – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جوو" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%B8" title="Јевреји – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јевреји" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jevreji" title="Jevreji – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jevreji" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi" title="Yahudi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juutalaiset" title="Juutalaiset – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Juutalaiset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judar" title="Judar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Judar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mga_Hudyo" title="Mga Hudyo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Mga Hudyo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="யூதர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="யூதர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%BB%D2%AF%D0%B4%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80" title="Яһүдләр – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Яһүдләр" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7" title="ชาวยิว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ชาวยิว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudiler" title="Yahudiler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yahudiler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1yahuda" title="A̱yahuda – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱yahuda" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%97" title="Євреї – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Євреї" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF" title="یہود – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یہود" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%DB%95%DA%BE%DB%87%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="يەھۇدىلار – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="يەھۇدىلار" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evrejalai%C5%BEed" title="Evrejalaižed – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Evrejalaižed" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di_Do_Th%C3%A1i" title="Người Do Thái – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Người Do Thái" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudeyo" title="Hudeyo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hudeyo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="犹太人 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="犹太人" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93" title="ייד – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ייד" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="猶太人 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="猶太人" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%B1hudi" title="Cıhudi – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Cıhudi" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%B4d%27n" title="Joôd'n – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Joôd'n" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BD%C4%ABd%C4%81" title="Žīdā – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Žīdā" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8A%B9%E5%A4%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="犹太人 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="犹太人" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebi_Ju" title="Ebi Ju – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Ebi Ju" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Obolo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orang_Judah" title="Orang Judah – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Orang Judah" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jaku Iban</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jolma_Yahudi" title="Jolma Yahudi – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Jolma Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C9%99hudijon" title="Jəhudijon – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Jəhudijon" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%93%E2%B4%B7%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%8F" title="ⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7325#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnoreligious group and nation</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Jew" redirects here. For the word, see <a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Jew_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Jew (disambiguation)">Jew (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Jews</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above nickname" style="font-size:115%; font-weight:normal;"><div lang="he"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style>יְהוּדִים‬‎ (Yehudim)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Star_of_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/150px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/225px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/300px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The <a href="/wiki/Star_of_David" title="Star of David">Star of David</a>, a common symbol of the Jewish people</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">15.2 million Enlarged population (includes anyone with a Jewish parent): 20 million<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/260px-Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/390px-Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/520px-Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2192" data-file-height="1135" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> (2022, est.)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Israel (incl. <a href="/wiki/Israeli-occupied_territories" title="Israeli-occupied territories">occupied territories</a>)</th><td class="infobox-data">7,300,000–7,455,200<a href="#cite_note-TOI2-4">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">United States</th><td class="infobox-data">6,300,000–7,500,000<a href="#cite_note-TOI2-4">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">France</th><td class="infobox-data">438,500–550,000<a href="#cite_note-TOI2-4">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Canada</th><td class="infobox-data">400,000–450,000<a href="#cite_note-TOI2-4">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">United Kingdom</th><td class="infobox-data">312,000–330,000<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Argentina</th><td class="infobox-data">171,000–240,000<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Russia</th><td class="infobox-data">132,000–290,000<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Germany</th><td class="infobox-data">125,000–175,000<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Australia</th><td class="infobox-data">117,200–130,000<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Brazil</th><td class="infobox-data">90,000–120,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-TOI-5">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">South Africa</th><td class="infobox-data">51,000–75,000<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Ukraine</th><td class="infobox-data">40,000–90,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Hungary</th><td class="infobox-data">46,500–75,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Mexico</th><td class="infobox-data">40,000–45,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Netherlands</th><td class="infobox-data">29,700–43,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Belgium</th><td class="infobox-data">28,800–35,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Italy</th><td class="infobox-data">27,000–34,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Switzerland</th><td class="infobox-data">18,800–22,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Uruguay</th><td class="infobox-data">16,300–20,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Chile</th><td class="infobox-data">15,800–20,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Sweden</th><td class="infobox-data">14,900–20,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Turkey</th><td class="infobox-data">14,300–17,500<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Spain</th><td class="infobox-data">12,900–16,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Austria</th><td class="infobox-data">10,300–14,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Panama</th><td class="infobox-data">10,000–11,000<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>Predominantly spoken:<a href="#cite_note-Languages-6">[5]</a></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li></ul></div></li> <li>Historical:</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">others</a></li></ul></div></li> <li>Sacred:</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Talmudic_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudic Aramaic">Talmudic Aramaic</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Majority: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></li><li>Minority: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Irreligion</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de; color:inherit;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-evolutsioon-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-DigitalSamaritans-10">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-evolutsioon-9">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-sciencedaily-13">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Abraham_2010-14">[13]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">others</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/Shalom" title="Shalom"><img alt="שָׁלוֹם" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/40px-Shalom2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/60px-Shalom2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/80px-Shalom2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="400" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew text</a>. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvot</a> (<a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_and_customs_of_the_Land_of_Israel_in_Judaism" title="Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in Judaism">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">Bar and bat mitzvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beit_Yosef_(book)" title="Beit Yosef (book)">Beit Yosef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_name_Judea" title="Timeline of the name Judea">Name "Judea"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical population comparisons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">in Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jerusalem" title="Timeline of Jerusalem">timeline</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Temple in Jerusalem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity">Assyrian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">Great Revolt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a> and Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christianity and Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism and Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islamic–Jewish relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Communities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhurim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romanyotim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Bnei Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xueta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Mosaic Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahides</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_by_country" title="Historical Jewish population by country">Historical population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Palestine_(region)" title="Demographic history of Palestine (region)">Palestine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Angola" title="History of the Jews in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan" title="Jews of Bilad el-Sudan">Bilad-el-Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Botswana" title="History of the Jews in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cameroon" title="History of the Jews in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cape_Verde" title="History of the Jews in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Benin" title="History of the Jews in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Djibouti" title="History of the Jews in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ethiopia" title="History of the Jews in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eritrea" title="History of the Jews in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eswatini" title="History of the Jews in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gabon" title="History of the Jews in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Gambia" title="History of the Jews in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ghana" title="History of the Jews in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea" title="History of the Jews in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of the Jews in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ivory_Coast" title="History of the Jews in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kenya" title="History of the Jews in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malawi" title="History of the Jews in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mali" title="History of the Jews in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mauritius" title="History of the Jews in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moroccan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mozambique" title="History of the Jews in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Namibia" title="History of the Jews in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nigeria" title="History of the Jews in Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sierra_Leone" title="History of the Jews in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tanzania" title="History of the Jews in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uganda" title="History of the Jews in Uganda">Uganda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abayudaya" title="Abayudaya">Abayudaya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zambia" title="History of the Jews in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zimbabwe" title="History of the Jews in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bahrain" title="History of the Jews in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cambodia" title="History of the Jews in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Japan" title="History of the Jews in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jordan" title="History of the Jews in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kuwait" title="History of the Jews in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of the Jews in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malaysia" title="History of the Jews in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mongolia" title="History of the Jews in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Myanmar" title="History of the Jews in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Nepal" title="Judaism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Philippines" title="History of the Jews in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Qatar" title="History of the Jews in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Korea" title="History of the Jews in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Singapore" title="History of the Jews in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tajikistan" title="History of the Jews in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thailand" title="History of the Jews in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the Jews in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uzbekistan" title="History of the Jews in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Vietnam" title="History of the Jews in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_lands" title="History of the Jews in the Czech lands">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Northern America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Greenland" title="Jews in Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and Caribbean</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oceania" title="History of the Jews in Oceania">Oceania</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Fiji" title="History of the Jews in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guam" title="History of the Jews in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Zealand" title="History of the Jews in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Palau" title="History of the Jews in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Customs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion to Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Ashkenazi" title="Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_literature" title="Judeo-Tat literature">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaïa Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_politics" title="Judaism and politics">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundism" title="Bundism">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Maximalism" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Jews (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095">יְהוּדִים‎, <a href="/wiki/ISO_259#ISO_259-2" title="ISO 259">ISO 259-2</a>: Yehudim, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Israeli pronunciation</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Hebrew" title="Help:IPA/Hebrew">[jehuˈdim]</a>), or the Jewish people, are an <a href="/wiki/Ethnoreligious_group" title="Ethnoreligious group">ethnoreligious group</a><a href="#cite_note-Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group-15">[14]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> originating from the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> of <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">ancient Israel and Judah</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> and traditionally adhering to <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-18">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Jewish ethnicity, religion, and community are highly interrelated,<a href="#cite_note-Lederhendler20012-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yee20052-21">[20]</a> as Judaism is their <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">ethnic religion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Nicholson20022-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dowty19982-23">[22]</a> though it is not practiced by all ethnic Jews.<a href="#cite_note-KrauszTulea2-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> Despite this, religious Jews regard <a href="/wiki/Gerim" title="Gerim">converts to Judaism</a> as members of the Jewish nation, pursuant to the <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">long-standing conversion process</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KrauszTulea2-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> The Israelites emerged from within the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite peoples">Canaanite peoples</a> to establish <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Levant" title="Southern Levant">Southern Levant</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-John_Day_pp._47-28">[27]</a> By the late 6th century BCE, Judaism had evolved from the Israelite religion, dubbed <a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a> (for <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a>) by modern scholars,<a href="#cite_note-MINDELL2009-29">[28]</a> having a theology that religious Jews believe to be the expression of the <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_covenant" title="Mosaic covenant">Mosaic covenant</a> between their ancestors and <a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Knowledge_Resources:_Judaism-30">[29]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a> of the people of Judah following <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)">their kingdom's destruction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> the movement of Jewish groups around the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, and subsequent periods of conflict and violent dispersion, such as the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a>, gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a>, which is a worldwide dispersion of Jewish communities that have maintained their sense of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">identity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> In the following millennia, Jewish diaspora communities <a href="/wiki/Coalescent_theory" title="Coalescent theory">coalesced</a> into three major <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">ethnic subdivisions</a> according to where their ancestors settled: the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>).<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dosick-34">[33]</a> While these three major divisions account for most of the world's Jews, there are other smaller Jewish groups outside of the three.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> Prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">global Jewish population</a> reached a peak of 16.7 million,<a href="#cite_note-JVIL2010-36">[35]</a> representing around 0.7% of the world's population at that time. During World War II, approximately six million Jews throughout <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Europe</a> were systematically murdered by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in a genocide known as <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> Since then, the population has slowly risen again, and as of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jews&action=edit">[update]</a>, was estimated to be at 15.2 million by the demographer <a href="/wiki/Sergio_Della_Pergola" title="Sergio Della Pergola">Sergio Della Pergola</a><a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a> or less than 0.2% of the total world population in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[b]</a> Today, over 85% of Jews live in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> or the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a>. Israel, whose population is 73.9% Jewish, is the only country where Jews comprise more than 2.5% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a> Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to the development and growth of human progress in many fields, both historically and in modern times, including in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Science_and_technology" title="Jewish culture">science and technology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Daly2013-42">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">philosophy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">ethics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">literature</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Daly2013-42">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">governance</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Daly2013-42">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Economic_activity" title="Jewish culture">business</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Daly2013-42">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">comedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish theatre">theatre</a>,<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Cinema" title="Jewish culture">cinema</a>, <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Israel" title="Architecture of Israel">architecture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Daly2013-42">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">food</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_medicine" title="Jewish medicine">medicine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rabin-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shatzmiller,_Joseph_1995-47">[45]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">religion</a>. Jews <a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">wrote the Bible</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Dimont2004-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Galambush2011-49">[47]</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">Christianity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-BarclaySweet1996-50">[48]</a> and had <a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">an indirect but profound influence on Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Paterson2009-51">[49]</a> In these ways and others, Jews have played a significant role in the development of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-53">[51]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name_and_etymology">Name and etymology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_ethnonyms" title="List of Jewish ethnonyms">List of Jewish ethnonyms</a>.</div> The term "Jew" is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> word יְהוּדִי Yehudi, with the <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a> יְהוּדִים Yehudim.<a href="#cite_note-EJ253-54">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Endonym">Endonyms</a> in other <a href="/wiki/Jewish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish language">Jewish languages</a> include the <a href="/wiki/Ladino_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladino language">Ladino</a> ג׳ודיו Djudio (plural ג׳ודיוס, Djudios) and the <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a> ייִד Yid (plural ייִדן Yidn). Originally, in ancient times, Yehudi (Jew)<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-55">[53]</a> was used to describe the inhabitants of the Israelite <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">kingdom of Judah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> It is also used to distinguish their descendants from the <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">gentiles</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[55]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, these inhabitants predominately descend from the <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Judah" title="Tribe of Judah">tribe of Judah</a> from <a href="/wiki/Judah_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judah (Bible)">Judah</a>, the fourth son of <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-58">[56]</a> Together the tribe of Judah and the <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Benjamin" title="Tribe of Benjamin">tribe of Benjamin</a> made up the Kingdom of Judah.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-55">[53]</a> Though Genesis 29:35 and 49:8 connect "Judah" with the verb yada, meaning "praise", scholars generally agree that "Judah" most likely derives from the name of a <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantine</a> geographic region dominated by gorges and ravines.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> In ancient times, Jewish people as a whole were called Hebrews or Israelites until the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian Exile</a>. After the Exile, the term Yehudi (Jew) was used for all followers of Judaism because the survivors of the Exile (who were the former residents of the Kingdom of Judah) were the only Israelites that had kept their distinct identity as the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes" title="Ten Lost Tribes">ten tribes</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">northern Kingdom of Israel</a> had <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity">been scattered</a> and assimilated into other populations.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-55">[53]</a> The gradual <a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">ethnonymic</a> shift from "<a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>" to "Jews", regardless of their descent from Judah, although not contained in the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, is made explicit in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Esther" title="Book of Esther">Book of Esther</a> (4th century BCE) of the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> Some modern scholars disagree with the conflation, based on the works of <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apostle_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostle Paul">Apostle Paul</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> The English word "Jew" is a derivation of <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> Gyw, Iewe. The latter was loaned from the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> giu, which itself evolved from the earlier juieu, which in turn derived from judieu/iudieu which through <a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">elision</a> had dropped the letter "d" from the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> Iudaeus, which, like the New Testament <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a> term <a href="/wiki/Ioudaios" title="Ioudaios">Ioudaios</a>, meant both "Jew" and "<a href="/wiki/Judean" class="mw-redirect" title="Judean">Judean</a>" / "of <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>".<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> The Greek term was a loan from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Aramaic">Aramaic</a> *yahūdāy, corresponding to Hebrew יְהוּדִי Yehudi.<a href="#cite_note-:0-58">[56]</a> Some scholars prefer translating Ioudaios as "Judean" in the Bible since it is more precise, denotes the community's origins and prevents readers from engaging in antisemitic <a href="/wiki/Eisegesis" title="Eisegesis">eisegesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> Others disagree, believing that it erases the Jewish identity of Biblical characters such as <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-57">[55]</a> Daniel R. Schwartz distinguishes "Judean" and "Jew". Here, "Judean" refers to the inhabitants of Judea, which encompassed southern <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>. Meanwhile, "Jew" refers to the descendants of Israelites that adhere to <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>. Converts are included in the definition.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> But <a href="/wiki/Shaye_J._D._Cohen" title="Shaye J. D. Cohen">Shaye J.D. Cohen</a> argues that "Judean" should include believers of the Judean God and allies of the Judean state.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> Troy W. Martin similarly argues that biblical Jewishness is <a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">not dependent on ancestry</a> but instead, is based on adherence to 'covenantal circumcision' (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2017:9–14&version=nrsv">Genesis 17:9–14</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:14-68">[66]</a> The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., يَهُودِيّ yahūdī (sg.), al-yahūd (pl.), in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, "Jude" in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, "judeu" in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, "Juif" (m.)/"Juive" (f.) in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, "jøde" in <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, "judío/a" in <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, "jood" in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, "żyd" in <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> (Ebreo), in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> ("Ebri/Ebrani" (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: عبری/عبرانی)) and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> (Еврей, Yevrey).<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> The German word "Jude" is pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈjuːdə]</a>, the corresponding <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> "jüdisch" <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈjyːdɪʃ]</a> (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a>, fourth edition (2000), <blockquote>It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identity">Identity</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">Jewish identity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_map_of_Canaan_(8343807206).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/A_map_of_Canaan_%288343807206%29.jpg/220px-A_map_of_Canaan_%288343807206%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/A_map_of_Canaan_%288343807206%29.jpg/330px-A_map_of_Canaan_%288343807206%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/A_map_of_Canaan_%288343807206%29.jpg/440px-A_map_of_Canaan_%288343807206%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7062" data-file-height="5759" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> shares some of the characteristics of a <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Nicholson2002-72">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Neusner1991-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dowty1998-74">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> an <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group-15">[14]</a> a <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-GordisHeller2012-78">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kunin2000-79">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mendes-Flohr1991-80">[78]</a> making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality_in_Judaism" title="Matrilineality in Judaism">matrilineal descent</a>), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">converted to Judaism</a> and therefore are followers of the religion.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> Historical definitions of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">Jewish identity</a> have traditionally been based on <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakhic</a> definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. These definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Torah</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a>, around 200 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>. Interpretations by Jewish sages of sections of the Tanakh – such as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%207:1–5&version=nrsv">Deuteronomy 7:1–5</a>, which forbade intermarriage between their <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelite ancestors</a> and seven non-Israelite nations: "for that [i.e. giving your daughters to their sons or taking their daughters for your sons,] would turn away your children from following me, to serve other gods"<a href="#cite_note-John_Day_pp._47-28">[27]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] – are used as a warning against <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_marriage_in_Judaism" title="Interfaith marriage in Judaism">intermarriage</a> between Jews and gentiles. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Leviticus%2024:10&version=nrsv">Leviticus 24:10</a> says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ezra%2010:2–3&version=nrsv">Ezra 10:2–3</a>, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">gentile</a> wives and their children.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> A popular theory is that the rape of Jewish women in captivity brought about the law of Jewish identity being inherited through the maternal line, although scholars challenge this theory citing the Talmudic establishment of the law from the pre-exile period.<a href="#cite_note-Klein2016-85">[83]</a> Another argument is that the rabbis changed the law of patrilineal descent to matrilineal descent due to the widespread rape of Jewish women by Roman soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-Schott2010-86">[84]</a> Since the anti-religious <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Shaye_J._D._Cohen" title="Shaye J. D. Cohen">Shaye J. D. Cohen</a>, the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">patrilineally</a> in the Bible. He brings two likely explanations for the change in <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnaic</a> times: first, the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages as it had applied to other mixtures (<a href="/wiki/Kil%27ayim_(prohibition)" title="Kil'ayim (prohibition)">Kil'ayim</a>). Thus, a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the union of a <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horse</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">donkey</a>, and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally.<a href="#cite_note-J.D._Cohen-88">[86]</a> Second, the <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a> may have been influenced by <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage, <a href="/wiki/Mater_semper_certa_est" title="Mater semper certa est">offspring would follow the mother</a>.<a href="#cite_note-J.D._Cohen-88">[86]</a> Rabbi Rivon Krygier follows a similar reasoning, arguing that Jewish descent had formerly passed through the patrilineal descent and the law of matrilineal descent had its roots in the Roman legal system.<a href="#cite_note-Klein2016-85">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism" title="Origins of Judaism">Origins of Judaism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">History of ancient Israel and Judah</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Procession_of_the_Aamu,_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_(composite).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg/440px-Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg/660px-Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg/880px-Procession_of_the_Aamu%2C_Tomb_of_Khnumhotep_II_%28composite%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5440" data-file-height="823" /></a><figcaption>Egyptian depiction of the visit of Western Asiatics in colorful garments, labeled as <a href="/wiki/Aamu" title="Aamu">Aamu</a>. The painting is from the tomb of a 12th dynasty official <a href="/wiki/Khnumhotep_II" title="Khnumhotep II">Khnumhotep II</a> at <a href="/wiki/Beni_Hasan" title="Beni Hasan">Beni Hasan</a>, and dated to c. 1900 BCE. Their nearest Biblical contemporaries were the earliest of Hebrews, such as <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_(Genesis)" title="Joseph (Genesis)">Joseph</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-archaeology.org-91">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jehu_on_the_Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Jehu_on_the_Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III.jpg/170px-Jehu_on_the_Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Jehu_on_the_Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III.jpg/255px-Jehu_on_the_Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Jehu_on_the_Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III.jpg/340px-Jehu_on_the_Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III.jpg 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="546" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of King <a href="/wiki/Jehu" title="Jehu">Jehu</a>, tenth <a href="/wiki/King" title="King">king</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">northern Kingdom of Israel</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Black_Obelisk" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Obelisk">Black Obelisk</a> of <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a>, 841–840 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> This is "the only portrayal we have in ancient Near Eastern art of an Israelite or Judaean monarch".<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a></figcaption></figure> The prehistory and ethnogenesis of the Jews are closely intertwined with archaeology, biology, historical textual records, mythology, and religious literature. The ethnic stock to which Jews originally trace their ancestry was a confederation of Iron Age <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>-speaking tribes known as the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> that inhabited a part of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> during the <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">tribal and monarchic periods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> Modern Jews are named after and also descended from the southern Israelite <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schama2014-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ostrer2012-99">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brenner2010-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adams1840-101">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gary_A._Rendsburg" title="Gary A. Rendsburg">Gary A. Rendsburg</a> links the early Canaanite <a href="/wiki/Nomadic_pastoralism" title="Nomadic pastoralism">nomadic pastoralists</a> confederation to the <a href="/wiki/Shasu" title="Shasu">Shasu</a> known to the Egyptians around the 15th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Hebrew Bible</a> narrative, Jewish ancestry is traced back to the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)" title="Patriarchs (Bible)">Biblical patriarchs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a>, his son <a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a>, Isaac's son <a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a>, and the Biblical matriarchs <a href="/wiki/Sarah" title="Sarah">Sarah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rebecca" title="Rebecca">Rebecca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leah" title="Leah">Leah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rachel" title="Rachel">Rachel</a>, who lived in <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelve Tribes">Twelve Tribes</a> are described as descending from the twelve sons of Jacob. Jacob and his family migrated to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> after being invited to live with Jacob's son <a href="/wiki/Joseph_(son_of_Jacob)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph (son of Jacob)">Joseph</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Pharaohs_in_the_Bible" title="Pharaohs in the Bible">Pharaoh</a> himself. The patriarchs' descendants were later enslaved until the <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">Exodus</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a>, after which the Israelites conquered Canaan under Moses' successor <a href="/wiki/Joshua" title="Joshua">Joshua</a>, went through the period of the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_judges" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical judges">Biblical judges</a> after the death of Joshua, then through the mediation of <a href="/wiki/Samuel" title="Samuel">Samuel</a> became subject to a king, <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a>, who was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a>, after whom the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">United Monarchy</a> ended and was split into a separate <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a>. The Kingdom of Judah is described as comprising the tribes of <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Judah" title="Tribe of Judah">Judah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Benjamin" title="Tribe of Benjamin">Benjamin</a>, partially <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Levi" title="Tribe of Levi">Levi</a>, and later adding remnants of other tribes who migrated there from the northern Kingdom of Israel.<a href="#cite_note-Broshi_2001_174-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> In the extra-biblical record, the Israelites become visible as a people between 1200 and 1000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> There is well accepted archeological evidence referring to "Israel" in the <a href="/wiki/Merneptah_Stele" title="Merneptah Stele">Merneptah Stele</a>, which dates to about 1200 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-NollMerneptah-107">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-ThompsonMerneptah-108">[106]</a> and in the Mesha stele from 840 BCE. It is debated whether a period like that of the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_judges" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical judges">Biblical judges</a> occurred<a href="#cite_note-Yoder2015-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brettler2002-110">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2000-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-HjelmThompson2016-112">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-Davies1995-113">[111]</a> and if there ever was a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">United Monarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lipschits-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Finkelstein-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kuhrtp438-116">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wright-117">[115]</a> There is further disagreement about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power. Historians agree that a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> existed by <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 900 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-Finkelstein-115">[113]</a>: 169–95 <a href="#cite_note-Kuhrtp438-116">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wright-117">[115]</a> there is a consensus that a <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> existed by c. 700 BCE at least,<a href="#cite_note-Pitcher-118">[116]</a> and recent excavations in <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Qeiyafa" title="Khirbet Qeiyafa">Khirbet Qeiyafa</a> have provided strong evidence for dating the Kingdom of Judah to the 10th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> In 587 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>, King of the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)">besieged Jerusalem</a>, destroyed the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First Temple</a> and deported parts of the Judahite population.<a href="#cite_note-us-israel-archaeology-120">[118]</a> Scholars disagree regarding the extent to which the Bible should be accepted as a historical source for early Israelite history. <a href="/wiki/Gary_A._Rendsburg" title="Gary A. Rendsburg">Rendsburg</a> states that there are two approximately equal groups of scholars who debate the <a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">historicity of the biblical narrative</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_minimalism" title="Biblical minimalism">minimalists</a> who largely reject it, and the maximalists who largely accept it, with the minimalists being the more vocal of the two.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> Some of the leading minimalists reframe the biblical account as constituting the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>' inspiring <a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">national myth</a> narrative, suggesting that according to the modern archaeological and historical account, the Israelites and their culture did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite peoples</a> and culture through the development of a distinct <a href="/wiki/Monolatrism" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolatrism">monolatristic</a>—and later <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic</a>—religion of <a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a> centered on <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a>, one of the gods of the Canaanite pantheon. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of cultic practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic group</a>, setting them apart from other Canaanites.