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id="toc-Modern_usage_and_definitions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_usage_and_definitions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Modern usage and definitions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_usage_and_definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_liberalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_liberalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Social liberalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_liberalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_liberalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_liberalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Classical liberalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_liberalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Philosophy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Philosophy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Major_themes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_themes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Major themes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_themes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_and_modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_and_modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Classical and modern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_and_modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-John_Locke_and_Thomas_Hobbes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Locke_and_Thomas_Hobbes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 John Locke and Thomas Hobbes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Locke_and_Thomas_Hobbes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-James_Madison_and_Montesquieu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#James_Madison_and_Montesquieu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 James Madison and Montesquieu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-James_Madison_and_Montesquieu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coppet_Group_and_Benjamin_Constant" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coppet_Group_and_Benjamin_Constant"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Coppet Group and Benjamin Constant </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coppet_Group_and_Benjamin_Constant-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British_liberalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_liberalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.4 British liberalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_liberalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberal_economic_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberal_economic_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Liberal economic theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberal_economic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Keynesian_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Keynesian_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Keynesian economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Keynesian_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberal_feminist_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberal_feminist_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Liberal feminist theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberal_feminist_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_liberal_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_liberal_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Social liberal theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_liberal_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anarcho-capitalist_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anarcho-capitalist_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Anarcho-capitalist theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anarcho-capitalist_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_and_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_and_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Criticism and support </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism_and_support-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Criticism and support subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism_and_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Conservatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Conservatism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Catholicism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anarchism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anarchism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Anarchism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anarchism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marxism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marxism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Marxism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marxism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feminism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Feminism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_democracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_democracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Social democracy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_democracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fascism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fascism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Fascism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fascism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography_and_further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography_and_further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Bibliography and further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography_and_further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Liberalism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 152 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-152" aria-hidden="true" > 152 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismus" title="Liberalismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Liberalismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%88%E1%8B%98%E1%89%A5%E1%89%B0%E1%8A%9D%E1%8A%90%E1%89%B5" title="ለዘብተኝነት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ለዘብተኝነት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C4%93od%C5%8Dmes_%C3%BE%C5%8Dht" title="Frēodōmes þōht – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Frēodōmes þōht" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ليبرالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ليبرالية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%88%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="উদাৰনৈতিকতাবাদ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="উদাৰনৈতিকতাবাদ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lliberalismu" title="Lliberalismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lliberalismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizm" title="Liberalizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Liberalizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="لیبرالیسم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="لیبرالیسم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="উদারনীতিবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উদারনীতিবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%AB-i%C3%BB_ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Chū-iû chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chū-iû chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Лібералізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лібералізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B1%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Лібэралізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Лібэралізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Либерализъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Либерализъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizam" title="Liberalizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Liberalizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankizouriezh" title="Frankizouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Frankizouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismus" title="Liberalismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Liberalismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyddfrydiaeth" title="Rhyddfrydiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhyddfrydiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ليبيرالية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="ليبيرالية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismus" title="Liberalismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Liberalismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Liberalism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Φιλελευθερισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φιλελευθερισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="لیبرالیسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لیبرالیسم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udarwaad" title="Udarwaad – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Udarwaad" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisma" title="Liberalisma – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Liberalisma" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ralisme" title="Libéralisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Libéralisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liobr%C3%A1lachas" title="Liobrálachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Liobrálachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libearalas" title="Libearalas – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Libearalas" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="自由主義 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="自由主義" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%89%E0%AA%A6%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A6" title="ઉદારવાદ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ઉદારવાદ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%9C%A0%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="자유주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자유주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Liberalism" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A6%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ազատականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ազատականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="उदारतावाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उदारतावाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizam" title="Liberalizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Liberalizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Liberalism" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frj%C3%A1lslyndisstefna" title="Frjálslyndisstefna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frjálslyndisstefna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="ליברליזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ליברליזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%A9-y%C9%94%C9%94_w%C9%9B%CA%8A%CA%8A_t%CA%8Am%C9%A9y%C9%9B_lab%CA%8A_l%C9%A9ma%C9%A3z%C9%A9y%C9%9B" title="Tɩ-yɔɔ wɛʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ labʊ lɩmaɣzɩyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tɩ-yɔɔ wɛʊʊ tʊmɩyɛ labʊ lɩmaɣzɩyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ლიბერალიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლიბერალიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livrelieth" title="Livrelieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Livrelieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uliberali" title="Uliberali – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uliberali" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lib%C3%A9ralism" title="Libéralism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Libéralism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AEberal%C3%AEzm" title="Lîberalîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Lîberalîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismus" title="Liberalismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Liberalismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liber%C4%81lisms" title="Liberālisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Liberālisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismus" title="Liberalismus – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Liberalismus" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizmas" title="Liberalizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Liberalizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libralisme" title="Libralisme – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Libralisme" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Liberalism" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizmus" title="Liberalizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Liberalizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Либерализам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Либерализам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisma" title="Liberalisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Liberalisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="ഉദാരതാവാദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഉദാരതാവാദം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="उदारमतवाद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="उदारमतवाद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ლიბერალიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ლიბერალიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87" title="ليبراليه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ليبراليه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="لیبرالیسم – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="لیبرالیسم" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Либерализмась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Либерализмась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%9B%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AB%E1%80%92" title="လစ်ဘရယ်ဝါဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လစ်ဘရယ်ဝါဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="उदारवाद – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="उदारवाद" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="उदारवाद – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="उदारवाद" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="自由主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="自由主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizm" title="Liberalizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Liberalizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%89%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਉਦਾਰਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਉਦਾਰਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%85" title="لبرلزم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لبرلزم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%90%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%85" title="لېبراليزم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لېبراليزم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libaralizim" title="Libaralizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Libaralizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%98" title="សេរីនិយម – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សេរីនិយម" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberism" title="Liberism – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Liberism" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismus" title="Liberalismus – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Liberalismus" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizm" title="Liberalizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Liberalizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Liberalism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalissem" title="Liberalissem – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Liberalissem" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Лібералізм – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Лібералізм" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismu" title="Liberalismu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Liberalismu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeberalism" title="Leeberalism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Leeberalism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizmi" title="Liberalizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Liberalizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libbiral%C3%ACsimu" title="Libbiralìsimu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Libbiralìsimu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="ලිබරල්වාදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ලිබරල්වාදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Liberalism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%85" title="لبرل ازم – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="لبرل ازم" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizmus" title="Liberalizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Liberalizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizem" title="Liberalizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Liberalizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalinimo" title="Liberalinimo – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Liberalinimo" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="لیبرالیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="لیبرالیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Либерализам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Либерализам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizam" title="Liberalizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Liberalizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalisme" title="Liberalisme – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Liberalisme" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismi" title="Liberalismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Liberalismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Liberalism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalismo" title="Liberalismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Liberalismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="தாராளமயம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாராளமயம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%89%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%82" title="ఉదారవాదం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఉదారవాదం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="เสรีนิยม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เสรีนิยม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BC" title="Либеролисм – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Либеролисм" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalizm" title="Liberalizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Liberalizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Либерализм – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Либерализм" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Лібералізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лібералізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D9%BE%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="حریت پسندی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="حریت پسندی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%89%D8%A8%DB%90%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B2%D9%89%D9%85" title="لىبېرالىزىم – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="لىبېرالىزىم" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swyouzcujyi" title="Swyouzcujyi – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Swyouzcujyi" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libara%C5%82ismo" title="Libarałismo – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Libarałismo" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" 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/></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Political ideology based on individual rights and liberty</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Liberal_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Liberal (disambiguation)">Liberal (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:22.0em; border:4px double #C5C12B; background:var( --background-color-base, #FFFFFF ); color: var( --color-base, inherit );"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Liberalism" title="Category:Liberalism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberalism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-top:0.6em"><a href="/wiki/Political_colour#Yellow" title="Political colour"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/75px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/113px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/150px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">List of liberal theorists</a> (contributions to liberal theory)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Equality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">To bear arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">Philosophers</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Deák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberal_Federation" title="Arab Liberal Federation">Arab Liberal Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Asian_Liberals_and_Democrats" title="Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats">Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democratic_Party" title="European Democratic Party">European Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Liberal_Youth" title="European Liberal Youth">European Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Libertarian_Parties" title="International Alliance of Libertarian Parties">International Alliance of Libertarian Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Liberal_Youth" title="International Federation of Liberal Youth">International Federation of Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_International" title="Liberal International">Liberal International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Network_for_Latin_America" title="Liberal Network for Latin America">Liberal Network for Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liberal_parties" title="Category:Liberal parties">Liberal parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_South_East_European_Network" title="Liberal South East European Network">Liberal South East European Network</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">Regional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Liberalism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cuba" title="Liberalism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Czechia" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Czechia">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Paraguay" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Peru" title="Liberalism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Philippines" title="Liberalism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Poland" title="Liberalism in Poland">Poland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w_School_of_Economics" title="Kraków School of