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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Former Czechoslovakia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Former_Czechoslovakia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Czech_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Czech_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Czech Republic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Czech_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slovakia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slovakia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Slovakia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slovakia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Former_Soviet_Union,_Russia,_Belarus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Former_Soviet_Union,_Russia,_Belarus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Former Soviet Union, Russia, Belarus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Former_Soviet_Union,_Russia,_Belarus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ukraine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukraine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Ukraine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukraine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Branches_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Branches_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Branches of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Branches_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet 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Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elml%C9%99r_namiz%C9%99di" title="Elmlər namizədi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elmlər namizədi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Кандыдат навук – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кандыдат навук" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Кандыдат навук – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кандыдат навук" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Кандидат на науките – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кандидат на науките" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandid%C3%A1t_v%C4%9Bd" title="Kandidát věd – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kandidát věd" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandidat_nauk" title="Kandidat nauk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kandidat nauk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaduste_kandidaat" title="Teaduste kandidaat – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teaduste kandidaat" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candidato_de_ciencias" title="Candidato de ciencias – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Candidato de ciencias" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candidat_%C3%A8s_sciences" title="Candidat ès sciences – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Candidat ès sciences" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A9%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82" title="Գիտությունների թեկնածու – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիտությունների թեկնածու" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Ғылым кандидаты – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғылым кандидаты" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Илимдер кандидаты – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Илимдер кандидаты" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moksl%C5%B3_kandidatas" title="Mokslų kandidatas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mokslų kandidatas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandidat_naoek" title="Kandidat naoek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kandidat naoek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%E5%80%99%E8%A3%9C" title="博士候補 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="博士候補" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_nomzodi" title="Fan nomzodi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fan nomzodi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandydat_nauk" title="Kandydat nauk – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kandydat nauk" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candidato_de_Ci%C3%AAncias" title="Candidato de Ciências – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Candidato de Ciências" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Кандидат наук – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Кандидат наук" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Кандидат наук – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кандидат наук" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandid%C3%A1t_vied" title="Kandidát vied – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kandidát vied" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tieteiden_kandidaatti" title="Tieteiden kandidaatti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tieteiden kandidaatti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandidat_nauk" title="Kandidat nauk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kandidat nauk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%BD%D3%99%D1%80_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Фәннәр кандидаты – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фәннәр кандидаты" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8_%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BC" title="Номзади илм – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Номзади илм" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandidat" title="Kandidat – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kandidat" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Кандидат наук – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кандидат наук" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%B3_ti%E1%BA%BFn_s%C4%A9" title="Phó tiến sĩ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phó tiến sĩ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%AF%E5%8D%9A%E5%A3%AB%E5%AD%A6%E4%BD%8D" title="副博士学位 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="副博士学位" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q737462#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Sciences" title="Doctor of Sciences">Doctor of Sciences</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DiplomKandidata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/DiplomKandidata.jpg/220px-DiplomKandidata.