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method="GET" action="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/autosense.pl" onsubmit=""> <div class="topSearch-container"> <input id="topSearch" autocomplete="off" class="topSearch form-control input-lg" type="text" name="searchStr" style="color:black" onfocus="if (this.value == 'search for..') {this.value = '';this.style.color='black'}" value="" placeholder="Search PhilPapers"> </div> </form> </li> <li><a href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/help/search.html">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/advanced.html">Advanced Search</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> $j(document).ready(ppTypeahead.initialize(".topSearch")); </script> <div id="contentContainer" class=" container panel panel-default"> <div id="content"> <div class="cattop"> <div style="float:right;width:250px;" class="hidden-xs">  <a class="addthis_button" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/http://www.addthis.com/bookmark.php?v=250&username=dbourget"><img src="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859im_/https://s7.addthis.com/static/btn/v2/lg-share-en.gif" width="125" height="16" alt="Bookmark and Share" style="border:0"/></a><script type="text/javascript" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859js_/https://s7.addthis.com/js/250/addthis_widget.js#username=dbourget"></script>  </div> <div class="ch" style="margin-left:0;font-size:11px;margin-bottom:10px"></div> <h1 class="gh"><a href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/philosophy-of-biology">Philosophy of Biology</a> </h1> <div style="font-size:12px;color:#333;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:10px;"> Edited by <a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/manolo-martinez">Manolo Mart铆nez</a> <span class="affils">(<span class="affil">Universitat de Barcelona</span>)</span> </div> <div style="font-size:12px;color:#333;margin-bottom:10px;"> Assistant editor: <a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/wiseley-wong">Wiseley Wong</a> <span class="affils">(<span class="affil">University of Western Ontario</span>)</span> </div> </div> <div class="miniheader" style="font-weight:bold;border-top:1px solid #aaa">About this topic </div> <div class="summaries"> <table class="responsive nospace" style="margin-bottom:10px;width:80%"> <tr> <td style="font-size:12px;width:90px" valign="top"><em>Summary</em></td> <td style="padding-bottom:10px">Philosophy of biology generally covers the issues that arise from the science and history of biology. It includes evolutionary, developmental, environmental and genetic biology, as well as such issues as evolutionary ethics and epistemology, the general notions of biological information, function, classification and heredity. Metalevel issues in the philosophy of biology deal with such matters as the reduction of biology to physical or molecular theories, the question of lawlike generalisations in biology, and of natural kinds. The field has been divided into four general areas: <em>Developmental Biology</em>, <em>Ecology and Environmental Biology</em>,<em> Evolutionary Biology</em>, <em>Genetics and Molecular Biology</em>, as well as several specialist fields. A special field of <em>Environmental Philosophy</em> covers policy and ethical issues to do with the environment. <em>Systematic Biology</em> covers the role and tasks of classification within biology and related fields. <em>Teleology and Function</em> covers what has been a very active subject in the field. Finally, <em>Interlevel Relations in Biology</em> covers discussions of this subject as it pertains to biology in particular.</td> </tr> </table> <table class="responsive nospace" style="margin-bottom:10px;width:80%"> <tr> <td style="font-size:12px;width:90px" valign="top"><em>Key works</em></td> <td><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/rec/STEULR">Sterelny 1995</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/rec/STOHBC">Stotz et al 2004</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/rec/SOBTNO">Sober 1984</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/rec/SARMMO-2">Sarkar 2004</a> </td> </tr>  </table> <div id="reflink" class="ll" onclick="simpleReq('/utils/intro_text_refs.html',{cId:38,field:'introductions',noheader:1},function(r) {;$('xp_refs2').update(r);$('xp_refs2').show();;$('reflink').hide();return false})">Show all references</div> <div id="xp_refs2" style="display:none;"></div></td> </div> <a name="content"></a> <div class="miniheader" style="font-weight:bold;border-top:1px solid #aaa"> In this area </div> <table width="100%"> <tr> <td valign="top"> <div style="padding-bottom:5px"> <form id="inside"> <input placeholder="Search inside" class="searchInside" type="text" name="catq" value=""> <input type="hidden" name="sort" value="relevance"> <input type="hidden" name="uncat" value=""> <input type="hidden" name="setAside" value=""> <input type="submit" value="go" class="button"> </form> </div> <div class="ah" style="font-size:14px;margin-bottom:10px;color:#109D49">Subcategories</div> <div class="toc1"> <div class="toc"> <div class="cat cat2" style="margin-bottom:15px"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName2" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/developmental-biology">Developmental Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">1,484</b> | 402)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/developmental-constraints">Developmental Constraints</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">57</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/developmental-modularity">Developmental Modularity</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">45</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/developmental-systems-theory">Developmental Systems Theory</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">137</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/ecological-developmental-biology">Ecological Developmental Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">50</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/epigenetic-inheritance">Epigenetic Inheritance</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">97</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolutionary-developmental-biology">Evolutionary Developmental Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">385</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genetic-program">Genetic Program</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">25</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/innateness">Innateness</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">48</b> | 44)</span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/innate-concepts">Innate Concepts</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">53</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/linguistic-innateness">Linguistic Innateness</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">98</b> | 60)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/innateness-of-sexual-orientation">Innateness of Sexual Orientation</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">12</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/nativism-in-cognitive-science">Nativism in Cognitive Science</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">236</b> | 145)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/armin-w-schulz">Armin W. Schulz</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/innateness-misc">Innateness, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">4</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/nature-and-nurture">Nature and Nurture</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">146</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/process-structuralism">Process Structuralism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">29</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/developmental-biology-misc">Developmental Biology, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">88</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat2" style="margin-bottom:15px"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName2" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/ecology-and-conservation-biology">Ecology and Conservation Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">2,170</b> | 998)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/christopher-h-eliot">Christopher H. Eliot</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/conservation-ethics">Conservation Ethics</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">144</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/biodiversity">Biodiversity</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">302</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/christopher-h-eliot">Christopher H. Eliot</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/deep-ecology">Deep Ecology</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">238</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/ecological-developmental-biology">Ecological Developmental Biology</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">50</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/ecology-and-conservation-biology-misc">Ecology and Conservation Biology, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">357</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/christopher-h-eliot">Christopher