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href="#Trade_unions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Trade unions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_unions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management_strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management_strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Management strategy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Management_strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sales_and_marketing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sales_and_marketing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Sales and marketing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sales_and_marketing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inter-organizational_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inter-organizational_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Inter-organizational relationships </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inter-organizational_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emerging_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emerging_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Emerging issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emerging_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Property </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_history_of_property_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_history_of_property_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.1 Modern history of property rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_history_of_property_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slaves_as_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slaves_as_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.1.1 Slaves as property </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slaves_as_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_right_vs_social_construct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_right_vs_social_construct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8.2 Natural right vs social construct </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_right_vs_social_construct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intellectual_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intellectual_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Intellectual property </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intellectual_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 International issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influential_factors_on_business_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influential_factors_on_business_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Influential factors on business ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influential_factors_on_business_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Economic systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_and_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_and_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Law and regulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_and_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Implementation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Implementation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Corporate_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corporate_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Corporate policies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corporate_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics_officers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics_officers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Ethics officers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics_officers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sustainability_initiatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainability_initiatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Sustainability initiatives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sustainability_initiatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Improving_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Improving_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Improving operations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Improving_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Board_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Board_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.2 Board leadership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Board_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management_accountability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management_accountability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.3 Management accountability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Management_accountability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive_compensation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive_compensation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.4 Executive compensation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Executive_compensation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stakeholder_engagement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stakeholder_engagement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.5 Stakeholder engagement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stakeholder_engagement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Employee_engagement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Employee_engagement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.6 Employee engagement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Employee_engagement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supply_chain_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supply_chain_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.7 Supply chain management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supply_chain_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transparency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transparency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.8 Transparency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transparency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_discipline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_discipline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Academic discipline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_discipline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religious_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Religious views </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_disciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_disciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Related disciplines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_disciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 General references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Business ethics</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" > 34 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84" title="أخلاقيات الأعمال – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أخلاقيات الأعمال" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81_%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Бизнес етика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бизнес етика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Business ethics" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84rieetika" title="Ärieetika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ärieetika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica_de_los_negocios" title="Ética de los negocios – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ética de los negocios" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="اخلاق تجارت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اخلاق تجارت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89thique_des_affaires" title="Éthique des affaires – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Éthique des affaires" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EC%97%85_%EC%9C%A4%EB%A6%AC" title="기업 윤리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기업 윤리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%BD_%D5%A7%D5%A9%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Բիզնես էթիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բիզնես էթիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF-%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="व्यवसाय-नीति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="व्यवसाय-नीति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poslovna_etika" title="Poslovna etika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Poslovna etika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika_bisnis" title="Etika bisnis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Etika bisnis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אתיקה בעסקים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אתיקה בעסקים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ವ್ಯಾಪಾರದ ನೀತಿ ತತ್ವಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವ್ಯಾಪಾರದ ನೀತಿ ತತ್ವಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%92tika_uz%C5%86%C4%93m%C4%93jdarb%C4%ABb%C4%81" title="Ētika uzņēmējdarbībā – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ētika uzņēmējdarbībā" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Деловна етика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Деловна етика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ondernemingsethiek" title="Ondernemingsethiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ondernemingsethiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%81%E6%A5%AD%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86" title="企業倫理 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="企業倫理" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%AB%D8%B1%DB%8D_%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82" title="د سوداګرۍ اخلاق – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د سوداګرۍ اخلاق" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etyka_w_dzia%C5%82alno%C5%9Bci_gospodarczej" title="Etyka w działalności gospodarczej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Etyka w działalności gospodarczej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica_empresarial" title="Ética empresarial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ética empresarial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Деловая этика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Деловая этика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%9A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%86%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B8" title="ව්‍යාපාර ක්ෂේත්‍රයේ ආචාරධර්ම – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ව්‍යාපාර ක්ෂේත්‍රයේ ආචාරධර්ම" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:130%;"><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">Business administration</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> Management of a business</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">Accounting</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Management_accounting" title="Management accounting">Management accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_accounting" title="Financial accounting">Financial accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit" title="Audit">Audit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Legal_person" title="Legal person">Business entity</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_legal_entity_types_by_country" title="List of legal entity types by country">list</a>)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_group" title="Corporate group">Corporate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporation_sole" title="Corporation sole">Corporation sole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company" title="Company">Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(company)" title="Conglomerate (company)">Conglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holding_company" title="Holding company">Holding company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperative" title="Cooperative">Cooperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint-stock_company" title="Joint-stock company">Joint-stock company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_liability_company" title="Limited liability company">Limited liability company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partnership" title="Partnership">Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privately_held_company" title="Privately held company">Privately held company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sole_proprietorship" title="Sole proprietorship">Sole proprietorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned enterprise</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">Corporate governance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annual_general_meeting" title="Annual general meeting">Annual general meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_directors" title="Board of directors">Board of directors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervisory_board" title="Supervisory board">Supervisory board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_board" title="Advisory board">Advisory board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit_committee" title="Audit committee">Audit committee</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_documents" title="Constitutional documents">Constitutional documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_liability" title="Corporate liability">Corporate liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insolvency_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Insolvency law">Insolvency law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions" title="Mergers and acquisitions">Mergers and acquisitions</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Corporate_title" title="Corporate title">Corporate title</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chairman" class="mw-redirect" title="Chairman">Chairman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_business_officer" title="Chief business officer">Chief business officer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chief_brand_officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief brand officer">Chief brand officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_executive_officer" title="Chief executive officer">Chief executive officer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chief_operating_officer" title="Chief operating officer">Chief operating officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_financial_officer" title="Chief financial officer">Chief financial officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_human_resources_officer" title="Chief human resources officer">Chief human resources officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_information_officer" title="Chief information officer">Chief information officer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chief_marketing_officer" title="Chief marketing officer">Chief marketing officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_product_officer" title="Chief product officer">Chief product officer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chief_technology_officer" title="Chief technology officer">Chief technology officer</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_economics" title="Public economics">Public economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">Labour economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_economics" title="Development economics">Development economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_economics" title="International economics">International economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">Mixed economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">Planned economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">Econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_economy" title="Open economy">Open economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">Knowledge economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">Microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">Macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_statistics" title="Economic statistics">Economic statistics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)">Finance</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Financial_statement" title="Financial statement">Financial statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factoring_(finance)" title="Factoring (finance)">Factoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cash_conversion_cycle" title="Cash conversion cycle">Cash conversion cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insider_dealing" class="mw-redirect" title="Insider dealing">Insider dealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_budgeting" title="Capital budgeting">Capital budgeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_bank" title="Commercial bank">Commercial bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derivative_(finance)" title="Derivative (finance)">Derivative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_statement_analysis" title="Financial statement analysis">Financial statement analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_risk" title="Financial risk">Financial risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_finance" title="Public finance">Public finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_finance" title="Corporate finance">Corporate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managerial_finance" title="Managerial finance">Managerial finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_finance" title="International finance">International finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquidation" title="Liquidation">Liquidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_market" title="Stock market">Stock market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_market" title="Financial market">Financial market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_institution" title="Financial institution">Financial institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_management" title="Capital management">Capital management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_capital" title="Venture capital">Venture capital</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types of management</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asset_management" title="Asset management">Asset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brand_management" title="Brand management">Brand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_intelligence" title="Business intelligence">Business intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_development" title="Business development">Business development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_management" title="Capacity management">Capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capability_management_in_business" title="Capability management in business">Capability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Change_management" title="Change management">Change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Innovation_management" title="Innovation management">innovation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_management" title="Commercial management">Commercial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marketing_management" title="Marketing management">Marketing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_management" title="Communications management">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Configuration_management" title="Configuration management">Configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_management" title="Conflict management">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_management" title="Content management">Content</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customer_relationship_management" title="Customer relationship management">Customer relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_management" title="Distributed management">Distributed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earned_value_management" title="Earned value management">Earned value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_business" title="Electronic business">Electronic business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_resource_planning" title="Enterprise resource planning">Enterprise resource planning</a>  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Management_information_system" title="Management information system">management information system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_management" title="Financial management">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_resource_management" title="Human resource management">Human resource</a>  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_resources" title="Human resources">development</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incident_management" title="Incident management">Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_management" title="Knowledge management">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_legal_management" title="Enterprise legal management">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_management" title="Materials management">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_management" title="Network management">Network</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Network_administrator" title="Network administrator">administrator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_management" title="Office management">Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_management" title="Operations management">Operations</a>  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operations_management_for_services" title="Operations management for services">services</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Performance management">Performance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_management" title="Power management">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_process_management" title="Business