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/William_G._Dever" title="William G. Dever">Dever</a>, modern <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeologists</a> have largely discarded the search for evidence of the biblical narrative surrounding the patriarchs and the exodus.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> According to the maximalist position, the modern archaeological record independently points to a narrative which largely agrees with the biblical account. This narrative provides a testimony of the Israelites as a <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> people known to the <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">Egyptians</a> as belonging to the <a href="/wiki/%CA%BFApiru" title="ʿApiru">Shasu</a>. Over time these nomads left the desert and settled on the central mountain range of the land of Canaan, in simple semi-nomadic settlements in which pig bones are notably absent. This population gradually shifted from a <a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">tribal</a> lifestyle to a monarchy. While the archaeological record of the ninth century BCE provides evidence for two monarchies, one in the south under a dynasty founded by a figure named David with its capital in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, and one in the north under a dynasty founded by a figure named <a href="/wiki/Omri" title="Omri">Omri</a> with its capital in <a href="/wiki/Samaria_(ancient_city)" title="Samaria (ancient city)">Samaria</a>. It also points to an early monarchic period in which these regions shared <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a> and religion, suggesting a common origin. Archaeological finds also provide evidence for the later cooperation of these two kingdoms in their coalition against <a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram</a>, and for their destructions by the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> and later by the Babylonians.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetic studies on Jews</a> show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and that they share certain genetic traits with other Gentile peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WhoAreTheJews-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common gene pool dating back four millennia, as a marker of their common ancestral origin.<a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> Despite their long-term separation, Jewish communities maintained their unique commonalities, propensities, and sensibilities in culture, tradition, and language.<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline of Jewish history</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:auto;background:#f7f8ff"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:120%;background:#ccf"><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Tribes of Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:1695_Eretz_Israel_map_in_Amsterdam_Haggada_by_Abraham_Bar-Jacob.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/1695_Eretz_Israel_map_in_Amsterdam_Haggada_by_Abraham_Bar-Jacob.jpg/120px-1695_Eretz_Israel_map_in_Amsterdam_Haggada_by_Abraham_Bar-Jacob.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/1695_Eretz_Israel_map_in_Amsterdam_Haggada_by_Abraham_Bar-Jacob.jpg/180px-1695_Eretz_Israel_map_in_Amsterdam_Haggada_by_Abraham_Bar-Jacob.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/1695_Eretz_Israel_map_in_Amsterdam_Haggada_by_Abraham_Bar-Jacob.jpg/240px-1695_Eretz_Israel_map_in_Amsterdam_Haggada_by_Abraham_Bar-Jacob.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1454" data-file-height="809" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">The Tribes of Israel</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Reuben" title="Tribe of Reuben">Reuben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Simeon" title="Tribe of Simeon">Simeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Levi" title="Tribe of Levi">Levi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Judah" title="Tribe of Judah">Judah</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Dan" title="Tribe of Dan">Dan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Naphtali" title="Tribe of Naphtali">Naphtali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Gad" title="Tribe of Gad">Gad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Asher" title="Tribe of Asher">Asher</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Issachar" title="Tribe of Issachar">Issachar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Zebulun" title="Tribe of Zebulun">Zebulun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Joseph" title="Tribe of Joseph">Joseph</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Manasseh" title="Tribe of Manasseh">Manasseh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Ephraim" title="Tribe of Ephraim">Ephraim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Benjamin" title="Tribe of Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Other tribes</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caleb" title="Caleb">Caleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenites" title="Kenites">Keni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechabites" title="Rechabites">Rechab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerahmeel" title="Jerahmeel">Jerahmeel</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaders_of_the_tribes_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaders of the tribes of Israel">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Lost_Tribes" title="Ten Lost Tribes">Ten Lost Tribes</a> </li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tribes_of_Israel" title="Template:Tribes of Israel"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Tribes_of_Israel" title="Template talk:Tribes of Israel"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Tribes_of_Israel" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Tribes of Israel"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel_and_Judah">Israel and Judah</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">History of ancient Israel and Judah</a></div> The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the <a href="/wiki/Merneptah_Stele" title="Merneptah Stele">Merneptah Stele</a>, which dates to around 1200 BCE. The majority of scholars agree that this text refers to the <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>, a group that inhabited the central highlands of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, where archaeological evidence shows that hundreds of small settlements were constructed between the 12th and 10th centuries BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStager199891-132">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> The Israelites differentiated themselves from neighboring peoples through various distinct characteristics including <a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">religious practices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">prohibition on intermarriage</a>, and an emphasis on genealogy and family history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNutt199935-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDever2003206-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDever2003206-135">[133]</a> In the 10th century BCE, two neighboring Israelite kingdoms—the northern <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> and the southern <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a>—emerged. Since their inception, they shared ethnic, cultural, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">linguistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">religious</a> characteristics despite a complicated relationship. Israel, with its capital mostly in <a href="/wiki/Samaria_(ancient_city)" title="Samaria (ancient city)">Samaria</a>, was larger and wealthier, and soon developed into a regional power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelsteinSilberman2002146–7-136">[134]</a> In contrast, Judah, with its capital in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, was less prosperous and covered a smaller, mostly mountainous territory. However, while in Israel the royal succession was often decided by a military coup d'état, resulting in several dynasty changes, political stability in Judah was much greater, as it was ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Davidic_line" title="Davidic line">House of David</a> for the whole four centuries of its existence.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> Around 720 BCE, Kingdom of Israel was destroyed when it was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>, which came to dominate the ancient Near East.<a href="#cite_note-Broshi_2001_174-103">[101]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Resettlement_policy_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Resettlement policy of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Assyrian resettlement policy</a>, a significant portion of the northern Israelite population was <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity">exiled to Mesopotamia</a> and replaced by immigrants from the same region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETobolowsky202269–70,_73–75-138">[136]</a> During the same period, and throughout the 7th century BCE, the Kingdom of Judah, now under Assyrian <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassalage</a>, experienced a period of prosperity and witnessed a significant population growth.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> This prosperity continued until the Neo-Assyrian king <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib%27s_campaign_in_the_Levant" title="Sennacherib's campaign in the Levant">devastated the region of Judah</a> in response to a rebellion in the area, ultimately halting at <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> Later in the same century, the Assyrians were defeated by the rising <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a>, and Judah became its vassal. In 587 BCE, following a <a href="/wiki/Judah%27s_revolts_against_Babylon" title="Judah's revolts against Babylon">revolt in Judah</a>, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)">besieged and destroyed Jerusalem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First Temple</a>, putting an end to the kingdom. The majority of Jerusalem's residents, including the kingdom's elite, were <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">exiled to Babylon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński202094-141">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Temple_period">Second Temple period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a></div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezra" title="Book of Ezra">Book of Ezra</a>, the Persian <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> ended the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_exile" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian exile">Babylonian exile</a> in 538 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-rennert-143">[141]</a> the year after he captured Babylon.<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> The exile ended with the return under <a href="/wiki/Zerubbabel" title="Zerubbabel">Zerubbabel</a> the Prince (so called because he was a descendant of the royal line of <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a>) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former <a href="/wiki/High_Priest_of_Israel" title="High Priest of Israel">High Priests of the Temple</a>) and their construction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> circa 521–516 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-rennert-143">[141]</a> As part of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Empire</a>, the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (<a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a>),<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> with a smaller territory<a href="#cite_note-Grabbe355-146">[144]</a> and a reduced population.<a href="#cite_note-Finkelstein-115">[113]</a> Judea was under control of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenids</a> until the fall of their empire in c. 333 BCE to <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. After several centuries under foreign imperial rule, the <a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> resulted in an independent <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean kingdom</a>, under which the Jews once again enjoyed political independence for a period spanning from 110 to 63 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-BangScheidel2013-147">[145]</a> Under Hasmonean rule the boundaries of their kingdom were expanded to include not only the land of the historical <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">kingdom of Judah</a>, but also the <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transjordan_(region)" title="Transjordan (region)">Transjordan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a> In the beginning of this process the <a href="/wiki/Idumeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Idumeans">Idumeans</a>, who had infiltrated southern Judea after the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First Temple</a>, were converted en masse.<a href="#cite_note-:22-149">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> In 63 BCE, Judea was conquered by the Romans. From 37 BCE to 6 CE, the Romans allowed the Jews to maintain some degree of independence by installing the <a href="/wiki/Herodian_dynasty" title="Herodian dynasty">Herodian dynasty</a> as <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal kings</a>. However, Judea eventually came directly under Roman control and was incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">province of Judaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Malamat1976-152">[150]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a>, a series of unsuccessful revolts against Roman rule during the first and second centuries CE, had significant and disastrous consequences for the Jewish population of <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-153">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-FahlbuschBromiley2005-154">[152]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish-Roman War</a> (66–73 CE) culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple</a>. The severely reduced Jewish population of Judaea was denied any kind of political self-government.<a href="#cite_note-AHJ-GM-155">[153]</a> A few generations later, the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> (132–136 CE) erupted, and its brutal suppression by the Romans led to the depopulation of <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>. Following the revolt, Jews were forbidden from residing in the vicinity of Jerusalem, and the Jewish demographic center in <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a> shifted to <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mor,_M._2016._P471-156">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-raviv2021-157">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> Similar upheavals impacted the Jewish communities in the empire's eastern provinces during the <a href="/wiki/Diaspora_Revolt" title="Diaspora Revolt">Diaspora Revolt</a> (115–117 CE), leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Libya" title="Roman Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Cyprus" title="Roman Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Egypt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:52-159">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zeev-2006-160">[158]</a> including the highly influential community in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AHJ-GM-155">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-159">[157]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iudaea_capta_reverse_of_Vespasian_sestertius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Iudaea_capta_reverse_of_Vespasian_sestertius.jpg/220px-Iudaea_capta_reverse_of_Vespasian_sestertius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Iudaea_capta_reverse_of_Vespasian_sestertius.jpg/330px-Iudaea_capta_reverse_of_Vespasian_sestertius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Iudaea_capta_reverse_of_Vespasian_sestertius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="351" data-file-height="348" /></a><figcaption>A Roman coin inscribed <a href="/wiki/Judaea_Capta_coinage" title="Judaea Capta coinage">Ivdaea Capta</a>, or "captive Judea" (71 CE), representing Judea as a seated mourning woman (right), and a Jewish captive with hands tied (left)</figcaption></figure>The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE brought profound changes to Judaism. With the Temple's central place in Jewish worship gone, religious practices shifted towards <a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">prayer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torah_study" title="Torah study">Torah study</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Oral_Torah" title="Oral Torah">Oral Torah</a>), and communal gatherings in <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogues</a>. Judaism also lost much of its <a href="/wiki/Sectarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sectarian">sectarian</a> nature.<a href="#cite_note-Magness-161">[159]</a>: 69  Two of the three main sects that flourished during the late Second Temple period, namely the <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, eventually disappeared, while <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisaic</a> beliefs became the foundational, liturgical, and ritualistic basis of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>, which emerged as the prevailing form of Judaism since late antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-:5-162">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Babylon_and_Rome">Babylon and Rome</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">History of the Jews in the Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_academies_in_Babylonia" title="Talmudic academies in Babylonia">Talmudic academies in Babylonia</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-AHJ-GM-155">[153]</a> In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in <a href="/wiki/Jehoiachin%27s_Rations_Tablets" title="Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets">Joachin's ration tablets</a>, listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a>, and further evidence are the <a href="/wiki/Al-Yahudu_Tablets" title="Al-Yahudu Tablets">Al-Yahudu tablets</a>, dated to the 6th–5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First Temple</a>,<a href="#cite_note-us-israel-archaeology-120">[118]</a> though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> In Egypt, the <a href="/wiki/Elephantine_papyri_and_ostraca" title="Elephantine papyri and ostraca">documents from Elephantine</a> reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th–4th centuries BCE, and according to <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> the Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[163]</a> By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> ("<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Babylonia</a>" in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a>, and, beginning in the middle of the first century BCE, in the city of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Smallwood-166">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-AHJ-GM-155">[153]</a> Later, in the first centuries CE, as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish-Roman Wars</a>, a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> and Mesopotamia. After the <a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba revolt</a>, the Jewish population in <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a>, now significantly reduced in size, made efforts to recover from the revolt's devastating effects, but never fully regained its previous strength.<a href="#cite_note-:12-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> In the second to fourth centuries CE, the region of <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> emerged as the new center of Jewish life in <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a>, experiencing a cultural and demographic flourishing. It was in this period that two central rabbinic texts, the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_Talmud" title="Jerusalem Talmud">Jerusalem Talmud</a>, were composed.<a href="#cite_note-:03-170">[168]</a> However, as the Roman Empire was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianized</a> Byzantine Empire under <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a>, Jews came to be persecuted by the church and the authorities, and many immigrated to communities in the diaspora. In the fourth century CE, Jews are believed to have lost their position as the majority in <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kessler20102-171">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-168">[166]</a> The long-established Jewish community of Mesopotamia, which had been living under <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> rule, beyond the confines of the Roman Empire, became an important center of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies" title="Jewish studies">Jewish study</a> as Judea's Jewish population declined.<a href="#cite_note-Kessler20102-171">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-168">[166]</a> Estimates often place the Babylonian Jewish community of the 3rd to 7th centuries at around one million, making it the largest Jewish diaspora community of that period.<a href="#cite_note-:53-172">[170]</a> Under the political leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Exilarch" title="Exilarch">exilarch</a>, who was regarded as a royal heir of the House of David, this community had an autonomous status and served as a place of refuge for the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a>. A number of significant <a href="/wiki/Talmudic_academies_in_Babylonia" title="Talmudic academies in Babylonia">Talmudic academies</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Nehardea_Academy" title="Nehardea Academy">Nehardea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pumbedita_Academy" title="Pumbedita Academy">Pumbedita</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sura_Academy" title="Sura Academy">Sura</a> academies, were established in Mesopotamia, and many important <a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a> were active there. The <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a>, a centerpiece of Jewish religious law, was compiled in Babylonia in the 3rd to 6th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">History of the Jews in Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">History of European Jews in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi Jews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardi Jews</a></div> Jewish diaspora communities are generally described to have <a href="/wiki/Coalescent_theory" title="Coalescent theory">coalesced</a> into three major <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">ethnic subdivisions</a> according to where their ancestors settled: the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> (initially in the Rhineland and France), the <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardim</a> (initially in the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Iberian Peninsula</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_under_Muslim_rule" title="History of the Jews under Muslim rule">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>).<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Jews">Tunisian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Jews">Egyptian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Jews">Ethiopian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a>, and other groups also predated the arrival of the Sephardic diaspora.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> Despite experiencing repeated waves of persecution, Ashkenazi Jews in Western Europe worked in a variety of fields, making an impact on their communities' economy and societies. In <a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a>, for example, figures like <a href="/wiki/Isaac_the_Jew" title="Isaac the Jew">Isaac Judaeus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armentarius_(moneylender)" title="Armentarius (moneylender)">Armentarius</a> occupied prominent social and economic positions. However, Jews were frequently the subjects of discriminatory laws, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_Europe" title="Jewish ghettos in Europe">segregation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a>, which culminated in events like the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">Rhineland Massacres</a> (1066) and the <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsion of Jews from England">expulsion of Jews from England</a> (1290). As a result, Ashkenazi Jews were gradually pushed eastwards to <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> During the same period, Jewish communities in the Middle East thrived under Islamic rule, especially in cities like <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>. In Babylonia, from the 7th to 11th centuries the <a href="/wiki/Pumbedita_Academy" title="Pumbedita Academy">Pumbedita</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sura_Academy" title="Sura Academy">Sura</a> academies led the Arab and to an extant the entire Jewish world. The deans and students of said academies defined the <a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonic period</a> in Jewish history.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> Following this period were the <a href="/wiki/Rishonim" title="Rishonim">Rishonim</a> who lived from the 11th to 15th centuries. Like their European counterparts, Jews in the Middle East and North Africa also faced periods of persecution and discriminatory policies, with the <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> issuing forced conversion decrees, causing Jews such as <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> to seek safety in other regions. Initially, under <a href="/wiki/Visigothic_Kingdom" title="Visigothic Kingdom">Visigoth rule</a>, Jews in the Iberian Peninsula faced persecutions, but their circumstances changed dramatically under <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic rule</a>. During this period, they thrived in a <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">golden age</a>, marked by significant intellectual and cultural contributions in fields such as philosophy, medicine, and literature by figures such as <a href="/wiki/Samuel_ibn_Naghrillah" title="Samuel ibn Naghrillah">Samuel ibn Naghrillah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a>. However, in the 12th to 15th centuries, the Iberian Peninsula witnessed a rise in antisemitism, leading to persecutions, anti-Jewish laws, massacres and forced conversions (<a href="/wiki/Massacre_of_1391" title="Massacre of 1391">peaking in 1391</a>), and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> that same year. After the completion of the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> and the issuance of the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Alhambra Decree</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs_of_Spain" title="Catholic Monarchs of Spain">Catholic Monarchs</a> in 1492, the Jews of Spain were forced to choose: convert to Christianity or be expelled. As a result, around 200,000 Jews were <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_Jews_from_Spain" title="Expulsion of Jews from Spain">expelled from Spain</a>, seeking refuge in places such as the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy#Early_Modern_period" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="Sephardic Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews_in_India" title="Sephardic Jews in India">India</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_and_Muslims_by_Manuel_I_of_Portugal" title="Persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal">similar fate</a> awaited the Jews of Portugal a few years later. Some Jews chose to remain, and pretended to practice <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a>. These Jews would form the members of <a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_period">Modern period</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel_(1948%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Israel (1948–present)">History of Israel (1948–present)</a></div> In the 19th century, when Jews in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> were increasingly granted <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">equality before the law</a>, Jews in the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a> faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a>. Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> as a national revival movement, aiming to re-establish a Jewish polity in the Land of Israel, an endeavor to restore the Jewish people back to their ancestral homeland in order to stop the exoduses and persecutions that have plagued their history. This led to waves of Jewish migration to <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman-controlled Palestine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Herzl" title="Theodor Herzl">Theodor Herzl</a>, who is considered the father of political Zionism,<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> offered his vision of a future Jewish state in his 1896 book <a href="/wiki/Der_Judenstaat" title="Der Judenstaat">Der Judenstaat</a> (The Jewish State); a year later, he presided over the <a href="/wiki/First_Zionist_Congress" title="First Zionist Congress">First Zionist Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> The antisemitism that inflicted Jewish communities in Europe also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> between 1881 and 1924.<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a> The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>. Many <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> winners at this time were Jewish, as is still the case.<a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners-182">[180]</a><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/301px-Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png" decoding="async" width="301" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/452px-Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg/602px-Map_of_the_Jewish_Diaspora_in_the_World.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2192" data-file-height="1135" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Jewish diaspora: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Israel</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  + 1,000,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  + 100,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  + 10,000</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  + 1,000</div></figcaption></figure>When <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> came to power in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Germany</a> in 1933, the situation for Jews deteriorated rapidly. Many Jews fled from Europe to <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a>, the United States, and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> as a result of racial anti-Semitic laws, economic difficulties, and the fear of an impending war. <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> started in 1939, and by 1941, Hitler occupied almost all of Europe. Following the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">German invasion of the Soviet Union</a> in 1941, the <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>—an extensive, organized effort with an unprecedented scope intended to annihilate the Jewish people—began, and resulted in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. In Poland, three million were murdered in <a href="/wiki/Gas_chambers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas chambers">gas chambers</a> in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Auschwitz">Auschwitz</a> camp complex alone. The <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> is the name given to this genocide, in which six million Jews were systematically murdered. Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On 14 May 1948, upon the termination of the mandate, <a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a> declared the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_and_democratic_state" title="Jewish and democratic state">Jewish and democratic state</a> in the Land of Israel. Immediately afterwards, all neighboring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">IDF</a> resisted. In 1949, the war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a> from all over the world. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Jewish secularism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Star_of_David" title="Star of David"><img alt="Star of David" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/60px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="69" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/90px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/120px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments"><img alt="Ten Commandments" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/60px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/90px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Lukhot_Habrit.svg/120px-Lukhot_Habrit.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="205" data-file-height="243" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Temple_menorah" title="Menorah"><img alt="Menorah" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/70px-Menora.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/105px-Menora.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Menora.svg/140px-Menora.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="732" data-file-height="621" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Movements</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservadox" title="Conservadox">Conservadox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musar_movement" title="Musar movement">Musar movement</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Texts</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chumash_(Judaism)" title="Chumash (Judaism)">Ḥumash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">Piyutim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Law</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah_Berurah" title="Mishnah Berurah">Mishnah Berurah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruch_HaShulchan" title="Aruch HaShulchan">Aruch HaShulchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzniut" title="Tzniut">Tzniut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Laws_of_Noah" title="Seven Laws of Noah">Noahide laws</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Cities" title="Four Holy Cities">Holy cities</a>/<a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_holy_places" title="Category:Jewish holy places">places</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safed" title="Safed">Safed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebron" title="Hebron">Hebron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberias" title="Tiberias">Tiberias</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_midrash" title="Beth midrash">Beth midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikveh" title="Mikveh">Mikveh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukkah" title="Sukkah">Sukkah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevra_kadisha" title="Chevra kadisha">Chevra kadisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem">Holy Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Important figures</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac" title="Isaac">Isaac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob" title="Jacob">Jacob</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron" title="Aaron">Aaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarah" title="Sarah">Sarah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca" title="Rebecca">Rebecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel" title="Rachel">Rachel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leah" title="Leah">Leah</a></li></ul> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rabbis" title="List of rabbis">Rabbinic sages</a> <a href="/wiki/Chazal" title="Chazal">Chazal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoraim" title="Amoraim">Amoraim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savoraim" title="Savoraim">Savoraim</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geonim" title="Geonim">Geonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rishonim" title="Rishonim">Rishonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acharonim" title="Acharonim">Acharonim</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_religious_occupations" title="Category:Jewish religious occupations">Religious roles</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posek" title="Posek">Posek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beth_din" title="Beth din">Dayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_yeshiva" title="Rosh yeshiva">Rosh yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohel" title="Mohel">Mohel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kohen" title="Kohen">Kohen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">education</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah">Bar and bat mitzvah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva" title="Yeshiva">Yeshiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollel" title="Kollel">Kollel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheder" title="Cheder">Cheder</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Ritual objects</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah_scroll" title="Torah scroll">Sefer Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallit" title="Tallit">Tallit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tefillin" title="Tefillin">Tefillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzitzit" title="Tzitzit">Tzitzit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kippah" title="Kippah">Kippah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezuzah" title="Mezuzah">Mezuzah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanukkah_menorah" title="Hanukkah menorah">Menorah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">Shofar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_species" title="Four species">Four species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etrog" title="Etrog">Etrog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lulav" title="Lulav">Lulav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadass" title="Hadass">Hadass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aravah_(Sukkot)" title="Aravah (Sukkot)">Arava</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kittel" title="Kittel">Kittel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gartel" title="Gartel">Gartel</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shema" title="Shema">Shema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amidah" title="Amidah">Amidah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleinu" title="Aleinu">Aleinu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddish" title="Kaddish">Kaddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birkat_Hamazon" title="Birkat Hamazon">Birkat Hamazon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehecheyanu" title="Shehecheyanu">Shehecheyanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallel" title="Hallel">Hallel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havdalah" title="Havdalah">Havdalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachanun" title="Tachanun">Tachanun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_Nidre" title="Kol Nidre">Kol Nidre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selichot" title="Selichot">Selichot (S'lichot)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Major holidays</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashanah" title="Rosh Hashanah">Rosh Hashanah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur" title="Yom Kippur">Yom Kippur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukkot" title="Sukkot">Sukkot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Pesach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavuot" title="Shavuot">Shavuot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purim" title="Purim">Purim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanukkah" title="Hanukkah">Hanukkah</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Judaism_and_other_religions" title="Category:Judaism and other religions">Other religions</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian" title="Judeo-Christian">Judeo-Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_religious_pluralism" title="Jewish views on religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilegesh" title="Pilegesh">Pilegesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Judaism" title="Criticism of Judaism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_theology" title="Holocaust theology">Holocaust theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_Jesus" title="Jewish views on Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_Muhammad" title="Jewish views on Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/14px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/21px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/28px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Judaism" title="Template:Judaism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Judaism" title="Template talk:Judaism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Judaism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Jewish <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">people</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> are strongly interrelated. <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Converts to Judaism</a> typically have a status within the Jewish ethnos equal to those born into it.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> However, several converts to Judaism, as well as ex-Jews, have claimed that converts are treated as second-class Jews by many born Jews.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> Conversion is not encouraged by mainstream Judaism, and it is considered a difficult task. A significant portion of conversions are undertaken by children of mixed marriages, or would-be or current spouses of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, a religious interpretation of the traditions and early history of the Jews, established the first of the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>, which are now practiced by 54 percent of the world. <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">Jewish identity</a> rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Hellenic</a> world,<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> in Europe before and after <a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Age of Enlightenment">The Age of Enlightenment</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>),<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Islamic Spain and Portugal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Sharot2930-189">[187]</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Sharot2930-189">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Jews">India</a>,<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a>,<a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a> or the contemporary <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">United States</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, and still others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish cultures</a> unique to their own communities.<a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> of Judaism (termed lashon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures (<a href="/wiki/Tanakh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanakh">Tanakh</a>) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a>, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grintz-195">[193]</a> By the 3rd century BCE, some Jews of the diaspora were speaking <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> Others, such as in the Jewish communities of <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Asoristan</a>, known to Jews as Babylonia, were speaking Hebrew and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, the languages of the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Talmud" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a>. Dialects of these same languages were also used by the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> at that time.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialectal</a> forms or branches that became independent languages. <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a> is the Judaeo-German language developed by <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> who migrated to <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> is the Judaeo-Spanish language developed by <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic</a> Jews who migrated to the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberian peninsula</a>. Due to many factors, including the impact of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> on European Jewry, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_and_Muslim_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries">Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries</a>, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a> of several communities, including <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judaeo-Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Malayalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> and many others, have largely fallen out of use.<a href="#cite_note-Languages-6">[5]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg/170px-Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg/255px-Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg/340px-Loew-rabin-tombstone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3872" /></a><figcaption>Tombstone of the <a href="/wiki/Judah_Loew_ben_Bezalel" title="Judah Loew ben Bezalel">Maharal</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Jewish_Cemetery,_Prague" title="Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague">Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague</a>. The tombstones are inscribed in Hebrew.</figcaption></figure> For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Sabbath</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by <a href="/wiki/Eliezer_ben_Yehuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliezer ben Yehuda">Eliezer ben Yehuda</a>, who arrived in <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> in 1881. It had not been used as a <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a> since <a href="/wiki/Tannaim" title="Tannaim">Tannaic</a> times.<a href="#cite_note-Grintz-195">[193]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> is designated as the "State language" of Israel.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people, knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> has emerged as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the Jewish diaspora.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a> like <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century, most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars. The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, are also widely used.<a href="#cite_note-Languages-6">[5]</a> Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,<a href="#cite_note-204">[202]</a> but it is far less used today following <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">State of Israel</a>. In some places, the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English, while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language.