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/DiplomKandidata.jpg/330px-DiplomKandidata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/DiplomKandidata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="257" /></a><figcaption>Cover of a Soviet Candidate of Sciences diploma</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>Candidate of Sciences</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>-equivalent academic research degree in many post-Soviet and Eastern European countries, including Russia, Czechia, Slovakia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. It is officially classified by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> as <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 8, "doctoral or equivalent". In those countries conferring the Candidate of Sciences degrees, a more advanced degree, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Sciences" title="Doctor of Sciences">Doctor of Sciences</a>, is usually conferred as a <a href="/wiki/Higher_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher doctorate">higher doctorate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ISCED_2011_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISCED_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ISCED_1997_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISCED_1997-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Candidate of Sciences degree may be recognized as a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy#USSR,_Russian_Federation_and_former_Soviet_Republics" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a>, usually in natural sciences, by scientific institutions in other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-ISCED_2011_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISCED_2011-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ISCED_1997_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ISCED_1997-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The degree was introduced in the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> on 13 January 1934 by a decision of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Council of People's Commissars of the USSR</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-witt_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witt-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-decision_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-decision-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> all previous degrees, ranks and titles having been abolished immediately after the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> in 1917.<sup id="cite_ref-GSE_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GSE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Academic distinctions and ranks were viewed as survivals of capitalist inequality and hence were to be permanently eliminated. The original decree also recognized some degrees earned prior to 1917 in Tsarist Russia and elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-witt_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-witt-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To attain the Candidate of Sciences degree, an individual must hold a Master's (Magistr) or a Specialist diploma, both one or (more typically) two year degrees in this system.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both of these prerequisites are post-bachelors (Bakalavr) degrees, bachelor's being four years of full-time study. The Candidate of Sciences degree requires a minimum of three years of full-time study during which the individual must conduct and publish advanced original research into a topic that is deemed significant or has practical economic or military potential.<sup id="cite_ref-WES_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WES-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to attain the rank of full Professor in these countries, a <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Sciences" title="Doctor of Sciences">Doctor of Sciences</a> degree is required in the same way that <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a> is required in Germany. This is also sometimes the case in the United States and the United Kingdom, where in addition to the possession of a doctoral (<a href="/wiki/Ph.D." class="mw-redirect" title="Ph.D.">Ph.D.</a>) degree, some volume of further research must be demonstrated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Procedure_for_attaining_the_degree">Procedure for attaining the degree</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Procedure for attaining the degree"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The work on a <a href="/wiki/Dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissertation">dissertation</a> is commonly carried out during a <a href="/wiki/Postgraduate" class="mw-redirect" title="Postgraduate">postgraduate</a> study period called <i>aspirantura</i>. Not all those who accomplish aspirantura will be invited to write a dissertation. An analogous situation may be found in American institutions where, after comprehensive examinations, a faculty may decide to award another Masters degree instead of continuing with the dissertation. It is performed either within an educational institution (such as a <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</a>) or a scientific research institution (such as an institute of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Russian Academy of Sciences">Russian Academy of Sciences</a> network). It can also be carried out without a direct connection to the academy. In exceptional cases, the Candidate of Sciences degree may be awarded on the basis of published scholarly works without writing a thesis. In experimental sciences the dissertation is based on an independent research project conducted under the supervision of a professor, the results of which must be published in at least three papers in <a href="/wiki/Peer-review" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-review">peer-review</a> scientific journals. </p><p>A necessary prerequisite is taking courses in philosophy and foreign language, and passing a qualifying examination called "candidate minimum". In the Soviet Union, the candidate minimum included exams in the specialty field of the "dissertant", in a foreign language of his/her choice and in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_communism" title="Scientific communism">scientific communism</a>. In <a href="/wiki/History_of_post-Soviet_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of post-Soviet Russia">post-Soviet Russia</a> and other post-Soviet states, the latter examination was replaced by the one in <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, and in Russia recently in the <a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">history and philosophy of science</a>; in Ukraine it was philosophy. </p><p>The dissertation is presented ("defended") before a committee called the Dissertation Council which is accredited at the educational or scientific institution. The Council consists of about 20 members, who are the leading specialists (including the academicians) in the field of the dissertation and who have been selected and empowered to serve for the council. The summary of the dissertation must be published before public defense in the form of "autoreferat" in about 150–200 copies, and distributed to major research organizations and libraries. The seeker of the degree must have an official "research supervisor". The dissertation must be delivered together with official references of several reviewers, called "opponents". In a procedure called the "defense of the dissertation" the dissertation is summarized before the commission, followed by speeches by the opponents or the reading of their references, and replies to the comments of the opponents and question of the Commission members by the <i>aspirant</i>. </p><p>If the defense is successful (66.6% majority of votes by the secret ballot voting by the members of the council), it is recommended and later must be approved by the central statewide board called <a href="/wiki/Higher_Attestation_Commission" title="Higher Attestation Commission">Higher Attestation Commission</a> or "Vysshaya attestacionnaya komissiya" or <b>VAK</b> (or by similar authority in other applicable countries).