process management">Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_life-cycle_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Product life-cycle management">Product life-cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_management" title="Product management">Product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_management" title="Property management">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_management" title="Quality management">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Records_management" title="Records management">Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_management" title="Resource management">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk</a>  <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_management" title="Crisis management">crisis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sales_management" title="Sales management">Sales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_management" title="Security management">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_management" title="Service management">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_chain_management" title="Supply chain management">Supply chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_management" title="Systems management">Systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/System_administrator" title="System administrator">administrator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talent_management" title="Talent management">Talent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_management" title="Technology management">Technology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)">Organization</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_architecture" title="Organizational architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">Behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_conflict" title="Organizational conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_development" title="Organization development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_engineering" title="Organizational engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_organization" title="Hierarchical organization">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_patterns" title="Organizational patterns">Patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_space" title="Organizational space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_structure" title="Organizational structure">Structure</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">Trade</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_analysis" title="Business analysis">Business analysis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Business ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_plan" title="Business plan">Business plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_judgment_rule" title="Business judgment rule">Business judgment rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_operations" title="Business operations">Business operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_business" title="International business">International business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_model" title="Business model">Business model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">International trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">Trade route</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_process" title="Business process">Business process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Business statistics">Business statistics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/16px-Emblem-money.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/24px-Emblem-money.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg/32px-Emblem-money.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Business and economics">Business and economics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Business_administration" title="Template:Business administration"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Business_administration" title="Template talk:Business administration"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Business_administration" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Business administration"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Business ethics (also known as corporate ethics) is a form of <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">professional ethics</a>, that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> These ethics originate from individuals, organizational statements or the legal system. These norms, values, ethical, and unethical practices are the principles that guide a business.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Business ethics refers to contemporary organizational standards, principles, sets of values and norms that govern the actions and behavior of an individual in the business organization. Business ethics have two dimensions, normative business ethics or descriptive business ethics. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. Academics attempting to understand business behavior employ descriptive methods. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the interaction of profit-maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns. Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, most major corporations today promote their commitment to non-<a href="/wiki/Economic_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic value">economic values</a> under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters. <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> said in 1776, "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices."<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Governments use <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">laws</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulations</a> to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control. The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to the communities in which they operate accelerated the development of formal ethics regimes.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Maintaining an ethical status is the responsibility of the manager of the business. According to a 1990 article in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Business_Ethics" title="Journal of Business Ethics">Journal of Business Ethics</a>, "Managing ethical behavior is one of the most pervasive and complex problems facing business organizations today."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Business ethics reflect the norms of each historical period. As time passes, norms evolve, causing accepted behaviors to become objectionable. Business ethics and the resulting behavior evolved as well. Business was involved in <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The term 'business ethics' came into common use in the United States in the early 1970s. By the mid-1980s at least 500 courses in business ethics reached 40,000 students, using some twenty textbooks and at least ten casebooks supported by professional societies, centers and journals of business ethics. The Society for Business Ethics was founded in 1980. European business schools adopted business ethics after 1987 commencing with the European Business Ethics Network.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-a1-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> In 1982 the first single-authored books in the field appeared.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Firms began highlighting their ethical stature in the late 1980s and early 1990s, possibly in an attempt to distance themselves from the business scandals of the day, such as the <a href="/wiki/Savings_and_loan_crisis" title="Savings and loan crisis">savings and loan crisis</a>. The concept of business ethics caught the attention of academics, media and business firms by the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-a1-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> However, criticism of business practices was attacked for infringing the freedom of <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneurs">entrepreneurs</a> and critics were accused of supporting <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> This scuttled the discourse of business ethics both in media and academia.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The Defense Industry Initiative on Business Ethics and Conduct (DII) was created to support corporate ethical conduct. This era began the belief and support of self-regulation and free trade, which lifted tariffs and barriers and allowed businesses to merge and divest in an increasing global atmosphere. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religious_and_philosophical_origins">Religious and philosophical origins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Religious and philosophical origins">edit</a>]</div> One of the earliest written treatments of business ethics is found in the <a href="/wiki/Tirukku%E1%B9%9Ba%E1%B8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirukkuṛaḷ">Tirukkuṛaḷ</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> book dated variously from 300 BCE to the 7th century CE and attributed to <a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Thiruvalluvar</a>. Many verses discuss business ethics, in particular, verse 113, adapting to a changing environment in verses 474, 426, and 140, learning the intricacies of different tasks in verses 462 and 677.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Overview">edit</a>]</div> Business ethics reflects the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">philosophy of business</a>, of which one aim is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. Business purpose expresses the company's reason for existing. Modern discussion on the purpose of business has been freshened by views from thinkers such as Richard R. Ellesworth,<a href="#cite_note-:02-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:1-26">[26]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikos_Mourkogiannis" title="Nikos Mourkogiannis">Nikos Mourkogiannis</a>:<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> Earlier views such as Milton Friedman's held that the purpose of a business organization is to make profit for shareholders.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Nevertheless, the purpose of maximizing shareholder's wealth often "fails to energize employees". In practice, many non-shareholders also benefit from a firm's economic activity, among them employees through contractual compensation and its broader impact, consumers by the tangible or non-tangible value derived from their purchase choices; society as a whole through taxation and/or the company's involvement in social action when it occurs.<a href="#cite_note-:02-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> On the other hand, if a company's purpose is to maximize shareholder returns, then sacrificing profits for other concerns is a violation of its <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_responsibility" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary responsibility">fiduciary responsibility</a>. Corporate entities are legal persons but this does not mean they are legally entitled to all of the rights and liabilities as natural persons. Ethics are the rules or standards that govern our decisions on a daily basis. Many consider "ethics" with conscience or a simplistic sense of "right" and "wrong". Others would say that ethics is an internal code that governs an individual's conduct, ingrained into each person by family, faith, tradition, community, laws, and personal mores. Corporations and professional organizations, particularly licensing boards, generally will have a written <a href="/wiki/Code_of_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Code of ethics">code of ethics</a> that governs standards of professional conduct expected of all in the field. It is important to note that "law" and "ethics" are not synonymous, nor are the "legal" and "ethical" courses of action in a given situation necessarily the same. Statutes and regulations passed by legislative bodies and administrative boards set forth the "law". Slavery once was legal in the US, but one certainly would not say enslaving another was an "ethical" act. Economist <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> wrote that corporate executives' "responsibility ... generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to their basic rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom".<a href="#cite_note-mf1970-29">[29]</a> Friedman also said, "the only entities who can have responsibilities are individuals ... A business cannot have responsibilities. So the question is, do corporate executives, provided they stay within the law, have responsibilities in their business activities other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible? And my answer to that is, no, they do not."<a href="#cite_note-mf1970-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> This view is known as the <a href="/wiki/Friedman_doctrine" title="Friedman doctrine">Friedman doctrine</a>. A multi-country 2011 survey found support for this view among the "informed public" ranging from 30 to 80%.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Ronald Duska and Jacques Cory have described Friedman's argument as <a href="/wiki/Consequentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Consequentialist">consequentialist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">pragmatic</a>: Friedman's argument implies that unrestrained corporate freedom would benefit the most people in the long term.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Duska argued that Friedman failed to differentiate two very different aspects of business: (1) the motive of individuals, who are generally motivated by profit to participate in business, and (2) the socially sanctioned purpose of business, or the reason why people allow businesses to exist, which is to provide goods and services to people.<a href="#cite_note-Duska-34">[34]</a> So Friedman was wrong that making a profit is the only concern of business, Duska argued.<a href="#cite_note-Duska-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Drucker" title="Peter Drucker">Peter Drucker</a> once said, "There is neither a separate ethics of business nor is one needed", implying that standards of personal ethics cover all business situations.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> However, Drucker in another instance said that the ultimate responsibility of company directors is not to harm—<a href="/wiki/Primum_non_nocere" title="Primum non nocere">primum non nocere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Philosopher and author <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a> has put forth her idea of <a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">rational egoism</a>, which also applies to business ethics.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> She stresses that position of the <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">entrepreneur</a>, who has to be responsible for his own happiness and the business is a means to said happiness, where the entrepreneur is not required to serve the interest of anyone else and no-one is entitled to his/her work. Another view of business is that it must exhibit <a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">corporate social responsibility</a> (CSR): an umbrella term indicating that an ethical business must act as a responsible citizen of the communities in which it operates even at the cost of profits or other goals.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-program-39">[39]</a> In the US and most other nations, corporate entities are legally treated as persons in some respects. For example, they can hold title to property, sue and be sued and are subject to taxation, although their <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a> rights are limited. This can be interpreted to imply that they have independent ethical responsibilities.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Duska argued that stakeholders expect a business to be ethical and that violating that expectation must be counterproductive for the business.<a href="#cite_note-Duska-34">[34]</a> Ethical issues include the rights and duties between a company and its <a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_theory" title="Stakeholder theory">employees, suppliers, customers and neighbors</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a> responsibility to its <a href="/wiki/Shareholder" title="Shareholder">shareholders</a>. Issues concerning relations between different companies include <a href="/wiki/Takeover" title="Takeover">hostile take-overs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_espionage" title="Industrial espionage">industrial espionage</a>. Related issues include <a href="/wiki/Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">corporate governance</a>; <a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_entrepreneurship" title="Corporate social entrepreneurship">corporate social entrepreneurship</a>; <a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance" title="Campaign finance">political contributions</a>; legal issues such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of <a href="/wiki/Corporate_manslaughter" title="Corporate manslaughter">corporate manslaughter</a>; and the marketing of corporations' ethics policies.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> According to research published by the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Business_Ethics" title="Institute of Business Ethics">Institute of Business Ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ipsos_MORI" title="Ipsos MORI">Ipsos MORI</a> in late 2012, the three major areas of public concern regarding business ethics in Britain are executive pay, corporate tax avoidance and bribery and corruption.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Ethical standards of an entire organization can be damaged if a <a href="/wiki/Psychopathy_in_the_workplace" title="Psychopathy in the workplace">corporate psychopath</a> is in charge.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> This will not only affect the company and its outcome but the employees who work under a corporate psychopath. The way a corporate psychopath can rise in a company is by their manipulation, scheming, and bullying. They do this in a way that can hide their true character and intentions within a company. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functional_business_areas">Functional business areas</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Functional business areas">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finance">Finance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Finance">edit</a>]</div> Fundamentally, finance is a social science discipline.<a href="#cite_note-Dobson,_p._xvii-43">[43]</a> The discipline borders <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">behavioral economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">accounting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a>. It concerns technical issues such as the mix of debt and <a href="/wiki/Equity_(finance)" title="Equity (finance)">equity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dividend_policy" title="Dividend policy">dividend policy</a>, the evaluation of alternative investment projects, <a href="/wiki/Options_strategies" class="mw-redirect" title="Options strategies">options</a>, <a href="/wiki/Futures_exchange" title="Futures exchange">futures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swap_(finance)" title="Swap (finance)">swaps</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Derivative_(finance)" title="Derivative (finance)">derivatives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portfolio_(finance)" title="Portfolio (finance)">portfolio</a> <a href="/wiki/Diversification_(finance)" title="Diversification (finance)">diversification</a> and many others. Finance is often mistaken by the people to be a discipline free from ethical burdens.<a href="#cite_note-Dobson,_p._xvii-43">[43]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial crisis of 2007–2008">2008 financial crisis</a> caused critics to challenge the ethics of the executives in charge of U.S. and European financial institutions and financial regulatory bodies.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Finance ethics is overlooked for another reason—issues in finance are often addressed as matters of law rather than ethics.<a href="#cite_note-a153-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Finance_paradigm">Finance paradigm</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Finance paradigm">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> said, "the end and purpose of the polis is the good life".<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> characterized the good life in terms of material goods and intellectual and moral excellences of character.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Smith in his <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a> commented, "All for ourselves, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of the world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind."<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Adam_Smith" class="extiw" title="q:Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>.</div></div> </div> However, a section of economists influenced by the ideology of <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a>, interpreted the objective of economics to be maximization of <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a> through accelerated <a href="/wiki/Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">consumption</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">production</a> of <a href="/wiki/Goods_and_services" title="Goods and services">goods and services</a>. Neoliberal ideology promoted finance from its position as a component of economics to its core.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Proponents of the ideology hold that unrestricted financial flows, if redeemed from the shackles of "financial repressions", best help impoverished nations to grow.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The theory holds that open financial systems accelerate economic growth by encouraging foreign capital inflows, thereby enabling higher levels of savings, investment, employment, productivity and "welfare",<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> along with containing corruption. Neoliberals recommended that governments open their financial systems to the global market with minimal regulation over capital flows.