<a href="#cite_note-forward-205">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa">South African Jews</a> adopted English rather than <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies,<a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russian Jews</a>, but these policies have also affected neighboring communities.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> Today, Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">Post-Soviet states</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-google-213">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-google2-214">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-jewishvirtuallibrary2-216">[214]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Maoz-217">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a> Georgia,<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a> Although communities in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> today are small and dwindling, Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one (or nearly so), speaking French in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a> <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Maoz-217">[215]</a> and the city of <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-jdc-224">[222]</a> while most North Africans continue to use <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> or Berber as their mother tongue.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leadership">Leadership</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Jewish leadership</a></div> There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a> Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.<a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> Today, many countries have a <a href="/wiki/Chief_Rabbi" title="Chief Rabbi">Chief Rabbi</a> who serves as a representative of that country's Jewry. Although many <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic Jews</a> follow a certain hereditary <a href="/wiki/List_of_Hasidic_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Hasidic dynasties">Hasidic dynasty</a>, there is no one commonly accepted leader of all Hasidic Jews. Many Jews believe that the <a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a> will act a unifying leader for Jews and the entire world.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories_on_ancient_Jewish_national_identity">Theories on ancient Jewish national identity</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hebrew_Bible_MET_DP-15507-001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hebrew_Bible_MET_DP-15507-001.jpg/220px-Hebrew_Bible_MET_DP-15507-001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hebrew_Bible_MET_DP-15507-001.jpg/330px-Hebrew_Bible_MET_DP-15507-001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hebrew_Bible_MET_DP-15507-001.jpg/440px-Hebrew_Bible_MET_DP-15507-001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2354" /></a><figcaption>Bible manuscript in Hebrew, 14th century. Hebrew language and alphabet were the cornerstones of the Jewish national identity in antiquity.</figcaption></figure> A number of modern scholars of nationalism support the existence of Jewish national identity in antiquity. One of them is David Goodblatt,<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> who generally believes in the existence of nationalism before the modern period. In his view, the Bible, the parabiblical literature and the Jewish national history provide the base for a Jewish collective identity. Although many of the ancient Jews were illiterate (as were their neighbors), their national narrative was reinforced through public readings. The Hebrew language also constructed and preserved national identity. Although it was not widely spoken after the 5th century BCE, Goodblatt states:<a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">the mere presence of the language in spoken or written form could invoke the concept of a Jewish national identity. Even if one knew no Hebrew or was illiterate, one could recognize that a group of signs was in Hebrew script. ... It was the language of the Israelite ancestors, the national literature, and the national religion. As such it was inseparable from the national identity. Indeed its mere presence in visual or aural medium could invoke that identity.</blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Anthony_D._Smith" title="Anthony D. Smith">Anthony D. Smith</a>, an historical sociologist considered one of the founders of the field of <a href="/wiki/Nationalism_studies" title="Nationalism studies">nationalism studies</a>, wrote that the Jews of the late Second Temple period provide "a closer approximation to the ideal type of the <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a> [...] than perhaps anywhere else in the ancient world." He adds that this observation "must make us wary of pronouncing too readily against the possibility of the nation, and even a form of <a href="/wiki/Religious_nationalism" title="Religious nationalism">religious nationalism</a>, before the onset of modernity."<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> Agreeing with Smith, Goodblatt suggests omitting the qualifier "religious" from Smith's definition of ancient Jewish nationalism, noting that, according to Smith, a religious component in national memories and culture is common even in the modern era.<a href="#cite_note-:23-233">[231]</a> This view is echoed by political scientist <a href="/wiki/Tom_Garvin" title="Tom Garvin">Tom Garvin</a>, who writes that "something strangely like modern nationalism is documented for many peoples in medieval times and in classical times as well," citing the ancient Jews as one of several "obvious examples", alongside the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical Greeks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gaulish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">British Celts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fergus_Millar" title="Fergus Millar">Fergus Millar</a> suggests that the sources of Jewish national identity and their early nationalist movements in the first and second centuries CE included several key elements: the Bible as both a national history and legal source, the Hebrew language as a national language, a system of law, and social institutions such as schools, synagogues, and Sabbath worship.<a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Hastings" title="Adrian Hastings">Adrian Hastings</a> argued that Jews are the "true proto-nation", that through the model of ancient Israel found in the Hebrew Bible, provided the world with the original concept of nationhood which later influenced Christian nations. However, following <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">Jerusalem's destruction</a> in the first century CE, Jews ceased to be a political entity and did not resemble a traditional nation-state for almost two millennia. Despite this, they maintained their national identity through collective memory, religion and sacred texts, even without land or political power, and remained a nation rather than just an ethnic group, eventually leading to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> and the establishment of Israel.<a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a> It is believed that Jewish nationalist sentiment in antiquity was encouraged because under foreign rule (Persians, Greeks, Romans) Jews were able to claim that they were an ancient nation. This claim was based on the preservation and reverence of their scriptures, the Hebrew language, the Temple and priesthood, and other traditions of their ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Jewish population by country</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_divisions">Ethnic divisions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Jewish ethnic divisions</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashkenazim_Jews_American_colony_1900_to_1920.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ashkenazim_Jews_American_colony_1900_to_1920.jpg/170px-Ashkenazim_Jews_American_colony_1900_to_1920.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ashkenazim_Jews_American_colony_1900_to_1920.jpg/255px-Ashkenazim_Jews_American_colony_1900_to_1920.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ashkenazim_Jews_American_colony_1900_to_1920.jpg/339px-Ashkenazim_Jews_American_colony_1900_to_1920.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> residing in the American colony. Photo taken between 1900 and 1920.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1900_photo_of_a_Sephardi_couple_from_Sarajevo.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/1900_photo_of_a_Sephardi_couple_from_Sarajevo.png/170px-1900_photo_of_a_Sephardi_couple_from_Sarajevo.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/1900_photo_of_a_Sephardi_couple_from_Sarajevo.png/255px-1900_photo_of_a_Sephardi_couple_from_Sarajevo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/1900_photo_of_a_Sephardi_couple_from_Sarajevo.png/340px-1900_photo_of_a_Sephardi_couple_from_Sarajevo.png 2x" data-file-width="868" data-file-height="1276" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardi Jewish</a> couple from <a href="/wiki/Sarajevo" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a> in traditional clothing. Photo taken in 1900.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yemenite_Elder_Blowing_Shofat,_February_1,_1949.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/21/Yemenite_Elder_Blowing_Shofat%2C_February_1%2C_1949.jpg/170px-Yemenite_Elder_Blowing_Shofat%2C_February_1%2C_1949.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/21/Yemenite_Elder_Blowing_Shofat%2C_February_1%2C_1949.jpg/255px-Yemenite_Elder_Blowing_Shofat%2C_February_1%2C_1949.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/21/Yemenite_Elder_Blowing_Shofat%2C_February_1%2C_1949.jpg 2x" data-file-width="312" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite Jew</a> blows <a href="/wiki/Shofar" title="Shofar">shofar</a>, 1947</figcaption></figure> Within the world's <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish population">Jewish population</a> there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating <a href="/wiki/Israelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Israelite">Israelite</a> population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>, often at great distances from one another, resulting in effective and often long-term isolation. During the <a href="/wiki/Millennia" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennia">millennia</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments: <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">political</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural</a>, and populational. Today, manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish cultural expressions</a> of each community, including <a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish linguistic diversity</a>, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_admixture" title="Genetic admixture">genetic admixture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardim</a>. Ashkenazim are so named in reference to their geographical origins (their ancestors' culture coalesced in the <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews#etymology" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Rhineland</a>, an area historically referred to by Jews as <a href="/wiki/Ashkenaz" title="Ashkenaz">Ashkenaz</a>). Similarly, Sephardim (<a href="/wiki/Sefarad" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefarad">Sefarad</a> meaning "<a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>" in Hebrew) are named in reference their origins in <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberia</a>. The diverse groups of Jews of the Middle East and North Africa are often collectively referred to as Sephardim together with Sephardim proper for liturgical reasons having to do with their <a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">prayer rites</a>. A common term for many of these non-Spanish Jews who are sometimes still broadly grouped as Sephardim is <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a> (lit. "easterners" in Hebrew). Nevertheless, Mizrahis and Sepharadim are usually ethnically distinct.<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a> Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in India">Indian Jews</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bnei_Menashe" title="Bnei Menashe">Bnei Menashe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochin Jews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bene_Ephraim" title="Bene Ephraim">Bene Ephraim</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniotes</a> of Greece; the <a href="/wiki/Italian_rite_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian rite Jews">Italian Jews</a> ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the <a href="/wiki/Teimanim" class="mw-redirect" title="Teimanim">Teimanim</a> from <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>; various <a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Judaism_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews and Judaism in Africa">African Jews</a>, including most numerously the <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>; and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Chinese Jews</a>, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a>, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.<a href="#cite_note-EJ571-240">[238]</a> The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North African</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_(geographic_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasus (geographic region)">Caucasian</a>, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Jews">Egyptian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Jews">Iraqi Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese Jews">Lebanese Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish Jews">Kurdish Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Jews" title="Moroccan Jews">Moroccan Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Libyan Jews">Libyan Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Jews" title="Syrian Jews">Syrian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukharian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukharian Jews">Bukharian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Jews" title="Iranian Jews">Iranian Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan Jews">Afghan Jews</a>, and various others. The <a href="/wiki/Teimanim" class="mw-redirect" title="Teimanim">Teimanim</a> from <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.<a href="#cite_note-EJ571-240">[238]</a> Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70 percent of Jews worldwide (and up to 90 percent prior to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>). As a result of their <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigration</a> from <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> continents, in countries such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>. In <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the immigration of Jews from <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> (Sephardim) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim.<a href="#cite_note-EJ571-240">[238]</a> Only in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a <a href="/wiki/Melting_pot" title="Melting pot">melting pot</a> independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_studies">Genetic studies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetic studies on Jews</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y DNA</a> studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths.<a href="#cite_note-hammer2000-242">[240]</a> In most Jewish populations, these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle Eastern</a>. For example, Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non-Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, and the French <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine Valley</a>. This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-Nebel_2001-243">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[242]</a> Conversely, the maternal lineages of Jewish populations, studied by looking at <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a>, are generally more heterogeneous.<a href="#cite_note-Behar2008b-245">[243]</a> Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Harry_Ostrer" title="Harry Ostrer">Harry Ostrer</a> and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel.<a href="#cite_note-Lewontin-246">[244]</a> In contrast, Behar has found evidence that about 40 percent of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin. The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect."<a href="#cite_note-Behar2008b-245">[243]</a> Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non-local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews. Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews, the authors conclude "Clearly, the differences between Jews and non-Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities. Hence, differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non-Jews are included in the comparisons."<a href="#cite_note-Abraham_2010-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-248">[246]</a> A study showed that 7% of Ashkenazi Jews have the haplogroup G2c, which is mainly found in <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Pashtuns</a> and on lower scales all major Jewish groups, Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese.<a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a> Studies of <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosomal DNA</a>, which look at the entire DNA mixture, have become increasingly important as the technology develops. They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities, with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common.<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> For Jewish populations of the diaspora, the genetic composition of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry. According to Behar, the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is "consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient <a href="/wiki/Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelite</a> residents of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>" and "the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>".<a href="#cite_note-discovermagazine-252">[250]</a> <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North African</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian</a> and others of <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian</a> origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non-Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines. In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews (in particular <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Jews" title="Moroccan Jews">Moroccan Jews</a>), who are closely related, the source of non-Jewish admixture is mainly <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern European</a>, while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations. Behar et al. have remarked on a close relationship between Ashkenazi Jews and modern <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-discovermagazine-252">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-zooss-253">[251]</a> A 2001 study found that Jews were more closely related to groups of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors, whose genetic signature was found in geographic patterns reflective of Islamic conquests.<a href="#cite_note-Nebel_2001-243">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a> The studies also show that <a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> (descendants of the "<a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">anusim</a>" who were <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced to convert</a> to <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a>), which comprise up to 19.8 percent of the population of today's <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>) and at least 10 percent of the population of <a href="/wiki/Ibero-America" title="Ibero-America">Ibero-America</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hispanic_America" title="Hispanic America">Hispanic America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>), have Sephardic Jewish ancestry within the last few centuries. The <a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochin Jews</a> of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, and a portion of the <a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>, despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries, have also been thought to have some more remote ancient Jewish ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-discovermagazine-252">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-in.reuters.com-256">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-248">[246]</a> Views on the Lemba have changed and genetic <a href="/wiki/Y-DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-DNA">Y-DNA</a> analyses in the 2000s have established a partially Middle-Eastern origin for a portion of the male Lemba population but have been unable to narrow this down further.<a href="#cite_note-SpurdleJenkins-257">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-Soodyall-258">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Population_centers">Population centers</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_city" title="Jewish population by city">Jewish population by city</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Purim_2012_Williamsburg_Brooklyn_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Purim_2012_Williamsburg_Brooklyn_01.jpg/220px-Purim_2012_Williamsburg_Brooklyn_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Purim_2012_Williamsburg_Brooklyn_01.jpg/330px-Purim_2012_Williamsburg_Brooklyn_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Purim_2012_Williamsburg_Brooklyn_01.jpg/440px-Purim_2012_Williamsburg_Brooklyn_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> is home to 960,000 Jews, making it the <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_New_York_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in New York City">largest Jewish community</a> outside of Israel.</figcaption></figure> Although historically, Jews have been found all over the world, in the decades since World War II and the establishment of Israel, they have increasingly concentrated in a small number of countries.<a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> In 2021, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> together accounted for over 85 percent of the global Jewish population, with approximately 45.3% and 39.6% of the world's Jews, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a> More than half (51.2%) of world Jewry resides in just ten metropolitan areas. As of 2021, these ten areas were <a href="/wiki/Gush_Dan" title="Gush Dan">Tel Aviv</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area" title="New York metropolitan area">New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Jerusalem" title="Greater Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haifa_metropolitan_area" title="Haifa metropolitan area">Haifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles" title="Greater Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miami_metropolitan_area" title="Miami metropolitan area">Miami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delaware_Valley" title="Delaware Valley">Philadelphia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paris_metropolitan_area" title="Paris metropolitan area">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_metropolitan_area" title="Washington metropolitan area">Washington</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chicago_metropolitan_area" title="Chicago metropolitan area">Chicago</a>. The Tel Aviv metro area has the highest percent of Jews among the total population (94.8%), followed by Jerusalem (72.3%), Haifa (73.1%), and Beersheba (60.4%), the balance mostly being Israeli Arabs. Outside Israel, the highest percent of Jews in a metropolitan area was in New York (10.8%), followed by Miami (8.7%), Philadelphia (6.8%), San Francisco (5.1%), Washington (4.7%), Los Angeles (4.7%), Toronto (4.5%), and Baltimore (4.1%).<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a> As of 2010, there were nearly 14 million Jews around the world, roughly 0.2% of the world's population at the time.<a href="#cite_note-:6-261">[259]</a> According to the 2007 estimates of <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_People_Policy_Planning_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute">The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute</a>, the world's Jewish population is 13.2 million.<a href="#cite_note-haaretz.com-262">[260]</a> This statistic incorporates both practicing Jews affiliated with <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogues</a> and the Jewish community, and approximately 4.5 million unaffiliated and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">secular Jews</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] According to <a href="/wiki/Sergio_Della_Pergola" title="Sergio Della Pergola">Sergio Della Pergola</a>, a demographer of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish population">Jewish population</a>, in 2021 there were about 6.8 million Jews in Israel, 6 million in the United States, and 2.3 million in the rest of the world.<a href="#cite_note-JDB-3">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Israel">Israel</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mahane_Yehuda_Market_P1020256.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Mahane_Yehuda_Market_P1020256.JPG/220px-Mahane_Yehuda_Market_P1020256.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Mahane_Yehuda_Market_P1020256.JPG/330px-Mahane_Yehuda_Market_P1020256.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Mahane_Yehuda_Market_P1020256.JPG/440px-Mahane_Yehuda_Market_P1020256.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Jewish people in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, Israel</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a> Israel was established as an independent <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary democracy">democratic</a> and Jewish state on 14 May 1948.<a href="#cite_note-cia-264">[262]</a> Of the 120 members in its parliament, the <a href="/wiki/Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a>,<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> as of 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jews&action=edit">[update]</a>, 14 members of the Knesset are <a href="/wiki/Arab_citizens_of_Israel" title="Arab citizens of Israel">Arab citizens of Israel</a> (not including the Druze), most representing Arab political parties. One of Israel's <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel" title="Supreme Court of Israel">Supreme Court</a> judges is also an Arab citizen of Israel.<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a> Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.<a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a> Currently, Jews account for 75.4 percent of the Israeli population, or 6 million people.<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">mass immigration</a> of <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_survivors" title="Holocaust survivors">Holocaust survivors</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_the_Holocaust" title="Aftermath of the Holocaust">aftermath of the Holocaust</a> and Jews <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_and_Muslim_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries">fleeing Arab lands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-persecution-270">[268]</a> Israel also has a large population of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Jews">Ethiopian Jews</a>, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[270]</a> Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-273">[271]</a> This period also saw an increase in <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">immigration to Israel</a> from <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-274">[272]</a> A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including <a href="/wiki/Indian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Jews">Indian Jews</a> and others, as well as some descendants of <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi">Ashkenazi</a> Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a>. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as <a href="/wiki/Yerida" title="Yerida">yordim</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dosick_2007,_p._340-275">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diaspora_(outside_Israel)">Diaspora (outside Israel)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Happynewyearcard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Happynewyearcard.jpg/170px-Happynewyearcard.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Happynewyearcard.jpg/255px-Happynewyearcard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Happynewyearcard.jpg/340px-Happynewyearcard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>In this <a href="/wiki/Rosh_Hashana" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosh Hashana">Rosh Hashana</a> greeting card from the early 1900s, Russian Jews, packs in hand, gaze at the American relatives beckoning them to the United States. Over two million Jews fled the <a href="/wiki/Pogroms" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogroms">pogroms</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> to the safety of the U.S. between 1881 and 1924.<a href="#cite_note-276">[274]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birobidjan_mainsquare.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Birobidjan_mainsquare.jpg/170px-Birobidjan_mainsquare.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Birobidjan_mainsquare.jpg/255px-Birobidjan_mainsquare.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Birobidjan_mainsquare.jpg 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Menorah_(Temple)" class="mw-redirect" title="Menorah (Temple)">menorah</a> dominating the main square in <a href="/wiki/Birobidzhan" title="Birobidzhan">Birobidzhan</a>. An estimated 70,000 <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia_and_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union">Jews</a> live in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-277">[275]</a></figcaption></figure> The waves of <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">immigration to the United States</a> and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> and later events, including <a href="/wiki/Pogroms" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogroms">pogroms</a> in Imperial Russia (mostly within the <a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a> in present-day Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus and eastern Poland), the massacre of European Jewry during <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>, and the founding of the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Israel">state of Israel</a>, with the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab lands">Jewish exodus from Arab lands</a>, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a> More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora (see Population table). Currently, the largest Jewish community outside Israel, and either the largest or second-largest Jewish community in the world, is located in the United States, with 6 million to 7.5 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> (315,000), <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> (180,000–300,000), and <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> (196,000–600,000), and smaller populations in <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> and several other countries (see <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Latin America">History of the Jews in Latin America</a>).<a href="#cite_note-JPPI2007-279">[277]</a> According to a 2010 <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> study, about 470,000 people of Jewish heritage live in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-261">[259]</a> Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel, with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s, while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world. Currently, a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population.<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DAVID_BEN_GURION_WITH_MEMBERS_OF_JEWISH_ZIONIST_YOUTH_MOVEMENT_IN_TALLIN_IN_ESTONIA._%D7%93%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%91%D7%9F_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA,_%D7%91%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F,_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94.D683-119.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/DAVID_BEN_GURION_WITH_MEMBERS_OF_JEWISH_ZIONIST_YOUTH_MOVEMENT_IN_TALLIN_IN_ESTONIA._%D7%93%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%91%D7%9F_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA%2C_%D7%91%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F%2C_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94.D683-119.jpg/170px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/DAVID_BEN_GURION_WITH_MEMBERS_OF_JEWISH_ZIONIST_YOUTH_MOVEMENT_IN_TALLIN_IN_ESTONIA._%D7%93%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%91%D7%9F_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA%2C_%D7%91%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F%2C_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94.D683-119.jpg/255px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/DAVID_BEN_GURION_WITH_MEMBERS_OF_JEWISH_ZIONIST_YOUTH_MOVEMENT_IN_TALLIN_IN_ESTONIA._%D7%93%D7%95%D7%93_%D7%91%D7%9F_%D7%92%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%95%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99_%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA%2C_%D7%91%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9F%2C_%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%94.D683-119.jpg/340px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3299" data-file-height="1907" /></a><figcaption>The Jewish <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist</a> Youth Movement in <a href="/wiki/Tallinn" title="Tallinn">Tallinn</a>, Estonia, on 1 September 1933</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>'s largest Jewish community, and the third-largest Jewish community in the world, can be found in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, home to between 483,000 and 500,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African countries such as <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> (or their descendants).<a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> has a Jewish community of 292,000. In <a href="/wiki/East_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="East Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, the exact figures are difficult to establish. The number of Jews in Russia varies widely according to whether a source uses census data (which requires a person to choose a single nationality among choices that include "Russian" and "Jewish") or eligibility for immigration to Israel (which requires that a person have one or more Jewish grandparents). According to the latter criteria, the heads of the Russian Jewish community assert that up to 1.5 million Russians are eligible for <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">aliyah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the 102,000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population,<a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a> despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> since the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a>.<a href="#cite_note-285">[283]</a> Thousands of <a href="/wiki/Israelis" title="Israelis">Israelis</a> also live in Germany, either permanently or temporarily, for economic reasons.<a href="#cite_note-286">[284]</a> Prior to 1948, approximately 800,000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> (excluding Israel). Of these, just under two-thirds lived in the French-controlled <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> region, 15 to 20 percent in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a>, approximately 10 percent in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Kingdom of Egypt</a> and approximately 7 percent in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yemen" title="Kingdom of Yemen">Kingdom of Yemen</a>. A further 200,000 lived in <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Pahlavi Iran</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Turkey">Republic of Turkey</a>. Today, around 26,000 Jews live in Arab countries<a href="#cite_note-287">[285]</a> and around 30,000 in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. A small-scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century, although the only substantial <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">aliyah</a> came from <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-288">[286]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_and_Muslim_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries">exodus from Arab and Muslim countries</a> took place primarily from 1948. The first large-scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s, primarily in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, Yemen and <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, with up to 90 percent of these communities leaving within a few years. The peak of the exodus from <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> occurred in 1956. The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s. <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period, due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries, although by the mid-1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled. In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states, an additional migration of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Jews" title="Iranian Jews">Iranian Jews</a> peaked in the 1980s when around 80 percent of Iranian Jews left the country.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Outside <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and the rest of <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, there are significant Jewish populations in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> (112,500) and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish population of South Africa">South Africa</a> (70,000).<a href="#cite_note-JVIL2010-36">[35]</a> There is also a 6,800-strong community in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-289">[287]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demographic_changes">Demographic changes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical Jewish population comparisons">Historical Jewish population comparisons</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Assimilation">Assimilation</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Jewish assimilation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_marriage_in_Judaism" title="Interfaith marriage in Judaism">Interfaith marriage in Judaism</a></div> Since at least the time of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greeks</a>, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">Jewish identity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson171-290">[288]</a> Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,<a href="#cite_note-Johnson171-290">[288]</a> with some Jewish communities, for example the <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a> of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, disappearing entirely.<a href="#cite_note-291">[289]</a> The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a>) and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">emancipation of the Jewish populations</a> of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secular society</a>. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.<a href="#cite_note-292">[290]</a> Rates of <a href="/wiki/Interfaith_marriage" title="Interfaith marriage">interreligious marriage</a> vary widely: In the United States, it is just under 50 percent,<a href="#cite_note-293">[291]</a> in the United Kingdom, around 53 percent; in France; around 30 percent,<a href="#cite_note-294">[292]</a> and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10 percent.<a href="#cite_note-295">[293]</a> In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice.<a href="#cite_note-296">[294]</a> The result is that most countries in the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a> have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="War_and_persecution">War and persecution</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution of Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_military_history" title="Jewish military history">Jewish military history</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Emperor_sends_Vespasian_with_an_army_to_destroy_the_Jews_(f._177v)_Cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/The_Emperor_sends_Vespasian_with_an_army_to_destroy_the_Jews_%28f._177v%29_Cropped.jpg/170px-The_Emperor_sends_Vespasian_with_an_army_to_destroy_the_Jews_%28f._177v%29_Cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/The_Emperor_sends_Vespasian_with_an_army_to_destroy_the_Jews_%28f._177v%29_Cropped.jpg/255px-The_Emperor_sends_Vespasian_with_an_army_to_destroy_the_Jews_%28f._177v%29_Cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/The_Emperor_sends_Vespasian_with_an_army_to_destroy_the_Jews_%28f._177v%29_Cropped.jpg/340px-The_Emperor_sends_Vespasian_with_an_army_to_destroy_the_Jews_%28f._177v%29_Cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2748" data-file-height="3848" /></a><figcaption>The Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> sends <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> with an army to destroy the Jews, 69 CE.</figcaption></figure> The Jewish people and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> have experienced various <a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">persecutions</a> throughout <a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Jewish history</a>. During <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (in its later phases known as the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>) repeatedly repressed the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Roman Empire">Jewish population</a>, first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan <a href="/wiki/Roman_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman era">Roman era</a> and later by officially establishing them as <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I#Suppression_of_religions" title="Justinian I">second-class citizens</a> during the Christian Roman era.<a href="#cite_note-297">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-298">[296]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/James_P._Carroll" class="mw-redirect" title="James P. Carroll">James Carroll</a>, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<a href="#cite_note-299">[297]</a> Later in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews by Christians occurred, notably during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>—when Jews all over Germany <a href="/wiki/Rhineland_massacres" title="Rhineland massacres">were massacred</a>—and in a series of expulsions from the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Expulsion" title="Edict of Expulsion">Kingdom of England</a>, Germany, and France. Then there occurred the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">largest expulsion of all</a>, when Spain and Portugal, after the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> (the Catholic Reconquest of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>), expelled both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson207-208-300">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johnson213plus-301">[299]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called <a href="/wiki/Ghetto" title="Ghetto">ghettos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-302">[300]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg/170px-The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg/255px-The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg/340px-The_Jews_the_world_over_love_liberty_poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3296" data-file-height="5045" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> poster showing a soldier cutting the bonds from a Jewish man, who says, "You have cut my bonds and set me free—now let me help you set others free!"</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam and Judaism">Islam and Judaism</a> have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as <a href="/wiki/Dhimmis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhimmis">dhimmis</a>, were allowed to practice their religions and administer their internal affairs, but they were subject to certain conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Bernard1020-303">[301]</a> They had to pay the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a> (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.<a href="#cite_note-Bernard1020-303">[301]</a> Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal <a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Jewish)" title="Disabilities (Jewish)">disabilities</a> such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-304">[302]</a> Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> as "most degrading"<a href="#cite_note-Lewis131-305">[303]</a> was the requirement of <a href="/wiki/Yellow_badge" title="Yellow badge">distinctive clothing</a>, not found in the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> but invented in <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early medieval</a> Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis131-305">[303]</a> On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.<a href="#cite_note-306">[304]</a> Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a> dynasty in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> in the 12th century,<a href="#cite_note-307">[305]</a> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_conquest_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic conquest of Persia">Islamic Persia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-308">[306]</a> and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as <a href="/wiki/Mellah" title="Mellah">mellahs</a> beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-309">[307]</a> In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard <a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism_and_antisemitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Zionism and antisemitism">antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist</a> publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a>, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Islamic Republic of Iran</a>, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish <a href="/wiki/Refah_Partisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Refah Partisi">Refah Partisi</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Lewis_MEQ-310">[308]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">expulsion</a> to outright <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a>; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">history of antisemitism</a> includes the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a> which resulted in the massacre of Jews;<a href="#cite_note-Johnson207-208-300">[298]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> (led by <a href="/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_de_Torquemada" title="Tomás de Torquemada">Tomás de Torquemada</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a>, with their persecution and <a href="/wiki/Auto-da-f%C3%A9" title="Auto-da-fé">autos-da-fé</a> against the <a href="/wiki/New_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="New Christians">New Christians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marrano</a> Jews;<a href="#cite_note-311">[309]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Bohdan_Chmielnicki" class="mw-redirect" title="Bohdan Chmielnicki">Bohdan Chmielnicki</a> Cossack massacres in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>;<a href="#cite_note-312">[310]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogroms</a> backed by the Russian <a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Russian rulers">Tsars</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_1987,_pp._364–365-313">[311]</a> as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson213plus-301">[299]</a> According to a 2008 study published in the <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics" title="American Journal of Human Genetics">American Journal of Human Genetics</a>, 19.8 percent of the modern <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian</a> population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,<a href="#cite_note-Adams2008-314">[312]</a> indicating that the number of <a href="/wiki/Converso" title="Converso">conversos</a> may have been much higher than originally thought.