Economics">Cracovian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Portugal" title="Liberalism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Senegal" title="Liberalism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Serbia" title="Liberalism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovakia" title="Liberalism in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovenia" title="Liberalism in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Africa" title="Liberalism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Korea" title="Liberalism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Sweden" title="Liberalism and centrism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_Taiwan" title="Progressivism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Tunisia" title="Liberalism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Ukraine" title="Liberalism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cobdenism" title="Cobdenism">Cobdenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Arizona School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Uruguay" title="Liberalism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Venezuela)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal Party (Venezuela)">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Liberalism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_American_academics" title="Political views of American academics">Bias in American academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias in the media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist Anarchism">Anarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sexually liberal feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #C5C12B; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Feminist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">Internationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Neoclassical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Catholicism" title="Liberal Catholicism">Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_liberalism" title="Secular liberalism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoliberalism" title="Technoliberalism">Techno</a></li> <li><a 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Party politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.1em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far-left_politics" title="Far-left politics">Far-left</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">Centre-left</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centre</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.1em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">Centre-left</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centre</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Centre-right_politics" title="Centre-right politics">Centre-right</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.1em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre-right_politics" title="Centre-right politics">Centre-right</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">Far-right</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies" title="List of political ideologies">Ideologies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretic_politics" title="Syncretic politics">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloc_party" title="Bloc party">Bloc party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_party" title="Elite party">Elite party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartel_party_theory" title="Cartel party theory">Cartel party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_competition" title="Electoral competition">Competitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_tent" title="Big tent">Catch-all party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business-firm_party" title="Business-firm party">Entrepreneurial party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_party" title="Ethnic party">Ethnic party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_party" title="Major party">Major party</a> / <a href="/wiki/Minor_party" title="Minor party">Minor party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_politics" title="Mass politics">Mass party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_party" title="Ruling party">Ruling party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_(politics)" title="Opposition (politics)">Opposition party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_opposition" title="Parliamentary opposition">Parliamentary opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_of_power" title="Party of power">Party of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_party_status" title="Official party status">Official party status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-issue_politics#Single-issue_parties" title="Single-issue politics">Single-issue party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_political_party" title="Transnational political party">Transnational</a> / <a href="/wiki/Political_international" title="Political international">International</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Leaders and organization</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backbencher" title="Backbencher">Backbencher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucus" title="Caucus">Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucus_chair" title="Caucus chair">Caucus chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontbencher" title="Frontbencher">Frontbencher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_candidate" title="Lead candidate">Lead candidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition" title="Leader of the Opposition">Leader of the Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_leader" title="Majority leader">Majority leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_leader" title="Minority leader">Minority leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_faction" title="Political faction">Political faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_leader" title="Parliamentary leader">Parliamentary leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_chair" title="Party chair">Party chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_leader" title="Party leader">Party leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_spokesperson" title="Party spokesperson">Party spokesperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_(title)" title="Secretary (title)">Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_cabinet" title="Shadow cabinet">Shadow cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whip_(politics)" title="Whip (politics)">Whip</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Internal elections</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">Primary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_election" title="Leadership election">Leadership election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_list" title="Open list">Open list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_conference" title="Party conference">Party convention/conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_convention" title="Leadership convention">Leadership convention</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Party_discipline" title="Party discipline">Party discipline</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscience_vote" title="Conscience vote">Conscience vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_floor" title="Crossing the floor">Crossing the floor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_discipline" title="Party discipline">Party discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_line_(politics)" title="Party line (politics)">Party line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party-line_vote" title="Party-line vote">Party-line vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_switching" title="Party switching">Party switching</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Party_system" title="Party system">Party systems</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">One-party</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominant-party_system" title="Dominant-party system">Dominant-party</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Two-party_system" title="Two-party system">Two-party</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-party_system" title="Multi-party system">Multi-party</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-partisan_democracy" title="Non-partisan democracy">Non-partisan</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Coalition" title="Coalition">Coalitions</a> between parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_group" title="Parliamentary group">Parliamentary group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divided_government" title="Divided government">Divided government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition_government" title="Coalition government">Coalition government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidence_and_supply" title="Confidence and supply">Confidence and supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_democracy" title="Consensus democracy">Consensus government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition" title="Grand coalition">Grand coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hung_parliament" title="Hung parliament">Hung parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_government" title="Majority government">Majority government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_government" title="Minority government">Minority government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_unity_government" title="National unity government">National unity government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotation_government" title="Rotation government">Rotation government</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_political_parties" title="Lists of political parties">Lists of political parties</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ruling_political_parties_by_country" title="List of ruling political parties by country">Ruling parties by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_by_region" title="List of political parties by region">Political parties by region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banned_political_parties" title="List of banned political parties">Banned political parties</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Party_politics" title="Template:Party politics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Party_politics" title="Template talk:Party politics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Party_politics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Party politics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Liberalism is a <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral philosophy</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Individual_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual rights">rights of the individual</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_equality" class="mw-redirect" title="Political equality">political equality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">right to private property</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality before the law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-wpt-2">[2]</a> Liberals espouse various and often mutually warring views depending on their understanding of these principles but generally support <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economies</a>, individual rights (including <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>), <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">economic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">political freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">freedom of assembly</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Generally_support-3">[3]</a> Liberalism is frequently cited as the dominant <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adams_2011-5">[5]</a>: 11  Liberalism became a distinct <a href="/wiki/Political_movement" title="Political movement">movement</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, gaining popularity among <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> philosophers and <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economists</a>. Liberalism sought to replace the <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">norms</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">hereditary privilege</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_conservatism" title="Traditionalist conservatism">traditional conservatism</a> with <a href="/wiki/Representative_democracy" title="Representative democracy">representative democracy</a>, rule of law, and equality under the law. Liberals also ended <a href="/wiki/Mercantilist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mercantilist">mercantilist</a> policies, <a href="/wiki/Legal_monopoly" title="Legal monopoly">royal monopolies</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Trade_barrier" title="Trade barrier">trade barriers</a>, instead promoting free trade and marketization.