H. Eliot</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/ecosystems">Ecosystems</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">113</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/christopher-h-eliot">Christopher H. Eliot</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/human-ecology">Human Ecology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">199</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/population-ecology">Population Ecology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">175</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/christopher-h-eliot">Christopher H. Eliot</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/prioritization">Prioritization</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">10</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/christopher-h-eliot">Christopher H. Eliot</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/reduction-in-ecology">Reduction in Ecology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">16</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/christopher-h-eliot">Christopher H. Eliot</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/social-ecology">Social Ecology</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">88</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat2" style="margin-bottom:15px"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName2" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolutionary-biology">Evolutionary Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">9,934</b> | 4,633)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/jonathan-birch">Jonathan Birch</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/anti-darwinist-approaches">Anti-Darwinist Approaches</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">633</b> | 240)</span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-and-creationism">Evolution and Creationism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">88</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/intelligent-design">Intelligent Design</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">253</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/punctuated-equilibrium">Punctuated Equilibrium</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">19</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/process-structuralism">Process Structuralism</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">29</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/anti-darwinist-approaches-misc">Anti-Darwinist Approaches, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">33</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/levels-and-units-of-selection">Levels and Units of Selection</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">441</b> | 207)</span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/group-selection">Group Selection</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">101</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/gene-selection">Gene Selection</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">23</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/the-selfish-gene">The Selfish Gene</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">32</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/organismic-selection">Organismic Selection</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">21</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/levels-and-units-of-selection-misc">Levels and Units of Selection, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">58</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-of-phenomena">Evolution of Phenomena</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">1,840</b> | 1,175)</span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-of-cognition">Evolution of Cognition</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">527</b> | 36)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/taylor-s-murphy">Taylor S. Murphy</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-of-altruism">Evolution of Altruism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">164</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-of-complexity">Evolution of Complexity</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">39</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-of-consciousness">Evolution of Consciousness</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">294</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-of-culture">Evolution of Culture</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">202</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrew-buskell">Andrew Buskell</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-of-language">Evolution of Language</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">305</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-of-morality">Evolution of Morality</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">1,075</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/benjamin-james-fraser">Benjamin James Fraser</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolutionary-epistemology">Evolutionary Epistemology</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">326</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/sociobiology">Sociobiology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">225</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolution-of-phenomena-misc">Evolution of Phenomena, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">37</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/mechanisms-of-evolution">Mechanisms of Evolution</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">1,198</b> | 240)</span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/epigenetic-inheritance">Epigenetic Inheritance</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">97</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michal-arciszewski">Michal Arciszewski</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolutionary-game-theory">Evolutionary Game Theory</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">165</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genetic-drift">Genetic Drift</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">88</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/exaptation">Exaptation</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">26</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/heritability">Heritability</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">72</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/natural-selection">Natural Selection</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">497</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/niche-construction">Niche Construction</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">126</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/speciation">Speciation</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">59</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/mechanisms-of-evolution-misc">Mechanisms of Evolution, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">94</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolutionary-biology-miscellaneous">Evolutionary Biology, Miscellaneous</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">1,187</b> | 206)</span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/adaptationism">Adaptationism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">158</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/darwinism">Darwinism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">300</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/epistemology-of-evolution">Epistemology of Evolution</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">47</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolutionary-progress">Evolutionary Progress</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">29</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/fitness">Fitness</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">188</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/optimality">Optimality</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">67</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/evolutionary-biology-misc">Evolutionary Biology, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">192</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat2" style="margin-bottom:15px"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName2" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genetics-and-molecular-biology">Genetics and Molecular Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">3,403</b> | 1,550)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/yafeng-shan">Yafeng Shan</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genetics">Genetics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">737</b> | 474)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/yafeng-shan">Yafeng Shan</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/classical-genetics">Classical Genetics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">29</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/classical-and-molecular-genetics">Classical and Molecular Genetics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">11</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genotypes-and-phenotypes">Genotypes