<a href="#cite_note-315">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[314]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-006,_Minsk,_Juden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-006%2C_Minsk%2C_Juden.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-006%2C_Minsk%2C_Juden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-006%2C_Minsk%2C_Juden.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-006%2C_Minsk%2C_Juden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-006%2C_Minsk%2C_Juden.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_N_1576_Bild-006%2C_Minsk%2C_Juden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>Jews in <a href="/wiki/Minsk" title="Minsk">Minsk</a>, 1941. Before World War II, some 40 percent of the population was Jewish. By the time the Red Army retook the city on 3 July 1944, there were only a few Jewish survivors.</figcaption></figure> The persecution reached a peak in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Final_Solution" title="Final Solution">Final Solution</a>, which led to <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews.<a href="#cite_note-317">[315]</a> Of the world's 16 million Jews in 1939, almost 40% were murdered in the Holocaust.<a href="#cite_note-318">[316]</a> The Holocaust—the state-led systematic <a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">persecution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in <a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Africa#European_colonization" title="History of North Africa">European controlled North Africa</a>) and other <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority groups</a> of Europe during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> by Germany and its <a href="/wiki/Collaboration_with_Nazi_Germany_and_Fascist_Italy" title="Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy">collaborators</a>—remains the most notable modern-day persecution of Jews.<a href="#cite_note-319">[317]</a> The persecution and <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> were accomplished in stages. <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society</a> was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II.<a href="#cite_note-320">[318]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi_concentration_camps" title="Nazi concentration camps">Concentration camps</a> were established in which inmates were used as <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slave labour</a> until they died of exhaustion or disease.<a href="#cite_note-321">[319]</a> Where the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Third Reich</a> conquered new territory in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, specialized units called <a href="/wiki/Einsatzgruppen" title="Einsatzgruppen">Einsatzgruppen</a> murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-Grave-322">[320]</a> Jews and <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Roma</a> were crammed into <a href="/wiki/Ghettos_in_Nazi-occupied_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe">ghettos</a> before being transported hundreds of kilometres by freight train to <a href="/wiki/Extermination_camp" title="Extermination camp">extermination camps</a> where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were murdered in gas chambers.<a href="#cite_note-323">[321]</a> Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."<a href="#cite_note-Berenbaum103-324">[322]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Migrations">Migrations</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Expulsions_of_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsions of Jews">Expulsions of Jews</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expulsion_judios-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/220px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/330px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/440px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="8960" data-file-height="6672" /></a><figcaption>Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600</figcaption></figure> Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland, the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a>, and many of the areas in which they have settled. This experience as <a href="/wiki/Jewish_refugees" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish refugees">refugees</a> has shaped <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">Jewish identity</a> and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history.<a href="#cite_note-325">[323]</a> The patriarch <a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> is described as a migrant to the land of <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ur_of_the_Chaldees" title="Ur of the Chaldees">Ur</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldees</a><a href="#cite_note-326">[324]</a> after an attempt on his life by King <a href="/wiki/Nimrod" title="Nimrod">Nimrod</a>.<a href="#cite_note-327">[325]</a> His descendants, the <a href="/wiki/Children_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Children of Israel">Children of Israel</a>, in the Biblical story (whose historicity is uncertain) undertook <a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">the Exodus</a> (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, as recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-328">[326]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vertreibung_der_Juden_1614.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Vertreibung_der_Juden_1614.jpg/170px-Vertreibung_der_Juden_1614.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Vertreibung_der_Juden_1614.jpg/255px-Vertreibung_der_Juden_1614.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Vertreibung_der_Juden_1614.jpg/340px-Vertreibung_der_Juden_1614.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1760" data-file-height="2360" /></a><figcaption>Etching of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_Judengasse#The_Fettmilch_Uprising" title="Frankfurter Judengasse">expulsion of the Jews from Frankfurt</a> in <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_antisemitism" title="Timeline of antisemitism">1614</a>. The text says: "1380 persons old and young were counted at the exit of the gate".</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jewish_refugees_Liverpool_1882.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Jewish_refugees_Liverpool_1882.jpg/220px-Jewish_refugees_Liverpool_1882.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Jewish_refugees_Liverpool_1882.jpg/330px-Jewish_refugees_Liverpool_1882.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Jewish_refugees_Liverpool_1882.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="262" /></a><figcaption>Jews fleeing pogroms, 1882</figcaption></figure> Centuries later, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> policy was to deport and displace conquered peoples, and it is estimated some 4,500,000 among captive populations suffered this dislocation over three centuries of Assyrian rule.<a href="#cite_note-Smith-Christopher-329">[327]</a> With regard to Israel, <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a> claims he deported 80% of the population of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Galilee" title="Lower Galilee">Lower Galilee</a>, some 13,520 people.<a href="#cite_note-330">[328]</a> Some 27,000 Israelites, 20 to 25% of the population of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a>, were described as being deported by <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a>, and were replaced by other deported populations and sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire.<a href="#cite_note-331">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-332">[330]</a> Between 10,000 and 80,000 people from the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> were similarly exiled by <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Smith-Christopher-329">[327]</a> but these people were then returned to <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> of the Persian <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-333">[331]</a> Many Jews were exiled again by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-334">[332]</a> The 2,000 year dispersion of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a> beginning under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-335">[333]</a> as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land,<a href="#cite_note-336">[334]</a> settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Babylonia</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[335]</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_the_Iberian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a><a href="#cite_note-338">[336]</a> to <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a><a href="#cite_note-339">[337]</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish American">United States</a><a href="#cite_note-340">[338]</a> and, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a>, back to <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gartner431-341">[339]</a> There were also many expulsions of Jews during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the (<a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Jewry" title="Statute of Jewry">Statute of Jewry</a>); in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421, thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in <a href="/wiki/East-Central_Europe" title="East-Central Europe">East-Central Europe</a>, especially Poland.<a href="#cite_note-Gartner_11-12-342">[340]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 <a href="/wiki/Sephardi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi">Sephardic</a> Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic church</a>, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, the Netherlands, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, others migrating to <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern Europe</a> and the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-Johnson229-231-343">[341]</a> During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe).<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_1987,_p._306-344">[342]</a> This contributed to the arrival of millions of Jews in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>. Over two million Eastern European Jews arrived in the United States from 1880 to 1925.<a href="#cite_note-345">[343]</a> In summary, the <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> in Eastern Europe,<a href="#cite_note-Johnson_1987,_pp._364–365-313">[311]</a> the rise of modern <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gartner_2001,_pp._213–5-346">[344]</a> the Holocaust,<a href="#cite_note-347">[345]</a> as well as the rise of <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-348">[346]</a> all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.<a href="#cite_note-Gartner431-341">[339]</a> In the latest phase of migrations, the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Islamic Revolution of Iran</a> caused many <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Jews" title="Iranian Jews">Iranian Jews</a> to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles, California</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Long_Island,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Long Island, New York">Long Island, New York</a>) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-349">[347]</a> Similarly, when the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1985%E2%80%931991)#Dissolution_of_the_USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)">Soviet Union collapsed</a>, many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been <a href="/wiki/Refusenik" title="Refusenik">refuseniks</a>) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-Dosick_2007,_p._340-275">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Growth">Growth</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Western_Wall,_Jerusalem,_(16037897867).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Western_Wall%2C_Jerusalem%2C_%2816037897867%29.jpg/220px-Western_Wall%2C_Jerusalem%2C_%2816037897867%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Western_Wall%2C_Jerusalem%2C_%2816037897867%29.jpg/330px-Western_Wall%2C_Jerusalem%2C_%2816037897867%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Western_Wall%2C_Jerusalem%2C_%2816037897867%29.jpg/440px-Western_Wall%2C_Jerusalem%2C_%2816037897867%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Praying at the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall" title="Western Wall">Western Wall</a></figcaption></figure> Israel is the only country with a Jewish population that is consistently growing through <a href="/wiki/Natural_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural population growth">natural population growth</a>, although the Jewish populations of other countries, in Europe and North America, have recently increased through immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haredi" class="mw-redirect" title="Haredi">Haredi</a> Jewish communities, whose members often shun <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a> for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.<a href="#cite_note-350">[348]</a> Orthodox and <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative Judaism</a> discourage <a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">proselytism</a> to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle <a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform Judaism</a> favours seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.<a href="#cite_note-351">[349]</a> There is also a trend of Orthodox movements reaching out to secular Jews in order to give them a stronger <a href="/wiki/Jewish_identity" title="Jewish identity">Jewish identity</a> so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend (known as the <a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva movement</a>) for secular Jews to become more religiously observant, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.<a href="#cite_note-352">[350]</a> Additionally, there is also a growing rate of conversion to <a href="/wiki/Jews_by_Choice" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews by Choice">Jews by Choice</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gentiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentiles">gentiles</a> who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.<a href="#cite_note-353">[351]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contributions">Contributions</h2></div> Jewish individuals have played a significant role in the development and growth of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-53">[51]</a> advancing many fields of thought, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Science_and_technology" title="Jewish culture">science and technology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Daly2013-42">[40]</a> both historically and in modern times,<a href="#cite_note-354">[352]</a> including through discrete trends in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a><a href="#cite_note-355">[353]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Jewish literature</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Daly2013-42">[40]</a> as well as specific trends in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a>, including in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Jewish art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Jewish music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Jewish humor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish theatre">Jewish theatre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Jewish cuisine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_medicine" title="Jewish medicine">Jewish medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rabin-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shatzmiller,_Joseph_1995-47">[45]</a> Jews have established various <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Daly2013-42">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">religious movements</a>, and, through the <a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">authorship of the Hebrew Bible</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Dimont2004-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Galambush2011-49">[47]</a> provided the foundation for <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BarclaySweet1996-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Paterson2009-51">[49]</a> More than 20 percent<a href="#cite_note-356">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-357">[355]</a><a href="#cite_note-358">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-359">[357]</a><a href="#cite_note-360">[358]</a><a href="#cite_note-361">[359]</a> of the awarded <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> have gone to individuals of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">Jewish descent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-362">[360]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> The global core Jewish population was estimated at approximately 15,263,500 in 2022. When including individuals who identify as partly Jewish and anyone with one or two Jewish parents increases the estimate to 20,028,800. Adding individuals with a Jewish background but without Jewish parents, and non-Jewish household members living with Jews, yields an enlarged estimate of 22,720,400.<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, disputes among proponents of <a href="/wiki/Halakhic" class="mw-redirect" title="Halakhic">halakhic</a>, secular, political, and ancestral identification factors regarding <a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Who is a Jew">who is a Jew</a> may affect the figure considerably depending on the source.<a href="#cite_note-Pfeffer-40">[39]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:7-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-15">p</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-33406-1">American Jewish Year Book 2022</a>. 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University of Michigan Press. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-07280-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-07280-4"><bdi>978-0-472-07280-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Digital+Samaritans%3A+Rhetorical+Delivery+and+Engagement+in+the+Digital+Humanities&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-472-07280-4&rft.aulast=Ridolfo&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2010" class="citation news cs1">Wade, Nicholas (9 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/10/science/10jews.html">"Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Studies+Show+Jews%27+Genetic+Similarity&rft.date=2010-06-09&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F06%2F10%2Fscience%2F10jews.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNebelFilonWeissWeale2000" class="citation journal cs1">Nebel, Almut; Filon, Dvora; Weiss, Deborah A.; Weale, Michael; Faerman, Marina; Oppenheim, Ariella; Thomas, Mark G. (December 2000). "High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews". Human Genetics. 107 (6): 630–641. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs004390000426">10.1007/s004390000426</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11153918">11153918</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8136092">8136092</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=High-resolution+Y+chromosome+haplotypes+of+Israeli+and+Palestinian+Arabs+reveal+geographic+substructure+and+substantial+overlap+with+haplotypes+of+Jews&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E630-%3C%2Fspan%3E641&rft.date=2000-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8136092%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11153918&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs004390000426&rft.aulast=Nebel&rft.aufirst=Almut&rft.au=Filon%2C+Dvora&rft.au=Weiss%2C+Deborah+A.&rft.au=Weale%2C+Michael&rft.au=Faerman%2C+Marina&rft.au=Oppenheim%2C+Ariella&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Mark+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sciencedaily-13"><a href="#cite_ref-sciencedaily_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/05/000509003653.htm">"Jews Are the Genetic Brothers of Palestinians, Syrians, and Lebanese"</a>. Sciencedaily.com. 9 May 2000. Retrieved 12 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jews+Are+the+Genetic+Brothers+of+Palestinians%2C+Syrians%2C+and+Lebanese&rft.pub=Sciencedaily.com&rft.date=2000-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2000%2F05%2F000509003653.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abraham_2010-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abraham_2010_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abraham_2010_14-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtzmonHaoPe'erVelez2010" class="citation journal cs1">Atzmon, Gil; Hao, Li; Pe'er, Itsik; Velez, Christopher; Pearlman, Alexander; Palamara, Pier Francesco; Morrow, Bernice; Friedman, Eitan; Oddoux, Carole; Burns, Edward; Ostrer, Harry (June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032072">"Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry"</a>. The American Journal of Human Genetics. 86 (6): 850–859. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2010.04.015">10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032072">3032072</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20560205">20560205</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=Abraham%27s+Children+in+the+Genome+Era%3A+Major+Jewish+Diaspora+Populations+Comprise+Distinct+Genetic+Clusters+with+Shared+Middle+Eastern+Ancestry&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E850-%3C%2Fspan%3E859&rft.date=2010-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3032072%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20560205&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2010.04.015&rft.aulast=Atzmon&rft.aufirst=Gil&rft.au=Hao%2C+Li&rft.au=Pe%27er%2C+Itsik&rft.au=Velez%2C+Christopher&rft.au=Pearlman%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Palamara%2C+Pier+Francesco&rft.au=Morrow%2C+Bernice&rft.au=Friedman%2C+Eitan&rft.au=Oddoux%2C+Carole&rft.au=Burns%2C+Edward&rft.au=Ostrer%2C+Harry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3032072&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jews-are-ethnoreligious-group_15-1">b</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V4qhTL61nXEC&dq=jew+ethnic+mandla&pg=PA43">Ethnic minorities in English law</a>. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 23 December 2010.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdgar_Litt1961" class="citation journal cs1">Edgar Litt (1961). "Jewish Ethno-Religious Involvement and Political Liberalism". Social Forces. 39 (4): 328–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2573430">10.2307/2573430</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2573430">2573430</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Forces&rft.atitle=Jewish+Ethno-Religious+Involvement+and+Political+Liberalism&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E328-%3C%2Fspan%3E32&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2573430&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2573430%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Edgar+Litt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraig_R._Prentiss2003" class="citation book cs1">Craig R. Prentiss (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ze30q1hm8uUC&pg=PA85">Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction</a>. NYU Press. pp. 85–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-6700-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-6700-9"><bdi>978-0-8147-6700-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+Creation+of+Race+and+Ethnicity%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=85-&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-6700-9&rft.au=Craig+R.+Prentiss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dze30q1hm8uUC%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Avraham_Harman_Institute_of_Contemporary_Jewry_The_Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem_Eli_Lederhendler_Stephen_S._Wise_Professor_of_American_Jewish_History_and_Institutions2001" class="citation book cs1">The Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Eli Lederhendler Stephen S. Wise Professor of American Jewish History and Institutions (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1wvahJv83AgC&pg=PA101">Studies in Contemporary Jewry : Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel</a>. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 101–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534896-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534896-5"><bdi>978-0-19-534896-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Contemporary+Jewry+%3A+Volume+XVII%3A+Who+Owns+Judaism%3F+Public+Religion+and+Private+Faith+in+America+and+Israel%3A+Volume+XVII%3A+Who+Owns+Judaism%3F+Public+Religion+and+Private+Faith+in+America+and+Israel&rft.pages=101-&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534896-5&rft.au=The+Avraham+Harman+Institute+of+Contemporary+Jewry+The+Hebrew+University+of+Jerusalem+Eli+Lederhendler+Stephen+S.+Wise+Professor+of+American+Jewish+History+and+Institutions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1wvahJv83AgC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnest_KrauszGitta_Tulea" class="citation book cs1">Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dnxv-Mlz0JIC&pg=PA90">Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... 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Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2689-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2689-1"><bdi>978-1-4128-2689-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Survival%3A+The+Identity+Problem+at+the+Close+of+the+Twentieth+Century%3B+%26%2391%3B...+International+Workshop+at+Bar-Ilan+University+on+the+18th+and+19th+of+March%2C+1997%26%2393%3B&rft.pages=90-&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-2689-1&rft.au=Ernest+Krausz&rft.au=Gitta+Tulea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddnxv-Mlz0JIC%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_A._Shoup_III2011" class="citation book cs1">John A. Shoup III (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GN5yv3-U6goC&pg=PA133">Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-363-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-363-7"><bdi>978-1-59884-363-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Groups+of+Africa+and+the+Middle+East%3A+An+Encyclopedia%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-363-7&rft.au=John+A.+Shoup+III&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGN5yv3-U6goC%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTet-Lim_N._Yee2005" class="citation book cs1">Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x4OwXhMOn5cC&pg=PA102">Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-44411-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-44411-8"><bdi>978-1-139-44411-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+Gentiles+and+Ethnic+Reconciliation%3A+Paul%27s+Jewish+identity+and+Ephesians&rft.pages=102-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-139-44411-8&rft.au=Tet-Lim+N.+Yee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx4OwXhMOn5cC%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> *<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Nicholson2002" class="citation book cs1">M. Nicholson (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HvI8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19">International Relations: A Concise Introduction</a>. NYU Press. pp. 19–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5822-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5822-9"><bdi>978-0-8147-5822-9</bdi></a>. <q>The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Relations%3A+A+Concise+Introduction&rft.pages=19-&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-5822-9&rft.au=M.+Nicholson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHvI8DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacob_Neusner1991" class="citation book cs1">Jacob Neusner (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju0000neus">An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader</a>. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju0000neus/page/375">375</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25348-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25348-6"><bdi>978-0-664-25348-6</bdi></a>. <q>That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Judaism%3A+A+Textbook+and+Reader&rft.pages=375-&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-664-25348-6&rft.au=Jacob+Neusner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoju0000neus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Dowty1998" class="citation book cs1">Alan Dowty (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vL8r4U1FKSQC&pg=PA3">The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface</a>. University of California Press. pp. 3–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92706-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92706-3"><bdi>978-0-520-92706-3</bdi></a>. <q>Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+State%3A+A+Century+Later%2C+Updated+With+a+New+Preface&rft.pages=3-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92706-3&rft.au=Alan+Dowty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvL8r4U1FKSQC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandeis1915" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis, Louis</a> (25 April 1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://louisville.edu/law/library/special-collections/the-louis-d.-brandeis-collection/the-jewish-problem-how-to-solve-it-by-louis-d.-brandeis">"The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It"</a>. University of Louisville School of Law. Retrieved 2 April 2012. <q>Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Problem%3A+How+To+Solve+It&rft.pub=University+of+Louisville+School+of+Law&rft.date=1915-04-25&rft.aulast=Brandeis&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flouisville.edu%2Flaw%2Flibrary%2Fspecial-collections%2Fthe-louis-d.-brandeis-collection%2Fthe-jewish-problem-how-to-solve-it-by-louis-d.-brandeis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Henry_Palmer" title="Edward Henry Palmer">Palmer, Edward Henry</a> (2002) [First published 1874]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishn00palm">A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day</a>. Gorgias Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931956-69-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931956-69-7"><bdi>978-1-931956-69-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51578088">51578088</a>. Retrieved 2 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+Nation%3A+From+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51578088&rft.isbn=978-1-931956-69-7&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Edward+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjewishn00palm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> *<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFacts_On_File,_Incorporated2009" class="citation book cs1">Facts On File, Incorporated (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA337">Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East</a>. Infobase Publishing. pp. 337–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-2676-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-2676-0"><bdi>978-1-4381-2676-0</bdi></a>. <q>The people of the Kingdom of Israel and the ethnic and religious group known as the Jewish people that descended from them have been subjected to a number of forced migrations in their history</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Peoples+of+Africa+and+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=337-&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-2676-0&rft.au=Facts+On+File%2C+Incorporated&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dstl97FdyRswC%26pg%3DPA337&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpielvogel2008" class="citation book cs1">Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2008). Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500. Wadsworth Publishing. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780495502883" title="Special:BookSources/9780495502883"><bdi>9780495502883</bdi></a>. <q>The people of Judah survived, eventually becoming known as the Jews and giving their name to Judaism, the religion of Yahweh, the Israelite God.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+Volume+A%3A+To+1500&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780495502883&rft.aulast=Spielvogel&rft.aufirst=Jackson+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond_P._Scheindlin1998" class="citation book cs1">Raymond P. Scheindlin (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bfsuicMmrE0C&pg=PA1">A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513941-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513941-9"><bdi>978-0-19-513941-9</bdi></a>. <q>Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Jewish+People%3A+From+Legendary+Times+to+Modern+Statehood&rft.pages=1-&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513941-9&rft.au=Raymond+P.+Scheindlin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbfsuicMmrE0C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCline2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_H._Cline" title="Eric H. Cline">Cline, Eric H.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54913803">Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel</a>. Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-11313-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-11313-5"><bdi>0-472-11313-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54913803">54913803</a>. <q>Few would seriously challenge the belief that most modern Jews are descended from the ancient Hebrews</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jerusalem+Besieged%3A+From+Ancient+Canaan+to+Modern+Israel&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54913803&rft.isbn=0-472-11313-5&rft.aulast=Cline&rft.aufirst=Eric+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F54913803&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarry_Ostrer_MD2012" class="citation book cs1">Harry Ostrer MD (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RayZR3V1SFwC&pg=PT26">Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 19–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997638-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997638-6"><bdi>978-0-19-997638-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacy%3A+A+Genetic+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-997638-6&rft.au=Harry+Ostrer+MD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRayZR3V1SFwC%26pg%3DPT26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-18"><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jew-people">"Jew | History, Beliefs, & Facts"</a>. Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220901033920/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jew-people">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022. <q>any person whose religion is Judaism. In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Bible (Old Testament).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=Jew+%26%23124%3B+History%2C+Beliefs%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FJew-people&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/jew">Jew</a>. Cambridge Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210706024026/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/jew">Archived</a> from the original on 6 July 2021. <q>a member of a people whose traditional religion is Judaism</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jew&rft.pub=Cambridge+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fjew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/jew">Jew</a>. Oxford Dictionary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230213075948/https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/jew">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2023. <q>a member of the people and cultural community whose traditional religion is Judaism and who come from the ancient Hebrew people of Israel; a person who believes in and practises Judaism</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jew&rft.pub=Oxford+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fjew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/jew">Jew</a>. Collins. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230722022904/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/jew">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2023. <q>a person whose religion is Judaism", "a member of the Semitic people who claim descent from the ancient Hebrew people of Israel, are spread throughout the world, and are linked by cultural or religious ties</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jew&rft.pub=Collins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fjew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lederhendler20012-20"><a href="#cite_ref-Lederhendler20012_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEli_Lederhendler2001" class="citation book cs1">Eli Lederhendler (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1wvahJv83AgC&pg=PA101">Studies in Contemporary Jewry: Volume XVII: Who Owns Judaism? Public Religion and Private Faith in America and Israel</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 101–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534896-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534896-5"><bdi>978-0-19-534896-5</bdi></a>. <q>Historically, the religious and ethnic dimensions of Jewish identity have been closely interwoven. In fact, so closely bound are they, that the traditional Jewish lexicon hardly distinguishes between the two concepts. Jewish religious practice, by definition, was observed exclusively by the Jewish people, and notions of Jewish peoplehood, nation, and community were suffused with faith in the Jewish God, the practice of Jewish (religious) law and the study of ancient religious texts</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Contemporary+Jewry%3A+Volume+XVII%3A+Who+Owns+Judaism%3F+Public+Religion+and+Private+Faith+in+America+and+Israel&rft.pages=101-&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534896-5&rft.au=Eli+Lederhendler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1wvahJv83AgC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yee20052-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Yee20052_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTet-Lim_N._Yee2005" class="citation book cs1">Tet-Lim N. Yee (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x4OwXhMOn5cC&pg=PA102">Jews, Gentiles and Ethnic Reconciliation: Paul's Jewish identity and Ephesians</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-44411-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-44411-8"><bdi>978-1-139-44411-8</bdi></a>. <q>This identification in the Jewish attitude between the ethnic group and religious identity is so close that the reception into this religion of members not belonging to its ethnic group has become impossible.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+Gentiles+and+Ethnic+Reconciliation%3A+Paul%27s+Jewish+identity+and+Ephesians&rft.pages=102-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-139-44411-8&rft.au=Tet-Lim+N.+Yee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx4OwXhMOn5cC%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholson20022-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Nicholson20022_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Nicholson2002" class="citation book cs1">M. Nicholson (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HvI8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19">International Relations: A Concise Introduction</a>. NYU Press. pp. 19–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5822-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5822-9"><bdi>978-0-8147-5822-9</bdi></a>. <q>The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Relations%3A+A+Concise+Introduction&rft.pages=19-&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-5822-9&rft.au=M.+Nicholson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHvI8DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dowty19982-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Dowty19982_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Dowty1998" class="citation book cs1">Alan Dowty (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vL8r4U1FKSQC&pg=PA3">The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface</a>. University of California Press. pp. 3–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92706-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92706-3"><bdi>978-0-520-92706-3</bdi></a>. <q>Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+State%3A+A+Century+Later%2C+Updated+With+a+New+Preface&rft.pages=3-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92706-3&rft.au=Alan+Dowty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvL8r4U1FKSQC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-KrauszTulea2-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KrauszTulea2_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KrauszTulea2_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErnest_KrauszGitta_Tulea1997" class="citation book cs1">Ernest Krausz; Gitta Tulea (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dnxv-Mlz0JIC&pg=PA90">Jewish Survival: The Identity Problem at the Close of the Twentieth Century; [... International Workshop at Bar-Ilan University on the 18th and 19th of March, 1997]</a>. Transaction Publishers. pp. 90–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2689-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-2689-1"><bdi>978-1-4128-2689-1</bdi></a>. <q>A person born Jewish who refutes Judaism may continue to assert a Jewish identity, and if he or she does not convert to another religion, even religious Jews will recognize the person as a Jew</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Survival%3A+The+Identity+Problem+at+the+Close+of+the+Twentieth+Century%3B+%26%2391%3B...+International+Workshop+at+Bar-Ilan+University+on+the+18th+and+19th+of+March%2C+1997%26%2393%3B&rft.pages=90-&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-2689-1&rft.au=Ernest+Krausz&rft.au=Gitta+Tulea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddnxv-Mlz0JIC%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpr.org.uk/insights/belonging-without-believing-british-jewish-identity-and-god">"Belonging without believing: British Jewish identity and God"</a>. Institute for Jewish Policy Research. 20 March 2024. <q>Only a third of Jews living in the UK have faith in God, as described in the Bible, yet 'non-believers' make up more than half of paid-up synagogue memberships, according to data from the JPR National Jewish Identity Survey</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+for+Jewish+Policy+Research&rft.atitle=Belonging+without+believing%3A+British+Jewish+identity+and+God&rft.date=2024-03-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpr.org.uk%2Finsights%2Fbelonging-without-believing-british-jewish-identity-and-god&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2021/05/13/jews-in-u-s-are-far-less-religious-than-christians-and-americans-overall-at-least-by-traditional-measures">"Jews in U.S. are far less religious than Christians and Americans overall, at least by traditional measures"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a>. 13 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center&rft.atitle=Jews+in+U.S.+are+far+less+religious+than+Christians+and+Americans+overall%2C+at+least+by+traditional+measures&rft.date=2021-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fshort-reads%2F2021%2F05%2F13%2Fjews-in-u-s-are-far-less-religious-than-christians-and-americans-overall-at-least-by-traditional-measures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/beliefs/conversion.shtml">"BBC - Religions - Judaism: Converting to Judaism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. Retrieved 29 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=BBC+-+Religions+-+Judaism%3A+Converting+to+Judaism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fjudaism%2Fbeliefs%2Fconversion.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-John_Day_pp._47-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-John_Day_pp._47_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-John_Day_pp._47_28-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Day_(Old_Testament_scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Day (Old Testament scholar)">John Day</a> (2005), In Search of Pre-Exilic Israel, Bloomsbury Publishing, pp. 47.5 [48] 'In this sense, the emergence of ancient Israel is viewed not as the cause of the demise of Canaanite culture but as its upshot'. </li> <li id="cite_note-MINDELL2009-29"><a href="#cite_ref-MINDELL2009_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_P_Mindell2009" class="citation book cs1">David P Mindell (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kA6eaz7hsC&pg=PA224">The Evolving World</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04108-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-04108-0"><bdi>978-0-674-04108-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolving+World&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-04108-0&rft.au=David+P+Mindell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds8kA6eaz7hsC%26pg%3DPA224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knowledge_Resources:_Judaism-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Knowledge_Resources:_Judaism_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110827210045/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/traditions/judaism">"Knowledge Resources: Judaism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Berkley_Center_for_Religion,_Peace,_and_World_Affairs" title="Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs">Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/traditions/judaism">the original</a> on 27 August 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Knowledge+Resources%3A+Judaism&rft.pub=Berkley+Center+for+Religion%2C+Peace%2C+and+World+Affairs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fberkleycenter.georgetown.edu%2Fresources%2Ftraditions%2Fjudaism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertz2003" class="citation book cs1">Albertz, Rainer (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&pg=PA45">Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century B.C.E.