<sup id="cite_ref-vak_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vak-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, since end-2010s the dissertation councils accredited at some world-known educational units like Moscow and St. Petersburg State universities or top-level research centers are exempt from requirement to send the defended dissertations to the VAK for control. As of 2021 there were 29 such organizations (s. <a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F:%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8,_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%8E%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%83%D1%87%D1%91%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8" class="extiw" title="ru:Категория:Организации России, самостоятельно присуждающие учёные степени">full list</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Local_characteristics">Local characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Local characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Former_Czechoslovakia">Former Czechoslovakia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Former Czechoslovakia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, the Candidate and Doctor of Sciences (<a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">Kandidát věd</i>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>: <i lang="sk">Kandidát vied</i>) degrees were modeled precisely after the Soviet one by Law 60/1953 in 1953. Requirements to attain the degree were thus literally the same as in the USSR. Since all Czechoslovak top academic research institutions were dissolved after the <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948">Communist Putsch</a> in 1948, the supreme academic authority was represented by the <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences">Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences</a>, newly established in 1953. The degree could also be awarded by the <a href="/wiki/Slovak_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Slovak Academy of Sciences">Slovak Academy of Sciences</a> and universities. </p><p>The abbreviation of the degree is <b>CSc.</b> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">candidatus scientiarum</i>), added behind the bearer's name and a comma. </p><p>There also have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states, that incorporate the "Dr." abbreviation, e.g. </p> <ul><li><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/JUDr." class="extiw" title="cz:JUDr.">JUDr.</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">juris utriusque doctor</i>, English: <span lang="en">Doctor of Law</span>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">doktor práv</i>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>: <i lang="sk">doktor práv</i>)</small></li> <li><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhDr." class="extiw" title="cz:PhDr.">PhDr.</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">philosophiae doctor</i>, English: <span lang="en">Doctor of Philosophy</span>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">doktor filosofie</i>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>: <i lang="sk">doktor filozofie</i>)</small></li> <li><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNDr." class="extiw" title="cz:RNDr.">RNDr.</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">rerum naturalium doctor</i>, English: <span lang="en">Doctor of Natural Sciences</span>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">doktor přírodních věd</i>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>: <i lang="sk">doktor prírodných vied</i>)</small></li></ul> <p>and others. These doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph.D., although its holders are addressed "doctor". Applicants need a master's degree (5 years +) or a comparable degree with excellent grades. This degree is stated before names and awarded after writing a <i>rigorous thesis</i> of 50.000 to 80.000 words and defending it at a <a href="/wiki/Oral_exam" title="Oral exam">viva voce</a> and <i>(rigorous)</i> exam in at least 2-3 related fields of doctoral studies. </p> <ul><li><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUDr." class="extiw" title="cz:MUDr.">MUDr.</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">medicinae universae doctor</i>)</small> is a "Doctor of Medicine" degree equivalent to the North-American <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">MD</a>, attained after 6-year university studies.</li> <li><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVDr." class="extiw" title="cz:MVDr.">MVDr.</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">medicinae veterinariae doctor</i>)</small> is a "Doctor of <a href="/wiki/Veterinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterinary">Veterinary</a>" akin to <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_veterinary_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of veterinary medicine">DVM</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSDr." class="extiw" title="cz:RSDr.">RSDr.</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">rerum socialium doctor</i>)</small> was a quasi-degree, awarded exclusively to functionaries of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Communist Party of Czechoslovakia">Communist Party of Czechoslovakia</a> <i>(KSČ)</i> during the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Czechoslovakia_(1948-1989)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Czechoslovakia (1948-1989)">Communist era</a>, who either or not "graduated" from the <i>Political College of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia</i>. The leading subject taught was <a href="/wiki/Marxism-Leninism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxism-Leninism">Marxism-Leninism</a> and there was no need to have completed even a secondary school to attain the degree. RSDr. was also possible to attain at some military universities, however, contrary to the previous case, the applicant had to pass further exams.