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The recommendations however, met with criticisms from various schools of ethical philosophy. Some <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatic ethicists</a>, found these claims to be unfalsifiable and a priori, although neither of these makes the recommendations false or unethical per se.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Raising economic growth to the highest value necessarily means that welfare is subordinate, although advocates dispute this saying that economic growth provides more welfare than known alternatives.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Since history shows that neither regulated nor unregulated firms always behave ethically, neither regime offers an ethical <a href="/wiki/Panacea" title="Panacea">panacea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-salinger-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Neoliberal recommendations to developing countries to unconditionally open up their economies to transnational finance corporations was fiercely contested by some ethicists.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> The claim that deregulation and the opening up of economies would reduce corruption was also contested.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Dobson observes, "a rational agent is simply one who pursues personal material advantage ad infinitum. In essence, to be rational in finance is to be individualistic, materialistic, and competitive. Business is a game played by individuals, as with all games the object is to win, and winning is measured in terms solely of material wealth. Within the discipline, this rationality concept is never questioned, and has indeed become the theory-of-the-firm's sine qua non".<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Financial ethics is in this view a mathematical function of shareholder wealth. Such simplifying assumptions were once necessary for the construction of mathematically robust models. However, <a href="/wiki/Signalling_(economics)" title="Signalling (economics)">signalling theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Principal%E2%80%93agent_problem" title="Principal–agent problem">agency theory</a> extended the paradigm to greater realism.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_issues">Other issues</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other issues">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Fairness</a> in trading practices, trading conditions, financial contracting, sales practices, consultancy services, tax payments, internal audit, external audit and <a href="/wiki/Executive_compensation" title="Executive compensation">executive compensation</a> also, fall under the umbrella of finance and accounting.<a href="#cite_note-a153-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Particular corporate ethical/legal abuses include: <a href="/wiki/Creative_accounting" title="Creative accounting">creative accounting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earnings_management" title="Earnings management">earnings management</a>, misleading financial analysis, <a href="/wiki/Insider_trading" title="Insider trading">insider trading</a>, <a href="/wiki/Securities_fraud" title="Securities fraud">securities fraud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a>/kickbacks and <a href="/wiki/Facilitation_payment" class="mw-redirect" title="Facilitation payment">facilitation payments</a>. Outside of corporations, <a href="/wiki/Bucket_shop_(stock_market)" title="Bucket shop (stock market)">bucket shops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forex_scam" class="mw-redirect" title="Forex scam">forex scams</a> are criminal manipulations of financial markets. Cases include <a href="/wiki/Accounting_scandals" title="Accounting scandals">accounting scandals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enron" title="Enron">Enron</a>, <a href="/wiki/WorldCom" class="mw-redirect" title="WorldCom">WorldCom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satyam_scandal" title="Satyam scandal">Satyam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_resource_management">Human resource management</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Human resource management">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Human_resource_management" title="Human resource management">Human resource management</a> occupies the sphere of activity of <a href="/wiki/Recruitment" title="Recruitment">recruitment</a> selection, orientation, <a href="/wiki/Performance_appraisal" title="Performance appraisal">performance appraisal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Training_and_development" title="Training and development">training and development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_relations" title="Industrial relations">industrial relations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">health and safety</a> issues.<a href="#cite_note-a102-76">[76]</a> Business Ethicists differ in their orientation towards labor ethics. Some assess human resource policies according to whether they support an egalitarian workplace and the <a href="/wiki/Dignity_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Dignity of labor">dignity of labor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Issues including <a href="/wiki/At-will_employment" title="At-will employment">employment itself</a>, <a href="/wiki/Workplace_surveillance" class="mw-redirect" title="Workplace surveillance">privacy</a>, compensation in accord with <a href="/wiki/Comparable_worth" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparable worth">comparable worth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a> (and/or its opposite) can be seen either as inalienable rights<a href="#cite_note-pin-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> or as negotiable.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a> by age (preferring the <a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">young</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Seniority" title="Seniority">old</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sex_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex discrimination">gender</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">sexual harassment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a>, weight and attractiveness. A common approach to remedying discrimination is <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a>. Once hired, employees have the right to the occasional cost of living increases, as well as raises based on merit. Promotions, however, are not a right, and there are often fewer openings than qualified applicants. It may seem unfair if an employee who has been with a company longer is passed over for a promotion, but it is not unethical. It is only unethical if the employer did not give the employee proper consideration or used improper criteria for the promotion.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Each employer should know the distinction between what is unethical and what is illegal. If an action is illegal it is breaking the law but if an action seems morally incorrect that is unethical. In the workplace what is unethical does not mean illegal and should follow the guidelines put in place by OSHA (<a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a>), EEOC (<a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a>), and other law binding entities. Potential employees have ethical <a href="/wiki/Obligation" title="Obligation">obligations</a> to employers, involving intellectual property protection and <a href="/wiki/Whistle-blowing" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistle-blowing">whistle-blowing</a>. Employers must consider <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">workplace safety</a>, which may involve modifying the workplace, or providing appropriate training or hazard disclosure. This differentiates on the location and type of work that is taking place and can need to comply with the standards to protect employees and non-employees under workplace safety. Larger economic issues such as <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade policy">trade policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unionism</a> affect workplaces and have an ethical dimension, but are often beyond the purview of individual companies.<a href="#cite_note-pin-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trade_unions">Trade unions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Trade unions">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">Trade unions</a>, for example, may push employers to establish <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> for workers, but may also cause job loss by demanding unsustainable compensation and work rules.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Unionized workplaces may confront <a href="/wiki/Union_busting" title="Union busting">union busting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strike_breaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Strike breaking">strike breaking</a> and face the ethical implications of work rules that advantage some workers over others.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Management_strategy">Management strategy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Management strategy">edit</a>]</div> Among the many people management strategies that companies employ are a "soft" approach that regards employees as a source of creative energy and participants in workplace decision making, a "hard" version explicitly focused on control<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theory_Z" title="Theory Z">Theory Z</a> that emphasizes philosophy, culture and consensus.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> None ensure ethical behavior.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Some studies claim that sustainable success requires a humanely treated and satisfied workforce.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sales_and_marketing">Sales and marketing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sales and marketing">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marketing_ethics" title="Marketing ethics">Marketing ethics</a></div> Marketing ethics came of age only as late as the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Marketing ethics was approached from ethical perspectives of <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> or <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">pragmatism</a> and relativism.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Ethics in marketing deals with the principles, values and/or ideas by which marketers (and marketing institutions) ought to act.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Marketing ethics is also contested terrain, beyond the previously described issue of potential conflicts between profitability and other concerns. Ethical marketing issues include marketing redundant or dangerous products/services,<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">transparency</a> about environmental risks, transparency about <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_labelling" title="Mandatory labelling">product ingredients</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">genetically modified organisms</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> possible health risks, <a href="/wiki/Financial_risk" title="Financial risk">financial risks</a>, security risks, etc.,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> respect for <a href="/wiki/Consumer_privacy" title="Consumer privacy">consumer privacy</a> and autonomy,<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a> truthfulness and fairness in <a href="/wiki/Pricing" title="Pricing">pricing</a> & distribution.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> According to Borgerson, and Schroeder (2008), marketing can influence individuals' perceptions of and interactions with other people, implying an ethical responsibility to avoid distorting those perceptions and interactions.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Marketing ethics involves pricing practices, including illegal actions such as <a href="/wiki/Price_fixing" title="Price fixing">price fixing</a> and legal actions including <a href="/wiki/Price_discrimination" title="Price discrimination">price discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Price_skimming" title="Price skimming">price skimming</a>. Certain promotional activities have drawn fire, including <a href="/wiki/Greenwash" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwash">greenwashing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bait_and_switch" class="mw-redirect" title="Bait and switch">bait and switch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shill" title="Shill">shilling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viral_marketing" title="Viral marketing">viral marketing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spam_(electronic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spam (electronic)">spam (electronic)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_scheme" title="Pyramid scheme">pyramid schemes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multi-level_marketing" title="Multi-level marketing">multi-level marketing</a>. Advertising has raised objections about <a href="/wiki/Attack_ad" title="Attack ad">attack ads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subliminal_message" class="mw-redirect" title="Subliminal message">subliminal messages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sex_in_advertising" title="Sex in advertising">sex in advertising</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marketing_in_schools" title="Marketing in schools">marketing in schools</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inter-organizational_relationships">Inter-organizational relationships</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Inter-organizational relationships">edit</a>]</div> Scholars in business and management have paid much attention to the ethical issues in the different forms of relationships between organizations such as buyer-supplier relationships, networks, <a href="/wiki/Strategic_alliance" title="Strategic alliance">alliances</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Joint_venture" title="Joint venture">joint ventures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Drawing in particular on <a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost_analysis" title="Transaction cost analysis">Transaction Cost Theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agency_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Agency theory">Agency Theory</a>, they note the risk of <a href="/wiki/Opportunism" title="Opportunism">opportunistic</a> and unethical practices between partners through, for instance, shirking, <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">poaching</a>, and other deceitful behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> In turn, research on inter-organizational relationships has observed the role of formal and informal mechanisms to both prevent unethical practices and mitigate their consequences. It especially discusses the importance of formal contracts and relational norms between partners to manage ethical issues. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emerging_issues">Emerging issues</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Emerging issues">edit</a>]</div> Being the most important element of a business, stakeholders' main concern is to determine whether or not the business is behaving ethically or unethically. The business's actions and decisions should be primarily ethical before it happens to become an ethical or even legal issue. "In the case of the government, community, and society what was merely an ethical issue can become a legal debate and eventually law."<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-121">[121]</a> Some emerging ethical issues are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_environmental_responsibility" title="Corporate environmental responsibility">Corporate environmental responsibility</a>: Businesses impacts on eco-systemic environments can no longer be neglected and ecosystems' impacts on business activities are becoming more imminent.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Fairness</a>: The three aspects that motivate people to be fair is; equality, optimization, and reciprocity. Fairness is the quality of being just, equitable, and impartial.</li> <li>Misuse of company's times and resources: This particular topic may not seem to be a very common one, but it is very important, as it costs a company billions of dollars on a yearly basis. This misuse is from late arrivals, leaving early, long lunch breaks, inappropriate sick days etc. This has been observed as a major form of misconduct in businesses today. One of the greatest ways employees participate in the misuse of company's time and resources is by using the company computer for personal use.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_fraud" title="Consumer fraud">Consumer fraud</a>: There are many different types of fraud, namely; friendly fraud, return fraud, wardrobing, price arbitrage, returning stolen goods. Fraud is a major unethical practice within businesses which should be paid special attention. Consumer fraud is when consumers attempt to deceive businesses for their very own benefit.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-121">[121]</a></li> <li>Abusive behavior: A common ethical issue among employees. Abusive behavior consists of inflicting intimidating acts on other employees. Such acts include harassing, using profanity, threatening someone physically and insulting them, and being annoying.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production">Production</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> This area of business ethics usually deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not needlessly cause harm. Since few goods and services can be produced and consumed with zero risks, determining the ethical course can be difficult. In some case, consumers demand products that harm them, such as <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> products. Production may have environmental impacts, including <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a>. The downstream effects of technologies <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">genetically modified food</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a> may not be well understood. While the <a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">precautionary principle</a> may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences are not fully understood, that principle would have prohibited the newest technology introduced since the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial revolution">industrial revolution</a>. Product testing protocols have been attacked for violating the rights of both <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical trials">humans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">animals</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] There are sources that provide information on companies that are environmentally responsible or do not test on animals. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property">Property</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Property">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a> and <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">Property rights</a></div> The etymological root of property is the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> proprius,<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> which refers to 'nature', 'quality', 'one's own', 'special characteristic', 'proper', 'intrinsic', 'inherent', 'regular', 'normal', 'genuine', 'thorough, complete, perfect' etc. The word property is value loaded and associated with the personal qualities of propriety and respectability, also implies questions relating to ownership. A 'proper' person owns and is true to herself or himself, and is thus genuine, perfect and pure.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_history_of_property_rights">Modern history of property rights</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Modern history of property rights">edit</a>]</div> Modern discourse on property emerged by the turn of the 17th century within theological discussions of that time. For instance, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> justified <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a> saying that God had made "the earth, and all inferior creatures, [in] common to all men".<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> In 1802 <a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> stated, "property and law are born together and die together".<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> One argument for property ownership is that it enhances individual liberty by extending the line of non-interference by the state or others around the person.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Seen from this perspective, property right is absolute and property has a special and distinctive character that precedes its legal protection. Blackstone conceptualized property as the "sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe".<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Slaves_as_property">Slaves as property</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Slaves as property">edit</a>]</div> During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, slavery spread to European colonies including America, where colonial legislatures defined the legal status of slaves as a form of property. Combined with theological justification, the property was taken to be essentially natural ordained by God. Property, which later gained meaning as ownership and appeared natural to Locke, Jefferson and to many of the 18th and 19th century intellectuals as land, labor or idea, and property right over slaves had the same <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity and slavery">theological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialized</a> justification<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> It was even held[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] that the property in slaves was a sacred right.