and Phenotypes</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">52</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/molecular-genetics">Molecular Genetics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">44</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/population-genetics">Population Genetics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">80</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/reduction-in-genetics">Reduction in Genetics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">20</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/yafeng-shan">Yafeng Shan</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genetics-misc">Genetics, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">27</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genes">Genes</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">767</b> | 574)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/yafeng-shan">Yafeng Shan</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/defining-genes">Defining Genes</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">7</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/gene-concepts">Gene Concepts</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">33</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genome-project">Genome Project</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">53</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genetic-determinism">Genetic Determinism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">26</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genetic-information">Genetic Information</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">32</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genetic-program">Genetic Program</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">25</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/selfish-gene">Selfish Gene</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">12</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genes-misc">Genes, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">5</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/genetic-ethics">Genetic Ethics</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">3,108</b> | 549)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/michele-loi">Michele Loi</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/molecular-biology-misc">Molecular Biology, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">349</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat2" style="margin-bottom:15px"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName2" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/philosophy-of-biology-miscellaneous">Philosophy of Biology, Miscellaneous</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">11,952</b> | 1,846)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/marc-artiga">Marc Artiga</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/artificial-life">Artificial Life</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">234</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/biological-information">Biological Information</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">415</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/biological-modeling">Biological Modeling</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">396</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/biomedical-information">Biomedical Information</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">36</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/causation-in-biology">Causation in Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">243</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/complexity-in-biology">Complexity in Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">313</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/biology-and-society">Biology and Society</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">152</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/explanation-in-biology">Explanation in Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">542</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/history-of-biology">History of Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">5,849</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/life">Life</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">498</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/philosophy-of-biology-general-works">Philosophy of Biology, General Works</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">816</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/philosophy-of-biology-misc">Philosophy of Biology, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">451</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/philosophy-of-food-and-drink">Philosophy of Food and Drink</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">285</b> | 10)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/vitalism">Vitalism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">197</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat2" style="margin-bottom:15px"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName2" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/systematic-biology">Systematic Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">1,710</b> | 272)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/john-wilkins">John Wilkins</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/homology">Homology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">98</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/biological-natural-kinds">Biological Natural Kinds</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">299</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/organisms">Organisms</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">132</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/populations">Populations</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">81</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/species">Species</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">770</b> | 362)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/john-wilkins">John Wilkins</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/essentialism-about-species">Essentialism about Species</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">95</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/phylogenetic-inference">Phylogenetic Inference</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">52</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/species-concepts">Species Concepts</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">152</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/the-metaphysics-of-species">The Metaphysics of Species</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">109</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/systematic-biology-misc">Systematic Biology, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">58</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat2" style="margin-bottom:15px"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName2" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-philosophy">Environmental Philosophy</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">2,364</b> | 1,291)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/benjamin-hale">Benjamin Hale</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-philosophies">Environmental Philosophies</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">673</b> | 86)</span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/conservation-ethics">Conservation Ethics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">144</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/deep-ecology">Deep Ecology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">238</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">244</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-pluralism">Environmental Pluralism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">11</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-pragmatism">Environmental Pragmatism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">34</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-humanism">Environmental Humanism</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">11</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/social-ecology">Social Ecology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">88</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-philosophies-misc">Environmental Philosophies, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">61</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-philosophy-misc">Environmental Philosophy, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">38</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-ethics">Environmental Ethics</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">16,573</b> | 6,887)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/william-grove-fanning">William Grove-Fanning</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-ethics-misc">Environmental Ethics, Misc</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">257</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/topics-in-environmental-ethics">Topics in Environmental Ethics</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">4,271</b> | 