<a href="#cite_note-Gould,_p._3-6">[6]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> is often credited with founding liberalism as a distinct tradition based on the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a>, arguing that each man has a <a href="/wiki/Natural_and_legal_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural and legal rights">natural right</a> to <a href="/wiki/Life,_liberty_and_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Life, liberty and property">life, liberty and property</a>, and governments must not violate these <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> While the <a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">British liberal tradition</a> has emphasized expanding democracy, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">French liberalism</a> has emphasized rejecting <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a> and is linked to <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nation-building</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kirchner,_p._3-8">[8]</a> Leaders in the British <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> of 1776, and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789 used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of royal <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>. The 19th century saw liberal governments established in <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">South America</a>, and it was well-established alongside <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republicanism in the United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Victorian_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Victorian Britain">Victorian Britain</a>, it was used to critique the political establishment, appealing to science and reason on behalf of the people.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> During the 19th and early 20th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">liberalism in the Ottoman Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> influenced periods of reform, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Nahda" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Nahda">Al-Nahda</a>, and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">constitutionalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">secularism</a>. These changes, along with other factors, helped to create a sense of crisis within <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, which continues to this day, leading to <a href="/wiki/Islamic_revivalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic revivalism">Islamic revivalism</a>. Before 1920, the main ideological opponents of liberalism were <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>;<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> liberalism then faced major ideological challenges from <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> as new opponents. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further, especially in Western Europe, as liberal democracies found themselves as the winners in both <a href="/wiki/World_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="World wars">world wars</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Liberals sought and established a constitutional order that prized important <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">individual freedoms</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">freedom of association</a>; an <a href="/wiki/Independent_judiciary" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent judiciary">independent judiciary</a> and public <a href="/wiki/Trial_by_jury" class="mw-redirect" title="Trial by jury">trial by jury</a>; and the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">aristocratic</a> privileges.<a href="#cite_note-Gould,_p._3-6">[6]</a> Later waves of modern liberal thought and struggle were strongly influenced by the need to expand civil rights.<a href="#cite_note-Worell470-16">[16]</a> Liberals have advocated gender and racial equality in their drive to promote civil rights, and global <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movements" title="Civil rights movements">civil rights movements</a> in the 20th century achieved several objectives towards both goals. Other goals often accepted by liberals include <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">universal suffrage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universal_access_to_education" title="Universal access to education">universal access to education</a>. In Europe and North America, the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">social liberalism</a> (often called simply <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">liberalism</a> in the United States) became a key component in expanding the <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Today, <a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">liberal parties</a> continue to wield power and influence <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism by country">throughout the world</a>. The fundamental elements of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">contemporary society</a> have liberal roots. The early waves of liberalism popularised economic individualism while expanding constitutional government and <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">parliamentary</a> authority.<a href="#cite_note-Gould,_p._3-6">[6]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Libertarianism" title="Category:Libertarianism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstention" title="Abstention">Abstention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_consent_reform" title="Age of consent reform">Age of consent reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimilitarism" title="Antimilitarism">Antimilitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-statism" title="Anti-statism">Anti-statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_freedom" title="Artistic freedom">Artistic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_liberty" title="Cognitive liberty">Cognitive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-economics" title="Counter-economics">Counter-economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Crypto-anarchism">Crypto-anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decriminalization_of_sex_work" title="Decriminalization of sex work">Decriminalization of sex work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Departurism" title="Departurism">Departurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_liberalization" title="Drug liberalization">Drug liberalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">Direct action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evictionism" title="Evictionism">Evictionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expropriative_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriative anarchism">Expropriative anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism#Federalism_and_localism_in_anarchist_political_theory" title="Federalism">Federalism (anarchist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_association_(Marxism_and_anarchism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Free association (Marxism and anarchism)">Free association (Marxism and anarchism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">Free love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Free market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_environmentalism" title="Free-market environmentalism">Free-market environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_migration" title="Free migration">Free migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Free trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly" title="Freedom of assembly">Freedom of assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association#Libertarian" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_choice" title="Freedom of choice">Freedom of choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_conscience" title="Freedom of conscience">Freedom of conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_contract" title="Freedom of contract">Freedom of contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Freedom of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gift_economy" title="Gift economy">Gift economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_principle" title="Homestead principle">Homestead principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegalism" title="Illegalism">Illegalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_reclamation" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual reclamation">Individual reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism (metaphysics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural rights and legal rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_principle" title="Non-aggression principle">Non-aggression principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-interventionism" title="Non-interventionism">Non-interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_economics" title="Participatory economics">Participatory economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_the_deed" title="Propaganda of the deed">Propaganda of the deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_is_theft!" class="mw-redirect" title="Property is theft!">Property is theft!