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Wiecek says, "Yet slavery was more clearly and explicitly established under the Constitution than it had been under the Articles".<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> In an 1857 judgment, <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">US Supreme Court</a> Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a> said, "The right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Natural_right_vs_social_construct">Natural right vs social construct</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Natural right vs social construct">edit</a>]</div> Neoliberals hold that private property rights are a non-negotiable natural right.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Davies counters with "property is no different from other legal categories in that it is simply a consequence of the significance attached by law to the relationships between legal persons."<a href="#cite_note-Davies_2007_20-142">[142]</a> Singer claims, "Property is a form of power, and the distribution of power is a political problem of the highest order".<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Rose finds, "'Property' is only an effect, a construction, of relationships between people, meaning that its objective character is contestable. Persons and things, are 'constituted' or 'fabricated' by legal and other normative techniques."<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Singer observes, "A private property regime is not, after all, a Hobbesian state of nature; it requires a working legal system that can define, allocate, and enforce property rights."<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Davis claims that common law theory generally favors the view that "property is not essentially a 'right to a thing', but rather a separable bundle of rights subsisting between persons which may vary according to the context and the object which is at stake".<a href="#cite_note-Davies_2007_20-142">[142]</a> In common parlance property rights involve a <a href="/wiki/Bundle_of_rights" title="Bundle of rights">bundle of rights</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> including occupancy, use and enjoyment, and the right to sell, devise, give, or lease all or part of these rights.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Custodians of property have obligations as well as rights.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Michelman writes, "A property regime thus depends on a great deal of cooperation, trustworthiness, and self-restraint among the people who enjoy it."<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Menon claims that the autonomous individual, responsible for his/her own existence is a cultural construct moulded by <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a> rather than the truth about the <a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">human condition</a>. Penner views property as an "illusion"—a "normative phantasm" without substance.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> In the neoliberal literature, the property is part of the private side of a public/private dichotomy and acts a counterweight to state power. Davies counters that "any space may be subject to plural meanings or appropriations which do not necessarily come into conflict". Private property has never been a universal doctrine, although since the end of the Cold War is it has become nearly so. Some societies, e.g., Native American bands, held land, if not all property, in common. When groups came into conflict, the victor often <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">appropriated</a> the loser's property.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> The rights paradigm tended to stabilize the distribution of property holdings on the presumption that title had been lawfully acquired. Property does not exist in isolation, and so property rights too.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Bryan claimed that property rights describe relations among people and not just relations between people and things<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Singer holds that the idea that owners have no legal obligations to others wrongly supposes that property rights hardly ever conflict with other legally protected interests.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Singer continues implying that <a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">legal realists</a> "did not take the character and structure of social relations as an important independent factor in choosing the rules that govern market life". Ethics of property rights begins with recognizing the vacuous nature of the notion of property. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intellectual_property">Intellectual property</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Intellectual property">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual property rights">Intellectual property rights</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> (IP) encompasses expressions of ideas, thoughts, codes, and information. "<a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellectual property rights">Intellectual property rights</a>" (IPR) treat IP as a kind of <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real property</a>, subject to analogous protections, rather than as a reproducible good or service. Boldrin and Levine argue that "government does not ordinarily enforce monopolies for producers of other goods. This is because it is widely recognized that monopoly creates many social costs. Intellectual monopoly is no different in this respect. The question we address is whether it also creates social benefits commensurate with these social costs."<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> International standards relating to Intellectual Property Rights are enforced through <a href="/wiki/Agreement_on_Trade-Related_Aspects_of_Intellectual_Property_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights">Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights</a>. In the US, IP other than <a href="/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyrights</a> is regulated by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">United States Patent and Trademark Office</a>. The <a href="/wiki/US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US Constitution">US Constitution</a> included the power to protect intellectual property, empowering the Federal government "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries".<a href="#cite_note-steel-166">[166]</a> Boldrin and Levine see no value in such state-enforced monopolies stating, "we ordinarily think of innovative monopoly as an <a href="/wiki/Oxymoron" title="Oxymoron">oxymoron</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Further, they comment, 'intellectual property' "is not like ordinary property at all, but constitutes a government grant of a costly and dangerous private monopoly over ideas. We show through theory and example that intellectual monopoly is not necessary for innovation and as a practical matter is damaging to growth, prosperity, and liberty".<a href="#cite_note-steel-166">[166]</a> Steelman defends patent monopolies, writing, "Consider prescription drugs, for instance. Such drugs have benefited millions of people, improving or extending their lives. Patent protection enables drug companies to recoup their development costs because for a specific period of time they have the sole right to manufacture and distribute the products they have invented."<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The court cases by 39 pharmaceutical companies against <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>'s 1997 Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act, which intended to provide affordable HIV medicines has been cited as a harmful effect of patents.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> One attack on IPR is moral rather than utilitarian, claiming that inventions are mostly a collective, cumulative, path dependent, social creation and therefore, no one person or firm should be able to monopolize them even for a limited period.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> The opposing argument is that the benefits of innovation arrive sooner when patents encourage innovators and their investors to increase their commitments. Roderick T. Long, a <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarian</a> philosopher, argued: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Ethically, property rights of any kind have to be justified as extensions of the right of individuals to control their own lives. Thus any alleged property rights that conflict with this moral basis—like the "right" to own slaves—are invalidated. In my judgment, intellectual property rights also fail to pass this test. To enforce copyright laws and the like is to prevent people from making peaceful use of the information they possess. If you have acquired the information legitimately (say, by buying a book), then on what grounds can you be prevented from using it, reproducing it, trading it? Is this not a violation of the freedom of speech and press? It may be objected that the person who originated the information deserves ownership rights over it. But information is not a concrete thing an individual can control; it is universal, existing in other people's minds and other people's property, and over these, the originator has no legitimate sovereignty. You cannot own information without owning other people.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></blockquote> Machlup concluded that patents do not have the intended effect of enhancing innovation.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Self-declared <a href="/wiki/Anarchist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist">anarchist</a> <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Proudhon</a>, in his 1847 seminal work noted, "Monopoly is the natural opposite of competition," and continued, "Competition is the vital force which animates the collective being: to destroy it, if such a supposition were possible, would be to kill society."<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Mindeli and Pipiya argued that the <a href="/wiki/Knowledge_economy" title="Knowledge economy">knowledge economy</a> is an economy of abundance<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> because it relies on the "infinite potential" of knowledge and ideas rather than on the limited resources of natural resources, labor and capital. Allison envisioned an egalitarian distribution of knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> Kinsella claimed that IPR create artificial scarcity and reduce equality.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Bouckaert wrote, "Natural scarcity is that which follows from the relationship between man and nature. Scarcity is natural when it is possible to conceive of it before any human, institutional, contractual arrangement. Artificial scarcity, on the other hand, is the outcome of such arrangements. Artificial scarcity can hardly serve as a justification for the legal framework that causes that scarcity. Such an argument would be completely circular. On the contrary, artificial scarcity itself needs a justification"<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Corporations fund much IP creation and can acquire IP they do not create,<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> to which Menon and others have objected.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Andersen claims that IPR has increasingly become an instrument in eroding public domain.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> Ethical and legal issues include <a href="/wiki/Patent_infringement" title="Patent infringement">patent infringement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">copyright infringement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trademark_infringement" title="Trademark infringement">trademark infringement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patent_misuse" title="Patent misuse">patent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copyright_misuse" title="Copyright misuse">copyright misuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Submarine_patent" title="Submarine patent">submarine patents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">biological patents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patent_troll" title="Patent troll">patent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copyright_troll" title="Copyright troll">copyright</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trademark_troll" title="Trademark troll">trademark trolling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Employee_raiding" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee raiding">employee raiding</a> and monopolizing talent, <a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">bioprospecting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_espionage" title="Industrial espionage">industrial espionage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_rights_management" title="Digital rights management">digital rights management</a>. Notable IP copyright cases include <a href="/wiki/A%26M_Records,_Inc._v._Napster,_Inc." title="A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.">A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eldred_v._Ashcroft" title="Eldred v. Ashcroft">Eldred v. Ashcroft</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Disney" class="mw-redirect" title="Disney">Disney</a>'s lawsuit against the <a href="/wiki/Air_Pirates" title="Air Pirates">Air Pirates</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_issues">International issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: International issues">edit</a>]</div> While business ethics emerged as a field in the 1970s, international business ethics did not emerge until the late 1990s, looking back on the international developments of that decade.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Many new practical issues arose out of the international context of business. Theoretical issues such as cultural relativity of ethical values receive more emphasis in this field. Other, older issues can be grouped here as well. Issues and subfields include: <ul><li>The search for universal values as a basis for international commercial behavior</li> <li>Comparison of business ethical traditions in different countries and on the basis of their respective GDP and corruption rankings</li> <li>Comparison of business ethical traditions from various religious perspectives</li> <li>Ethical issues arising out of international business transactions—e.g., <a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">bioprospecting</a> and biopiracy in the pharmaceutical industry; the <a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">fair trade</a> movement; <a href="/wiki/Transfer_pricing" title="Transfer pricing">transfer pricing</a>.</li> <li>Issues such as <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural imperialism</a></li> <li>Varying global standards—e.g., the use of <a href="/wiki/Child_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Child labor">child labor</a></li> <li>The way in which multinationals take advantage of international differences, such as outsourcing production (e.g. clothes) and services (e.g. call centers) to low-wage countries</li> <li>The permissibility of international commerce with pariah states</li></ul> Foreign countries often use dumping as a competitive threat, selling products at prices lower than their normal value. This can lead to problems in domestic markets. It becomes difficult for these markets to compete with the pricing set by foreign markets. In 2009, the International Trade Commission has been researching anti-dumping laws. Dumping is often seen as an ethical issue, as larger companies are taking advantage of other less economically advanced companies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Issues">edit</a>]</div> Ethical issues often arise in business settings, whether through business transactions or forming new business relationships. It also has a huge focus in the auditing field whereby the type of verification can be directly dictated by ethical theory. An <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical issue</a> in a business atmosphere may refer to any situation that requires business associates as individuals, or as a group (for example, a department or firm) to evaluate the <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> of specific actions, and subsequently, make a decision amongst the choices. Some ethical issues of particular concern in today's evolving business market include such topics as: <a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">honesty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a>, professional behaviors, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issue" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental issue">environmental issues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">harassment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a> to name a few. From a 2009 National Business Ethics survey, it was found that types of employee-observed ethical misconduct included abusive behavior (at a rate of 22 percent), <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> (at a rate of 14 percent), improper hiring practices (at a rate of 10 percent), and company resource abuse (at a rate of percent).<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> The ethical issues associated with honesty are widespread and vary greatly in business, from the misuse of company time or resources to lying with malicious intent, engaging in <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a>, or creating conflicts of interest within an organization. Honesty encompasses wholly the truthful speech and actions of an individual. Some cultures and belief systems even consider honesty to be an essential pillar of life, such as Confucianism and Buddhism (referred to as <a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">sacca</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>). Many employees lie in order to reach goals, avoid assignments or negative issues; however, sacrificing honesty in order to gain status or reap rewards poses potential problems for the overall ethical culture organization, and jeopardizes organizational goals in the long run. Using company time or resources for personal use is also, commonly viewed as unethical because it boils down to stealing from the company. The misuse of resources costs companies billions of dollars each year, averaging about 4.25 hours per week of stolen time alone, and employees' abuse of Internet services is another main concern.<a href="#cite_note-:0-187">[187]</a> Bribery, on the other hand, is not only considered unethical is business practices, but it is also illegal. In accordance with this, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act was established in 1977 to deter international businesses from giving or receiving unwarranted payments and gifts that were intended to influence the decisions of executives and political officials.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Although, small payments known as <a href="/wiki/Facilitating_payment" title="Facilitating payment">facilitation payments</a> will not be considered unlawful under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act if they are used towards regular public governance activities, such as permits or licenses.<a href="#cite_note-:0-187">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influential_factors_on_business_ethics">Influential factors on business ethics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Influential factors on business ethics">edit</a>]</div> Many aspects of the work environment influence an individual's decision-making regarding ethics in the business world. When an individual is on the path of growing a company, many outside influences can pressure them to perform a certain way. The core of the person's performance in the workplace is rooted in their personal code of behavior. A person's personal code of ethics encompasses many different qualities such as integrity, honesty, communication, respect, compassion, and common goals. In addition, the ethical standards set forth by a person's superior(s) often translate into their own code of ethics. The company's policy is the 'umbrella' of ethics that play a major role in the personal development and decision-making processes that people make with respect to ethical behavior. The ethics of a company and its individuals are heavily influenced by the state of their country. If a country is heavily plagued with poverty, large corporations continuously grow, but smaller companies begin to wither and are then forced to adapt and scavenge for any method of survival. As a result, the leadership of the company is often tempted to participate in unethical methods to obtain new business opportunities. Additionally, Social Media is arguably the most influential factor in ethics. The immediate access to so much information and the opinions of millions highly influence people's behaviors. The desire to conform with what is portrayed as the norm often manipulates our idea of what is morally and ethically sound. Popular trends on social media and the instant gratification that is received from participating in such quickly distort people's ideas and decisions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_systems">Economic systems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Economic systems">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> have ethical implications, particularly regarding the distribution of economic benefits.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a> are both notable contributors. For example, Rawls has been interpreted as offering a critique of <a href="/wiki/Offshore_outsourcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore outsourcing">offshore outsourcing</a> on social contract grounds.