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Czech_Republic">Czech Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Czech Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Granting CSc. was abolished in 1998 and replaced with Ph.D. or Th.D. (<a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">doktor</i>) An applicant is required to have master's degree (or its equivalent, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree#In_Europe" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer (Ing.)</a> in technical and economic university programs or <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine (MUDr.)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Veterinary_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor of Veterinary Medicine">Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr.)</a> in medical university programs), enroll in an approximately three-year post-graduate program and defend their dissertation before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slovakia">Slovakia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Slovakia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Candidate was abolished in 1996 and replaced with PhD. (<a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>: <i lang="sk">doktor</i>, in 1996-2002 officially in Latin: <i>philosophiae doctor</i>). Requirements are similar to the Czech system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Poland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the medieval period, Polish tradition was to call Ph.D. equivalent as "doktor". Only for a short period of time between 1951 and 1958 the communist government tried to replace the title of "doktor" with "kandydat nauk" to follow the Soviet model. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Former_Soviet_Union,_Russia,_Belarus"><span id="Former_Soviet_Union.2C_Russia.2C_Belarus"></span>Former Soviet Union, Russia, Belarus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Former Soviet Union, Russia, Belarus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kandidat_nauk_sample.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Kandidat_nauk_sample.jpg/220px-Kandidat_nauk_sample.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Kandidat_nauk_sample.jpg/330px-Kandidat_nauk_sample.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Kandidat_nauk_sample.jpg/440px-Kandidat_nauk_sample.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1725" data-file-height="657" /></a><figcaption>Sample contents of modern Candidate of Sciences diploma (here, Candidate of Engineering Sciences), 1999</figcaption></figure> <p>In the USSR, there was required at least three original scientific papers published and/or submitted. At least one paper should be in one of the journals listed by the Higher Assessment Commission (VAK) of the Russian Ministry of Science.<sup id="cite_ref-vak_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vak-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Belarus, all the three publications have to be published in the journals listed by the VAK.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1971, there were 249,200 scientists holding the Candidate degree.<sup id="cite_ref-GSE_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GSE-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/">"Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191220114131/http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/">Archived</a> 2019-12-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of <i>Candidate of Sciences</i> should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. In countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Candidate of Sciences should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this degree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ukraine">Ukraine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ukraine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2014, with the adoption of the new Law of Ukraine "On Higher Education",<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the degree of Candidate of Sciences was replaced with the degree of <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (PhD). According to the new law, the degree of Candidate of Sciences is equated to the PhD degree (it is mentioned in the Candidate of Sciences diplomas issued since 2014). </p><p>In 2015, graduate students were enrolled in the Candidate of Sciences programs for the last time. The form "Candidate of Science" (singular) is used on the English-language page of bilingual diplomas of Candidate of Sciences issued since 2014 (until 2014, the Candidate of Sciences diplomas in Ukraine contained the Ukrainian text only). </p><p>As of 2024, those who were enrolled in the Candidate of Sciences programs until 2015 still may defend their theses and obtain the Candidate of Sciences degree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches_of_science">Branches of science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Branches of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Depending on the specialty of research in the dissertation, a candidate degree in Russia is awarded one of the following degrees:<sup id="cite_ref-DB-Informika_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DB-Informika-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>agricultural sciences (abbr.: к. с.-х. н.);</li> <li>architecture (abbr.: к. арх.);</li> <li>art criticism (abbr.: к. иск.);</li> <li>biological sciences (abbr.: к. б. н.);</li> <li>chemical sciences (abbr.: к. х. н.);</li> <li>culturology (abbr.: к. культ.);</li> <li>economic sciences (abbr.: к. э. н.);</li> <li>engineering sciences (abbr.: к. т. н.);</li> <li>geographic sciences (abbr.: к. геогр. н.);</li> <li>geologo-mineralogical sciences (abbr.: к. г.-м. н.) [in the USSR, Russia, and Belarus] or geological sciences (abbr.: к. геол. н.) [in Ukraine];</li> <li>historical sciences (abbr.: к. ист. н.);</li> <li>juridical sciences (abbr.: к. ю. н.);</li> <li>medical sciences (abbr.: к. м. н.);</li> <li>military sciences (abbr.: к. воен. н.);</li> <li>pedagogic sciences (abbr.: к. пед. н.);</li> <li>pharmaceutical sciences (abbr.: к. фарм. н.);</li> <li>philological sciences (abbr.: к. филол. н.);</li> <li>philosophical sciences (abbr.: к. филос. н.);</li> <li>physico-mathematical sciences (abbr.: к. ф.-м. н.);</li> <li>political sciences (abbr.: к. полит. н.);</li> <li>psychological sciences (abbr.: к. пс. н.);</li> <li>sociological sciences (abbr.: к. соц. н.);</li> <li>state administration (abbr.: к. н. держ. упр.) [only in Ukraine];</li> <li>theology (abbr.: к. богосл.) [only in Russia];</li> <li>veterinary sciences (abbr.: к. ветеринар. н.).</li></ul> <p>Previously, there was also the degree of "naval sciences" (abbr.: к. воен.-мор. н.).