1,580)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/william-grove-fanning">William Grove-Fanning</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/environmental-value">Environmental Value</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">316</b> | 50)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/william-grove-fanning">William Grove-Fanning</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/non-human-animals">Non-Human Animals</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">77</b> | 16)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/cameron-buckner">Cameron Buckner</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/animal-minds">Animal Minds</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">1,143</b> | 331)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/colin-allen">Colin Allen</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/animal-ethics">Animal Ethics</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">4,851</b> | 1,706)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/erwin-lengauer">Erwin Lengauer</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/critical-animal-studies">Critical Animal Studies</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">17</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/non-human-animals-misc">Non-Human Animals, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">44</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/cameron-buckner">Cameron Buckner</a></span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/philosophy-of-food-and-drink">Philosophy of Food and Drink</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">285</b> | 10)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/drinks-and-drinking">Drinks and Drinking</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">28</b>)</span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/alcoholism">Alcoholism</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">0</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/coffee-and-tea">Coffee and Tea</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">2</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/drunkenness">Drunkenness</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">3</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/wine">Wine</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">19</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/cain-samuel-todd">Cain Todd</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/drinks-and-drinking-misc">Drinks and Drinking, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">4</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/food-ethics">Food Ethics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">200</b> | 62)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">390</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/erwin-lengauer">Erwin Lengauer</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/food-law">Food Law</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">8</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/food-science-and-technology">Food Science and Technology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">19</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/food-politics">Food Politics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">35</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/hunger">Hunger</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">18</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/food-ethics-misc">Food Ethics, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">58</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/philosophy-of-food-and-drink-misc">Philosophy of Food and Drink, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">52</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/food-and-drink-aesthetics">Food and Drink Aesthetics</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">25</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/cain-samuel-todd">Cain Todd</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/food-ontology">Food Ontology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">16</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/taste-experience">Taste Experience</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">30</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/cain-samuel-todd">Cain Todd</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat5"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/philosophy-of-food-and-drink-miscellaneous">Philosophy of Food and Drink, Miscellaneous</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">11</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/andrea-borghini-1">Andrea Borghini</a></span> </div> </div></div> </div></div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat2" style="margin-bottom:15px"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName2" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/teleology-and-function">Teleology and Function</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">1,122</b> | 52)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/steve-elliott">Steve Elliott</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/teleology">Teleology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">570</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/steve-elliott">Steve Elliott</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/functions">Functions</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">408</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/steve-elliott">Steve Elliott</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/teleology-and-function-misc">Teleology and Function, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">92</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/steve-elliott">Steve Elliott</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/functionalism">Functionalism</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">501</b> | 249)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/consequentialism-and-teleology">Consequentialism and Teleology</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">33</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/teleological-accounts-of-mental-content">Teleological Accounts of Mental Content</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">251</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/ming-tan">Ming Tan</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/vitalism">Vitalism</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">197</b>)</span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/functional-explanation">Functional Explanation</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">74</b>)</span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat2" style="margin-bottom:15px"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName2" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/interlevel-relations-in-biology">Interlevel Relations in Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">408</b> | 136)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/laura-franklin-hall">Laura Franklin-Hall</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/reduction-in-biology">Reduction in Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">127</b> | 85)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/laura-franklin-hall">Laura Franklin-Hall</a></span> <div class="catContent"> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/reduction-in-ecology">Reduction in Ecology</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">16</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/christopher-h-eliot">Christopher H. Eliot</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/reduction-in-genetics">Reduction in Genetics</a>*<span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">20</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/yafeng-shan">Yafeng Shan</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat4"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName4" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/reduction-in-biology-misc">Reduction in Biology, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">42</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/laura-franklin-hall">Laura Franklin-Hall</a></span> </div> </div></div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/emergence-in-biology">Emergence in Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">87</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/laura-franklin-hall">Laura Franklin-Hall</a></span> </div> <div class="cat cat3"> <a rel="section" class="tocCatName catName3" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/interlevel-relations-in-biology-misc">Interlevel Relations in Biology, Misc</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">58</b>)</span><span class="toc-eds"><a class="person" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210413191859/https://philpeople.org/profiles/laura-franklin-hall">Laura Franklin-Hall</a></span> </div> </div></div> <p><h3>History/traditions: Philosophy of Biology</h3><ul class="toc normal" style=""><li><a rel="section" class="catName" href="/web/20210413191859/https://philpapers.org/browse/popper-philosophy-of-biology">Popper: Philosophy of Biology</a><span class="hint"> (<b class="hint">27</b>)</span></li></ul> </div> 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