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Law_and_regulation">Law and regulation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Law and regulation">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Laws</a> are the written statutes, codes, and opinions of government organizations by which citizens, businesses, and persons present within a jurisdiction are expected to govern themselves or face legal sanction. Sanctions for <a href="/wiki/Law_violation" class="mw-redirect" title="Law violation">violating</a> the law can include (a) <a href="/wiki/Civil_penalties" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil penalties">civil penalties</a>, such as fines, pecuniary damages, and loss of licenses, property, rights, or privileges; (b) criminal penalties, such as fines, probation, imprisonment, or a combination thereof; or (c) both civil and criminal penalties. Very often it is held that business is not bound by any ethics other than abiding by the law. <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> is the pioneer of the view. He held that corporations have the obligation to make a profit within the framework of the legal system, nothing more.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Friedman made it explicit that the duty of the business leaders is, "to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of the society, both those embodied in the law and those embodied in ethical custom".<a href="#cite_note-f1970-192">[192]</a> Ethics for Friedman is nothing more than abiding by customs and laws. The reduction of ethics to abidance to laws and customs, however, have drawn serious criticisms. Counter to Friedman's logic it is observed that legal procedures are technocratic, bureaucratic, rigid and obligatory whereas ethical act is conscientious, voluntary choice beyond normativity.<a href="#cite_note-ag43-193">[193]</a> Law is retroactive. Crime precedes law. Law against crime, to be passed, the crime must have happened. Laws are blind to the crimes undefined in it.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Further, as per law, "<a href="/wiki/Impossibility_defense" title="Impossibility defense">conduct is not criminal unless forbidden by law which gives advance warning that such conduct is criminal</a>".<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> Also, the law presumes the accused is innocent until proven guilty and that the state must establish the guilt of the accused beyond reasonable doubt. As per liberal laws followed in most of the democracies, until the government prosecutor proves the firm guilty with the limited resources available to her, the accused is considered to be innocent. Though the liberal premises of law is necessary to protect individuals from being persecuted by Government, it is not a sufficient mechanism to make firms morally accountable.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Implementation">Implementation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Implementation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corporate_policies">Corporate policies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Corporate policies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Corporate_governance" title="Corporate governance">Corporate governance</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Business_ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Business ethics">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2011) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> As part of more comprehensive compliance and ethics programs, many companies[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees. These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly generalized language (typically called a corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioral requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes). They are generally meant[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] to identify the company's expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business. It is hoped[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters. An increasing number of companies[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] also require employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the company's policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements. Some companies[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the company's rules of conduct. Many companies[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] are assessing the environmental factors that can lead employees to engage in unethical conduct. A competitive business environment may call for unethical behavior. Lying has become expected in fields such as trading. An example of this are the issues surrounding the unethical actions of the <a href="/wiki/Salomon_Brothers" title="Salomon Brothers">Salomon Brothers</a>. Not everyone[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct. Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment. Others[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns and that they are mainly to limit the company's legal liability or to curry public favor by giving the appearance of being a good corporate citizen. Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules. Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly. Some corporations[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] have tried to burnish their ethical image by creating whistle-blower protections, such as anonymity. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Citigroup" title="Citigroup">Citi</a>, they call this the Ethics Hotline.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Though it is unclear whether firms such as Citi take offences reported to these hotlines seriously or not. Sometimes there is a disconnection between the company's code of ethics and the company's actual practices[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>]. Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool. Jones and Parker wrote, "Most of what we read under the name business ethics is either sentimental common sense or a set of excuses for being unpleasant."<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Many manuals are procedural form filling exercises unconcerned about the real ethical dilemmas. For instance, the US Department of Commerce ethics program treats business ethics as a set of instructions and procedures to be followed by 'ethics officers'.,<a href="#cite_note-program-39">[39]</a> some others claim being ethical is just for the sake of being ethical.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Business ethicists may trivialize the subject, offering standard answers that do not reflect the situation's complexity.<a href="#cite_note-ag43-193">[193]</a> Richard DeGeorge wrote in regard to the importance of maintaining a corporate code: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Corporate codes have certain usefulness and there are several advantages to developing them. First, the very exercise of doing so in itself is worthwhile, especially if it forces a large number of people in the firm to think through, in a fresh way, their mission and the important obligations they as a group and as individuals have to the firm, to each other, to their clients and customers, and to society as a whole. Second, once adopted a code can be used to generate continuing discussion and possible modification to the code. Third, it could help to inculcate in new employees at all levels the perspective of responsibility, the need to think in moral terms about their actions, and the importance of developing the <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a> appropriate to their position.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics_officers">Ethics officers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ethics officers">edit</a>]</div> Following a series of fraud, corruption, and abuse scandals that affected the United States defense industry in the mid-1980s, the Defense Industry Initiative (DII) was created to promote ethical business practices and ethics management in multiple industries. Subsequent to these scandals, many organizations began appointing ethics officers (also referred to as "compliance" officers). In 1991, the Ethics & Compliance Officer Association —originally the Ethics Officer Association (EOA)—was founded at the Center for Business Ethics at <a href="/wiki/Bentley_University" title="Bentley University">Bentley University</a> as a professional association for ethics and compliance officers.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> The 1991 passing of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations in 1991 was another factor in many companies appointing ethics/compliance officers. These guidelines, intended to assist judges with sentencing, set standards organizations must follow to obtain a reduction in sentence if they should be convicted of a federal offense.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> Following the high-profile corporate scandals of companies like <a href="/wiki/Enron" title="Enron">Enron</a>, <a href="/wiki/WorldCom" class="mw-redirect" title="WorldCom">WorldCom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyco_International" title="Tyco International">Tyco</a> between 2001 and 2004, and following the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act" title="Sarbanes–Oxley Act">Sarbanes–Oxley Act</a>, many small and mid-sized companies also began to appoint ethics officers.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Often reporting to the chief executive officer, ethics officers focus on uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions. This is accomplished by assessing the ethical implications of the company's activities, making recommendations on ethical policies, and disseminating information to employees.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> The effectiveness of ethics officers is not clear. The establishment of an ethics officer position is likely to be insufficient in driving ethical business practices without a <a href="/wiki/Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">corporate culture</a> that values ethical behavior. These values and behaviors should be consistently and systemically supported by those at the top of the organization.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Employees with strong community involvement, loyalty to employers, superiors or owners, smart work practices, trust among the team members do inculcate a corporate culture.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sustainability_initiatives">Sustainability initiatives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sustainability initiatives">edit</a>]</div> Many <a href="/wiki/Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">corporate and business strategies</a> now include <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a>. In addition to the traditional environmental 'green' sustainability concerns, business ethics practices have expanded to include <a href="/wiki/Social_sustainability" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sustainability">social sustainability</a>. Social sustainability focuses on issues related to <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> in the business supply chain, such as <a href="/wiki/Worker%27s_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Worker's rights">worker's rights</a>, working conditions, <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">child labor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human trafficking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Incorporation of these considerations is increasing, as consumers and procurement officials demand documentation of a business's compliance with national and international initiatives, guidelines, and standards.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> Many industries have organizations dedicated to verifying ethical delivery of products from start to finish,<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Kimberley_Process_Certification_Scheme" title="Kimberley Process Certification Scheme">Kimberly Process</a>, which aims to stop the flow of conflict diamonds into international markets, or the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Wear_Foundation" title="Fair Wear Foundation">Fair Wear Foundation</a>, dedicated to sustainability and fairness in the garment industry. Initiatives in sustainability encompass "green" topics, as well as social sustainability. Tao et al. refer to a variety of "green" business practices including green strategy, green design, green production and green operation.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> There are however many different ways in which sustainability initiatives can be implemented by a company. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Improving_operations">Improving operations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Improving operations">edit</a>]</div> An organization can implement sustainability initiatives by improving its operations and manufacturing process so as to make it more aligned with environment, social, and governance issues. Johnson & Johnson incorporates policies from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, applying these principles not only for members of its supply chain but also internal operations. Walmart has made commitments to doubling its truck fleet efficiency by 2015 by replacing 2/3rds of its fleet with more fuel-efficient trucks, including hybrids. Dell has integrated alternative, recycled, and recyclable materials in its products and packaging design, improving energy efficiency and design for end-of-life and recyclability. Dell plans to reduce the energy intensity of its product portfolio by 80% by 2020.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Board_leadership">Board leadership</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Board leadership">edit</a>]</div> The board of a company can decide to lower executive compensation by a given percentage, and give the percentage of compensation to a specific cause. This is an effort which can only be implemented from the top, as it will affect the compensation of all executives in the company. In Alcoa, an aluminum company based in the US, "1/5th of executive cash compensation is tied to safety, diversity, and environmental stewardship, which includes greenhouse gas emission reductions and energy efficiency" (Best Practices). This is not usually the case for most companies, where we see the board take a uniform step towards the environment, social, and governance issues. This is only the case for companies that are directly linked to utilities, energy, or material industries, something which Alcoa as an aluminum company, falls in line with. Instead, formal committees focused on the environment, social, and governance issues are more usually seen in governance committees and audit committees, rather than the board of directors. "According to research analysis done by Pearl Meyer in support of the NACD 2017 Director Compensation Report shows that among 1,400 public companies reviewed, only slightly more than five percent of boards have a designated committee to address ESG issues." (How compensation can).<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Management_accountability">Management accountability</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Management accountability">edit</a>]</div> Similar to board leadership, creating steering committees and other types of committees specialized for sustainability, senior executives are identified who are held accountable for meeting and constantly improving sustainability goals.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Executive_compensation">Executive compensation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Executive compensation">edit</a>]</div> Introducing bonus schemes that reward executives for meeting non-financial performance goals including safety targets, <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>, reduction targets, and goals engaging stakeholders to help shape the companies public policy positions. Companies such as Exelon have implemented policies like this.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stakeholder_engagement">Stakeholder engagement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Stakeholder engagement">edit</a>]</div> Other companies will keep sustainability within its strategy and goals, presenting findings at shareholder meetings, and actively tracking metrics on sustainability. Companies such as PepsiCo, Heineken, and FIFCO[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] take steps in this direction to implement sustainability initiatives. (Best Practices). Companies such as Coca-Cola have actively tried improve their efficiency of water usage, hiring 3rd party auditors to evaluate their water management approach. FIFCO has also led successfully led water-management initiatives.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Employee_engagement">Employee engagement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Employee engagement">edit</a>]</div> Implementation of sustainability projects through directly appealing to employees (typically through the human resource department) is another option for companies to implement sustainability. This involves integrating sustainability into the company culture, with hiring practices and employee training. General Electric is a company that is taking the lead in implementing initiatives in this manner. Bank of America directly engaged employees by implement LEED (leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certified buildings, with a fifth of its building meeting these certifications.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Supply_chain_management">Supply chain management</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Supply chain management">edit</a>]</div> Establishing requirements for not only internal operations but also first-tier suppliers as well as second-tier suppliers to help drive environmental and social expectations further down the supply chain. Companies such as Starbucks, FIFCO and Ford Motor Company have implemented requirements that suppliers must meet to win their business. Starbucks has led efforts in engaging suppliers and local communities where they operate to accelerate investment in sustainable farming. Starbucks set a goal of ethically sourcing 100% of its coffee beans by 2015.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transparency">Transparency</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Transparency">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">Transparency (behavior)</a></div> By revealing decision-making data about how sustainability was reached, companies can give away insights that can help others across the industry and beyond make more sustainable decisions. Nike launched its "making app" in 2013 which released data about the sustainability in the materials it was using. This ultimately allows other companies to make more sustainable design decisions and create lower impact products.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_discipline">Academic discipline</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Academic discipline">edit</a>]</div> As an academic discipline, business ethics emerged in the 1970s. Since no academic business ethics journals or conferences existed, researchers published in general management journals and attended general conferences. Over time, specialized peer-reviewed journals appeared, and more researchers entered the field. Corporate scandals in the earlier 2000s increased the field's popularity. As of 2009, sixteen academic journals devoted to various business ethics issues existed, with <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Business_Ethics" title="Journal of Business Ethics">Journal of Business Ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Business_Ethics_Quarterly" title="Business Ethics Quarterly">Business Ethics Quarterly</a> considered the leaders.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Business_Ethics_Education" title="Journal of Business Ethics Education">Journal of Business Ethics Education</a> publishes articles specifically about education in business ethics. The International Business Development Institute is a global non-profit organization that represents 217 nations and all 50 United States. It offers a Charter in Business Development that focuses on ethical business practices and standards. The Charter is directed by <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fulbright" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulbright">Fulbright</a> Scholars, and it includes graduate-level coursework in economics, politics, marketing, management, technology, and legal aspects of business development as it pertains to business ethics. IBDI also oversees the International Business Development Institute of Asia which provides individuals living in 20 Asian nations the opportunity to earn the Charter. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religious_views">Religious views</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Religious views">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> law, followed by many <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic banking">banking</a> specifically prohibits charging interest on loans.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> Traditional <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a> thought discourages profit-seeking.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> offers the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a> command, "Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them: for this is the law and the prophets."<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> According to the article "Theory of the real economy", there is a more narrow point of view from the Christianity faith towards the relationship between ethics and religious traditions. This article stresses how Christianity is capable of establishing reliable boundaries for financial institutions. One criticism comes from Pope Benedict by describing the "damaging effects of the real economy of badly managed and largely speculative financial dealing." It is mentioned that Christianity has the potential to transform the nature of finance and investment but only if theologians and ethicist provide more evidence of what is real in the economic life.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> Business ethics receives an extensive treatment in Jewish thought and <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic literature</a>, both from an ethical (<a href="/wiki/Musar_movement" title="Musar movement">Mussar</a>) and a legal (<a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a>) perspective; see article <a href="/wiki/Jewish_business_ethics" title="Jewish business ethics">Jewish business ethics</a> for further discussion. According to the article "Indian Philosophy and Business Ethics: A Review", by Chandrani Chattopadyay, Hindus follow "Dharma" as Business Ethics and unethical business practices are termed "Adharma". Businessmen are supposed to maintain steady-mindedness, self-purification, non-violence, concentration, clarity and control over senses. Books like Bhagavat Gita[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and Arthashastra<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> contribute a lot towards conduct of ethical business.