</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_die" title="Right to die">Right to die</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">Right to privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sexuality" title="Right to sexuality">Right to sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self-ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_tax" title="Single tax">Single tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stateless_society" title="Stateless society">Stateless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_resistance" title="Tax resistance">Tax resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association" title="Voluntary association">Voluntary association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_society" title="Voluntary society">Voluntary society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_council" title="Workers' council">Workers' councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_self-management" title="Workers' self-management">Workers' self-management</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Issues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_abortion" title="Libertarian perspectives on abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_affirmative_action" title="Libertarian perspectives on affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism_and_minarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-capitalism and minarchism">Anarcho-capitalism and minarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_capital_punishment" title="Libertarian perspectives on capital punishment">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_libertarianism" title="Criticism of libertarianism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_foreign_intervention" title="Libertarian perspectives on foreign intervention">Foreign intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_immigration" title="Libertarian perspectives on immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_intellectual_property" title="Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debates_within_libertarianism" title="Debates within libertarianism">Internal debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_LGBT_rights" title="Libertarian perspectives on LGBT rights">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism_and_libertarianism" title="Objectivism and libertarianism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_perspectives_on_political_alliances" title="Libertarian perspectives on political alliances">Political alliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libertarian_political_parties" title="List of libertarian political parties">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality_of_the_War_on_Drugs" title="Legality of the War on Drugs">War on Drugs</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">La Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hodgskin" title="Thomas Hodgskin">Hodgskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Warren" title="Josiah Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Proudhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pearl_Andrews" title="Stephen Pearl Andrews">Andrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auberon_Herbert" title="Auberon Herbert">Herbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_George" title="Henry George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltairine_de_Cleyre" title="Voltairine de Cleyre">De Cleyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabel_Paterson" title="Isabel Paterson">Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman (Milton)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Hess" title="Karl Hess">Hess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibor_Machan" title="Tibor Machan">Machan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Block" title="Walter Block">Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_D._Friedman" title="David D. Friedman">Friedman (David)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Van_Dun" title="Frank Van Dun">Van Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Edward_Konkin_III" title="Samuel Edward Konkin III">Konkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Lottieri" title="Carlo Lottieri">Lottieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Huemer" title="Michael Huemer">Huemer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_Brennan" title="Jason Brennan">Brennan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Goldwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janusz_Korwin-Mikke" title="Janusz Korwin-Mikke">Korwin-Mikke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Johnson" title="Gary Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javier_Milei" title="Javier Milei">Milei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Hannan" title="Daniel Hannan">Hannan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Polis" title="Jared Polis">Polis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_South_Africa" title="Libertarianism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_possibilism" title="Libertarian possibilism">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Historical background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anarchism" title="History of anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top:1px solid #AAA; text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-collectivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-collectivism">Anti-collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fascism" title="Anti-fascism">Anti-fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_socialism" title="Criticism of socialism">Anti-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austro-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Libertarian_Studies" title="Center for Libertarian Studies">Center for Libertarian Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_libertarianism" title="Civil libertarianism">Civil libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeman_on_the_land_movement" title="Freeman on the land movement">Freeman on the land movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusionism" title="Fusionism">Fusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geolibertarianism" title="Geolibertarianism">Geolibertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_libertarianism" title="Green libertarianism">Green libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_conservatism" title="Libertarian conservatism">Libertarian conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Democrat" title="Libertarian Democrat">Libertarian Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_Republican" title="Libertarian Republican">Libertarian Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_science_fiction" title="Libertarian science fiction">Libertarian science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_South_Africa" title="Libertarianism in South Africa">Libertarianism in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">Libertarianism in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Libertarianism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_choice" title="Public choice">Public choice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Small government">Small government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereign_citizen_movement" title="Sovereign citizen movement">Sovereign citizen movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technolibertarianism" title="Technolibertarianism">Technolibertarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-bottom:0.22em; border-top:1px solid #AAA; border-bottom:1px solid #AAA; font-weight:bold"> <ul><li><img alt="diagram" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/16px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/24px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/32px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="647" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Libertarianism" title="Portal:Libertarianism">Libertarianism portal</a></li> <li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg/16px-BlackFlagSymbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg/24px-BlackFlagSymbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/BlackFlagSymbol.svg/32px-BlackFlagSymbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="456" data-file-height="456" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Anarchism" title="Portal:Anarchism">Anarchism portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Libertarianism_sidebar" title="Template:Libertarianism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Libertarianism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Libertarianism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Libertarianism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Libertarianism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Liberal" class="extiw" title="wikt:Liberal">Liberal</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Liberty" class="extiw" title="wikt:Liberty">liberty</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Libertarianism" class="extiw" title="wikt:Libertarianism">libertarian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">libertine</a> all trace their <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> to <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Liber" class="extiw" title="wikt:Liber">liber</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> that means "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Free" class="extiw" title="wikt:Free">free</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Gross,_p._5-18">[18]</a> One of the first recorded instances of liberal occurred in 1375 when it was used to describe the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a> in the context of an education desirable for a free-born man.<a href="#cite_note-Gross,_p._5-18">[18]</a> The word's early connection with the classical education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations. Liberal could refer to "free in bestowing" as early as 1387, "made without stint" in 1433, "freely permitted" in 1530, and "free from restraint"—often as a pejorative remark—in the 16th and the 17th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Gross,_p._5-18">[18]</a> In the 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a>, liberal could have positive or negative attributes in referring to someone's generosity or indiscretion.<a href="#cite_note-Gross,_p._5-18">[18]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Much_Ado_About_Nothing" title="Much Ado About Nothing">Much Ado About Nothing</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> wrote of "a liberal villaine" who "hath ... confest his vile encounters".<a href="#cite_note-Gross,_p._5-18">[18]</a> With the rise of <a href="/wiki/The_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Enlightenment">the Enlightenment</a>, the word acquired decisively more positive undertones, defined as "free from narrow prejudice" in 1781 and "free from bigotry" in 1823.<a href="#cite_note-Gross,_p._5-18">[18]</a> In 1815, the first use of liberalism appeared in English.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In Spain, the <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">liberales</a>, the first group to use the liberal label in a political context,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> fought for decades to implement the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Spanish Constitution of 1812</a>. From 1820 to 1823, during the <a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_Ferdinand_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="King Ferdinand VII">King Ferdinand VII</a> was compelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the 1812 Constitution. By the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used as a politicised term for parties and movements worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Political_colour" title="Political colour">political colour</a> most commonly associated with liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> differs from other countries in that conservatism is associated with red and <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">liberalism</a> with blue.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_usage_and_definitions">Modern usage and definitions</h3></div> In Europe and Latin America, liberalism means a moderate form of <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a> and includes both <a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">conservative liberalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Centre-right" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre-right">centre-right</a> liberalism) and <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">social liberalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Centre-left" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre-left">centre-left</a> liberalism).