</a> Society of Biblical Lit. pp. 45ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-055-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-055-4"><bdi>978-1-58983-055-4</bdi></a>. <q>Since the exilic era constitutes a gaping hole in the historical narrative of the Bible, historical reconstruction of this era faces almost insurmountable difficulties. Like the premonarchic period and the late Persian period, the exilic period, though set in the bright light of Ancient Near Eastern history, remains historically obscure. Since there are very few Israelite sources, the only recourse is to try to cast some light on this darkness from the history of the surrounding empires under whose dominion Israel came in this period.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel+in+Exile%3A+The+History+and+Literature+of+the+Sixth+Century+B.C.E.&rft.pages=45ff&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Lit&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-58983-055-4&rft.aulast=Albertz&rft.aufirst=Rainer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXx9YzJq2B9wC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> * <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarvin_Perry2012" class="citation book cs1">Marvin Perry (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC">Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789</a>. Cengage Learning. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83720-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83720-4"><bdi>978-1-111-83720-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+A+Brief+History%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1789&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-111-83720-4&rft.au=Marvin+Perry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU2pnv0Aoh2EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotticiniEckstein2007" class="citation journal cs1">Botticini, Maristella; Eckstein, Zvi (1 September 2007). "From Farmers to Merchants, Conversions and Diaspora: Human Capital and Jewish History". Journal of the European Economic Association. 5 (5): 885–926. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2FJEEA.2007.5.5.885">10.1162/JEEA.2007.5.5.885</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+European+Economic+Association&rft.atitle=From+Farmers+to+Merchants%2C+Conversions+and+Diaspora%3A+Human+Capital+and+Jewish+History&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E885-%3C%2Fspan%3E926&rft.date=2007-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2FJEEA.2007.5.5.885&rft.aulast=Botticini&rft.aufirst=Maristella&rft.au=Eckstein%2C+Zvi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> "The death toll of the Great Revolt against the Roman empire amounted to about 600,000 Jews, whereas the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 caused the death of about 500,000 Jews. Massacres account for roughly 40 percent of the decrease of the Jewish population in Palestine. Moreover, some Jews migrated to Babylon after these revolts because of the worse economic conditions. After accounting for massacres and migrations, there is an additional 30 to 40 percent of the decrease in the Jewish population in Palestine (about 1–1.3 million Jews) to be explained" (p. 19).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nes.berkeley.edu/Web_Boyarin/BoyarinArticles/69%20Diaspora%20(1993).pdf">Boyarin, Daniel, and Jonathan Boyarin. 2003. Diaspora: Generation and the Ground of Jewish Diaspora. p. 714</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201011234750/https://nes.berkeley.edu/Web_Boyarin/BoyarinArticles/69%20Diaspora%20(1993).pdf">Archived</a> 11 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "...it is crucial to recognize that the Jewish conception of the Land of Israel is similar to the discourse of the Land of many (if not nearly all) "indigenous" peoples of the world. Somehow the Jews have managed to retain a sense of being rooted somewhere in the world through twenty centuries of exile from that someplace (organic metaphors are not out of place in this discourse, for they are used within the tradition itself). It is profoundly disturbing to hear Jewish attachment to the Land decried as regressive in the same discursive situations in which the attachment of native Americans or Australians to their particular rocks, trees, and deserts is celebrated as an organic connection to the Earth that "we" have lost" p. 714.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OcY0Oy5VpGIC&q=greek&pg=PA24">Cohen, Robin (1997), Global Diasporas: An Introduction. p. 24 London: UCL Press.</a> "...although the word Babylon often connotes captivity and oppression, a rereading of the Babylonian period of exile can thus be shown to demonstrate the development of a new creative energy in a challenging, pluralistic context outside the natal homeland. When the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in AD 70, it was Babylon that remained as the nerve- and brain-centre for Jewish life and thought...the crushing of the revolt of the Judaeans against the Romans and the destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman general Titus in AD 70 precisely confirmed the catastrophic tradition. Once again, Jews had been unable to sustain a national homeland and were scattered to the far corners of the world" (p. 24).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YBarWAR2qVkC&pg=PA159">Johnson, Paul A History of the Jews "The Bar Kochba Revolt," (HarperPerennial, 1987) pp. 158–61</a>: Paul Johnson analyzes Cassius Dio's Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX para. 13–14 (Dio's passage cited separately) among other sources: "Even if Dio's figures are somewhat exaggerated, the casualties amongst the population and the destruction inflicted on the country would have been considerable. According to Jerome, many Jews were also sold into slavery, so many, indeed, that the price of Jewish slaves at the slave market in Hebron sank drastically to a level no greater than that for a horse. The economic structure of the country was largely destroyed. The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Jerusalem was now turned into a Roman colony with the official name Colonia Aelia Capitolina (Aelia after Hadrian's family name: P. Aelius Hadrianus; Capitolina after Jupiter Capitolinus). The Jews were forbidden on pain of death to set foot in the new Roman city. Aelia thus became a completely pagan city, no doubt with the corresponding public buildings and temples... We can...be certain that a statue of Hadrian was erected in the centre of Aelia, and this was tantamount in itself to a desecration of Jewish Jerusalem." p. 159.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/69*.html">Cassius Dio's Roman History: Epitome of Book LXIX para. 13–14</a>: "13 At first the Romans took no account of them. Soon, however, all Judaea had been stirred up, and the Jews everywhere were showing signs of disturbance, were gathering together, and giving evidence of great hostility to the Romans, partly by secret and partly by overt acts; 2 many outside nations, too, were joining them through eagerness for gain, and the whole earth, one might almost say, was being stirred up over the matter. Then, indeed, Hadrian sent against them his best generals. First of these was Julius Severus, who was dispatched from Britain, where he was governor, against the Jews. 3 Severus did not venture to attack his opponents in the open at any one point, in view of their numbers and their desperation, but by intercepting small groups, thanks to the number of his soldiers and his under-officers, and by depriving them of food and shutting them up, he was able, rather slowly, to be sure, but with comparatively little danger, to crush, exhaust and exterminate them. Very few of them in fact survived. Fifty of their most important outposts and nine hundred and eighty-five of their most famous villages were razed to the ground. Five hundred and eighty thousand men were slain in the various raids and battles, and the number of those that perished by famine, disease and fire was past finding out. 2 Thus nearly the whole of Judaea was made desolate, a result of which the people had had forewarning before the war. For the tomb of Solomon, which the Jews regard as an object of veneration, fell to pieces of itself and collapsed, and many wolves and hyenas rushed howling into their cities. 3 Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore Hadrian in writing to the senate did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors, 'If you and our children are in health, it is well; I and the legions are in health'" (para. 13–14).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafran2005" class="citation journal cs1">Safran, William (2005). "The Jewish Diaspora in a Comparative and Theoretical Perspective". Israel Studies. 10 (1): 36–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2FISR.2005.10.1.36">10.2979/ISR.2005.10.1.36</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30245753">30245753</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144379115">144379115</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Project_Muse" title="Project Muse">Project MUSE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/180371">180371</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Jewish+Diaspora+in+a+Comparative+and+Theoretical+Perspective&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E36-%3C%2Fspan%3E60&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144379115%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30245753%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2FISR.2005.10.1.36&rft.aulast=Safran&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> "...diaspora referred to a very specific case—that of the exile of the Jews from the Holy Land and their dispersal throughout several parts of the globe. Diaspora [galut] connoted deracination, legal disabilities, oppression, and an often painful adjustment to a hostland whose hospitality was unreliable and ephemeral. It also connoted the existence on foreign soil of an expatriate community that considered its presence to be transitory. Meanwhile, it developed a set of institutions, social patterns, and ethnonational and/or religious symbols that held it together. These included the language, religion, values, social norms, and narratives of the homeland. Gradually, this community adjusted to the hostland environment and became itself a center of cultural creation. All the while, however, it continued to cultivate the idea of return to the homeland." (p. 36).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheffer2005" class="citation journal cs1">Sheffer, Gabriel (2005). "Is the Jewish Diaspora Unique? Reflections on the Diaspora's Current Situation". Israel Studies. 10 (1): 1–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2979%2FISR.2005.10.1.1">10.2979/ISR.2005.10.1.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30245752">30245752</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143958201">143958201</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Project_Muse" title="Project Muse">Project MUSE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/180374">180374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Studies&rft.atitle=Is+the+Jewish+Diaspora+Unique%3F+Reflections+on+the+Diaspora%27s+Current+Situation&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143958201%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30245752%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2979%2FISR.2005.10.1.1&rft.aulast=Sheffer&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> "...the Jewish nation, which from its very earliest days believed and claimed that it was the "chosen people," and hence unique. This attitude has further been buttressed by the equally traditional view, which is held not only by the Jews themselves, about the exceptional historical age of this diaspora, its singular traumatic experiences its singular ability to survive pogroms, exiles, and Holocaust, as well as its "special relations" with its ancient homeland, culminating in 1948 with the nation-state that the Jewish nation has established there... First, like many other members of established diasporas, the vast majority of Jews no longer regard themselves as being in Galut [exile] in their host countries....Perceptually, as well as actually, Jews permanently reside in host countries of their own free will, as a result of inertia, or as a result of problematic conditions prevailing in other hostlands, or in Israel. It means that the basic perception of many Jews about their existential situation in their hostlands has changed. Consequently, there is both a much greater self- and collective-legitimatization to refrain from making serious plans concerning "return" or actually "making Aliyah" [to emigrate, or "go up"] to Israel. This is one of the results of their wider, yet still rather problematic and sometimes painful acceptance by the societies and political systems in their host countries. It means that they, and to an extent their hosts, do not regard Jewish life within the framework of diasporic formations in these hostlands as something that they should be ashamed of, hide from others, or alter by returning to the old homeland" (p. 4).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesFinkelsteinKatz1984" class="citation book cs1">Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Katz, Steven T. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BjtWLZhhMoYC">The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8"><bdi>978-0-521-77248-8</bdi></a>. <q>Although Dio's figure of 985 as the number of villages destroyed during the war seems hyperbolic, all Judaean villages, without exception, excavated thus far were razed following the Bar Kochba Revolt. This evidence supports the impression of total regional destruction following the war. Historical sources note the vast number of captives sold into slavery in Palestine and shipped abroad. ... The Judaean Jewish community never recovered from the Bar Kochba war. In its wake, Jews no longer formed the majority in Palestine, and the Jewish center moved to the Galilee. Jews were also subjected to a series of religious edicts promulgated by Hadrian that were designed to uproot the nationalistic elements with the Judaean Jewish community, these proclamations remained in effect until Hadrian's death in 138. An additional, more lasting punitive measure taken by the Romans involved expunging Judaea from the provincial name, changing it from Provincia Judaea to Provincia Syria Palestina. Although such name changes occurred elsewhere, never before or after was a nation's name expunged as the result of rebellion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism%3A+Volume+4%2C+The+Late+Roman-Rabbinic+Period&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77248-8&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=William+David&rft.au=Finkelstein%2C+Louis&rft.au=Katz%2C+Steven+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBjtWLZhhMoYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dalit Rom-Shiloni, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ffE3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PR15">Exclusive Inclusivity: Identity Conflicts Between the Exiles and the People who Remained (6th–5th Centuries BCE)</a>, A&C Black, 2013 p. xv n.3: 'it is argued that biblical texts of the Neo-Babylonian and the early Persian periods show a fierce adversarial relationship(s) between the Judean groups. We find no expressions of sympathy to the deported community for its dislocation, no empathic expressions towards the People Who Remained under Babylonian subjugation in Judah. The opposite is apparent: hostile, denigrating, and denunciating language characterizes the relationships between resident and exiled Judeans throughout the sixth and fifth centuries.' (p. xvii)</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEban1984" class="citation book cs1">Eban, Abba Solomon (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GkzdBDuhoRgC&pg=PA87">Heritage: Civilization and the Jews</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-44103-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-44103-6"><bdi>978-0-671-44103-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heritage%3A+Civilization+and+the+Jews&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-671-44103-6&rft.aulast=Eban&rft.aufirst=Abba+Solomon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGkzdBDuhoRgC%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dosick-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Dosick_34-0">^</a> Dosick (2007), pp. 59, 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewfaq.org/ashkenazic_and_sephardic">"Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews - Judaism 101 (JewFAQ)"</a>. www.jewfaq.org. Retrieved 12 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewfaq.org&rft.atitle=Ashkenazic+and+Sephardic+Jews+-+Judaism+101+%28JewFAQ%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewfaq.org%2Fashkenazic_and_sephardic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JVIL2010-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JVIL2010_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-JVIL2010_36-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html">"The Jewish Population of the World (2014)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a>. Retrieved 30 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.atitle=The+Jewish+Population+of+the+World+%282014%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2FJudaism%2Fjewpop.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988">, based on <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142">American Jewish Year Book</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Committee" title="American Jewish Committee">American Jewish Committee</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Jewish+Year+Book&rft.pub=American+Jewish+Committee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajcarchives.org%2Fmain.php%3FGroupingId%3D10142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/the-holocaust">"The Holocaust"</a>. HISTORY.com. Retrieved 10 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY.com&rft.atitle=The+Holocaust&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Fworld-war-ii%2Fthe-holocaust&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2020" class="citation web cs1">Mitchell, Travis (22 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2020/01/22/what-americans-know-about-the-holocaust/">"What Americans Know About the Holocaust"</a>. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research+Center%27s+Religion+%26+Public+Life+Project&rft.atitle=What+Americans+Know+About+the+Holocaust&rft.date=2020-01-22&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Travis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Freligion%2F2020%2F01%2F22%2Fwhat-americans-know-about-the-holocaust%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilverman2012" class="citation news cs1">Silverman, Anav (October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4291987,00.html">"Jews make up only 0.2% of mankind"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ynetnews" class="mw-redirect" title="Ynetnews">ynetnews</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ynetnews&rft.atitle=Jews+make+up+only+0.2%25+of+mankind&rft.date=2012-10&rft.aulast=Silverman&rft.aufirst=Anav&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ynetnews.com%2Farticles%2F0%2C7340%2CL-4291987%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pfeffer-40"><a href="#cite_ref-Pfeffer_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPfeffer2007" class="citation news cs1">Pfeffer, Anshel (12 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090319024731/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html">"Jewish Agency: 13.2 million Jews worldwide on eve of Rosh Hashanah, 5768"</a>. Haaretz. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html">the original</a> on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 24 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Jewish+Agency%3A+13.2+million+Jews+worldwide+on+eve+of+Rosh+Hashanah%2C+5768&rft.date=2007-09-12&rft.aulast=Pfeffer&rft.aufirst=Anshel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fhasen%2Fspages%2F903585.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daly2013-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Daly2013_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daly2013_42-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daly2013_42-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daly2013_42-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daly2013_42-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daly2013_42-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daly2013_42-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Daly2013_42-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Daly2013" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Daly (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA21">The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization</a>. A&C Black. pp. 21–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-1851-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-1851-6"><bdi>978-1-4411-1851-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Western+Power%3A+A+Comparative+History+of+Western+Civilization&rft.pages=21-&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-1851-6&rft.au=Jonathan+Daly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9aZPAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988">"Upon the foundation of Judaism, two civilizations centered on monotheistic religion emerged, Christianity and Islam. To these civilizations, the Jews added a leaven of astonishing creativity in business, medicine, letters, science, the arts, and a variety of other leadership roles." </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/maimonid/">"Maimonides – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. utm.edu. Retrieved 26 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=utm.edu&rft.atitle=Maimonides+%E2%80%93+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fmaimonid%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSekine2005" class="citation book cs1">Sekine, Seizo (20 January 2005). A Comparative Study of the Origins of Ethical Thought: Hellenism and Hebraism. Sheed & Ward. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4616-7459-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4616-7459-7"><bdi>978-1-4616-7459-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comparative+Study+of+the+Origins+of+Ethical+Thought%3A+Hellenism+and+Hebraism&rft.pub=Sheed+%26+Ward&rft.date=2005-01-20&rft.isbn=978-1-4616-7459-7&rft.aulast=Sekine&rft.aufirst=Seizo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dctheatrescene.com/2013/06/25/broadway-musicals-a-jewish-legacy/">"Broadway Musicals: A Jewish Legacy"</a>. DC Theatre Scene.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DC+Theatre+Scene&rft.atitle=Broadway+Musicals%3A+A+Jewish+Legacy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdctheatrescene.com%2F2013%2F06%2F25%2Fbroadway-musicals-a-jewish-legacy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rabin-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rabin_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rabin_46-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabin2012" class="citation news cs1">Rabin, Roni Caryn (14 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/15/health/exhibition-traces-the-emergence-of-jews-as-medical-innovators.html">"Tracing the Path of Jewish Medical Pioneers"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Retrieved 20 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Tracing+the+Path+of+Jewish+Medical+Pioneers&rft.date=2012-05-14&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Rabin&rft.aufirst=Roni+Caryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F05%2F15%2Fhealth%2Fexhibition-traces-the-emergence-of-jews-as-medical-innovators.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shatzmiller,_Joseph_1995-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shatzmiller,_Joseph_1995_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shatzmiller,_Joseph_1995_47-1">b</a> Shatzmiller, Joseph. Doctors to Princes and Paupers: Jews, Medicine, and Medieval Society. Berkeley: U of California, 1995. Print. </li> <li id="cite_note-Dimont2004-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dimont2004_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dimont2004_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMax_I._Dimont2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_I._Dimont" class="mw-redirect" title="Max I. Dimont">Max I. Dimont</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lm5U0YSPmBUC&pg=PT102">Jews, God, and History</a>. Penguin Publishing Group. pp. 102–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-14225-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-14225-7"><bdi>978-1-101-14225-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews%2C+God%2C+and+History&rft.pages=102-&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-101-14225-7&rft.au=Max+I.+Dimont&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLm5U0YSPmBUC%26pg%3DPT102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> "During the subsequent five hundred years, under Persian, Greek and Roman domination, the Jews wrote, revised, admitted and canonized all the books now comprising the Jewish Old Testament" </li> <li id="cite_note-Galambush2011-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Galambush2011_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Galambush2011_49-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulie_Galambush2011" class="citation book cs1">Julie Galambush (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=52nkWb8GNMAC&pg=PA3">The Reluctant Parting: How the New Testament's Jewish Writers Created a Christian Book</a>. HarperCollins. pp. 3–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-210475-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-210475-5"><bdi>978-0-06-210475-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reluctant+Parting%3A+How+the+New+Testament%27s+Jewish+Writers+Created+a+Christian+Book&rft.pages=3-&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-06-210475-5&rft.au=Julie+Galambush&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D52nkWb8GNMAC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988">"The fact that Jesus and his followers who wrote the New Testament were first-century Jews, then, produces as many questions as it does answers concerning their experiences, beliefs, and practices" </li> <li id="cite_note-BarclaySweet1996-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BarclaySweet1996_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BarclaySweet1996_50-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_M._G._BarclayJohn_Philip_McMurdo_Sweet1996" class="citation book cs1">John M. G. Barclay; John Philip McMurdo Sweet (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DN0t06-wVvoC&pg=PA20">Early Christian Thought in Its Jewish Context</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46285-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46285-3"><bdi>978-0-521-46285-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Christian+Thought+in+Its+Jewish+Context&rft.pages=20-&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-46285-3&rft.au=John+M.+G.+Barclay&rft.au=John+Philip+McMurdo+Sweet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDN0t06-wVvoC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988">"Early Christianity began as a Jewish movement in first-century Palestine" </li> <li id="cite_note-Paterson2009-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paterson2009_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paterson2009_51-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDr._Andrea_C._Paterson2009" class="citation book cs1">Dr. Andrea C. Paterson (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tuuys4HxSzcC&pg=PA41">Three Monotheistic Faiths – Judaism, Christianity, Islam: An Analysis and Brief History</a>. AuthorHouse. pp. 41–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4520-3049-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4520-3049-4"><bdi>978-1-4520-3049-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Monotheistic+Faiths+%E2%80%93+Judaism%2C+Christianity%2C+Islam%3A+An+Analysis+and+Brief+History&rft.pages=41-&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4520-3049-4&rft.au=Dr.+Andrea+C.+Paterson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtuuys4HxSzcC%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> "Judaism also contributed to the religion of Islam for Islam derives its ideas of holy text, the Qur'an, ultimately from Judaism. The dietary and legal codes of Islam are based on those of Judaism. The basic design of the mosque, the Islamic house of worship, comes from that of the early synagogues. The communal prayer services of Islam and their devotional routines resembles those of Judaism." </li> <li id="cite_note-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Historical_Series_52-1">b</a> Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p. 40: "Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of Western nations since the Christian era." </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica.com-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica.com_53-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition">"Judaism – The Judaic tradition | Britannica"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Retrieved 20 August 2022. <q>Judaism has played a significant role in the development of Western culture because of its unique relationship with Christianity, the dominant religious force in the West</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Judaism+%E2%80%93+The+Judaic+tradition+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FJudaism%2FThe-Judaic-tradition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EJ253-54"><a href="#cite_ref-EJ253_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrintz2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Grintz, Yehoshua M. (2007). "Jew". In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Berenbaum" title="Michael Berenbaum">Berenbaum, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fred_Skolnik" title="Fred Skolnik">Skolnik, Fred</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a>. Vol. 11 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4"><bdi>978-0-02-866097-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jew&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=253&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-02-866097-4&rft.aulast=Grintz&rft.aufirst=Yehoshua+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_55-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Jew-people">"Jew | History, Beliefs, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. 3 July 2024. Retrieved 6 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Jew+%7C+History%2C+Beliefs%2C+%26+Facts+%7C+Britannica&rft.date=2024-07-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FJew-people&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Cf. <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Jastrow" title="Marcus Jastrow">Marcus Jastrow</a>'s Dictionary of the Targumim, Talmud Babli, Talmud Yerushalmi and Midrashic Literature, and the source he used: <a href="/wiki/Megillah_(Talmud)" title="Megillah (Talmud)">Megilla</a> 13a:2 (Talmud). </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_57-1">b</a> Amy-Jill Levine. The Misunderstood Jew: The Church and the Scandal of the Jewish Jesus. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2006, page 162 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_58-1">b</a> "Jew", Oxford English Dictionary. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotterweckRinggren1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._Johannes_Botterweck" title="G. Johannes Botterweck">Botterweck, G. Johannes</a>; <a href="/wiki/Helmer_Ringgren" title="Helmer Ringgren">Ringgren, Helmer</a>, eds. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pcAkKMECPKIC&pg=PA483">Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament</a>. Vol. V. Translated by Green, David E. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans. pp. 483–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2329-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2329-8"><bdi>978-0-8028-2329-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theological+Dictionary+of+the+Old+Testament&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Mich.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E483-%3C%2Fspan%3E84&rft.pub=William+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2329-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpcAkKMECPKIC%26pg%3DPA483&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJulia_Phillips_BergerSue_Parker_Gerson2006" class="citation book cs1">Julia Phillips Berger; Sue Parker Gerson (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zese2C-fDTEC&q=when+was+the+term+jew+first+used&pg=PA41">Teaching Jewish History</a>. Behrman House, Inc. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86705-183-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86705-183-4"><bdi>978-0-86705-183-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teaching+Jewish+History&rft.pages=41&rft.pub=Behrman+House%2C+Inc&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-86705-183-4&rft.au=Julia+Phillips+Berger&rft.au=Sue+Parker+Gerson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzese2C-fDTEC%26q%3Dwhen%2Bwas%2Bthe%2Bterm%2Bjew%2Bfirst%2Bused%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChouraqui1975" class="citation book cs1">Chouraqui, André (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/peoplefaith00andr">The people and the faith of the Bible</a>. Internet Archive. Amherst : University of Massachusetts Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87023-172-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87023-172-8"><bdi>978-0-87023-172-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+people+and+the+faith+of+the+Bible&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Amherst+%3A+University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-87023-172-8&rft.aulast=Chouraqui&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeoplefaith00andr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaples2021" class="citation journal cs1">Staples, Jason A. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108906524">"The Idea of Israel in Second Temple Judaism: A New Theory of People, Exile, and Israelite Identity"</a>. Cambridge University Press: 25–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108906524">10.1017/9781108906524</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108906524" title="Special:BookSources/9781108906524"><bdi>9781108906524</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235573883">235573883</a> – via Cambridge Core.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.atitle=The+Idea+of+Israel+in+Second+Temple+Judaism%3A+A+New+Theory+of+People%2C+Exile%2C+and+Israelite+Identity&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E25-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A235573883%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108906524&rft.isbn=9781108906524&rft.aulast=Staples&rft.aufirst=Jason+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%2F9781108906524&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Facts On File Inc., Infobase Publishing, 2009, p. 336 </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Adele Reinhartz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://marginalia.lareviewofbooks.org/vanishing-jews-antiquity-adele-reinhartz/">"The Vanishing Jews of Antiquity"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170822181415/http://marginalia.lareviewofbooks.org/vanishing-jews-antiquity-adele-reinhartz/">Archived</a> 22 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> "Marginalia", L.A. Review of Books, 24 June 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Danker, Frederick W. "Ioudaios", in A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. third edition University of Chicago Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226039336" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226039336">978-0226039336</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2014" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Daniel R. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt1287s34">Judeans and Jews: Four Faces of Dichotomy in Ancient Jewish History</a>. University of Toronto Press. pp. 3–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442648395" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442648395"><bdi>978-1442648395</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt1287s34">10.3138/j.ctt1287s34</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judeans+and+Jews%3A+Four+Faces+of+Dichotomy+in+Ancient+Jewish+History&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3138%2Fj.ctt1287s34%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1442648395&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Daniel+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3138%2Fj.ctt1287s34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2001" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Shaye J.D. (2001). The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520226937" title="Special:BookSources/9780520226937"><bdi>9780520226937</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Jewishness%3A+Boundaries%2C+Varieties%2C+Uncertainties&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780520226937&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Shaye+J.D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-68"><a href="#cite_ref-:14_68-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2003" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, Troy W. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3268093">"The Covenant of Circumcision (Genesis 17:9-14) and the Situational Antitheses in Galatians 3:28"</a>. Journal of Biblical Literature. 122 (1): 111–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3268093">10.2307/3268093</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3268093">3268093</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.atitle=The+Covenant+of+Circumcision+%28Genesis+17%3A9-14%29+and+the+Situational+Antitheses+in+Galatians+3%3A28&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E111-%3C%2Fspan%3E125&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3268093&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3268093%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Troy+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3268093&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalk1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Avner_Falk" title="Avner Falk">Falk, Avner</a> (1996). A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews. Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8386-3660-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8386-3660-8"><bdi>0-8386-3660-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Psychoanalytic+History+of+the+Jews&rft.place=Madison%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Fairleigh+Dickinson+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8386-3660-8&rft.aulast=Falk&rft.aufirst=Avner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersc00merr_6/page/1453">"Yiddish"</a>. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster. 2004. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersc00merr_6/page/1453">1453</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87779-809-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87779-809-5"><bdi>0-87779-809-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yiddish&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster%27s+Collegiate+Dictionary&rft.place=Springfield%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=1453&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-87779-809-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmerriamwebstersc00merr_6%2Fpage%2F1453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleinedlerSpitz2005" class="citation book cs1">Kleinedler, Steven; Spitz, Susan; et al., eds. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xb6ie6PqYhwC&pg=PA269">The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style</a>. Houghton Mifflin Company. Jew. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-60499-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-60499-9"><bdi>978-0-618-60499-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Guide+to+Contemporary+Usage+and+Style&rft.pages=Jew&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-618-60499-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxb6ie6PqYhwC%26pg%3DPA269&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicholson2002-72"><a href="#cite_ref-Nicholson2002_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Nicholson2002" class="citation book cs1">M. Nicholson (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HvI8DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19">International Relations: A Concise Introduction</a>. NYU Press. pp. 19–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5822-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-5822-9"><bdi>978-0-8147-5822-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Relations%3A+A+Concise+Introduction&rft.pages=19-&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-5822-9&rft.au=M.+Nicholson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHvI8DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> "The Jews are a nation and were so before there was a Jewish state of Israel" </li> <li id="cite_note-Neusner1991-73"><a href="#cite_ref-Neusner1991_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacob_Neusner1991" class="citation book cs1">Jacob Neusner (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju0000neus">An Introduction to Judaism: A Textbook and Reader</a>. Westminster John Knox Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoju0000neus/page/375">375</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25348-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25348-6"><bdi>978-0-664-25348-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Judaism%3A+A+Textbook+and+Reader&rft.pages=375-&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-664-25348-6&rft.au=Jacob+Neusner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoju0000neus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> "That there is a Jewish nation can hardly be denied after the creation of the State of Israel" </li> <li id="cite_note-Dowty1998-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Dowty1998_74-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Dowty1998" class="citation book cs1">Alan Dowty (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vL8r4U1FKSQC&pg=PA3">The Jewish State: A Century Later, Updated With a New Preface</a>. University of California Press. pp. 3–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92706-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92706-3"><bdi>978-0-520-92706-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+State%3A+A+Century+Later%2C+Updated+With+a+New+Preface&rft.pages=3-&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92706-3&rft.au=Alan+Dowty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvL8r4U1FKSQC%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> "Jews are a people, a nation (in the original sense of the word), an ethnos" </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-75"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandeis1915" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis, Louis</a> (25 April 1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://louisville.edu/law/library/special-collections/the-louis-d.-brandeis-collection/the-jewish-problem-how-to-solve-it-by-louis-d.-brandeis">"The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It"</a>. University of Louisville School of Law. Retrieved 2 April 2012. <q>Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Problem%3A+How+To+Solve+It&rft.pub=University+of+Louisville+School+of+Law&rft.date=1915-04-25&rft.aulast=Brandeis&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flouisville.edu%2Flaw%2Flibrary%2Fspecial-collections%2Fthe-louis-d.-brandeis-collection%2Fthe-jewish-problem-how-to-solve-it-by-louis-d.-brandeis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-76"><a href="#cite_ref-:3_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Henry_Palmer" title="Edward Henry Palmer">Palmer, Edward Henry</a> (2002) [First published 1874]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjewishn00palm">A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day</a>. Gorgias Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931956-69-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931956-69-7"><bdi>978-1-931956-69-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51578088">51578088</a>. Retrieved 2 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+Nation%3A+From+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Present+Day&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51578088&rft.isbn=978-1-931956-69-7&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Edward+Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofjewishn00palm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEinstein1921" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein, Albert</a> (21 June 1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151105012335/http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/materials/jewish_nationality.pdf">"How I Became a Zionist"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Einstein_Papers_Project" title="Einstein Papers Project">Einstein Papers Project</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/materials/jewish_nationality.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2012. <q>The Jewish nation is a living fact</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Einstein+Papers+Project&rft.atitle=How+I+Became+a+Zionist&rft.date=1921-06-21&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpress.princeton.edu%2Feinstein%2Fmaterials%2Fjewish_nationality.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GordisHeller2012-78"><a href="#cite_ref-GordisHeller2012_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_M._GordisZachary_I._Heller2012" class="citation book cs1">David M. Gordis; Zachary I. Heller (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QWrSy8Ckd5UC&pg=PA1">Jewish Secularity: The Search for Roots and the Challenges of Relevant Meaning</a>. University Press of America. pp. 1–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5793-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-5793-8"><bdi>978-0-7618-5793-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Secularity%3A+The+Search+for+Roots+and+the+Challenges+of+Relevant+Meaning&rft.pages=1-&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-5793-8&rft.au=David+M.+Gordis&rft.au=Zachary+I.+Heller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQWrSy8Ckd5UC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988">: "Judaism is a culture and a civilization which embraces the secular as well" </li> <li id="cite_note-Kunin2000-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Kunin2000_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeth_Daniel_Kunin2000" class="citation book cs1">Seth Daniel Kunin (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=St_TAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">Themes and Issues in Judaism</a>. A&C Black. pp. 1–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-33758-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-304-33758-3"><bdi>978-0-304-33758-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Themes+and+Issues+in+Judaism&rft.pages=1-&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-304-33758-3&rft.au=Seth+Daniel+Kunin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSt_TAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988">: Although culture - and Judaism is a culture (or cultures) as well as religion - can be subdivided into different analytical categories..." </li> <li id="cite_note-Mendes-Flohr1991-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Mendes-Flohr1991_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_R._Mendes-Flohr1991" class="citation book cs1">Paul R. Mendes-Flohr (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VBuFygk2C-AC&pg=PA421">Divided Passions: Jewish Intellectuals and the Experience of Modernity</a>. Wayne State University Press. pp. 421–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8143-2030-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8143-2030-9"><bdi>0-8143-2030-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Divided+Passions%3A+Jewish+Intellectuals+and+the+Experience+of+Modernity&rft.pages=421-&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-8143-2030-9&rft.au=Paul+R.