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_disciplines">Related disciplines</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Related disciplines">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">Business</a> ethics is related to <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">philosophy of economics</a>, the branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> that deals with the philosophical, political, and <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> underpinnings of business and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Business ethics operates on the premise, for example, that the ethical operation of a private business is possible—those who dispute that premise, such as <a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian socialist">libertarian socialists</a> (who contend that "business ethics" is an <a href="/wiki/Oxymoron" title="Oxymoron">oxymoron</a>) do so by definition outside of the domain of business ethics proper. [citation needed] The philosophy of economics also deals with questions such as what, if any, are the <a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">social responsibilities</a> of a business; <a href="/wiki/Business_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Business management">business management</a> <a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theory</a>; theories of <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivism</a>; <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a> among participants in the <a href="/wiki/Marketplace" title="Marketplace">marketplace</a>; the role of <a href="/wiki/Selfishness" title="Selfishness">self interest</a>; <a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a> theories; the requirements of <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural rights">natural rights</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a>, in relation to the business enterprise.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> Business ethics is also related to <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, which is <a href="/wiki/Economic_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic analysis">economic analysis</a> from political and <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">historical</a> perspectives. Political economy deals with the distributive consequences of economic actions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B_Corporation_(certification)" title="B Corporation (certification)">B Corporation (certification)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Business culture">Business culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Business law">Business law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behaviour" title="Corporate behaviour">Corporate behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Corporate social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_ethics_in_business" title="Eastern ethics in business">Eastern ethics in business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_altruism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical altruism">Ethical altruism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Ethical egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">Ethical code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_implications_in_contracts" title="Ethical implications in contracts">Ethical implications in contracts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_job" title="Ethical job">Ethical job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethicism">Ethicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_corporation" title="Evil corporation">Evil corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism_bias" title="Optimism bias">Optimism bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_ethics" title="Organizational ethics">Organizational ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penny_stock_scam" class="mw-redirect" title="Penny stock scam">Penny stock scam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Philosophy and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">Political corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_misrepresentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic misrepresentation">Strategic misrepresentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_planning" title="Strategic planning">Strategic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_ethic" title="Work ethic">Work ethic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-business/">"Business Ethics"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2008-04-16. Retrieved 2013-06-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Business+Ethics&rft.pub=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2008-04-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-business%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraedrichFerrellFerrell2016" class="citation book cs1">Fraedrich, John; Ferrell, Linda; Ferrell, O.C. (January 2016). Business ethics : ethical decision making and cases (Eleventh ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781305500846" title="Special:BookSources/9781305500846"><bdi>9781305500846</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/937450119">937450119</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+ethics+%3A+ethical+decision+making+and+cases&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.edition=Eleventh&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F937450119&rft.isbn=9781305500846&rft.aulast=Fraedrich&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Ferrell%2C+Linda&rft.au=Ferrell%2C+O.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Smith, A (1776/ 1952) An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, p. 55 </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJones,_Parker,_et_al.2005">Jones, Parker, et al. 2005</a>, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteadWorrellStead1990" class="citation journal cs1">Stead, W. Edward; Worrell, Dan L.; Stead, Jean Garner (March 1990). 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(1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/necessaryillusio00chom">Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies London</a>, Pluto Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89608-366-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-89608-366-7">0-89608-366-7</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Management Thoughts in Thirukkural by K. Nagarajan, – ANMOL Publications PVT Ltd., 4374/4B Ansari Road, New Delhi 110 002. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Management MANTRAS from Thirukkural – SM Veerappan and T. Srinivasan – Vikash Publishing House Pvt Ltd., Jangpura, New Delhi 110 014 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Thirukkural Pearls of Inspiration by M. 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Economics Edition (20). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.29358%2Fsceco.v0i20.280">10.29358/sceco.v0i20.280</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2344-1321">2344-1321</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+and+Scientific+Researches.+Economics+Edition&rft.atitle=Business+Ethics%2C+Between+the+Theoretical+Concepts+and+the+Romanian+Firms%27+Practices&rft.issue=20&rft.date=2014-12-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.29358%2Fsceco.v0i20.280&rft.issn=2344-1321&rft.aulast=Mironescu&rft.aufirst=Roxana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsceco.ub.ro%2Findex.php%2FSCECO%2Farticle%2Fview%2F280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> For a summary of the study see <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ibe.org.uk/userfiles/attitudes_to_be2012.pdf">http://www.ibe.org.uk/userfiles/attitudes_to_be2012.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203091256/http://www.ibe.org.uk/userfiles/attitudes_to_be2012.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-12-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Boddy C, Ladyshewsky RK, Galvin PG Leaders without ethics in global business: corporate psychopaths Journal of Public Affairs Vol10 June 2010 P121-138 </li> <li id="cite_note-Dobson,_p._xvii-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dobson,_p._xvii_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dobson,_p._xvii_43-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDobson1997">Dobson 1997</a>, p. xvii </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Cetina, K. 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(1766), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lonang.com/exlibris/blackstone/bla-201.htm">Commentaries on the Laws of England, Volume II, Of the Rights of Things</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100203220233/http://www.lonang.com/exlibris/blackstone/bla-201.htm">Archived</a> 2010-02-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Oxford: Clarendon Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaykin2006" class="citation journal cs1">Daykin, Jeffer B. (2006). ""They Themselves Contribute to Their Misery by Their Sloth": The Justification of Slavery in Eighteenth-Century French Travel Narratives". The European Legacy. 11 (6): 623. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10848770600918117">10.1080/10848770600918117</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143484245">143484245</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+European+Legacy&rft.atitle=%22They+Themselves+Contribute+to+Their+Misery+by+Their+Sloth%22%3A+The+Justification+of+Slavery+in+Eighteenth-Century+French+Travel+Narratives&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=623&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10848770600918117&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143484245%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Daykin&rft.aufirst=Jeffer+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Gordon, D. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssrn.com/abstract=1350522">Gender, Race and Limiting the Constitutional Privilege of Religion as a Haven for Bias: The Bridge Back to the Twentieth Century</a>. Women's Rights Law Reporter, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Sandoval, Alonso De. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eIHte1t-BKsC&pg=PA17">Treatise on Slavery: Selections from De instauranda Aethiopum salute</a>. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 17, 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Bay, M. (2008). Polygenesis Versus Monogenesis In Black and White. In J. H. Moore (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Race and Racism (Vol. 1, pp. 90–93). Detroit: Macmillan Reference:91 </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Baum, B. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TnVgKpqCxzQC&pg=PA35">The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity</a>. New York: New York University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-9892-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-9892-6">0-8147-9892-6</a> p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkinner,_D2006" class="citation journal cs1">Skinner, D (2006). "Racialized Futures: Biologism and the Changing Politics of Identity". Social Studies of Science. 36 (3): 459–488. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0306312706054859">10.1177/0306312706054859</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25474453">25474453</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62895742">62895742</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Studies+of+Science&rft.atitle=Racialized+Futures%3A+Biologism+and+the+Changing+Politics+of+Identity&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=459-488&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A62895742%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25474453%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0306312706054859&rft.au=Skinner%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Jensen, E. M. (1991). The Good Old Cause': The Ratification of the Constitution and Bill of Rights in South Carolina. In R. J. Haws (Ed.), The South's Role in the Creation of the Bill of Rights. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Following a bitter debate over the importation of slaves, Congress was denied, by the 1787 <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia Convention">Philadelphia Convention</a>, the authority to prohibit the slave trade to the US until 1808. The rendition of escaped slaves was also a priority for southerners. Accordingly, the fugitive slave clause declared that people held to service or labor under state law "shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due." (Ely, 2008:46) </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Wiecek, W. M. (1977). The Sources of Antislavery Constitutionalism in America, 1760–1848. New York: Cornell University Press:63 </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethell2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tom_Bethell" title="Tom Bethell">Bethell, Tom</a> (2008). "Private Property". In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</a>. Thousand Oaks, California: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">SAGE</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 393–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n243">10.4135/9781412965811.n243</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Private+Property&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+California&rft.pages=393-94&rft.pub=SAGE%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n243&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&rft.aulast=Bethell&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/documents/documents_p2.cfm?doc=23">Digital History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120419075820/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/documents/documents_p2.cfm?doc=23">Archived</a> 2012-04-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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Cohen commenting on the power dimension of property noted, "we must not overlook the actual fact that dominion over things is also imperium over our fellow human beings" p. 13 </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRose1994">Rose 1994</a>, p. 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> "'Property' has no essential character, but is rather a highly flexible set of rights and responsibilities which congeal in different ways in different contexts" <a href="#CITEREFDavies2007">Davies 2007</a>, p. 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSinger2000">Singer 2000</a>, p. 8 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Cooter, R. and T. Ulen (1988). Law and Economics. New York, Harper Collins. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tony_Honor%C3%A9" title="Tony Honoré">Honoré, A. M.</a> (1961). Ownership. In A. G. Guest (Ed.), Oxford Essays in Jurisprudence. London: Oxford University Press.; Becker, L. (1980). The Moral Basis of Property Rights In J. Pennock & J. Chapman (Eds.), Property. New York: New York University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> However, some scholars often use the terms ownership, property and property rights interchangeably, while others define ownership (or property) as a set of specific rights each attached to the vast array of uses accessible by the owner. Ownership has thus been interpreted as a form of aggregation of such social relations—a bundle of rights over the use of scarce resources . Alchian, A. A. (1965). Some Economics of Property Rights. Il Politico, 30, 816–829 </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpstein,_R._A.1997" class="citation journal cs1">Epstein, R. A. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=M1sW1nylSWKQJzZnVYGGY3ZCLG0shFGz4Bjj8YTLjNjFKRGv92Ym!-1814198305!558324302?docId=5000440763">"A Clear View of the Cathedral: The Dominance of Property Rules"</a>. Yale Law Journal. 106 (7): 2091–2107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F797162">10.2307/797162</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/797162">797162</a>. <q>Bundle of rights is often interpreted as 'full control' over the property by the owner</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Clear+View+of+the+Cathedral%3A+The+Dominance+of+Property+Rules&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2091-2107&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F797162&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F797162%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Epstein%2C+R.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2FgoogleScholar.qst%3Bjsessionid%3DM1sW1nylSWKQJzZnVYGGY3ZCLG0shFGz4Bjj8YTLjNjFKRGv92Ym%21-1814198305%21558324302%3FdocId%3D5000440763&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerrill,_T._W.Smith,_H._E.2001" class="citation journal cs1">Merrill, T. W.; Smith, H. E. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140201205042/http://www.yalelawjournal.org/the-yale-law-journal/content-pages/what-happened-to-property-in-law-and-economics?%2F">"What Happened to Property in Law and Economics?"</a>. Yale Law Journal. 111 (2): 357–398. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F797592">10.2307/797592</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/797592">797592</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yalelawjournal.org/the-yale-law-journal/content-pages/what-happened-to-property-in-law-and-economics?/">the original</a> on 2014-02-01. 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The Cambridge Law Journal. 50 (2): 252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0008197300080508">10.1017/S0008197300080508</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146430275">146430275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cambridge+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Property+in+Thin+Air&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=252&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0008197300080508&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146430275%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Fischbach, M. R. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recordsofdisposs00fisc">Records of Dispossession: Palestinian Refugee Property and the Arab-Israeli Conflict</a>. New York: Columbia University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-12978-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-12978-5">0-231-12978-5</a>. In this book Fischbach discusses on forceful dispossession of Palestinian property by Israel </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSax,_J._L.1971" class="citation journal cs1">Sax, J. L. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/facpubs/1586">"Takings, Private Property and Public Rights"</a>. Yale Law Journal. 81 (2): 149–186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F795134">10.2307/795134</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/795134">795134</a>. see pp. 149, 152.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Takings%2C+Private+Property+and+Public+Rights&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=149-186&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F795134&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F795134%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Sax%2C+J.+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.berkeley.edu%2Ffacpubs%2F1586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSinger2000">Singer 2000</a>, p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHohfeld,_W.1913" class="citation journal cs1">Hohfeld, W. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2324&context=ylj">"Some Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning I"</a>. Yale Law Journal. 23 (1): 16–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F785533">10.2307/785533</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/785533">785533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Some+Fundamental+Legal+Conceptions+as+Applied+in+Judicial+Reasoning+I&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=16-59&rft.date=1913&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F785533&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F785533%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Hohfeld%2C+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.law.yale.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2324%26context%3Dylj&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHohfeld,_W.1917" class="citation journal cs1">Hohfeld, W. (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/4378">"Some Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning II"</a>. Yale Law Journal. 26 (8): 710–770. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F786270">10.2307/786270</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/786270">786270</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142251500">142251500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Some+Fundamental+Legal+Conceptions+as+Applied+in+Judicial+Reasoning+II&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=710-770&rft.date=1917&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A142251500%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F786270%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F786270&rft.au=Hohfeld%2C+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.law.yale.edu%2Ffss_papers%2F4378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Miunzer, S. R. (1990). A theory of property. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Bryan, B. (2000). Property as Ontology: on Aboriginal and English Understandings of Property. Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence, 13, 3–31. In this article Bradley Bryan claimed that property is about much more than a set of legal relations: it is 'an expression of social relationships because it organizes people with respect to each other and their material environment' p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Arendt, H. (1958). The Human Condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSinger2000">Singer 2000</a>, p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoldrinLevine2008">Boldrin & Levine 2008</a>, p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-steel-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-steel_166-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-steel_166-1">b</a> Steelman, A. Intellectual Property.