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For some time (in the 1940s) there was also the degree of "candidate of art criticism sciences" (abbr.: к. иск. н.).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some specialties permit the award of the candidate degree for several variants of branches of science, depending on the dominant subject area of the dissertation; e. g., specialty 02.00.04 (<a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">physical chemistry</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-DB-Informika_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DB-Informika-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can be awarded the degree of candidate of physico-mathematical, technical, or chemical sciences. However, for each dissertation only one branch of science can be chosen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">кандидат наук</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Russian-language romanization"><i lang="ru-Latn">kandidat nauk</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a>: <span lang="uk">кандидат наук</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ukrainian" title="Romanization of Ukrainian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Ukrainian-language romanization"><i lang="uk-Latn">kandydat nauk</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a>: <span lang="be">кандыдат навук</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Belarusian" title="Romanization of Belarusian">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Belarusian-language romanization"><i lang="be-Latn">kandydat navuk</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Czech_language" title="Czech language">Czech</a>: <i lang="cs">kandidát věd</i>, <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a>: <i lang="sk">kandidát vied</i></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doktor_nauk" class="mw-redirect" title="Doktor nauk">Doktor nauk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Belarus" title="Education in Belarus">Education in Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia" title="Education in Russia">Education in Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Ukraine" title="Education in Ukraine">Education in Ukraine</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candidate_of_Sciences&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-ISCED_2011-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ISCED_2011_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISCED_2011_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFUNESCO" class="citation book cs1">UNESCO. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002116/211619e.pdf"><i>Revision of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170211044137/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002116/211619e.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2017-02-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-11-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revision+of+the+International+Standard+Classification+of+Education+%28ISCED%29&rft.au=UNESCO&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fimages%2F0021%2F002116%2F211619e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACandidate+of+Sciences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ISCED_1997-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ISCED_1997_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ISCED_1997_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKouptsov" class="citation book cs1">Kouptsov, Oleg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001298/129839eo.pdf"><i>Mutual Recognition of Qualification: The Russian Federation and The Other European Countries</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNESCO. p. 97. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160801094319/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001298/129839eo.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-03-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mutual+Recognition+of+Qualification%3A+The+Russian+Federation+and+The+Other+European+Countries&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.aulast=Kouptsov&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fimages%2F0012%2F001298%2F129839eo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACandidate+of+Sciences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-witt-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-witt_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-witt_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Witt1961" class="citation book cs1">De Witt, Nicholas (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MUorAAAAYAAJ&q=Council+of+People%27s+Commissars+of+the+USSR+of+January+13%2C+1934&pg=PA377"><i>Education and Professional Employment in the U.S.S.R.</i></a> U.S.: National Science Foundation. p. 377. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180427184501/https://books.google.com/books?id=MUorAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA377&lpg=PA377&dq=Council+of+People%27s+Commissars+of+the+USSR+of+January+13,+1934&source=bl&ots=Bl5YyKYL--&sig=5UraZ7kzt8a0ZIFzCgCx-eGExKY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwieyeP79tnaAhWMFZoKHcH3DBoQ6AEIXjAF#v=onepage&q=Council%20of%20People's%20Commissars%20of%20the%20USSR%20of%20January%2013%2C%201934&f=false#v=onepage&q=Council%20of%20People's%20Commissars%20of%20the%20USSR%20of%20January%2013%2C%201934&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-04-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Education+and+Professional+Employment+in+the+U.S.S.R.&rft.place=U.S.&rft.pages=377&rft.pub=National+Science+Foundation&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=De+Witt&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMUorAAAAYAAJ%26q%3DCouncil%2Bof%2BPeople%2527s%2BCommissars%2Bof%2Bthe%2BUSSR%2Bof%2BJanuary%2B13%252C%2B1934%26pg%3DPA377&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACandidate+of+Sciences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-decision-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-decision_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuybyshev1934" class="citation book cs1">Kuybyshev, Valerian Vladimirovich (13 January 1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libussr.ru/doc_ussr/ussr_3954.htm"><i>On Scientific Degrees and Challenges</i></a>. Moscow, Russia: The Council of the People's Commissars of the USSR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180418064119/http://www.libussr.ru/doc_ussr/ussr_3954.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-04-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-04-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Scientific+Degrees+and+Challenges&rft.place=Moscow%2C+Russia&rft.pub=The+Council+of+the+People%27s+Commissars+of+the+USSR&rft.date=1934-01-13&rft.aulast=Kuybyshev&rft.aufirst=Valerian+Vladimirovich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.libussr.ru%2Fdoc_ussr%2Fussr_3954.