<a href="#cite_note-Nordsieck_contents-26">[26]</a> In North America, liberalism almost exclusively refers to social liberalism. The dominant Canadian party is the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Canada" title="Liberal Party of Canada">Liberal Party</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a> is usually considered liberal in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In the United States, conservative liberals are usually called conservatives in a broad sense.<a href="#cite_note-Friedman-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_liberalism">Social liberalism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social liberalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">Liberalism in the United States</a></div> Over time, the meaning of liberalism began to diverge in different parts of the world. Since the 1930s, liberalism is usually used without a qualifier in the United States, to refer to <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">social liberalism</a>, a variety of liberalism that endorses a <a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">regulated market</a> economy and the expansion of <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil and political rights</a>, with the common good considered as compatible with or superior to the freedom of the individual.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>: "In the United States, liberalism is associated with the welfare-state policies of the New Deal programme of the Democratic administration of Pres. <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, whereas in Europe it is more commonly associated with a commitment to <a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">limited government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> economic policies."<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> This variety of liberalism is also known as <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism" class="mw-disambig" title="Modern liberalism">modern liberalism</a> to distinguish it from classical liberalism, which evolved into <a href="/wiki/Modern_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern conservatism">modern conservatism</a>. In the United States, the two forms of liberalism comprise the two main poles of American politics, in the forms of <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">modern American liberalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">modern American conservatism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Some liberals, who call themselves classical liberals, <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiscal conservatives">fiscal conservatives</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">libertarians</a>, endorse fundamental liberal ideals but diverge from modern liberal thought on the grounds that <a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">economic freedom</a> is more important than <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">social equality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Consequently, the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> and laissez-faire economics previously associated with <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberalism</a> are key components of modern <a href="/wiki/American_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="American conservatism">American conservatism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Movement_conservatism" title="Movement conservatism">movement conservatism</a>, and became the basis for the emerging school of modern <a href="/wiki/American_libertarian" class="mw-redirect" title="American libertarian">American libertarian</a> thought.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] In this American context, liberal is often used as a pejorative.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> This political philosophy is exemplified by enactment of major social legislation and welfare programs. Two major examples in the United States are <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> policies and later <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a>, as well as other accomplishments such as the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Act" title="Social Security Act">Social Security Act</a> in 1935, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>. Modern liberalism, in the United States and other major Western countries, now includes issues such as <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in the United States">same-sex marriage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transgender_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Transgender rights in the United States">transgender rights</a>, the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">capital punishment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">reproductive rights</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voting_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting rights">voting rights</a> for all adult citizens, civil rights, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a>, and government protection of the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_an_adequate_standard_of_living" title="Right to an adequate standard of living">right to an adequate standard of living</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> National <a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">social services</a>, such as equal educational opportunities, access to health care, and transportation infrastructure are intended to meet the responsibility to promote the <a href="/wiki/General_welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="General welfare">general welfare</a> of all citizens as established by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classical_liberalism">Classical liberalism</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative liberalism</a></div> Classical liberalism is a <a href="/wiki/Political_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Political tradition">political tradition</a> and a <a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">branch</a> of liberalism that advocates <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free market</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> economics and <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, with special emphasis on individual autonomy, <a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">limited government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">economic freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">political freedom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Classical liberalism, contrary to liberal branches like <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">social liberalism</a>, looks more negatively on <a href="/wiki/Social_policy" title="Social policy">social policies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxation</a> and the state involvement in the lives of individuals, and it advocates <a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">deregulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Until the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> and the rise of social liberalism, classical liberalism was called <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">economic liberalism</a>. Later, the term was applied as a <a href="/wiki/Retronym" title="Retronym">retronym</a>, to distinguish earlier 19th-century liberalism from social liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardson200152-43">[43]</a> By modern standards, in <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">the United States</a>, the bare term liberalism often means social liberalism, but in <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a>, the bare term liberalism often means classical liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Classical liberalism gained full flowering in the early 18th century, building on ideas dating at least as far back as the 16th century, within the Iberian, British, and Central European contexts, and it was foundational to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and "American Project" more broadly.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickersonFlanaganO'Neill2009129-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Notable liberal individuals whose ideas contributed to classical liberalism include <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Steven_M._Dworetz_1994-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a>. It drew on <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a>, especially the economic ideas espoused by <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> in Book One of <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a>, and on a belief in <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In contemporary times, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Ludwig von Mises</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Thomas Sowell</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Stigler" title="George Stigler">George Stigler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Arnhart" title="Larry Arnhart">Larry Arnhart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Coase" title="Ronald Coase">Ronald Coase</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_M._Buchanan" title="James M. Buchanan">James M. Buchanan</a> are seen as the most prominent advocates of classical liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> However, other scholars have made reference to these contemporary thoughts as <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">neoclassical liberalism</a>, distinguishing them from 18th-century classical liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-Mayne_1999_p._124-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In the context of American politics, "classical liberalism" may be described as "fiscally conservative" and "socially liberal".<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> Despite this, classical liberals tend to reject <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">the right</a>'s higher tolerance for <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">economic protectionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">the left's</a> inclination for collective <a href="/wiki/Individual_and_group_rights" title="Individual and group rights">group rights</a> due to classical liberalism's central principle of <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Additionally, in the United States, classical liberalism is considered closely tied to, or synonymous with, <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">American libertarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2></div> Liberalism—both as a political current and an intellectual tradition—is mostly a modern phenomenon that started in the 17th century, although some liberal philosophical ideas had precursors in <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_China#Imperial_China" title="History of China">Imperial China</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BevirSAGE-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FungCambridge-60">[60]</a> The <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman Emperors">Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> praised "the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed".<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Scholars have also recognised many principles familiar to contemporary liberals in the works of several <a href="/wiki/Sophism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophism">Sophists</a> and the Funeral Oration by <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_pp._25–6-62">[62]</a> Liberal philosophy is the culmination of an extensive intellectual tradition that has examined and popularized some of the modern world's most important and controversial principles. Its immense scholarly output has been characterized as containing "richness and diversity", but that diversity often has meant that liberalism comes in different formulations and presents a challenge to anyone looking for a clear definition.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._24-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_themes">Major themes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Principles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do_it_yourself" title="Do it yourself">Do it yourself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eremitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eremitism">Eremitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_love" title="Free love">Free love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">Freethought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">Individual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual rights">Individual rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_reclamation" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual reclamation">Individual reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individuation" title="Individuation">Individuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">Libertine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_individualism" title="Methodological individualism">Methodological individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_border" title="Open border">Open border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">Personal property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-actualization" title="Self-actualization">Self-actualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">Self-ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-sufficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-sufficiency">Self-sufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">Subjectivity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiphon_(orator)" title="Antiphon (orator)">Antiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Goldman" title="Emma Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Hess" title="Karl Hess">Hess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchia_of_Maroneia" title="Hipparchia of Maroneia">Hipparchia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Gim%C3%A9nez_Igualada" title="Miguel Giménez Igualada">Igualada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Ingersoll" title="Robert G. Ingersoll">Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Jung" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Gustav Jung">Jung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Mandeville" title="Bernard Mandeville">Mandeville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dora_Marsden" title="Dora Marsden">Marsden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._Mencken" title="H. L. Mencken">Mencken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Onfray" title="Michel Onfray">Onfray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horst_Matthai_Quelle" title="Horst Matthai Quelle">Quelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Warren" title="Josiah Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhu" title="Yang Zhu">Yang</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Ideologies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autarchism" title="Autarchism">Autarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egoist_anarchism" title="Egoist anarchism">Egoist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_market_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Left-wing market anarchism">Left-wing market anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social anarchism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism">Egoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Ethical egoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">Rational egoism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">Hedonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal feminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Minarchism">Minarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntaryism" title="Voluntaryism">Voluntaryism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Principal concerns</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-individualism" title="Anti-individualism">Anti-individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Group rights">Group rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_mentality" title="Herd mentality">Herd mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_society" title="Mass society">Mass society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">Social engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyranny">Tyranny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Individualism_sidebar" title="Template:Individualism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Individualism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Individualism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Individualism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Individualism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Although all liberal doctrines possess a common heritage, scholars frequently assume that those doctrines contain "separate and often contradictory streams of thought".<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._24-63">[63]</a> The objectives of <a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">liberal theorists and philosophers</a> have differed across various times, cultures and continents. The diversity of liberalism can be gleaned from the numerous qualifiers that liberal thinkers and movements have attached to the term "liberalism", including <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">economic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">social</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">deontological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perfectionism_(philosophy)" title="Perfectionism (philosophy)">perfectionist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutional</a>, to name a few.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Despite these variations, liberal thought does exhibit a few definite and fundamental conceptions. Political philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Gray_(philosopher)" title="John Gray (philosopher)">John Gray</a> identified the common strands in liberal thought as <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualist</a>, egalitarian, <a href="/wiki/Meliorism" title="Meliorism">meliorist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universalist</a>. The individualist element avers the ethical primacy of the human being against the pressures of social <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivism</a>; the egalitarian element assigns the same <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> worth and status to all individuals; the meliorist element asserts that successive generations can improve their sociopolitical arrangements, and the universalist element affirms the moral unity of the human species and marginalises local <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultural</a> differences.<a href="#cite_note-Gray,_p._xii-65">[65]</a> The meliorist element has been the subject of much controversy, defended by thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, who believed in human progress, while suffering criticism by thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, who instead believed that human attempts to improve themselves through social <a href="/wiki/Cooperation" title="Cooperation">cooperation</a> would fail.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The liberal philosophical tradition has searched for validation and justification through several intellectual projects. The moral and political suppositions of liberalism have been based on traditions such as natural rights and <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian theory</a>, although sometimes liberals even request support from scientific and religious circles.<a href="#cite_note-Gray,_p._xii-65">[65]</a> Through all these strands and traditions, scholars have identified the following major common facets of liberal thought: <ul><li>believing in equality and <a href="/wiki/Individual_liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual liberty">individual liberty</a></li> <li>supporting private property and individual rights</li> <li>supporting the idea of limited constitutional government</li> <li>recognising the importance of related values such as <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">pluralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">toleration</a>, autonomy, <a href="/wiki/Bodily_integrity" title="Bodily integrity">bodily integrity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_and_modern">Classical and modern</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="John_Locke_and_Thomas_Hobbes">John Locke and Thomas Hobbes</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> philosophers are given credit for shaping liberal ideas. These ideas were first drawn together and systematized as a distinct <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> by the English philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, generally regarded as the father of modern liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-Taverne,_p._18-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Godwin_et_al.,_p._12-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> attempted to determine the purpose and the justification of governing authority in post-civil war England. Employing the idea of a <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a> — a hypothetical war-like scenario prior to the state — he constructed the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> that individuals enter into to guarantee their security and, in so doing, form the State, concluding that only an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute sovereign</a> would be fully able to sustain such security. Hobbes had developed the concept of the social contract, according to which individuals in the anarchic and brutal state of nature came together and voluntarily ceded some of their rights to an established state authority, which would create laws to regulate social interactions to mitigate or mediate conflicts and enforce justice. Whereas Hobbes advocated a strong monarchical commonwealth (the <a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a>), Locke developed the then-radical notion that government acquires <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent from the governed</a>, which has to be constantly present for the government to remain <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">legitimate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> While adopting Hobbes's idea of a state of nature and social contract, Locke nevertheless argued that when the monarch becomes a <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a>, it violates the social contract, which protects life, liberty and property as a natural right. He concluded that the people have a right to overthrow a tyrant. By placing the security of life, liberty and property as the supreme value of law and authority, Locke formulated the basis of liberalism based on social contract theory. To these early enlightenment thinkers, securing the essential amenities of life—<a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a>—required forming a "sovereign" authority with universal jurisdiction.