<a href="#CITEREFHamowyKuznickiSteelman2008">Hamowy, Kuznicki & Steelman 2008</a>, pp. 249–250 </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Välimäki, M. (2005). The Rise of Open Source Licensing: A Challenge to the Use of Intellectual Property in the Software Industry. Helsinki: Turre Publishing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/952-91-8769-6" title="Special:BookSources/952-91-8769-6">952-91-8769-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHamowyKuznickiSteelman2008">Hamowy, Kuznicki & Steelman 2008</a>, p. 249 </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.udayton.edu/Health/06world/africa01.htm">The South African Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Bill and TRIPS</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110807080930/http://academic.udayton.edu/Health/06world/africa01.htm">Archived</a> 2011-08-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Academic.udayton.edu. Retrieved on 2010-09-02. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Orsi, F., Camara, M., & Coriat, B. (2006). AIDS, TRIPS and 'TRIPS plus': the case for developing and less developed countries. <a href="#CITEREFAndersen2006">Andersen 2006</a>, pp. 70–108 </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndersen2006">Andersen 2006</a>, pp. 109–147 </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Roderick Long in <a href="#CITEREFHamowyKuznickiSteelman2008">Hamowy, Kuznicki & Steelman 2008</a>, pp. 249–250 </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Machlup, F. (1958). An Economic Review of the Patent System. Washington D.C.: US Government Printing Office, p. 80. Expressing similar concern Fritz Machlup wrote, "It would be irresponsible, on the basis of our present knowledge of its economic consequences, to recommend instituting [a patent system]." </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Proudhon (1847), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/philosophy/ch06.htm">Chapter Virgin Islands</a> in The Philosophy of Poverty. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Act</a> of 1890, was passed in America to stop rampant cartelization and monopolization in the American economy, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Antitrust Act">Clayton Act</a> of 1914, <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Trade Commission Act">Federal Trade Commission Act</a> of 1914,<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/15/usc_sup_01_15_10_2_20_I.html">[1]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Robinson-Patman_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Robinson-Patman Act">Anti-Price Discrimination Act</a> of 1936. In recent years, "<a href="/wiki/Antitrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust">antitrust</a>" enforcement is alleged to have reduced competition. E.g., "antitrust is anticompetitive" writes Boudreaux Antitrust.<a href="#CITEREFHamowyKuznickiSteelman2008">Hamowy, Kuznicki & Steelman 2008</a>, pp. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMindeliPipiya2007" class="citation journal cs1">Mindeli, L. E.; Pipiya, L. K. (2007). "Conceptual aspects of formation of a knowledge-based economy". Studies on Russian Economic Development. 18 (3): 314. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS1075700707030100">10.1134/S1075700707030100</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154185640">154185640</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+on+Russian+Economic+Development&rft.atitle=Conceptual+aspects+of+formation+of+a+knowledge-based+economy&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=314&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS1075700707030100&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154185640%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mindeli&rft.aufirst=L.+E.&rft.au=Pipiya%2C+L.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Allison2005" class="citation book cs1">R. Allison (30 December 2005). "The Birth of Spiritual Economics". In L. Zsolnai (ed.). Spirituality and Ethics in Management. Issues in Business Ethics. Vol. 19. New York: Springer. pp. 61–74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2365-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2365-1"><bdi>978-1-4020-2365-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0925-6733">0925-6733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Birth+of+Spiritual+Economics&rft.btitle=Spirituality+and+Ethics+in+Management&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Issues+in+Business+Ethics&rft.pages=61-74&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005-12-30&rft.issn=0925-6733&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-2365-1&rft.au=R.+Allison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> Kinsella, S. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=og0OkSwUnUQC&pg=PA32">Against Intellectual Property</a>. Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute. Kinsella writes, "Ideas are not naturally scarce. However, by recognizing a right in an ideal object, one creates scarcity where none existed before" p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndersen2006">Andersen 2006</a>, p. 125 </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> David, P. (2001, 22–23 January). Will Building 'Good Fences' Really Make 'Good Neighbours'. Paper presented at the Science, report to European Commission (DG-Research) STRATA-ETAN workshop on IPR aspects of internal collaborations, Brussels. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Bouckaert, B (1990). "What is Property?" In "Symposium: Intellectual Property." Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy 13(3) p. 793 </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Macmillan, F. (2006). Public interest and the public domain in an era of corporate dominance. <a href="#CITEREFAndersen2006">Andersen 2006</a>, pp. 46–69 </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDrahosBraithwaite2002">Drahos & Braithwaite 2002</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAndersen2006">Andersen 2006</a>, pp. 63 </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnderle1999" class="citation book cs1">Enderle, Georges (1999). International Business Ethics. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame_Press" title="University of Notre Dame Press">University of Notre Dame Press</a>. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-268-01214-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-268-01214-8"><bdi>0-268-01214-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Business+Ethics&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-268-01214-8&rft.aulast=Enderle&rft.aufirst=Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrell2013" class="citation book cs1">Ferrell, Linda (2013). Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases. Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning. pp. 61–65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-82516-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-82516-4"><bdi>978-1-111-82516-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+Ethics%3A+Ethical+Decision+Making+and+Cases&rft.place=Mason%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=61-65&rft.pub=South-Western+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-111-82516-4&rft.aulast=Ferrell&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_187-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerrellFraedrichFerrell2015" class="citation book cs1">Ferrell, O.C.; Fraedrich, John; Ferrell, Linda (2015). 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Hoboken: Pearson Education. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780134376042" title="Special:BookSources/9780134376042"><bdi>9780134376042</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Marketing%3A+Managing+Across+Borders+and+Cultures&rft.place=Hoboken&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780134376042&rft.aulast=Deresky&rft.aufirst=Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge1999" class="citation book cs1">George, Richard de (1999). Business Ethics. 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Retrieved 2019-08-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Best+practices+in+sustainability%3A+Ford%2C+Starbucks+and+more&rft.date=2014-04-30&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Confino&rft.aufirst=Jo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fsustainable-business%2Fblog%2Fbest-practices-sustainability-us-corporations-ceres&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pearlmeyer.com/knowledge-share/article/how-compensation-can-support-improved-environmental-and-social-governance">"How Compensation Can Support Improved Environmental and Social Governance"</a>. Pearl Meyer. 2017-03-30. 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International Journal of Business Governance and Ethics. 4 (4): 390–399. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1504%2FIJBGE.2009.023790">10.1504/IJBGE.2009.023790</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aserenko.com/papers/IJBGE040405_PUBLISHED.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2009-10-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Business+Governance+and+Ethics&rft.atitle=A+citation-based+ranking+of+the+business+ethics+scholarly+journals&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=390-399&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1504%2FIJBGE.2009.023790&rft.au=Serenko%2C+A.&rft.au=Bontis%2C+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aserenko.com%2Fpapers%2FIJBGE040405_PUBLISHED.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJournal2003" class="citation news cs1">Journal, Alex Frangos Staff Reporter of The Wall Street (2003-03-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1047142445698534480">"For Devout Muslims, Interest Is Forbidden"</a>. Wall Street Journal. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660">0099-9660</a>. Retrieved 2017-02-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=For+Devout+Muslims%2C+Interest+Is+Forbidden&rft.date=2003-03-09&rft.issn=0099-9660&rft.aulast=Journal&rft.aufirst=Alex+Frangos+Staff+Reporter+of+The+Wall+Street&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB1047142445698534480&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Jonathan Chan<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060427023145/http://www.stthom.edu/academics/centers/cbes/jonachan.html">"Confucian Business Ethics and the Nature of Business Decisions"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stthom.edu/academics/centers/cbes/jonachan.html">the original</a> on 2006-04-27. Retrieved 2006-10-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Confucian+Business+Ethics+and+the+Nature+of+Business+Decisions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stthom.edu%2Facademics%2Fcenters%2Fcbes%2Fjonachan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Matthew#7:12" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Matthew">Matthew 7:12</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcdaniel2011" class="citation journal cs1">Mcdaniel, Charles (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://via.library.depaul.edu/jrbe/vol2/iss2/1">""Theology of the "Real Economy""</a>. Journal of Religion and Business Ethics. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Religion+and+Business+Ethics&rft.atitle=%22Theology+of+the+%22Real+Economy%22&rft.volume=2&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Mcdaniel&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvia.library.depaul.edu%2Fjrbe%2Fvol2%2Fiss2%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> "Two Birds in a Tree: Timeless Indian Wisdom for Business Leaders," by Ram Nidumolu (Berrett-Koehler, 2013), Chapter 4: The Higher Reality of Business </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sandhill.com/article/four-stages-of-business-evolution-through-the-lens-of-ancient-indian-wisdom/">"Four Stages of Business Evolution through the Lens of Ancient Indian Wisdom"</a>. February 19, 2014. Retrieved April 15, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Four+Stages+of+Business+Evolution+through+the+Lens+of+Ancient+Indian+Wisdom&rft.date=2014-02-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsandhill.com%2Farticle%2Ffour-stages-of-business-evolution-through-the-lens-of-ancient-indian-wisdom%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Luetge" class="mw-redirect" title="Christoph Luetge">Christoph Luetge</a> (ed.): Handbook of the Philosophical Foundations of Business Ethics. Heidelberg/New York: Springer 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9400714953" title="Special:BookSources/978-9400714953">978-9400714953</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvenssonWood2008" class="citation journal cs1">Svensson, Göran; Wood, Greg (2008-02-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9351-2">"A Model of Business Ethics"</a>. Journal of Business Ethics. 77 (3): 303–322. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10551-007-9351-2">10.1007/s10551-007-9351-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-0697">1573-0697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Business+Ethics&rft.atitle=A+Model+of+Business+Ethics&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=303-322&rft.date=2008-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10551-007-9351-2&rft.issn=1573-0697&rft.aulast=Svensson&rft.aufirst=G%C3%B6ran&rft.au=Wood%2C+Greg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs10551-007-9351-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_references">General references</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: General references">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersen2006" class="citation book cs1">Andersen, B. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ydV68o_oMHEC">Intellectual property rights: innovation, governance and the institutional environment</a>. Edward Elgar Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84542-269-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-84542-269-4"><bdi>1-84542-269-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intellectual+property+rights%3A+innovation%2C+governance+and+the+institutional+environment&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-84542-269-4&rft.aulast=Andersen&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DydV68o_oMHEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoldrinLevine2008" class="citation book cs1">Boldrin, M.; Levine, D. K. (2008). Against Intellectual Monopoly. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Against+Intellectual+Monopoly&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Boldrin&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Levine%2C+D.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCory2004" class="citation book cs1">Cory, Jacques (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V-HO7Bn2T14C&pg=PA1">Activist Business Ethics</a>. Boston: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-22848-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-22848-9"><bdi>0-387-22848-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Activist+Business+Ethics&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-387-22848-9&rft.aulast=Cory&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV-HO7Bn2T14C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCullatherGleijeses2006" class="citation book cs1">Cullather, N.; Gleijeses, P. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/secrethistorycia00cull_0">Secret History: The CIA's Classified Account of Its Operations in Guatemala, 1952–1954</a>. California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-5468-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-5468-3"><bdi>0-8047-5468-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secret+History%3A+The+CIA%27s+Classified+Account+of+Its+Operations+in+Guatemala%2C+1952%E2%80%931954&rft.place=California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-8047-5468-3&rft.aulast=Cullather&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Gleijeses%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecrethistorycia00cull_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2007" class="citation book cs1">Davies, M. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/propertymeanings0000davi">Property: Meanings, histories, theories</a>. Oxford: Routledge-Cavendish. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-42933-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-42933-7"><bdi>978-0-415-42933-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Property%3A+Meanings%2C+histories%2C+theories&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Routledge-Cavendish&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-42933-7&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpropertymeanings0000davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobson1997" class="citation book cs1">Dobson, J. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PgpxdI6mpXMC">Finance Ethics: The Rationality of Virtue</a>. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-8402-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8476-8402-4"><bdi>0-8476-8402-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finance+Ethics%3A+The+Rationality+of+Virtue&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8476-8402-4&rft.aulast=Dobson&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPgpxdI6mpXMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrahosBraithwaite2002" class="citation book cs1">Drahos, P.; Braithwaite, J. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pkl7HNzhXgoC">Information Feudalism: who owns the knowledge economy</a>. London: Earthscan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85383-917-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-85383-917-5"><bdi>1-85383-917-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Feudalism%3A+who+owns+the+knowledge+economy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Earthscan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-85383-917-5&rft.aulast=Drahos&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Braithwaite%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPkl7HNzhXgoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuska2007" class="citation book cs1">Duska, R. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dANmdJHsqu0C&pg=PA1">Contemporary Reflections on Business Ethics</a>. Boston: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4983-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4983-5"><bdi>978-1-4020-4983-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Reflections+on+Business+Ethics&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4983-5&rft.aulast=Duska&rft.aufirst=R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdANmdJHsqu0C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliottTurnbull2005" class="citation book cs1">Elliott, C.; Turnbull, S. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pA0PKmbhKaUC">Critical Thinking in Human Resource Development</a>. London: Routledge. pp. 141–154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-32917-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-32917-5"><bdi>0-415-32917-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Thinking+in+Human+Resource+Development&rft.place=London&rft.pages=141-154&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-32917-5&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Turnbull%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpA0PKmbhKaUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrederic2002" class="citation book cs1">Frederic, R. E. (2002). A Companion to Business Ethics. Massachusetts: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0102-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0102-4"><bdi>1-4051-0102-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Business+Ethics.&rft.place=Massachusetts&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-4051-0102-4&rft.aulast=Frederic&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasnas2005" class="citation book cs1">Hasnas, J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/trappedwhenactin0000hasn">Trapped: When acting ethically is against the law</a>. Washington DC: Cato Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-930865-88-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-930865-88-0"><bdi>1-930865-88-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trapped%3A+When+acting+ethically+is+against+the+law&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=Cato+Institute&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-930865-88-0&rft.aulast=Hasnas&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftrappedwhenactin0000hasn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamowyKuznickiSteelman2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a>, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</a>. Thousand Oaks, California: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">SAGE</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811">10.4135/9781412965811</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+California&rft.pub=SAGE%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones,_Parker,_et_al.2005" class="citation book cs1">Jones, C.; Parker, M.; et al. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7CSKX2HdnikC">For Business Ethics: A Critical Text</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-31135-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-31135-7"><bdi>0-415-31135-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+Business+Ethics%3A+A+Critical+Text&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-31135-7&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Parker%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7CSKX2HdnikC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMachan2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tibor_R._Machan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibor R. Machan">Machan, T. R.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FCyJo5t_CQEC">The Morality of Business: A Profession for Human Wealthcare</a>. Boston: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-48906-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-48906-3"><bdi>978-0-387-48906-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Morality+of+Business%3A+A+Profession+for+Human+Wealthcare&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-387-48906-3&rft.aulast=Machan&rft.aufirst=T.