+Mendes-Flohr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVBuFygk2C-AC%26pg%3DPA421&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988">: "Although Judaism is a culture - or rather has a culture - it is eminently more than a culture" </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiner2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Weiner, Rebecca (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/whojew1.html">"Who is a Jew?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a>. Retrieved 6 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Who+is+a+Jew%3F&rft.btitle=Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2FJudaism%2Fwhojew1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler1997" class="citation book cs1">Fowler, Jeaneane D. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldreligionsin0000unse/page/7">World Religions: An Introduction for Students</a>. Sussex Academic Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worldreligionsin0000unse/page/7">7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-898723-48-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-898723-48-6"><bdi>1-898723-48-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions%3A+An+Introduction+for+Students&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-898723-48-6&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Jeaneane+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworldreligionsin0000unse%2Fpage%2F7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19961018024300/http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html">"What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?"</a>. Shamash.org. 4 September 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html">the original</a> on 18 October 1996. Retrieved 9 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+the+origin+of+Matrilineal+Descent%3F&rft.pub=Shamash.org&rft.date=2003-09-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.shamash.org%2Flists%2Fscj-faq%2FHTML%2Ffaq%2F10-11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081224205847/http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318">"What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish?"</a>. Torah.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318">the original</a> on 24 December 2008. Retrieved 9 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+the+source+of+the+law+that+a+child+is+Jewish+only+if+its+mother+is+Jewish%3F&rft.pub=Torah.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.torah.org%2Fqanda%2Fseequanda.php%3Fid%3D318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klein2016-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Klein2016_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klein2016_85-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmma_Klein2016" class="citation book cs1">Emma Klein (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0BC_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">Lost Jews: The Struggle for Identity Today</a>. Springer. pp. 6–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-24319-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-24319-8"><bdi>978-1-349-24319-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Jews%3A+The+Struggle+for+Identity+Today&rft.pages=6-&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-349-24319-8&rft.au=Emma+Klein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0BC_DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schott2010-86"><a href="#cite_ref-Schott2010_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobin_May_Schott2010" class="citation book cs1">Robin May Schott (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6iFx-wHhMJMC&pg=PA67">Birth, Death, and Femininity: Philosophies of Embodiment</a>. Indiana University Press. pp. 67–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00482-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00482-6"><bdi>978-0-253-00482-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birth%2C+Death%2C+and+Femininity%3A+Philosophies+of+Embodiment&rft.pages=67-&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-253-00482-6&rft.au=Robin+May+Schott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6iFx-wHhMJMC%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Dosick (2007), pp. 56–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-J.D._Cohen-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-J.D._Cohen_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-J.D._Cohen_88-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaye_J.D._Cohen1999" class="citation book cs1">Shaye J.D. Cohen (1999). The Beginnings of Jewishness. U. California Press. pp. 305–06. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-585-24643-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-585-24643-2"><bdi>0-585-24643-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beginnings+of+Jewishness&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E305-%3C%2Fspan%3E06&rft.pub=U.+California+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-585-24643-2&rft.au=Shaye+J.D.+Cohen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMieroop2010" class="citation book cs1">Mieroop, Marc Van De (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JADDYAZ9GIIC&pg=PA131">A History of Ancient Egypt</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6070-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6070-4"><bdi>978-1-4051-6070-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6070-4&rft.aulast=Mieroop&rft.aufirst=Marc+Van+De&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJADDYAZ9GIIC%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBard2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_A._Bard" title="Kathryn A. Bard">Bard, Kathryn A.</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lFscBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188">An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-89611-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-89611-2"><bdi>978-1-118-89611-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Archaeology+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-118-89611-2&rft.aulast=Bard&rft.aufirst=Kathryn+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlFscBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-archaeology.org-91"><a href="#cite_ref-archaeology.org_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurry2018" class="citation journal cs1">Curry, Andrew (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archaeology.org/issues/309-1809/features/6855-egypt-hyksos-foreign-dynasty">"The Rulers of Foreign Lands"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_(magazine)" title="Archaeology (magazine)">Archaeology Magazine</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archaeology+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Rulers+of+Foreign+Lands&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeology.org%2Fissues%2F309-1809%2Ffeatures%2F6855-egypt-hyksos-foreign-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamrin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kamrin, Janice (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/jaei/article/view/28">"The Aamu of Shu in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan"</a>. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. 1 (3): 22–36. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199601200">199601200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ancient+Egyptian+Interconnections&rft.atitle=The+Aamu+of+Shu+in+the+Tomb+of+Khnumhotep+II+at+Beni+Hassan&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A199601200%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kamrin&rft.aufirst=Janice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.uair.arizona.edu%2Findex.php%2Fjaei%2Farticle%2Fview%2F28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuan2016" class="citation book cs1">Kuan, Jeffrey Kah-Jin (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zMOqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65">Neo-Assyrian Historical Inscriptions and Syria-Palestine: Israelite/Judean-Tyrian-Damascene Political and Commercial Relations in the Ninth-Eighth Centuries BCE</a>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. pp. 64–66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4982-8143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4982-8143-0"><bdi>978-1-4982-8143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neo-Assyrian+Historical+Inscriptions+and+Syria-Palestine%3A+Israelite%2FJudean-Tyrian-Damascene+Political+and+Commercial+Relations+in+the+Ninth-Eighth+Centuries+BCE&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E64-%3C%2Fspan%3E66&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4982-8143-0&rft.aulast=Kuan&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+Kah-Jin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzMOqCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenKangas2010" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Ada; Kangas, Steven E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uRKU0YXBWtgC&pg=PA127">Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II: A Cultural Biography</a>. UPNE. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-817-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58465-817-7"><bdi>978-1-58465-817-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assyrian+Reliefs+from+the+Palace+of+Ashurnasirpal+II%3A+A+Cultural+Biography&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=UPNE&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-58465-817-7&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Ada&rft.au=Kangas%2C+Steven+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuRKU0YXBWtgC%26pg%3DPA127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrer2012" class="citation book cs1">Ostrer, Harry (2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press (published 8 May 2012). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537961-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537961-7"><bdi>978-0-19-537961-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacy%3A+A+Genetic+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-537961-7&rft.aulast=Ostrer&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKillebrew2005" class="citation book cs1">Killebrew, Ann E. (October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC">Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanite</a>. Society of Biblical Lit. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-097-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58983-097-4"><bdi>978-1-58983-097-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biblical+Peoples+and+Ethnicity%3A+An+Archaeological+Study+of+Egyptians%2C+Canaanite&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Lit&rft.date=2005-10&rft.isbn=978-1-58983-097-4&rft.aulast=Killebrew&rft.aufirst=Ann+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVtAmmwapfVAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schama2014-97"><a href="#cite_ref-Schama2014_97-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchama2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama" title="Simon Schama">Schama, Simon</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sHIpAgAAQBAJ">The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words 1000 BC–1492 AD</a>. HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-233944-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-233944-7"><bdi>978-0-06-233944-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+the+Jews%3A+Finding+the+Words+1000+BC%E2%80%931492+AD&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-06-233944-7&rft.aulast=Schama&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsHIpAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> * "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves the descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament." <ul><li>"The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 BC)."</li></ul> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303358/Jew">Jew</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostrer2012-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Ostrer2012_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrer2012" class="citation book cs1">Ostrer, Harry (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xIloAgAAQBAJ">Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People</a>. Oxford University Press, USA. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-970205-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-970205-3"><bdi>978-0-19-970205-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacy%3A+A+Genetic+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-970205-3&rft.aulast=Ostrer&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxIloAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brenner2010-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Brenner2010_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrenner2010" class="citation book cs1">Brenner, Michael (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofje00bren">A Short History of the Jews</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14351-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14351-4"><bdi>978-0-691-14351-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Jews&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14351-4&rft.aulast=Brenner&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorthistoryofje00bren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adams1840-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Adams1840_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1840" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Hannah (1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyjewsfrom00adamgoog">The History of the Jews: From the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Present Time</a>. London Society House.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Jews%3A+From+the+Destruction+of+Jerusalem+to+the+Present+Time&rft.pub=London+Society+House&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryjewsfrom00adamgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRendsburg2022" class="citation cs2">Rendsburg, Gary A. (31 December 2022), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814733080.003.0005">"1 Israel Without the Bible"</a>, The Hebrew Bible, New York University Press, pp. 1–23, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18574%2Fnyu%2F9780814733080.003.0005">10.18574/nyu/9780814733080.003.0005</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3308-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-3308-0"><bdi>978-0-8147-3308-0</bdi></a>, retrieved 7 December 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hebrew+Bible&rft.atitle=1+Israel+Without+the+Bible&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.date=2022-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18574%2Fnyu%2F9780814733080.003.0005&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-3308-0&rft.aulast=Rendsburg&rft.aufirst=Gary+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.18574%2Fnyu%2F9780814733080.003.0005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Broshi_2001_174-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Broshi_2001_174_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Broshi_2001_174_103-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroshi2001" class="citation book cs1">Broshi, Maguen (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PA174">Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84127-201-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-84127-201-9"><bdi>1-84127-201-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bread%2C+Wine%2C+Walls+and+Scrolls&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-84127-201-9&rft.aulast=Broshi&rft.aufirst=Maguen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DetTUEorS1zMC%26pg%3DPA174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judah-Hebrew-tribe">"Judah"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 1 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Judah&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FJudah-Hebrew-tribe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/MAGAZINE-israelite-refugees-found-high-office-in-judah-seals-found-in-jerusalem-show-1.5448092">"Israelite refugees found high office in Kingdom of Judah, seals found in Jerusalem show"</a>. Haaretz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Israelite+refugees+found+high+office+in+Kingdom+of+Judah%2C+seals+found+in+Jerusalem+show&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Farchaeology%2FMAGAZINE-israelite-refugees-found-high-office-in-judah-seals-found-in-jerusalem-show-1.5448092&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpielvogel2012" class="citation book cs1">Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2012). Western civilization (8th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-91324-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-91324-5"><bdi>978-0-495-91324-5</bdi></a>. <q>What is generally agreed, however, is that between 1200 and 1000 B.C.E., the Israelites emerged as a distinct group of people, possibly united into tribes or a league of tribes</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+civilization&rft.place=Australia&rft.pages=33&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Wadsworth%2FCengage+Learning&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-495-91324-5&rft.aulast=Spielvogel&rft.aufirst=Jackson+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NollMerneptah-107"><a href="#cite_ref-NollMerneptah_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoll2012" class="citation book cs1">Noll, K. L. (7 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hMeRK7B1EsMC&pg=PA139">Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion: Second Edition</a>. A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-44117-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-44117-1"><bdi>978-0-567-44117-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canaan+and+Israel+in+Antiquity%3A+A+Textbook+on+History+and+Religion%3A+Second+Edition&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2012-12-07&rft.isbn=978-0-567-44117-1&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=K.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhMeRK7B1EsMC%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ThompsonMerneptah-108"><a href="#cite_ref-ThompsonMerneptah_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2000" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Thomas L. (1 January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA275">Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources</a>. BRILL. pp. 137ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11943-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11943-7"><bdi>978-90-04-11943-7</bdi></a>. <q>They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+History+of+the+Israelite+People%3A+From+the+Written+%26+Archaeological+Sources&rft.pages=137ff&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2000-01-01&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11943-7&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Thomas+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRwrrUuHFb6UC%26pg%3DPA275&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yoder2015-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Yoder2015_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoder2015" class="citation book cs1">Yoder, John C. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h7kFCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5%257CYEAR=2015%257CPUBLISHER=FORTRESS">Power and Politics in the Book of Judges: Men and Women of Valor</a>. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4514-9642-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4514-9642-0"><bdi>978-1-4514-9642-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+and+Politics+in+the+Book+of+Judges%3A+Men+and+Women+of+Valor&rft.pub=Augsburg+Fortress+Publishers&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4514-9642-0&rft.aulast=Yoder&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh7kFCAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5%25257CYEAR%3D2015%25257CPUBLISHER%3DFORTRESS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brettler2002-110"><a href="#cite_ref-Brettler2002_110-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarc_Zvi_Brettler2002" class="citation book cs1">Marc Zvi Brettler (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9j9Jbcl6g38C&pg=PA107">The Book of Judges</a>. Psychology Press. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16216-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16216-6"><bdi>978-0-415-16216-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Judges&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16216-6&rft.au=Marc+Zvi+Brettler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9j9Jbcl6g38C%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson2000-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Thompson2000_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_L._Thompson2000" class="citation book cs1">Thomas L. Thompson (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA96">Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources</a>. Brill. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-11943-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-11943-4"><bdi>90-04-11943-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+History+of+the+Israelite+People%3A+From+the+Written+%26+Archaeological+Sources&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=90-04-11943-4&rft.au=Thomas+L.+Thompson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRwrrUuHFb6UC%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HjelmThompson2016-112"><a href="#cite_ref-HjelmThompson2016_112-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHjelmThompson2016" class="citation book cs1">Hjelm, Ingrid; Thompson, Thomas L, eds. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hmOaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4">History, Archaeology and The Bible Forty Years After "Historicity": Changing Perspectives</a>. Routledge. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-42815-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-42815-2"><bdi>978-1-317-42815-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History%2C+Archaeology+and+The+Bible+Forty+Years+After+%22Historicity%22%3A+Changing+Perspectives&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-42815-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhmOaCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies1995-113"><a href="#cite_ref-Davies1995_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_R._Davies1995" class="citation book cs1">Philip R. Davies (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5D5GNju1-ggC&pg=PA26">In Search of "Ancient Israel": A Study in Biblical Origins</a>. A&C Black. p. 26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85075-737-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85075-737-5"><bdi>978-1-85075-737-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+%22Ancient+Israel%22%3A+A+Study+in+Biblical+Origins&rft.pages=26&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-85075-737-5&rft.au=Philip+R.+Davies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5D5GNju1-ggC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lipschits-114"><a href="#cite_ref-lipschits_114-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipschits2014" class="citation book cs1">Lipschits, Oded (2014). "The History of Israel in the Biblical Period". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ">The Jewish Study Bible</a> (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997846-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-997846-5"><bdi>978-0-19-997846-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Israel+in+the+Biblical+Period&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Study+Bible&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-997846-5&rft.aulast=Lipschits&rft.aufirst=Oded&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyErYBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Finkelstein-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Finkelstein_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Finkelstein_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Finkelstein_115-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2001" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-86912-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-86912-8"><bdi>0-684-86912-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+unearthed+%3A+archaeology%27s+new+vision+of+ancient+Israel+and+the+origin+of+its+stories&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st+Touchstone&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-684-86912-8&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft.au=Silberman%2C+Neil+Asher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuhrtp438-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kuhrtp438_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuhrtp438_116-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhrt1995" class="citation book cs1">Kuhrt, Amiele (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438">The Ancient Near East</a>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438">438</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16762-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16762-8"><bdi>978-0-415-16762-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=438&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16762-8&rft.aulast=Kuhrt&rft.aufirst=Amiele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientneareastc00akuh%2Fpage%2F438&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wright-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wright_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wright_117-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2014" class="citation web cs1">Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml">"David, King of Judah (Not Israel)"</a>. The Bible and Interpretation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=David%2C+King+of+Judah+%28Not+Israel%29&rft.pub=The+Bible+and+Interpretation&rft.date=2014-07&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Jacob+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibleinterp.com%2Farticles%2F2014%2F07%2Fwri388001.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pitcher-118"><a href="#cite_ref-Pitcher_118-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollowayHandy1995" class="citation book cs1">Holloway, Steven W.; Handy, Lowell K. (1 May 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229">The Pitcher is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gösta W. Ahlström</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-63671-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-63671-3"><bdi>978-0-567-63671-3</bdi></a>. <q>For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pitcher+is+Broken%3A+Memorial+Essays+for+G%C3%B6sta+W.+Ahlstr%C3%B6m&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=1995-05-01&rft.isbn=978-0-567-63671-3&rft.aulast=Holloway&rft.aufirst=Steven+W.&rft.au=Handy%2C+Lowell+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtu02muKUVJ0C%26pg%3DPA229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarfinkelGanor2008" class="citation journal cs1">Garfinkel, Yosef; Ganor, Saar (31 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jhsonline.org/index.php/jhs/article/view/6220">"Khirbet Qeiyafa: Sha'arayim"</a>. Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5508%2Fjhs.2008.v8.a22">10.5508/jhs.2008.v8.a22</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Hebrew+Scriptures&rft.atitle=Khirbet+Qeiyafa%3A+Sha%27arayim&rft.volume=8&rft.date=2008-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5508%2Fjhs.2008.v8.a22&rft.aulast=Garfinkel&rft.aufirst=Yosef&rft.au=Ganor%2C+Saar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjhsonline.org%2Findex.php%2Fjhs%2Farticle%2Fview%2F6220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-us-israel-archaeology-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-us-israel-archaeology_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-us-israel-archaeology_120-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker2017" class="citation news cs1">Baker, Luke (3 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203">"Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon"</a>. Reuters.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Ancient+tablets+reveal+life+of+Jews+in+Nebuchadnezzar%27s+Babylon&rft.date=2017-02-03&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Rendsburg, Gary A.. "1 Israel Without the Bible". The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship, edited by Frederick E. Greenspahn, New York, USA: New York University Press, 2007, p. 7. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814733080.003.0005">https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814733080.003.0005</a>: "I am not sure I can quantify the schools, that is, tell you that the majority of biblical scholars today are maximalist or minimalist - I suppose the divide is about 50-50 - But I can tell you this: there is no doubt that the minimalists are more vocal, and they are the ones who set the agenda, publish books at a very rapid pace, organize conferences to present their views (especially in Europe) and take advantage of the popular press. The maximalists, in turn, frequently are left to respond to these diatribes, often needing to take time away from their own research to counter the views expressed in the many publications emanating from the pens of minimalist scholars." </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Tubb, 1998. pp. 13–14[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's) </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2001" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC">What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?</a>. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-927120-37-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-927120-37-5"><bdi>3-927120-37-5</bdi></a>. <q>After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Did+the+Biblical+Writers+Know%2C+and+When+Did+They+Know+It%3F&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E98-%3C%2Fspan%3E99&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-927120-37-5&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6-VxwC5rQtwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Rendsburg, Gary A.. "1 Israel Without the Bible". The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship, edited by Frederick E. Greenspahn, New York, USA: New York University Press, 2007, pp. 7-23. https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814733080.003.0005 </li> <li id="cite_note-WhoAreTheJews-127"><a href="#cite_ref-WhoAreTheJews_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJared_Diamond1993" class="citation web cs1">Jared Diamond (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721133548/http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf">"Who are the Jews?"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Who+are+the+Jews%3F&rft.date=1993&rft.au=Jared+Diamond&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fftp.beitberl.ac.il%2F~bbsite%2Fmisc%2Fezer_anglit%2Fklali%2F05_123.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammerReddWood2000" class="citation journal cs1">Hammer, MF; Redd, AJ; Wood, ET; et al. (June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18733">"Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes"</a>. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97 (12): 6769–74. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PNAS...97.6769H">2000PNAS...97.6769H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.100115997">10.1073/pnas.100115997</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18733">18733</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10801975">10801975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Jewish+and+Middle+Eastern+non-Jewish+populations+share+a+common+pool+of+Y-chromosome+biallelic+haplotypes&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6769-%3C%2Fspan%3E74&rft.date=2000-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18733%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10801975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.100115997&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PNAS...97.6769H&rft.aulast=Hammer&rft.aufirst=MF&rft.au=Redd%2C+AJ&rft.au=Wood%2C+ET&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade2000" class="citation news cs1">Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/09/science/y-chromosome-bears-witness-to-story-of-the-jewish-diaspora.html">"Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 10 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Y+Chromosome+Bears+Witness+to+Story+of+the+Jewish+Diaspora&rft.date=2000-05-09&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2000%2F05%2F09%2Fscience%2Fy-chromosome-bears-witness-to-story-of-the-jewish-diaspora.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalter2010" class="citation journal cs1">Balter, Michael (3 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/tracing-roots-jewishness-rev2">"Tracing the Roots of Jewishness"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. Retrieved 4 October 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Tracing+the+Roots+of+Jewishness&rft.date=2010-06-03&rft.aulast=Balter&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Ftracing-roots-jewishness-rev2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gFtYAgAAQBAJ&q=the+importance+of+ancestral+origin+box+5-1&pg=PT116">Genes, Behavior, and the Social Environment:: Moving Beyond the Nature ...By Committee on Assessing Interactions Among Social, Behavioral, and Genetic Factors in Health, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Institute of Medicine, Lyla M. Hernandez</a>. National Academies Press. 2006. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10196-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10196-7"><bdi>978-0-309-10196-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genes%2C+Behavior%2C+and+the+Social+Environment%3A%3A+Moving+Beyond+the+Nature+...By+Committee+on+Assessing+Interactions+Among+Social%2C+Behavioral%2C+and+Genetic+Factors+in+Health%2C+Board+on+Health+Sciences+Policy%2C+Institute+of+Medicine%2C+Lyla+M.+Hernandez&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10196-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgFtYAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dthe%2Bimportance%2Bof%2Bancestral%2Borigin%2Bbox%2B5-1%26pg%3DPT116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStager199891-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStager199891_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFStager1998">Stager 1998</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2001" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William G. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&dq=What+did+the+biblical+writers+know&pg=PA102">What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel</a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2126-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2126-3"><bdi>978-0-8028-2126-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Did+the+Biblical+Writers+Know+and+When+Did+They+Know+It%3F%3A+What+Archeology+Can+Tell+Us+About+the+Reality+of+Ancient+Israel&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6-VxwC5rQtwC%26dq%3DWhat%2Bdid%2Bthe%2Bbiblical%2Bwriters%2Bknow%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcNutt199935-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcNutt199935_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcNutt1999">McNutt 1999</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDever2003206-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDever2003206_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDever2003206_135-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDever2003">Dever 2003</a>, p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFinkelsteinSilberman2002146–7-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFinkelsteinSilberman2002146–7_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2002">Finkelstein & Silberman 2002</a>, pp. 146–7Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. [...] In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLemaire2018" class="citation book cs1">Lemaire, André (2018). "Israel and Judah". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1017604304">The Oxford Illustrated History of the Holy Land</a>. Robert G. Hoyland, H. G. M. Williamson (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 61–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872439-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872439-1"><bdi>978-0-19-872439-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1017604304">1017604304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Israel+and+Judah&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Illustrated+History+of+the+Holy+Land&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E85&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1017604304&rft.isbn=978-0-19-872439-1&rft.aulast=Lemaire&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1017604304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETobolowsky202269–70,_73–75-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETobolowsky202269–70,_73–75_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTobolowsky2022">Tobolowsky 2022</a>, pp. 69–70, 73–75. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Sasson1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H.H._Ben-Sasson" class="mw-redirect" title="H.H. Ben-Sasson">Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel</a>, ed. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC">A History of the Jewish People</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674397316" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674397316"><bdi>978-0674397316</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 October 2018. <q>Sargon's heir, Sennacherib (705–681), could not deal with Hezekiah's revolt until he gained control of Babylon in 702 BCE.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0674397316&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kSovzudhFUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Finkelstein, Israel and Mazar, Amihai. The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel. Leiden: Brill, 2007. p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński202094-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński202094_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLipiński2020">Lipiński 2020</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipschits2005" class="citation book cs1">Lipschits, Oded (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd">The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule</a>. Penn State University Press. p. 367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5325%2Fj.ctv1bxh5fd">10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-297-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-297-6"><bdi>978-1-57506-297-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd">10.5325/j.ctv1bxh5fd</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+and+Rise+of+Jerusalem%3A+Judah+under+Babylonian+Rule&rft.pages=367&rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5325%2Fj.ctv1bxh5fd%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5325%2Fj.ctv1bxh5fd&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-297-6&rft.aulast=Lipschits&rft.aufirst=Oded&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5325%2Fj.ctv1bxh5fd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rennert-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rennert_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rennert_143-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html">"Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule"</a>. Biu.ac.il. Retrieved 15 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Second+Temple+Period+%28538+BCE.+to+70+CE%29+Persian+Rule&rft.pub=Biu.ac.il&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biu.ac.il%2Fjs%2Frennert%2Fhistory_4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103 </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or "Judah", and "medinata" the word for province </li> <li id="cite_note-Grabbe355-146"><a href="#cite_ref-Grabbe355_146-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrabbe2004" class="citation book cs1">Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&q=gave+the+Jews+permission+to+return+to+Yehud+province+and+to+rebuild+the&pg=PA355">A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1</a>. T & T Clark. p. 355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08998-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-08998-4"><bdi>978-0-567-08998-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jews+and+Judaism+in+the+Second+Temple+Period%3A+Yehud+%E2%80%93+A+History+of+the+Persian+Province+of+Judah+v.+1&rft.pages=355&rft.pub=T+%26+T+Clark&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-567-08998-4&rft.aulast=Grabbe&rft.aufirst=Lester+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-MnE5T_0RbMC%26q%3Dgave%2Bthe%2BJews%2Bpermission%2Bto%2Breturn%2Bto%2BYehud%2Bprovince%2Band%2Bto%2Brebuild%2Bthe%26pg%3DPA355&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BangScheidel2013-147"><a href="#cite_ref-BangScheidel2013_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Fibiger_BangWalter_Scheidel2013" class="citation book cs1">Peter Fibiger Bang; Walter Scheidel (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PAPA184">The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 184–187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518831-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518831-8"><bdi>978-0-19-518831-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PAPA184">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+State+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+and+Mediterranean&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E184-%3C%2Fspan%3E187&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518831-8&rft.au=Peter+Fibiger+Bang&rft.au=Walter+Scheidel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGCj09AmtvvwC%26pg%3DPAPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Stern, Menahem. (2007). "Hasmoneans". In Skolnik, Fred (ed.). Encyclopaedia Judaica Volume 8 Gos–Hep (2nd ed.). Michigan: Thompson Gale. p. 446. </li> <li id="cite_note-:22-149"><a href="#cite_ref-:22_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Levin, Yigal (24 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">"The Religion of Idumea and Its Relationship to Early Judaism"</a>. Religions. 11 (10): 487. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel11100487">10.3390/rel11100487</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2077-1444">2077-1444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions&rft.atitle=The+Religion+of+Idumea+and+Its+Relationship+to+Early+Judaism&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=487&rft.date=2020-09-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Frel11100487&rft.issn=2077-1444&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=Yigal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Frel11100487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, Geography Bk.16.2.34 </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Fibiger_BangWalter_Scheidel2013" class="citation book cs1">Peter Fibiger Bang; Walter Scheidel (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GCj09AmtvvwC&pg=PA184">The Oxford Handbook of the State in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean</a>. OUP USA. pp. 184–87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518831-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518831-8"><bdi>978-0-19-518831-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+State+in+the+Ancient+Near+East+and+Mediterranean&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E184-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.pub=OUP+USA&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518831-8&rft.au=Peter+Fibiger+Bang&rft.au=Walter+Scheidel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGCj09AmtvvwC%26pg%3DPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Malamat1976-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Malamat1976_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbraham_Malamat1976" class="citation book cs1">Abraham Malamat (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kSovzudhFUC&pg=PAPA223">A History of the Jewish People</a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 223–239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-39731-6"><bdi>978-0-674-39731-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Jewish+People&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E223-%3C%2Fspan%3E239&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-674-39731-6&rft.au=Abraham+Malamat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kSovzudhFUC%26pg%3DPAPA223&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-153"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZissu2018" class="citation book cs1">Zissu, Boaz (2018). "Interbellum Judea 70-132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967">Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE</a>. Joshua Schwartz, Peter J. Tomson. Brill. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34986-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-34986-5"><bdi>978-90-04-34986-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/988856967">988856967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Interbellum+Judea+70-132+CE%3A+An+Archaeological+Perspective&rft.btitle=Jews+and+Christians+in+the+First+and+Second+Centuries%3A+The+Interbellum+70%E2%80%92132+CE&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F988856967&rft.isbn=978-90-04-34986-5&rft.aulast=Zissu&rft.aufirst=Boaz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F988856967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FahlbuschBromiley2005-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FahlbuschBromiley2005_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErwin_FahlbuschGeoffrey_William_Bromiley2005" class="citation book cs1">Erwin Fahlbusch; Geoffrey William Bromiley (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PAPA15">The Encyclopedia of Christianity</a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 15–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2416-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2416-5"><bdi>978-0-8028-2416-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160412/https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PAPA15">Archived</a> from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Christianity&rft.pages=15-&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5&rft.au=Erwin+Fahlbusch&rft.au=Geoffrey+William+Bromiley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC5V7oyy69zgC%26pg%3DPAPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHJ-GM-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AHJ-GM_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHJ-GM_155-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHJ-GM_155-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHJ-GM_155-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2018" class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Martin (2018). A History of Judaism. Princeton Oxford: Princeton University Press. pp. 21, 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18127-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18127-1"><bdi>978-0-691-18127-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Judaism&rft.place=Princeton+Oxford&rft.pages=21%2C+232&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-691-18127-1&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mor,_M._2016._P471-156"><a href="#cite_ref-Mor,_M._2016._P471_156-0">^</a> Mor, M. The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132–136 CE. Brill, 2016. P471/ </li> <li id="cite_note-raviv2021-157"><a href="#cite_ref-raviv2021_157-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavivBen_David2021" class="citation journal cs1">Raviv, Dvir; Ben David, Chaim (27 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759421000271">"Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?"