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACandidate+of+Sciences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GSE-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GSE_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GSE_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVolkov" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Volkov, M. N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bse.sci-lib.com/article058504.html">"Кандидат наук"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Soviet_Encyclopedia" title="Great Soviet Encyclopedia">Great Soviet Encyclopedia</a></i> (in Russian) (3rd ed.). Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya. Vol. 11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190516183024/http://bse.sci-lib.com/article058504.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Education+Services%3A+Credential+Evaluations+for+Russian+Students&rft.au=Jandreska&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wes.org%2Fadvisor-blog%2Fcredential-evaluations-russian-students%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACandidate+of+Sciences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-vak-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vak_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-vak_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181201155403/http://vak.ed.gov.ru/"><bdi lang="ru">Высшая аттестационная комиссия Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации</bdi></a> (in Russian). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-06-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%92%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvak.ed.gov.ru%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACandidate+of+Sciences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131121095335/http://vak.org.by/index.php?go=Pages&in=view&id=60"><bdi lang="ru">Инструкция по оформлению диссертации, автореферата и публикаций по теме диссертации (ВАК Беларуси)</bdi></a> (in Russian). 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template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Academic_degrees" title="Template talk:Academic degrees"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Academic_degrees" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Academic degrees"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Levels_of_academic_degree" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Levels of <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">academic degree</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_degree" title="Undergraduate degree">Undergraduate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 5</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associate_degree" title="Associate degree">Associate degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_degree" title="Foundation degree">Foundation degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_National_Diploma" title="Higher National Diploma">Higher National Diploma</a> / <a href="/wiki/Diploma_of_Higher_Education" title="Diploma of Higher Education">Diploma of Higher Education</a> / <a href="/wiki/Certificate_of_Higher_Education" title="Certificate of Higher Education">Certificate of Higher Education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 6</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">Bachelor's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honours_degree" title="Honours degree">Honours degree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_education" title="Postgraduate education">Postgraduate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 7</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_diploma" title="Postgraduate diploma">Postgraduate diploma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Postgraduate_certificate" title="Postgraduate certificate">certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplom" title="Diplom">Diplom degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineer%27s_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education" title="International Standard Classification of Education">ISCED</a> level 8</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">Doctorate</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Candidate of Sciences</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Postdoctoral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higher_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher doctorate">Higher doctorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Sciences" title="Doctor of Sciences">Doctor of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">Habilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docent#Northern_Europe" title="Docent">Docent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_tenure" title="Academic tenure">Tenure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fellow" title="Fellow">Fellow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">No dominant<br />classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_certificate" title="Academic certificate">Academic certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artist_diploma" title="Artist diploma">Artist diploma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_degree" title="External degree">External degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurea" title="Laurea">Laurea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licentiate_(degree)" title="Licentiate (degree)">Licentiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_degree" title="Magister degree">Magister degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microdegree" title="Microdegree">Microdegree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degree" title="Professional degree">Professional degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graduate_diploma" title="Graduate diploma">Graduate diploma</a>/<a href="/wiki/Graduate_certificate" title="Graduate certificate">certificate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higher_diploma" title="Higher diploma">Higher diploma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialist_degree" title="Specialist degree">Specialist degree</a>/<a href="/wiki/Education_in_Russia#Traditional_model" title="Education in Russia">diploma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_degree" title="Terminal degree">Terminal degree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unearned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honorary_degree" title="Honorary degree">Honorary degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_eundem_degree" title="Ad eundem degree"><i>Ad eundem</i> degree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts_(Oxford,_Cambridge,_and_Dublin)" title="Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)">Master of Arts 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