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFCyJo5t_CQEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeinhold2022" class="citation book cs1">Meinhold, R. (2022). Business Ethics and Sustainability (1 ed.). New York, New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+Ethics+and+Sustainability&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Meinhold&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2002" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, P. E. (2002). Marketing Ethics at the Millennium: Review, Reflections and Recommendations. Blackwell Guide to Business Ethics. N. E. Bowie. Oxford: Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marketing+Ethics+at+the+Millennium%3A+Review%2C+Reflections+and+Recommendations.+Blackwell+Guide+to+Business+Ethics&rft.place=N.+E.+Bowie.+Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=P.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill1998" class="citation book cs1">O'Neill, J. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/marketethicsknow0000onei">The Market: Ethics, Knowledge and Politics</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09827-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09827-0"><bdi>0-415-09827-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Market%3A+Ethics%2C+Knowledge+and+Politics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-415-09827-0&rft.aulast=O%27Neill&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmarketethicsknow0000onei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinningtonMacklinCampbell2007" class="citation book cs1">Pinnington, A. H.; Macklin, R.; Campbell, T. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eIrnyGAKp6UC">Human Resource Management: Ethics and Employment</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920379-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920379-6"><bdi>978-0-19-920379-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Resource+Management%3A+Ethics+and+Employment&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-920379-6&rft.aulast=Pinnington&rft.aufirst=A.+H.&rft.au=Macklin%2C+R.&rft.au=Campbell%2C+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeIrnyGAKp6UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson2005" class="citation book cs1">Robertson, L. G. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conquestbylawhow00robe_0">Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-514869-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-514869-X"><bdi>0-19-514869-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquest+by+Law%3A+How+the+Discovery+of+America+Dispossessed+Indigenous+Peoples+of+Their+Lands&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-514869-X&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=L.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconquestbylawhow00robe_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRose1994" class="citation book cs1">Rose, C. M. (1994). Property and Persuasion: Essays on the History, Theory, and Rhetoric of Ownership. Colorado: Westview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-8554-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-8554-7"><bdi>0-8133-8554-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Property+and+Persuasion%3A+Essays+on+the+History%2C+Theory%2C+and+Rhetoric+of+Ownership&rft.place=Colorado&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8133-8554-7&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=C.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2000" class="citation book cs1">Singer, J. W. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/entitlement00jose">Entitlement: The Paradoxes of Property</a>. New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-08019-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-08019-0"><bdi>0-300-08019-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Entitlement%3A+The+Paradoxes+of+Property&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-300-08019-0&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fentitlement00jose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1759" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Adam (1759). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksadamsmith00stewgoog">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a>. Indianapolis: Liberty Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksadamsmith00stewgoog/page/n395">369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+of+Moral+Sentiments&rft.place=Indianapolis&rft.pages=369&rft.pub=Liberty+Press&rft.date=1759&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworksadamsmith00stewgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_ethics&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiss2009" class="citation book cs1">Weiss, J. W. (2009). Business Ethics: A Stakeholder and Issues Management Approach With Cases (5 ed.). Mason, Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Business+Ethics%3A+A+Stakeholder+and+Issues+Management+Approach+With+Cases&rft.place=Mason%2C+Ohio&rft.edition=5&rft.pub=South-Western+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABusiness+ethics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup 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colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> (c. 322 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> (1726)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> (1740)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> (1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> (1780)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> (1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> (1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> (1984)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aspects_of_corporations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_corporations" title="Template:Aspects of corporations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aspects_of_corporations" title="Template talk:Aspects of corporations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aspects_of_corporations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aspects of corporations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aspects_of_corporations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aspects of <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate abuse">Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_appointeeship" title="Corporate appointeeship">Appointeeship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_citizenship" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_communication" title="Corporate communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">Despotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_entertainment" title="Corporate entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_identity" title="Corporate identity">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlocking_directorate" title="Interlocking directorate">Interlocks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_liability" title="Corporate liability">Liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_in_the_workplace" title="Machiavellianism in the workplace">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_narcissism" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_opportunity" title="Corporate opportunity">Opportunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_pathos" title="Corporate pathos">Pathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_promoter" title="Corporate promoter">Promoter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_propaganda" title="Corporate propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychopathy_in_the_workplace" title="Psychopathy in the workplace">Psychopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_raid" title="Corporate raid">Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_recovery" title="Corporate recovery">Recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_resolution" title="Corporate resolution">Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_corporate_scandals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of corporate scandals">Scandals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_services" title="Corporate services">Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_entrepreneurship" title="Corporate social entrepreneurship">Social entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_media" title="Corporate social media">Social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_sourcing" title="Corporate sourcing">Sourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_statism" title="Corporate statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_sustainability" title="Corporate sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_synergy" title="Corporate synergy">Synergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_tax" title="Corporate tax">Tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_taxonomy" title="Corporate taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_title" title="Corporate title">Title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_trainer" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate trainer">Trainer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_transparency" title="Corporate transparency">Transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_travel_management" title="Corporate travel management">Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_trust" title="Corporate trust">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piercing_the_corporate_veil" title="Piercing the corporate veil">Veil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_video" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate video">Video</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/16px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/23px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Symbol_template_class_pink.svg/31px-Symbol_template_class_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> See also templates</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_jobs" title="Template:Aspects of jobs">Aspects of jobs</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_occupations" title="Template:Aspects of occupations">Aspects of occupations</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_organizations" title="Template:Aspects of organizations">Aspects of organizations</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_workplaces" title="Template:Aspects of workplaces">Aspects of workplaces</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Corporate_titles" title="Template:Corporate titles">Corporate titles</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_and_environmental_accountability" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_accountability" title="Template:Social accountability"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_accountability" title="Template talk:Social accountability"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_accountability" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social accountability"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_and_environmental_accountability" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_accounting#Formal_accountability" title="Social accounting">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_accounting" title="Environmental accounting">environmental</a> <a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">accountability</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ethics</a> and principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aarhus_Convention" title="Aarhus Convention">Aarhus Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate accountability</a> / <a href="/wiki/Corporate_behaviour" title="Corporate behaviour">behaviour</a> / <a href="/wiki/Corporate_environmental_responsibility" title="Corporate environmental responsibility">environmental responsibility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Corporate_responsibility" title="Corporate responsibility">responsibility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_hands" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirty hands">Dirty hands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Russia" title="Environmental racism in Russia">in Russia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental racism in the United States">in the United States</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Western_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Western Europe">in Western Europe</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom"> inequality in the UK</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_injustice_in_Europe" title="Environmental injustice in Europe">injustice in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_banking" title="Ethical banking">Ethical banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">Ethical code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility" title="Extended producer responsibility">Extended producer responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm" title="Harm">Harm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Eichmanns" title="Little Eichmanns">Little Eichmanns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_ethics" title="Organizational ethics">Organizational ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_justice" title="Organizational justice">Organizational justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_for_Responsible_Investment" title="Principles for Responsible Investment">Principles for Responsible Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact Assessment"> Social impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">Social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_theory" title="Stakeholder theory">Stakeholder theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullivan_principles" title="Sullivan principles">Sullivan principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">Transparency (behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">social)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Global_Compact" title="United Nations Global Compact">UN Global Compact</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Clean up after the Exxon Valdez oil spill"><img alt="Clean up after the Exxon Valdez oil spill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg/125px-OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg/188px-OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg/250px-OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="259" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_accounting" title="Social accounting">Social accounting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_bottom_line" title="Double bottom line">Double bottom line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_positioning_index" title="Ethical positioning index">Ethical positioning index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higg_Index" title="Higg Index">Higg Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_assessment" title="Impact assessment">Impact assessment</a> (<a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_impact_assessment" title="Equality impact assessment">equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_impact_assessment" title="Social impact assessment">social</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_26000" title="ISO 26000">ISO 26000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_45001" title="ISO 45001">ISO 45001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genuine_progress_indicator" title="Genuine progress indicator">Genuine progress indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_indicator" title="Performance indicator">Performance indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SA8000" title="SA8000">SA8000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_return_on_investment" title="Social return on investment">Social return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-life_cost" title="Whole-life cost">Whole-life cost</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_accounting" title="Environmental accounting">Environmental accounting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-Management_and_Audit_Scheme" title="Eco-Management and Audit Scheme">Eco-Management and Audit Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emission_inventory" title="Emission inventory">Emission inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting" title="Environmental full-cost accounting">Environmental full-cost accounting</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_conflict" title="Environmental conflict">Environmental conflict</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">impact assessment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_management_system" title="Environmental management system">management system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Environmental_profit_and_loss_account" title="Environmental profit and loss account">profit-and-loss account</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14000" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 14000">ISO 14000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_14031" title="ISO 14031">ISO 14031</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment" title="Life-cycle assessment">Life-cycle assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register" title="Pollutant release and transfer register">Pollutant release and transfer register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_accounting" title="Sustainability accounting">Sustainability accounting</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sustainability_measurement" title="Sustainability measurement">measurement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sustainability_metrics_and_indices" title="Sustainability metrics and indices">metrics and indices</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sustainability_standards_and_certification" title="Sustainability standards and certification">standards and certification</a> / <a href="/wiki/Supply_chain_sustainability" title="Supply chain sustainability">supply chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxics_Release_Inventory" title="Toxics Release Inventory">Toxics Release Inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_bottom_line" title="Triple bottom line">Triple bottom line</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reporting</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Reporting_Initiative" title="Global Reporting Initiative">Global Reporting Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GxP" title="GxP">GxP guidelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_reporting" title="Sustainability reporting">Sustainability reporting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Audit" title="Audit">Auditing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community-based_monitoring" title="Community-based monitoring">Community-based monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_audit" title="Environmental audit">Environmental</a> (<a href="/wiki/Environmental_certification" title="Environmental certification">certification</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fair_trade_certification" title="Fair trade certification">certification</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_19011" title="ISO 19011">ISO 19011</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accord_on_Fire_and_Building_Safety_in_Bangladesh" title="Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh">Bangladesh Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benefit_corporation" title="Benefit corporation">Benefit corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_interest_company" title="Community interest company">Community interest company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">Conflict of interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster" title="Disaster">Disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment" title="Disinvestment">Disinvestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecolabel" title="Ecolabel">Eco-labeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_pricing_reform" title="Environmental pricing reform">Environmental pricing reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental,_social,_and_corporate_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental, social, and corporate governance">Environmental, social, and corporate governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_justice_movement" title="Global justice movement">Global justice movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_governance_mechanism" title="Market governance mechanism">Market governance mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_certification" title="Product certification">Product certification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation" title="Public participation">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SDG_Publishers_Compact" title="SDG Publishers Compact">SDG Publishers Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_enterprise" title="Social enterprise">Social enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_responsible_business" title="Socially responsible business">Socially responsible business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_responsible_investing" title="Socially responsible investing">Socially responsible investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_responsible_marketing" title="Socially responsible marketing">Socially responsible marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_(corporate)" title="Stakeholder (corporate)">Stakeholder</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_engagement" title="Stakeholder engagement">engagement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supply_chain_management" title="Supply chain management">Supply chain management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_responsibility" title="Category:Social responsibility">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_accountability" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social accountability">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_responsibility_organizations" title="Category:Social responsibility organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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