</a>. Journal of Roman Archaeology. 34 (2): 585–607. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1047759421000271">10.1017/S1047759421000271</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1047-7594">1047-7594</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236389017">236389017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Cassius+Dio%27s+figures+for+the+demographic+consequences+of+the+Bar+Kokhba+War%3A+Exaggeration+or+reliable+account%3F&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E585-%3C%2Fspan%3E607&rft.date=2021-05-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236389017%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1047-7594&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1047759421000271&rft.aulast=Raviv&rft.aufirst=Dvir&rft.au=Ben+David%2C+Chaim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1047759421000271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Powell, The Bar Kokhba War AD 132-136, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, ç2017, p.80 </li> <li id="cite_note-:52-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:52_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:52_159-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerkeslagerSetzerTrebilcoGoodblatt2006" class="citation cs2">Kerkeslager, Allen; Setzer, Claudia; Trebilco, Paul; Goodblatt, David (2006), Katz, Steven T. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/diaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce/5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A">"The Diaspora from 66 to c. 235 ce"</a>, The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 62–63, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.004">10.1017/chol9780521772488.004</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8"><bdi>978-0-521-77248-8</bdi></a>, retrieved 10 September 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism%3A+Volume+4%3A+The+Late+Roman-Rabbinic+Period&rft.atitle=The+Diaspora+from+66+to+c.+235+ce&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E62-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77248-8&rft.aulast=Kerkeslager&rft.aufirst=Allen&rft.au=Setzer%2C+Claudia&rft.au=Trebilco%2C+Paul&rft.au=Goodblatt%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fcambridge-history-of-judaism%2Fdiaspora-from-66-to-c-235-ce%2F5AECAD54BE6CA31C7968EED92D6CA36A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zeev-2006-160"><a href="#cite_ref-Zeev-2006_160-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeev2006" class="citation cs2">Zeev, Miriam Pucci Ben (22 June 2006), Katz, Steven T. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139055130A007/type/book_part">"The uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117"</a>, The Cambridge History of Judaism (1 ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 98, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.005">10.1017/chol9780521772488.005</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05513-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05513-0"><bdi>978-1-139-05513-0</bdi></a>, retrieved 8 September 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism&rft.atitle=The+uprisings+in+the+Jewish+Diaspora%2C+116%E2%80%93117&rft.pages=98&rft.date=2006-06-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.005&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05513-0&rft.aulast=Zeev&rft.aufirst=Miriam+Pucci+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FCBO9781139055130A007%2Ftype%2Fbook_part&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magness-161"><a href="#cite_ref-Magness_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJodi_Magness2011" class="citation book cs1">Jodi Magness (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VecxAQAAQBAJ&q=diaspora+70+ce&pg=PA189">"Sectarianism before and after 70 CE"</a>. In Daniel R. Schwartz; Zeev Weiss (eds.). Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History?: On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21744-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-21744-7"><bdi>978-90-04-21744-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sectarianism+before+and+after+70+CE&rft.btitle=Was+70+CE+a+Watershed+in+Jewish+History%3F%3A+On+Jews+and+Judaism+before+and+after+the+Destruction+of+the+Second+Temple&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-21744-7&rft.au=Jodi+Magness&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVecxAQAAQBAJ%26q%3Ddiaspora%2B70%2Bce%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-162"><a href="#cite_ref-:5_162-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaresh2006" class="citation book cs1">Karesh, Sara E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1162305378">Encyclopedia of Judaism</a>. Facts On File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78785-171-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78785-171-9"><bdi>978-1-78785-171-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1162305378">1162305378</a>. <q>Until the modern period, the destruction of the Temple was the most cataclysmic moment in the history of the Jewish people. Without the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had any claim to authority, and they faded away. The sage Yochanan ben Zakkai, with permission from Rome, set up the outpost of Yavneh to continue develop of Pharisaic, or rabbinic, Judaism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Judaism&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1162305378&rft.isbn=978-1-78785-171-9&rft.aulast=Karesh&rft.aufirst=Sara+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1162305378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Erich_S._Gruen" title="Erich S. Gruen">Erich S. Gruen</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1IR4WtFjGUC&pg=PA3">Diaspora: Jews Amidst Greeks and Romans</a> <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>, 2009 pp. 3–4, 233–34: 'Compulsory dislocation, ....cannot have accounted for more than a fraction of the diaspora. ... The vast bulk of Jews who dwelled abroad in the Second Temple Period did so voluntarily.' (2)' .Diaspora did not await the fall of Jerusalem to Roman power and destructiveness. The scattering of Jews had begun long before-occasionally through forced expulsion, much more frequently through voluntary migration.' </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Zadok R. Judeans in Babylonia–Updating the Dossier. in U.Gabbay and Sh.Secunda. (eds.). Encounters by the Rivers of Babylon: Scholarly Conversations between Jews, Iranians and Babylonians in Antiquity, Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism 160. Tübingen: MohrSiebeck. pp. 109–110. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Josephus Flavius, Against Appion. 4.II </li> <li id="cite_note-Smallwood-166"><a href="#cite_ref-Smallwood_166-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Mary_Smallwood1984" class="citation book cs1">E. Mary Smallwood (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AW2BuWcalXIC&q=Diaspora+before+70&pg=PA168">"The Diaspora in the Roman period before AD 70"</a>. In William David Davies; Louis Finkelstein; William Horbury (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521243773" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521243773"><bdi>978-0521243773</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Diaspora+in+the+Roman+period+before+AD+70&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism%3A+The+early+Roman+period%2C+Volume+3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0521243773&rft.au=E.+Mary+Smallwood&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAW2BuWcalXIC%26q%3DDiaspora%2Bbefore%2B70%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowersock2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._W._Bowersock" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. Bowersock">Bowersock, G. W.</a> (2017). The Crucible of Islam. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-23772-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-23772-8"><bdi>978-0-674-23772-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crucible+of+Islam&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-674-23772-8&rft.aulast=Bowersock&rft.aufirst=G.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_168-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_168-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrlich2022" class="citation book cs1">Ehrlich, Michael (2022). The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800. Leeds, UK: Arc Humanities Press. pp. 3–4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-64189-222-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-64189-222-3"><bdi>978-1-64189-222-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1302180905">1302180905</a>. <q>The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain. During the Byzantine period, the three provinces of Palestine included more than thirty cities, namely, settlements with a bishop see. After the Muslim conquest in the 630s, most of these cities declined and eventually disappeared. As a result, in many cases the local ecclesiastical administration weakened, while in others it simply ceased to exist. Consequently, many local Christians converted to Islam. Thus, almost twelve centuries later, when the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Holy Land, most of the local population was Muslim.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamization+of+the+Holy+Land%2C+634%E2%80%931800&rft.place=Leeds%2C+UK&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E4&rft.pub=Arc+Humanities+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1302180905&rft.isbn=978-1-64189-222-3&rft.aulast=Ehrlich&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-170"><a href="#cite_ref-:03_170-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibner2009" class="citation book cs1">Leibner, Uzi (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/43969">Settlement and History in Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine Galilee: An Archaeological Survey of the Eastern Galilee</a>. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 321–324, 362–371, 396–400, 414–416. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F43969">20.500.12657/43969</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-151460-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-151460-9"><bdi>978-3-16-151460-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Settlement+and+History+in+Hellenistic%2C+Roman%2C+and+Byzantine+Galilee%3A+An+Archaeological+Survey+of+the+Eastern+Galilee&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E321-%3C%2Fspan%3E324%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E362-%3C%2Fspan%3E371%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E396-%3C%2Fspan%3E400%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E414-%3C%2Fspan%3E416&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12657%2F43969&rft.isbn=978-3-16-151460-9&rft.aulast=Leibner&rft.aufirst=Uzi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.oapen.org%2Fhandle%2F20.500.12657%2F43969&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kessler20102-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler20102_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler20102_171-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Kessler2010" class="citation book cs1">Edward Kessler (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=87Woe7kkPM4C&pg=PA72">An Introduction to Jewish-Christian Relations</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70562-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-70562-2"><bdi>978-0-521-70562-2</bdi></a>. <q>Jews probably remained in the majority in Palestine until some time after the conversion of Constantine in the fourth century. [...] In Babylonia, there had been for many centuries a Jewish community which would have been further strengthened by those fleeing the aftermath of the Roman revolts.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Jewish-Christian+Relations&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-70562-2&rft.au=Edward+Kessler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D87Woe7kkPM4C%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:53-172"><a href="#cite_ref-:53_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGafni2006" class="citation cs2">Gafni, Isaiah (2006), Katz, Steven T. (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/political-social-and-economic-history-of-babylonian-jewry-224638-ce/A4A6DB049FA37EE462757A705703A62F">"The Political, Social, and Economic History of Babylonian Jewry, 224–638 CE"</a>, The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4: The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period, The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 4, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 805, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.033">10.1017/chol9780521772488.033</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77248-8"><bdi>978-0-521-77248-8</bdi></a>, retrieved 10 September 2024</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Judaism%3A+Volume+4%3A+The+Late+Roman-Rabbinic+Period&rft.atitle=The+Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Economic+History+of+Babylonian+Jewry%2C+224%E2%80%93638+CE&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=805&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fchol9780521772488.033&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77248-8&rft.aulast=Gafni&rft.aufirst=Isaiah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fcambridge-history-of-judaism%2Fpolitical-social-and-economic-history-of-babylonian-jewry-224638-ce%2FA4A6DB049FA37EE462757A705703A62F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/581644/Talmud-and-Midrash/34869/The-making-of-the-Talmuds-3rd-6th-century#ref=ref24372">"Talmud and Midrash (Judaism) :: The making of the Talmuds: 3rd–6th century"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Retrieved 28 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Talmud+and+Midrash+%28Judaism%29+%3A%3A+The+making+of+the+Talmuds%3A+3rd%E2%80%936th+century&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F581644%2FTalmud-and-Midrash%2F34869%2FThe-making-of-the-Talmuds-3rd-6th-century%23ref%3Dref24372&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Sasson,_Haim_Hillel1972" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Sasson, Haim Hillel (1972) [1969]. Ettinger, Samuel (ed.). Jewish society through the ages. Schocken Books. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/581911264">581911264</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+society+through+the+ages&rft.pub=Schocken+Books&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F581911264&rft.au=Ben-Sasson%2C+Haim+Hillel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/simo10796">The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times</a>. Columbia University Press. 2002. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/simo10796">10.7312/simo10796</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+the+Middle+East+and+North+Africa+in+Modern+Times&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7312%2Fsimo10796%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7312%2Fsimo10796&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Harshav, Benjamin (1999). The Meaning of Yiddish. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 6. "From the fourteenth and certainly by the sixteenth century, the center of European Jewry had shifted to Poland, then ... comprising the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (including today's Byelorussia), Crown Poland, Galicia, the Ukraine and stretching, at times, from the Baltic to the Black Sea, from the approaches to Berlin to a short distance from Moscow." </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6511-gaon">"GAON – JewishEncyclopedia.com"</a>. www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 23 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.jewishencyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=GAON+%E2%80%93+JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F6511-gaon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchloss2002" class="citation book cs1">Schloss, Chaim (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OV9jKGJzg3QC">2000 Years of Jewish History: From the Destruction of the Second Bais Hamikdash Until the Twentieth Century</a>. Feldheim Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58330-214-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58330-214-9"><bdi>978-1-58330-214-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=2000+Years+of+Jewish+History%3A+From+the+Destruction+of+the+Second+Bais+Hamikdash+Until+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=Feldheim+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-58330-214-9&rft.aulast=Schloss&rft.aufirst=Chaim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOV9jKGJzg3QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKornberg1993">Kornberg 1993</a> "How did Theodor Herzl, an assimilated German nationalist in the 1880s, suddenly in the 1890s become the founder of Zionism?" </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181210124104/http://www.jewishagency.org/israel/content/23396">"Chapter One"</a>. The Jewish Agency for Israel1. 21 July 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishagency.org/israel/content/23396">the original</a> on 10 December 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Agency+for+Israel1&rft.atitle=Chapter+One&rft.date=2005-07-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishagency.org%2Fisrael%2Fcontent%2F23396&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewin1979" class="citation journal cs1">Lewin, Rhoda G. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf">"Stereotype and reality in the Jewish immigrant experience in Minneapolis"</a> (PDF). Minnesota History. 46 (7): 259. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200721002023/http://collections.mnhs.org/MNHistoryMagazine/articles/46/v46i07p258-273.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minnesota+History&rft.atitle=Stereotype+and+reality+in+the+Jewish+immigrant+experience+in+Minneapolis&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=259&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Lewin&rft.aufirst=Rhoda+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcollections.mnhs.org%2FMNHistoryMagazine%2Farticles%2F46%2Fv46i07p258-273.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners-182"><a href="#cite_ref-Jewish_Nobel_Prize_Winners_182-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html">"Jewish Nobel Prize Winners"</a>. jinfo.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211039/http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Nobel+Prize+Winners&rft.pub=jinfo.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jinfo.org%2FNobel_Prizes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/judaism/beliefs/conversion.shtml">"BBC Religions/Converting to Judaism: "A person who converts to Judaism becomes a Jew in every sense of the word, and is just as Jewish as someone born into Judaism.""</a>. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BBC+Religions%2FConverting+to+Judaism%3A+%22A+person+who+converts+to+Judaism+becomes+a+Jew+in+every+sense+of+the+word%2C+and+is+just+as+Jewish+as+someone+born+into+Judaism.%22&rft.pub=Bbc.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fjudaism%2Fbeliefs%2Fconversion.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200808163226/http://www.interfaithfamily.com/spirituality/conversion/Are_Converts_Treated_as_Second_Class.shtml">"Are Converts Treated as Second Class?"</a>. InterfaithFamily. 2 May 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.interfaithfamily.com/spirituality/conversion/Are_Converts_Treated_as_Second_Class.shtml">the original</a> on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=InterfaithFamily&rft.atitle=Are+Converts+Treated+as+Second+Class%3F&rft.date=2011-05-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.interfaithfamily.com%2Fspirituality%2Fconversion%2FAre_Converts_Treated_as_Second_Class.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/paul-golin/the-complicated-relations_b_842806.html">"Paul Golin: The Complicated Relationship Between Intermarriage and Jewish Conversion"</a>. Huffingtonpost.com. 31 March 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paul+Golin%3A+The+Complicated+Relationship+Between+Intermarriage+and+Jewish+Conversion&rft.pub=Huffingtonpost.com&rft.date=2011-03-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fpaul-golin%2Fthe-complicated-relations_b_842806.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Neusner (1991) p. 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatai1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Patai" title="Raphael Patai">Patai, Raphael</a> (1996) [1977]. <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Mind" title="The Jewish Mind">The Jewish Mind</a>. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8143-2651-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8143-2651-X"><bdi>0-8143-2651-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Mind&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Wayne+State+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8143-2651-X&rft.aulast=Patai&rft.aufirst=Raphael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1996" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Lonnie R. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716/page/145">Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716/page/145">145</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-510071-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-510071-9"><bdi>0-19-510071-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Europe%3A+Enemies%2C+Neighbors%2C+Friends&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-19-510071-9&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Lonnie+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195100716%2Fpage%2F145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharot2930-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot2930_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharot2930_189-1">b</a> Sharot (1997), pp. 29–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Sharot (1997), pp. 42–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Sharot (1997), p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishman2000" class="citation book cs1">Fishman, Sylvia Barack (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewishlifeameric0000fish">Jewish Life and American Culture</a>. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jewishlifeameric0000fish/page/38">38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-4546-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-4546-1"><bdi>0-7914-4546-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Life+and+American+Culture&rft.place=Albany%2C+N.Y.&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-7914-4546-1&rft.aulast=Fishman&rft.aufirst=Sylvia+Barack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjewishlifeameric0000fish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimmerling1996" class="citation book cs1">Kimmerling, Baruch (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/israelistatesoci00kimm">The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers</a>. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/israelistatesoci00kimm/page/n178">169</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88706-849-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-88706-849-9"><bdi>0-88706-849-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Israeli+State+and+Society%3A+Boundaries+and+Frontiers&rft.place=Albany%2C+N.Y.&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-88706-849-9&rft.aulast=Kimmerling&rft.aufirst=Baruch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisraelistatesoci00kimm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowenstein2000" class="citation book cs1">Lowenstein, Steven M. (2000). The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513425-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513425-7"><bdi>0-19-513425-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Cultural+Tapestry%3A+International+Jewish+Folk+Traditions&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=228&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-513425-7&rft.aulast=Lowenstein&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grintz-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grintz_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grintz_195-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrintz1960" class="citation journal cs1">Grintz, Jehoshua M. (March 1960). "Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple". Journal of Biblical Literature. 79 (1). The Society of Biblical Literature: 32–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3264497">10.2307/3264497</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3264497">3264497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.atitle=Hebrew+as+the+Spoken+and+Written+Language+in+the+Last+Days+of+the+Second+Temple&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=1960-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3264497&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3264497%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Grintz&rft.aufirst=Jehoshua+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Feldman (2006), p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParfitt1972" class="citation journal cs1">Parfitt, T. V. (1972). "The Use Of Hebrew In Palestine 1800–1822". Journal of Semitic Studies. 17 (2): 237–252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjss%2F17.2.237">10.1093/jss/17.2.237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Semitic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Use+Of+Hebrew+In+Palestine+1800%E2%80%931822&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E237-%3C%2Fspan%3E252&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjss%2F17.2.237&rft.aulast=Parfitt&rft.aufirst=T.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210410191721/http://knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/basiclawnationstate.pdf">"Basic Law: Israel – The Nation State Of The Jewish People"</a> (PDF). The Knesset. <a href="/wiki/Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a> of the State of Israel. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/BasicLawNationState.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Knesset&rft.atitle=Basic+Law%3A+Israel+%E2%80%93+The+Nation+State+Of+The+Jewish+People&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fknesset.gov.il%2Flaws%2Fspecial%2Feng%2FBasicLawNationState.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNava_Nevo2001" class="citation book cs1">Nava Nevo (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0VnB2Jq3fW4C&pg=PA428">International Handbook of Jewish Education</a>. Springer. p. 428. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-0354-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-0354-4"><bdi>978-94-007-0354-4</bdi></a>. <q>In contrast to other peoples who are masters of their national languages, Hebrew is not the 'common possession' of all Jewish people, and it mainly—if not exclusively—lives and breathes in Israel.... Although there are oases of Hebrew in certain schools, it has not become the Jewish lingua franca and English is rapidly taking its place as the Jewish people's language of communication. Even Hebrew-speaking Israeli representatives tend to use English in their public appearances at international Jewish conventions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Handbook+of+Jewish+Education&rft.pages=428&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-94-007-0354-4&rft.au=Nava+Nevo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0VnB2Jq3fW4C%26pg%3DPA428&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaya_Herman2006" class="citation book cs1">Chaya Herman (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hEHCW7KnuG8C&pg=PA121">Prophets and Profits: Managerialism and the Restructuring of Jewish Schools in South Africa</a>. HSRC Press. p. 121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7969-2114-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7969-2114-7"><bdi>978-0-7969-2114-7</bdi></a>. <q>It is English rather than Hebrew that emerged as the lingua franca of the Jews towards the late 20th century.... This phenomenon occurred despite efforts to make Hebrew a language of communication, and despite the fact that the teaching of Hebrew was considered the raison d'être of the Jewish day schools and the 'nerve center' of Jewish learning.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prophets+and+Profits%3A+Managerialism+and+the+Restructuring+of+Jewish+Schools+in+South+Africa&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=HSRC+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7969-2114-7&rft.au=Chaya+Herman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhEHCW7KnuG8C%26pg%3DPA121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElana_Shohamy2010" class="citation book cs1">Elana Shohamy (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bWmMAgAAQBAJ&q=%22english+as+a+lingua+franca+for+jews+worldwide%22&pg=PA185">Negotiating Language Policy in Schools: Educators as Policymakers</a>. Routledge. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-14621-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-14621-4"><bdi>978-1-135-14621-4</bdi></a>. <q>This priority given to English is related to the special relationship between Israel and the United States, and the current status of English as a lingua franca for Jews worldwide.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negotiating+Language+Policy+in+Schools%3A+Educators+as+Policymakers&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-135-14621-4&rft.au=Elana+Shohamy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbWmMAgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522english%2Bas%2Ba%2Blingua%2Bfranca%2Bfor%2Bjews%2Bworldwide%2522%26pg%3DPA185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElan_Ezrachi2012" class="citation book cs1">Elan Ezrachi (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rUpFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA214">Dynamic Belonging: Contemporary Jewish Collective Identities</a>. Bergahn Books. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85745-258-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85745-258-0"><bdi>978-0-85745-258-0</bdi></a>. <q>As Stephen P. Cohen observes: 'English is the language of Jewish universal discourse.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dynamic+Belonging%3A+Contemporary+Jewish+Collective+Identities&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Bergahn+Books&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-85745-258-0&rft.au=Elan+Ezrachi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrUpFAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140307172019/http://www.jafi.org.il/JewishAgency/English/Jewish%2BEducation/Compelling%2BContent/Worldwide%2BCommunity/Connecting%2Bto%2BCommunity/Jewish%2BLanguages.htm">"Jewish Languages – How Do We Talk To Each Other?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Agency">Jewish Agency</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jafi.org.il/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Worldwide+Community/Connecting+to+Community/Jewish+Languages.htm">the original</a> on 7 March 2014. Retrieved 5 April 2014. <q>Only a minority of the Jewish people today can actually speak Hebrew. In order for a Jew from one country to talk to another who speaks a different language, it is more common to use English than Hebrew.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Languages+%E2%80%93+How+Do+We+Talk+To+Each+Other%3F&rft.pub=Jewish+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jafi.org.il%2FJewishAgency%2FEnglish%2FJewish%2BEducation%2FCompelling%2BContent%2FWorldwide%2BCommunity%2FConnecting%2Bto%2BCommunity%2FJewish%2BLanguages.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Hebrew, Aramaic and the rise of Yiddish. D. Katz. (1985) Readings in the sociology of Jewish languages </li> <li id="cite_note-forward-205"><a href="#cite_ref-forward_205-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://forward.com/articles/5434/quebec-sephardim-make-breakthroughs/">"Quebec Sephardim Make Breakthroughs"</a>. forward.com. 2 April 2004. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Quebec+Sephardim+Make+Breakthroughs&rft.pub=forward.com&rft.date=2004-04-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fforward.com%2Farticles%2F5434%2Fquebec-sephardim-make-breakthroughs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdna_Aizenberg2012" class="citation book cs1">Edna Aizenberg (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NYyiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PR22">Contemporary Sephardic Identity in the Americas: An Interdisciplinary Approach</a>. Syracuse University Press. p. xxii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-5165-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-5165-9"><bdi>978-0-8156-5165-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Sephardic+Identity+in+the+Americas%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Approach&rft.pages=xxii&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-5165-9&rft.au=Edna+Aizenberg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNYyiAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerald_Tulchinsky2008" class="citation book cs1">Gerald Tulchinsky (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fIZ6wftL3oQC&pg=PA449">Canada's Jews: A People's Journey</a>. University of Toronto Press. pp. 447–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9386-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9386-8"><bdi>978-0-8020-9386-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canada%27s+Jews%3A+A+People%27s+Journey&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E447-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-9386-8&rft.au=Gerald+Tulchinsky&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfIZ6wftL3oQC%26pg%3DPA449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJessica_Piombo2009" class="citation book cs1">Jessica Piombo (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gbTFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51">Institutions, Ethnicity, and Political Mobilization in South Africa</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-62382-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-62382-8"><bdi>978-0-230-62382-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutions%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Political+Mobilization+in+South+Africa&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-230-62382-8&rft.au=Jessica+Piombo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgbTFAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Noble_Koss_(dissertation)2010" class="citation book cs1">Andrew Noble Koss (dissertation) (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TIMoQbjAmhgC&pg=PA31">World War I and the Remaking of Jewish Vilna, 1914–1918</a>. Stanford University. pp. 30–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+War+I+and+the+Remaking+of+Jewish+Vilna%2C+1914%E2%80%931918&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E30-%3C%2Fspan%3E31&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=2010&rft.au=Andrew+Noble+Koss+%28dissertation%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTIMoQbjAmhgC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Wexler2006" class="citation book cs1">Paul Wexler (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5Kth7aiusC&pg=PA781">"Chapter 38: Evaluating Soviet Yiddish Language Policy Between 1917–1950"</a>. Jewish and Non-Jewish Creators of "Jewish Languages". Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 780. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05404-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05404-1"><bdi>978-3-447-05404-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+38%3A+Evaluating+Soviet+Yiddish+Language+Policy+Between+1917%E2%80%931950&rft.btitle=Jewish+and+Non-Jewish+Creators+of+%22Jewish+Languages%22&rft.pages=780&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-447-05404-1&rft.au=Paul+Wexler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIc5Kth7aiusC%26pg%3DPA781&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnna_Verschik2007" class="citation web cs1">Anna Verschik (25 May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141016171323/http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-russian.html">"Jewish Russian"</a>. Jewish Languages Research Website. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-russian.html">the original</a> on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Russian&rft.pub=Jewish+Languages+Research+Website&rft.date=2007-05-25&rft.au=Anna+Verschik&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewish-languages.org%2Fjewish-russian.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrlich2009" class="citation book cs1">Ehrlich, Mark Avrum (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&pg=PA1007">Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture, Volume 1</a>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 1007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-873-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-873-6"><bdi>978-1-85109-873-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Jewish+Diaspora%3A+Origins%2C+Experiences%2C+and+Culture%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=1007&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-873-6&rft.aulast=Ehrlich&rft.aufirst=Mark+Avrum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNoPZu79hqaEC%26pg%3DPA1007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google-213"><a href="#cite_ref-google_213-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubtelny,_O.2009" class="citation book cs1">Subtelny, O. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ktyM07I9HXwC">Ukraine: A History, 4th Edition</a>. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-9728-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-9728-7"><bdi>978-1-4426-9728-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+A+History%2C+4th+Edition&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press%2C+Scholarly+Publishing+Division&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-9728-7&rft.au=Subtelny%2C+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DktyM07I9HXwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google2-214"><a href="#cite_ref-google2_214-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCongress,_E.P.Gonzalez,_M.J.2005" class="citation book cs1">Congress, E.P.; Gonzalez, M.J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780826131454">Multicultural Perspectives in Working with Families</a>. Springer Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-3146-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8261-3146-1"><bdi>978-0-8261-3146-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multicultural+Perspectives+in+Working+with+Families&rft.pub=Springer+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8261-3146-1&rft.au=Congress%2C+E.P.&rft.au=Gonzalez%2C+M.J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780826131454&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnshel_Pfeffer2014" class="citation news cs1">Anshel Pfeffer (14 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140326082731/http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/jerusalem-babylon/.premium-1.579733">"The Jews who said 'no' to Putin"</a>. Haaretz. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/jerusalem-babylon/.premium-1.579733">the original</a> on 26 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=The+Jews+who+said+%27no%27+to+Putin&rft.date=2014-03-14&rft.au=Anshel+Pfeffer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fweekend%2Fjerusalem-babylon%2F.premium-1.579733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jewishvirtuallibrary2-216"><a href="#cite_ref-jewishvirtuallibrary2_216-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Bukharan_Jews.html">"Bukharan Jews | Jewish Virtual Library"</a>. jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bukharan+Jews+%26%23124%3B+Jewish+Virtual+Library&rft.pub=jewishvirtuallibrary.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org%2Fjsource%2FHistory%2FBukharan_Jews.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maoz-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maoz_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maoz_217-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoshe_Ma'oz2011" class="citation book cs1">Moshe Ma'oz (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140704020626/http://books.google.com/books?id=W_AR3BksrUcC&pg=PA135">Muslim Attitudes towards Jews and Israel</a>. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 135, 160. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-527-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-527-4"><bdi>978-1-84519-527-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W_AR3BksrUcC&pg=PA135">the original</a> on 4 July 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+Attitudes+towards+Jews+and+Israel&rft.pages=135%2C+160&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84519-527-4&rft.au=Moshe+Ma%27oz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW_AR3BksrUcC%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/AZ">"Azerbaijan"</a>. <q>Like many immigrant communities of the Czarist and Soviet eras in Azerbaijan, Ashkenazi Jews appear to be linguistically Russified. Most Ashkenazi Jews speak Russian as their first language with Azeri being spoken as the second.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Azerbaijan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldjewishcongress.org%2Fen%2Fabout%2Fcommunities%2FAZ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaakov_Kleiman2004" class="citation book cs1">Yaakov Kleiman (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UNczHm67tjIC&pg=PA72">DNA & Tradition: The Genetic Link to the Ancient Hebrews</a>. Devora Publishing. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-930143-89-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-930143-89-0"><bdi>978-1-930143-89-0</bdi></a>. <q>The community is divided between 'native' Georgian Jews and Russian-speaking Ashkenazim who began migrating there at the beginning of the 19th century, and especially during World War II.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=DNA+%26+Tradition%3A+The+Genetic+Link+to+the+Ancient+Hebrews&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Devora+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-930143-89-0&rft.au=Yaakov+Kleiman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUNczHm67tjIC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoshua_A._Fishman1985" class="citation book cs1">Joshua A. Fishman (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AgkVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA165">Readings in the Sociology of Jewish Languages</a>. Brill Archive. pp. 165, 169–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-07237-3" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-07237-3"><bdi>90-04-07237-3</bdi></a>. <q>Jews in <a href="/wiki/Tadzhikistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tadzhikistan">Tadzhikistan</a> have adopted <a href="/wiki/Tajik_language" title="Tajik language">Tadzhik</a> as their first language. The number of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazic Jews in that region is comparatively low (cf. 2,905 in 1979). Both Ashkenazic and Oriental Jews have assimilated to Russian, the number of Jews speaking Russian as their first language amounting to a total of 6,564. It is reasonable to assume that the percentage of assimilated Ashkenazim is much higher than the portion of Oriental Jews.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+the+Sociology+of+Jewish+Languages&rft.pages=165%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E169-%3C%2Fspan%3E74&rft.pub=Brill+Archive&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=90-04-07237-3&rft.au=Joshua+A.+Fishman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAgkVAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarald_Haarmann1986" class="citation book cs1">Harald Haarmann (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=idAfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72">Language in Ethnicity: A View of Basic Ecological Relations</a>. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 70–73, 79–82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-086280-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-086280-5"><bdi>978-3-11-086280-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+in+Ethnicity%3A+A+View+of+Basic+Ecological+Relations&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E70-%3C%2Fspan%3E73%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-3-11-086280-5&rft.au=Harald+Haarmann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DidAfAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGafaiti2009" class="citation book cs1">Gafaiti, Hafid (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f4Mp4qy8lbUC&pg=PA234">Transnational Spaces and Identities in the Francophone World</a>. U of Nebraska Press. p. 234. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-2465-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-2465-0"><bdi>978-0-8032-2465-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transnational+Spaces+and+Identities+in+the+Francophone+World&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-2465-0&rft.aulast=Gafaiti&rft.aufirst=Hafid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df4Mp4qy8lbUC%26pg%3DPA234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottreichSchroeter2011" class="citation book cs1">Gottreich, Emily Benichou; Schroeter, Daniel J (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=45exFa6wDIIC&pg=PA258">Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa</a>. Indiana University Press. pp. 258, 270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00146-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00146-7"><bdi>978-0-253-00146-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jewish+Culture+and+Society+in+North+Africa&rft.pages=258%2C+270&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-253-00146-7&rft.aulast=Gottreich&rft.aufirst=Emily+Benichou&rft.au=Schroeter%2C+Daniel+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D45exFa6wDIIC%26pg%3DPA258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jdc-224"><a href="#cite_ref-jdc_224-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131016211752/http://www.jdc.org/where-we-work/africa/tunisia.html">"Tunisia"</a>. jdc.org. 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Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-5229-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-5229-2"><bdi>0-7425-5229-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Sanctuary+to+Boardroom%3A+A+Jewish+Approach+to+Leadership&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md.&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7425-5229-2&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Hal+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zjbyb82/revision/5">"Messiah – Key beliefs in Judaism – GCSE Religious Studies Revision – Eduqas"</a>. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46057-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46057-6"><bdi>978-1-139-46057-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+Ancient+Jewish+Nationalism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-139-46057-6&rft.aulast=Goodblatt&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DafEhCsbbFlgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakhos2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bakhos, Carol (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.10.56/">"Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism"</a>. Bryn Mawr Classical Review.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bryn+Mawr+Classical+Review&rft.atitle=Elements+of+Ancient+Jewish+Nationalism&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Bakhos&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbmcr.brynmawr.edu%2F2007%2F2007.10.56%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Adam L. Porter, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jhsonline.org/reviews/reviews_new/review357.htm">Review of Goodblatt, David M., Elements of ancient Jewish nationalism, 2006</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200209082632/http://jhsonline.org/reviews/reviews_new/review357.htm">Archived</a> 9 February 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in Journal of Hebrew Scriptures – Volume 9 (2009) </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1993" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Anthony D. (1993). National Identity. Ethnonationalism in comparative perspective (Reprint ed.). Reno Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press. pp. 48–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87417-204-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87417-204-1"><bdi>978-0-87417-204-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=National+Identity&rft.place=Reno+Las+Vegas&rft.series=Ethnonationalism+in+comparative+perspective&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E48-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=University+of+Nevada+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-87417-204-1&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Anthony+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-233"><a href="#cite_ref-:23_233-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodblatt2006" class="citation book cs1">Goodblatt, David (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/elements-of-ancient-jewish-nationalism/68B5269393825257297A43E197C94A12">Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 11–12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511499067">10.1017/cbo9780511499067</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86202-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86202-8"><bdi>978-0-521-86202-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+Ancient+Jewish+Nationalism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511499067&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86202-8&rft.aulast=Goodblatt&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Felements-of-ancient-jewish-nationalism%2F68B5269393825257297A43E197C94A12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Tom Garvin, "Ethnic Markers, Modern Nationalisms, and the Nightmare of History," in Kruger, ed., ¨ Ethnicity and Nationalism, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillar1987" class="citation journal cs1">Millar, Fergus (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18647/1337/JJS-1987">"Empire, Community and Culture in the Roman near East: Greeks, Syrians, Jews and Arabs"</a>. Journal of Jewish Studies. 38 (2): 147–148. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18647%2F1337%2FJJS-1987">10.18647/1337/JJS-1987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Jewish+Studies&rft.atitle=Empire%2C+Community+and+Culture+in+the+Roman+near+East%3A+Greeks%2C+Syrians%2C+Jews+and+Arabs&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E147-%3C%2Fspan%3E148&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18647%2F1337%2FJJS-1987&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Fergus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.18647%2F1337%2FJJS-1987&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHastings1997" class="citation book cs1">Hastings, Adrian (1997). The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 186–187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59391-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-59391-3"><bdi>0-521-59391-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Construction+of+Nationhood%3A+Ethnicity%2C+Religion+and+Nationalism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E186-%3C%2Fspan%3E187&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-59391-3&rft.aulast=Hastings&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzman2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_P._Weitzman" class="mw-redirect" title="Steven P. Weitzman">Weitzman, Steven</a> (2008). "On the Political Relevance of Antiquity: A Response to David Goodblatt's Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism". Jewish Social Studies. 14 (3): 168. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40207028">40207028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Social+Studies&rft.atitle=On+the+Political+Relevance+of+Antiquity%3A+A+Response+to+David+Goodblatt%27s+Elements+of+Ancient+Jewish+Nationalism&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=168&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40207028%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Weitzman&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> Dosick (2007), p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Dosick (2007), p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-EJ571-240">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EJ571_240-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EJ571_240-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EJ571_240-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmelzDella_Pergola2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Schmelz, Usiel Oscar; Della Pergola, Sergio (2007). 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The World Must Know," United States Holocaust Museum, 2006, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> de Lange (2002), pp. 41–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirschSeligsohnBacher1901–1906" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Emil_G._Hirsch" title="Emil G. Hirsch">Hirsch, Emil G.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Max_Seligsohn" title="Max Seligsohn">Seligsohn, Max</a>; <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Bacher" title="Wilhelm Bacher">Bacher, Wilhelm</a> (1901–1906). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11548-nimrod">"NIMROD"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Isidore_Singer" title="Isidore Singer">Singer, Isidore</a>; et al. (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">The Jewish Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=NIMROD&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Funk+%26+Wagnalls&rft.date=1901%2F1906&rft.aulast=Hirsch&rft.aufirst=Emil+G.&rft.au=Seligsohn%2C+Max&rft.au=Bacher%2C+Wilhelm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F11548-nimrod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-Christopher-329">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith-Christopher_329-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith-Christopher_329-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith-Christopher2015" class="citation book cs1">Smith-Christopher, Daniel L. 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Wipf and Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781608994786" title="Special:BookSources/9781608994786"><bdi>9781608994786</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religion+of+the+Landless&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2015-01-14&rft.isbn=9781608994786&rft.aulast=Smith-Christopher&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1YhMAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooperSchwartz1996" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Jerrold S.; Schwartz, Glenn M. 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Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780931464966" title="Special:BookSources/9780931464966"><bdi>9780931464966</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Study+of+the+Ancient+Near+East+in+the+Twenty-first+Century&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780931464966&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Jerrold+S.&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+Glenn+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3hc1Yp0VcjoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMooreKelle2011" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (17 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC">Biblical History and Israel S Past</a>. Wm. B. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802862600" title="Special:BookSources/9780802862600"><bdi>9780802862600</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biblical+History+and+Israel+S+Past&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2011-05-17&rft.isbn=9780802862600&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Megan+Bishop&rft.au=Kelle%2C+Brad+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjkz_8EMoaUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-332"><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDille2004" class="citation book cs1">Dille, Sarah J. (July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NPoQkBwjnVcC">Mixing Metaphors</a>. A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780826469694" title="Special:BookSources/9780826469694"><bdi>9780826469694</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mixing+Metaphors&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2004-07&rft.isbn=9780826469694&rft.aulast=Dille&rft.aufirst=Sarah+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNPoQkBwjnVcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-333"><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a> Johnson (1987), pp. 85–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.jewishagency.org/israel-diaspora-relations/content/23757">"The Post-Second Temple Period"</a>. The Jewish Agency. 31 May 2005. Retrieved 10 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jewish+Agency&rft.atitle=The+Post-Second+Temple+Period&rft.date=2005-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.jewishagency.org%2Fisrael-diaspora-relations%2Fcontent%2F23757&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh9w1wk">Next Year in Jerusalem: Exile and Return in Jewish History</a>. Purdue University Press. 2019. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctvh9w1wk">10.2307/j.ctvh9w1wk</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55753-875-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55753-875-8"><bdi>978-1-55753-875-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh9w1wk">j.ctvh9w1wk</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:263234025">263234025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Next+Year+in+Jerusalem%3A+Exile+and+Return+in+Jewish+History&rft.pub=Purdue+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2Fj.ctvh9w1wk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A263234025%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvh9w1wk%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-55753-875-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctvh9w1wk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 460. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gartner431-341">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gartner431_341-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gartner431_341-1">b</a> Gartner (2001), p. 431. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gartner_11-12-342"><a href="#cite_ref-Gartner_11-12_342-0">^</a> Gartner (2001), pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson229-231-343"><a href="#cite_ref-Johnson229-231_343-0">^</a> Johnson (1987), pp. 229–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson_1987,_p._306-344"><a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_1987,_p._306_344-0">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 306. </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> Johnson (1987), p. 370. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gartner_2001,_pp._213–5-346"><a href="#cite_ref-Gartner_2001,_pp._213–5_346-0">^</a> Gartner (2001), pp. 213–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> Gartner (2001), pp. 357–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> Johnson (1987), pp. 529–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNetzer2007" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Netzer, Amnon (2007). "Iran". In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Berenbaum" title="Michael Berenbaum">Berenbaum, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fred_Skolnik" title="Fred Skolnik">Skolnik, Fred</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a>. Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866097-4"><bdi>978-0-02-866097-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iran&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Judaica&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=13&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-02-866097-4&rft.aulast=Netzer&rft.aufirst=Amnon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a> Gartner (2001), pp. 400–01. </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> Kaplan (2003), p. 301. </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanzger2008" class="citation book cs1">Danzger, M. Herbert (2008). "The 'Return' to Traditional Judaism at the End of the Twentieth Century: Cross-Cultural Comparisons". The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. pp. 495–511. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470758014.ch27">10.1002/9780470758014.ch27</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75801-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75801-4"><bdi>978-0-470-75801-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+%27Return%27+to+Traditional+Judaism+at+the+End+of+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+Cross-Cultural+Comparisons&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+Judaism&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E495-%3C%2Fspan%3E511&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470758014.ch27&rft.isbn=978-0-470-75801-4&rft.aulast=Danzger&rft.aufirst=M.+Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> de Lange (2002), p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2001" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Richard H. (2001). Judaism and Global Survival. New York: Lantern Books. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-930051-87-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-930051-87-5"><bdi>1-930051-87-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judaism+and+Global+Survival&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Lantern+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-930051-87-5&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSekine2005" class="citation book cs1">Sekine, Seizo (20 January 2005). A Comparative Study of the Origins of Ethical Thought: Hellenism and Hebraism. Sheed & Ward. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4616-7459-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4616-7459-7"><bdi>978-1-4616-7459-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comparative+Study+of+the+Origins+of+Ethical+Thought%3A+Hellenism+and+Hebraism&rft.pub=Sheed+%26+Ward&rft.date=2005-01-20&rft.isbn=978-1-4616-7459-7&rft.aulast=Sekine&rft.aufirst=Seizo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShalev2005" class="citation book cs1">Shalev, Baruch (2005). 100 Years of Nobel Prizes. p. 57. <q>A striking fact... is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of the total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. These numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.2% of the world's population) are Jewish.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=100+Years+of+Nobel+Prizes&rft.pages=57&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Shalev&rft.aufirst=Baruch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobbs2001" class="citation news cs1">Dobbs, Stephen Mark (12 October 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/16556/as-the-nobel-prize-marks-centennial-jews-constitute-1-5-of-laureates/">"As the Nobel Prize marks centennial, Jews constitute 1/5 of laureates"</a>. <a href="/wiki/J._The_Jewish_News_of_Northern_California" title="J. The Jewish News of Northern California">J. The Jewish News of Northern California</a>. Retrieved 3 April 2012. <q>Throughout the 20th century, Jews, more so than any other minority, ethnic or cultural group, have been recipients of the Nobel Prize—perhaps the most distinguished award for human endeavor in the six fields for which it is given. Remarkably, Jews constitute almost one-fifth of all Nobel laureates. This, in a world in which Jews number just a fraction of 1 percent of the population.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+The+Jewish+News+of+Northern+California&rft.atitle=As+the+Nobel+Prize+marks+centennial%2C+Jews+constitute+1%2F5+of+laureates&rft.date=2001-10-12&rft.aulast=Dobbs&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jweekly.com%2Farticle%2Ffull%2F16556%2Fas-the-nobel-prize-marks-centennial-jews-constitute-1-5-of-laureates%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019170057/http://www.jewishbiography.com/biographies/list-of-jews/jewish-nobel-prize-winners/index.html">"Jewish Nobel Prize Winners"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishbiography.com/biographies/list-of-jews/jewish-nobel-prize-winners/index.html">the original</a> on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 25 November 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Nobel+Prize+Winners&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishbiography.com%2Fbiographies%2Flist-of-jews%2Fjewish-nobel-prize-winners%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTed_FalconDavid_Blatner2001" class="citation book cs1">Ted Falcon; David Blatner (2001). "28". Judaism for dummies. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <q>Similarly, because Jews make up less than a quarter of one percent of the world's population, it's surprising that over 20 percent of Nobel prizes have been awarded to Jews or people of Jewish descent.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=28&rft.btitle=Judaism+for+dummies&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Ted+Falcon&rft.au=David+Blatner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_E._Harrison2008" class="citation book cs1">Lawrence E. Harrison (2008). The Central Liberal Truth: How Politics Can Change a Culture and Save It. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 102. <q>That achievement is symbolized by the fact that 15 to 20 percent of Nobel Prizes have been won by Jews, who represent two tenths of one percent of the world's population.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Central+Liberal+Truth%3A+How+Politics+Can+Change+a+Culture+and+Save+It&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Lawrence+E.+Harrison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_B._KrasnerJonathan_D._Sarna2006" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan B. Krasner; Jonathan D. Sarna (2006). The History of the Jewish People: Ancient Israel to 1880s America. Behrman House, Inc. p. 1. <q>These accomplishments account for 20 percent of the Nobel Prizes awarded since 1901. What a feat for a people who make up only .2 percent of the world's population!</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Jewish+People%3A+Ancient+Israel+to+1880s+America&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Behrman+House%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Jonathan+B.+Krasner&rft.au=Jonathan+D.+Sarna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jinfo.org/Nobel_Prizes.html">"Jewish Nobel Prize Winners"</a>. Jinfo.org. Retrieved 16 March 2016. <q>At least 194 Jews and people of half- or three-quarters-Jewish ancestry have been awarded the Nobel Prize, accounting for 22% of all individual recipients worldwide between 1901 and 2015, and constituting 36% of all US recipients during the same period. In the scientific research fields of Chemistry, Economics, Physics, and Physiology/Medicine, the corresponding world and US percentages are 26% and 38%, respectively. Among women laureates in the four research fields, the Jewish percentages (world and US) are 33% and 50%, respectively. Of organizations awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, 22% were founded principally by Jews or by people of half-Jewish descent. Since the turn of the century (i.e., since the year 2000), Jews have been awarded 25% of all Nobel Prizes and 28% of those in the scientific research fields.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jinfo.org&rft.atitle=Jewish+Nobel+Prize+Winners&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jinfo.org%2FNobel_Prizes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoogan1998" class="citation book cs1">Coogan, Michael D., ed. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C">The Oxford History of the Biblical World</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513937-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513937-2"><bdi>978-0-19-513937-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201115173430/https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C">Archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513937-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzFhvECwNQD0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDekmejian1975" class="citation book cs1">Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1975). Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon. State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87395-291-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87395-291-X"><bdi>0-87395-291-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patterns+of+Political+Leadership%3A+Egypt%2C+Israel%2C+Lebanon&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-87395-291-X&rft.aulast=Dekmejian&rft.aufirst=R.+Hrair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2003" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC">Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?</a>. Eerdmans. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0975-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0975-9"><bdi>978-0-8028-0975-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200421082836/https://books.google.com/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Were+the+Early+Israelites+and+Where+Did+They+Come+From%3F&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-0975-9&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8WkbUkKeqcoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2002" class="citation book cs1">Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC">The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2338-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-2338-6"><bdi>978-0-7432-2338-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bible+Unearthed%3A+Archaeology%27s+New+Vision+of+Ancient+Israel+and+the+Origin+of+Sacred+Texts&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-2338-6&rft.aulast=Finkelstein&rft.aufirst=Israel&rft.au=Silberman%2C+Neil+Asher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlu6ywyJr0CMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornberg1993" class="citation book cs1">Kornberg, Jacques (1993). Theodor Herzl: From Assimilation to Zionism. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33203-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33203-5"><bdi>978-0-253-33203-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theodor+Herzl%3A+From+Assimilation+to+Zionism&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-253-33203-5&rft.aulast=Kornberg&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipiński2020" class="citation book cs1">Lipiński, Edward (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qGy6zQEACAAJ">A History of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and Judah</a>. Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta. Vol. 287. Peeters. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-4212-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-4212-7"><bdi>978-90-429-4212-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Kingdom+of+Jerusalem+and+Judah&rft.series=Orientalia+Lovaniensia+Analecta&rft.pub=Peeters&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-90-429-4212-7&rft.aulast=Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqGy6zQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNutt1999" class="citation book cs1">McNutt, Paula (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22265-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22265-9"><bdi>978-0-664-22265-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+the+Society+of+Ancient+Israel&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22265-9&rft.aulast=McNutt&rft.aufirst=Paula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222">Stager, Lawrence. "Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel". In <a href="#CITEREFCoogan1998">Coogan (1998)</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTobolowsky2022" class="citation book cs1">Tobolowsky, Andrew (2022). "The Tribes That Were Not Lost: The Samaritans". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/myth-of-the-twelve-tribes-of-israel/tribes-that-were-not-lost/BAEE997B6F05C26B49864979B0705E9D">The Myth of the Twelve Tribes of Israel: New Identities Across Time and Space</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 69–70, 73–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009091435.003">10.1017/9781009091435.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-51494-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-51494-8"><bdi>978-1-316-51494-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Tribes+That+Were+Not+Lost%3A+The+Samaritans&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Twelve+Tribes+of+Israel%3A+New+Identities+Across+Time+and+Space&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E69-%3C%2Fspan%3E70%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E73-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781009091435.003&rft.isbn=978-1-316-51494-8&rft.aulast=Tobolowsky&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fmyth-of-the-twelve-tribes-of-israel%2Ftribes-that-were-not-lost%2FBAEE997B6F05C26B49864979B0705E9D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJews" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox 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title="Israelites">Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism" title="Origins of Judaism">Origins of Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogal_Judaism" title="Synagogal Judaism">Synagogal Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Atheists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta_Christianity" title="Xueta Christianity">Xueta Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism,_race_and_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionism, race and genetics">Zionism, race and genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groups_claiming_affiliation_with_Israelites" title="Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites">Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diaspora28" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner-Jews" title="Afrikaner-Jews">Afrikaner-Jode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuts" title="Chuts">Chuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galitzianers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Lita'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" title="History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Udmurt and Tatar Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unterlander_Jews" title="Unterlander Jews">Unterlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekke" title="Yekke">Yekkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Abraham" title="Beta Abraham">Beta Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falash_Mura" title="Falash Mura">Falash Mura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_Jews" title="Desi Jews">Desi Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Kochinim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzínim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinopolitan_Karaites" title="Constantinopolitan Karaites">Constantinopolitan Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urfalim" title="Urfalim">Urfalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adeni_Jews" title="Adeni Jews">Adeni Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbani_Jews" title="Habbani Jews">Ḥabbanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hadramaut" title="History of the Jews in Hadramaut">Hadhrami Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saada" title="History of the Jews in Saada">Saada Jews</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27arabi_Jews" title="Musta'arabi Jews">Mustaʿravim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Jewish tribes of Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Eastern Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Livorno" title="History of the Jews in Livorno">Livornese Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North African Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradesi_Jews" title="Paradesi Jews">Paradesi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meshuchrarim" title="Meshuchrarim">Meshuchrarim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xuetes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Diasporic</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language#List_of_signed_languages" title="Manually coded language">Signed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Amazigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Judaeo-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judeo-Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Borujerdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Borujerdi">Judeo-Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judeo-Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani">Judeo-Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayliñña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Kivruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwareña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Shassagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_authority" title="Rabbinic authority">Rabbinic authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sefirot" title="Sefirot">Sefirot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of Judaism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvishe" class="mw-redirect" title="Litvishe">Litvaks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolog_Judaism" title="Neolog Judaism">Neolog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationships_between_Jewish_religious_movements" title="Relationships between Jewish religious movements">relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Sifrei Kodesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>/Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_texts_of_Kabbalah" title="Primary texts of Kabbalah">Kabbalah texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hekhalot_literature" title="Hekhalot literature">Hekhalot literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_Rimonim" title="Pardes Rimonim">Pardes Rimonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_HaBahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer HaBahir">Sefer HaBahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etz_Chaim_(book)" title="Etz Chaim (book)">Sefer HaEtz Chaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Raziel_HaMalakh" title="Sefer Raziel HaMalakh">Sefer Raziel HaMalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Yetzirah" title="Sefer Yetzirah">Sefer Yetzirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_astrology" title="Jewish astrology">Astrology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_astrology" title="Jewish views on astrology">perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monen" title="Monen">Monen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leadership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorce in Judaism">Divorce</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_name" title="Jewish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies" title="Jewish studies">Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Jewish_History" title="Center for Jewish History">Center for Jewish History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Historical_Society" title="American Jewish Historical Society">American Jewish Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sephardi_Federation" title="American Sephardi Federation">American Sephardi Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute_New_York" title="Leo Baeck Institute New York">Leo Baeck Institute New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_University_Museum" title="Yeshiva University Museum">Yeshiva University Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_Contemporary_Jewish_Documentation" title="Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation">Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_YIVO_Encyclopedia_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Europe" title="The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Holocaust" title="Encyclopedia of the Holocaust">Encyclopedia of the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Encyclopedia">Holocaust Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_other_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Anabaptist–Jewish relations">Anabaptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Judaism" title="Protestantism and Judaism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Halloween" title="Jews and Halloween">Jews and Halloween</a></li></ul></li> <li>non-Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/14px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/21px-Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/28px-Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Judaism portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7325#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1854" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7325#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1854" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7325#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932167h">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932167h">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00574413">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph127782&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX526628">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000054696&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007533616205171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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[\"CITEREFBotterweckRinggren1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBotticiniEckstein2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBowersock2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrandeis1915\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBrenner2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroshi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaya_Herman2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChouraqui1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCline2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohenKangas2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCongress\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCongress,_E.P.Gonzalez,_M.J.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoogan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooperSchwartz1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig_R._Prentiss2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurry2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDanzger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDashefskyDella-PergolaSheskin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_M._GordisZachary_I._Heller2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_P_Mindell2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaviesFinkelsteinKatz1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDekmejian1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDever2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDever2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDille2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobbs2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDr._Andrea_C._Paterson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrukman1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFE._Mary_Smallwood1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEban1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdgar_Litt1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdinger2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdna_Aizenberg2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_Kessler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrlich2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrlich2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEinstein1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEisenstadt2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElan_Ezrachi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElana_Shohamy2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEli_Lederhendler2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmma_Klein2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErnest_KrauszGitta_Tulea\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErnest_KrauszGitta_Tulea1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErwin_FahlbuschGeoffrey_William_Bromiley2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFacts_On_File,_Incorporated2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFalk1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFederOvadiaGlaserMishmar2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinkelsteinSilberman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFishman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFowler1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrudakis2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGafaiti2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGafni2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarfinkelGanor2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerald_Tulchinsky2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldenberg2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodblatt2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGoodman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGottreichSchroeter2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrabbe2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrintz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrintz1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGurock1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaberGauguierYouhannaPatterson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammerBeharKarafetMendez2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammerReddWood2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammerReddWoodBonner2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarald_Haarmann1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarriet_Sherwood_in_Jerusalem2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarry_Ostrer_MD2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHastings1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHimla_SoodyallJennifer_G._R_Kromberg2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirschSeligsohnBacher\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHjelmThompson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHollowayHandy1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob_Neusner1991\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJared_Diamond1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJessica_Piombo2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJodi_Magness2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_A._Shoup_III2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_M._G._BarclayJohn_Philip_McMurdo_Sweet1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonathan_B._KrasnerJonathan_D._Sarna2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonathan_Daly2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoshua_A._Fishman1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJulia_Phillips_BergerSue_Parker_Gerson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJulie_Galambush2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamrin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaresh2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatsnelson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKerkeslagerSetzerTrebilcoGoodblatt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiaris2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKillebrew2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKimmerling1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleinedlerSpitz2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKornberg1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhrt1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrence_E._Harrison2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeibner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLemaire2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevin2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewin1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewontin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipiński2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipschits2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipschits2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowenstein2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM._Nicholson2002\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFMarc_Zvi_Brettler2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarvin_Perry2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMax_I._Dimont2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNutt1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMieroop2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitchell2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMooreKelle2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoshe_Ma\u0026#039;oz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNava_Nevo2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebelFilonBrinkmannMajumder2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebelFilonWeissWeale2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNetzer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoll2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstrer2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFOstrerSkorecki2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFParfitt1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatai1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_R._Mendes-Flohr1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaul_Wexler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Fibiger_BangWalter_Scheidel2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPfeffer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfeffer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhilip_R._Davies1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavivBen_David2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaymond_P._Scheindlin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRendsburg2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidolfo2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobin_May_Schott2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenberg2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSafran2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchama2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchloss2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmelzDella_Pergola\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSekine2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSeth_Daniel_Kunin2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShalev2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaye_J.D._Cohen1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheffer2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShenLaviKivisildChou2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimonLaskierReguer2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith-Christopher2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpielvogel2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpielvogel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpurdleJenkins1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStager1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaples2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSubtelny,_O.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTed_FalconDavid_Blatner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTet-Lim_N._Yee2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Avraham_Harman_Institute_of_Contemporary_Jewry_The_Hebrew_University_of_Jerusalem_Eli_Lederhendler_Stephen_S._Wise_Professor_of_American_Jewish_History_and_Institutions2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_L._Thompson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTobolowsky2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaxman2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWeiner2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeitzman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYaakov_Kleiman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoder2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZeev2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZissu2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZoossmann-Diskin2010\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 3,\n [\"As of\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Bibleverse\"] = 4,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite EJ\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite Jewish Encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 153,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 36,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 17,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 70,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Contains special characters\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Failed verification\"] = 1,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 9,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvard citation no brackets\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 3,\n [\"IPA\"] = 3,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Infobox ethnic group\"] = 1,\n [\"Jews and Judaism\"] = 1,\n [\"Jews and Judaism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Judaism\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 12,\n [\"Langx\"] = 2,\n [\"Legend\"] = 5,\n [\"Main\"] = 13,\n [\"Main list\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Popdf\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-extended\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Project MUSE\"] = 2,\n [\"R\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 2,\n [\"Script/Hebr\"] = 1,\n [\"Script/Hebrew\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 7,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 2,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 10,\n [\"Tribes of Israel\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","16.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","14.1"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","240","13.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","140","7.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","80","4.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","80","4.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","4.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::preprocess","60","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","60","3.3"],["\u003CModule:Citation/CS1:814\u003E","60","3.3"],["[others]","480","26.1"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b978bcf59-hvv5g","timestamp":"20250218122246","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> 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