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> His influential <a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises</a> (1690), the foundational text of liberal ideology, outlined his major ideas. Once humans moved out of their <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">natural state</a> and formed <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a>, Locke argued, "that which begins and actually constitutes any <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">political society</a> is nothing but the consent of any number of freemen capable of a majority to unite and incorporate into such a society. And this is that, and that only, which did or could give beginning to any lawful government in the world".<a href="#cite_note-Locke_Two_Treatises_1947-72">[72]</a>: 170  The stringent insistence that lawful government did not have a <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> basis was a sharp break with the dominant theories of governance, which advocated the divine right of kings<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> and echoed the earlier thought of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. Dr John Zvesper described this new thinking: "In the liberal understanding, there are no citizens within the regime who can claim to rule by natural or supernatural right, without the consent of the governed".<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Locke had other intellectual opponents besides Hobbes. In the First Treatise, Locke aimed his arguments first and foremost at one of the doyens of 17th-century English conservative philosophy: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Robert Filmer</a>. Filmer's Patriarcha (1680) argued for the <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right of kings</a> by appealing to <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">biblical</a> teaching, claiming that the authority granted to <a href="/wiki/Adam" title="Adam">Adam</a> by <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> gave successors of Adam in the male line of descent a right of dominion over all other humans and creatures in the world.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> However, Locke disagreed so thoroughly and obsessively with Filmer that the First Treatise is almost a sentence-by-sentence refutation of Patriarcha. Reinforcing his respect for consensus, Locke argued that "conjugal society is made up by a voluntary compact between men and women".<a href="#cite_note-Kerber_1976-76">[76]</a> Locke maintained that the grant of dominion in <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Genesis</a> was not to <a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">men over women</a>, as Filmer believed, but to humans over animals.<a href="#cite_note-Kerber_1976-76">[76]</a> Locke was not a <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a> by modern standards, but the first major liberal thinker in history accomplished an equally major task on the road to making the world more pluralistic: integrating women into <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">social theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kerber_1976-76">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Areopagitica_1644bw_gobeirne.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Areopagitica_1644bw_gobeirne.png/200px-Areopagitica_1644bw_gobeirne.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Areopagitica_1644bw_gobeirne.png/300px-Areopagitica_1644bw_gobeirne.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Areopagitica_1644bw_gobeirne.png/400px-Areopagitica_1644bw_gobeirne.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Areopagitica" title="Areopagitica">Areopagitica</a> (1644) argued for the importance of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>.</figcaption></figure> Locke also originated the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AFP-77">[77]</a> Based on the social contract principle, Locke argued that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual <a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">conscience</a>, as this was something <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right to the liberty of conscience, which he argued must remain protected from any government authority.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> In his Letters Concerning Toleration, he also formulated a general defence for <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious toleration</a>. Three arguments are central: <ol><li>Earthly judges, the state in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the truth claims of competing religious standpoints;</li> <li>Even if they could, enforcing a single "<a href="/wiki/Supremacism#Religious" title="Supremacism">true religion</a>" would not have the desired effect because belief cannot be compelled by <a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">violence</a>;</li> <li>Coercing <a href="/wiki/Religious_uniformity" title="Religious uniformity">religious uniformity</a> would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></li></ol> Locke was also influenced by the liberal ideas of Presbyterian politician and poet <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a>, who was a staunch advocate of freedom in all its forms.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Milton argued for <a href="/wiki/Disestablishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Disestablishment">disestablishment</a> as the only effective way of achieving broad <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">toleration</a>. Rather than force a man's conscience, the government should recognise the persuasive force of the gospel.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> As assistant to <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, Milton also drafted a constitution of the <a href="/wiki/Independent_politician" title="Independent politician">independents</a> (Agreement of the People; 1647) that strongly stressed the equality of all humans as a consequence of democratic tendencies.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Areopagitica" title="Areopagitica">Areopagitica</a>, Milton provided one of the first arguments for the importance of freedom of speech—"the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties". His central argument was that the individual could use reason to distinguish right from wrong. To exercise this right, everyone must have unlimited access to the ideas of his fellow men in "<a href="/wiki/Marketplace_of_ideas" title="Marketplace of ideas">a free and open encounter</a>", which will allow good arguments to prevail. In a natural state of affairs, liberals argued, humans were driven by the instincts of survival and <a href="/wiki/Self-preservation" title="Self-preservation">self-preservation</a>, and the only way to escape from such a dangerous existence was to form a common and supreme power capable of arbitrating between competing human desires.<a href="#cite_note-Young_30-83">[83]</a> This power could be formed in the framework of a <a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">civil society</a> that allows individuals to make a voluntary social contract with the sovereign authority, transferring their natural rights to that authority in return for the protection of life, liberty and property.<a href="#cite_note-Young_30-83">[83]</a> These early liberals often disagreed about the most appropriate form of government, but all believed that liberty was natural and its restriction needed strong justification.<a href="#cite_note-Young_30-83">[83]</a> Liberals generally believed in limited government, although several liberal philosophers decried government outright, with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a> writing, "government even in its best state is a necessary evil".<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._31-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="James_Madison_and_Montesquieu">James Madison and Montesquieu</h4></div> As part of the project to limit the powers of government, liberal theorists such as <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a> conceived the notion of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, a system designed to equally distribute governmental authority among the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial</a> branches.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._31-84">[84]</a> Governments had to realise, liberals maintained, that legitimate government only exists with the <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>, so poor and improper governance gave the people the authority to overthrow the ruling order through all possible means, even through outright violence and <a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">revolution</a>, if needed.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Contemporary liberals, heavily influenced by social liberalism, have supported limited <a href="/wiki/Constitution#Governmental_constitutions" title="Constitution">constitutional government</a> while advocating for <a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">state services</a> and provisions to ensure equal rights. Modern liberals claim that formal or official guarantees of individual rights are irrelevant when individuals lack the material means to benefit from those rights and call for a <a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">greater role for government</a> in the administration of economic affairs.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Early liberals also laid the groundwork for the separation of church and state. As heirs of the Enlightenment, liberals believed that any given social and political order emanated <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">from human interactions</a>, not from <a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">divine will</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gould,_p._4-87">[87]</a> Many liberals were openly hostile to <a href="/wiki/Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">religious belief</a> but most concentrated their opposition to the union of religious and political authority, arguing that faith could prosper independently without official sponsorship or administration by the state.<a href="#cite_note-Gould,_p._4-87">[87]</a> Beyond identifying a clear role for government in modern society, liberals have also argued over the meaning and nature of the most important principle in liberal philosophy: liberty. From the 17th century until the 19th century, liberals (from <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> to <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>) conceptualised liberty as the absence of interference from government and other individuals, claiming that all people should have the freedom to develop their unique abilities and capacities without being sabotaged by others.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._33-88">[88]</a> Mill's <a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859), one of the classic texts in liberal philosophy, proclaimed, "the only freedom which deserves the name, is that of pursuing our own good in our own way".<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._33-88">[88]</a> Support for laissez-faire <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> is often associated with this principle, with <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a> arguing in <a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944) that reliance on free markets would preclude totalitarian control by the state.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coppet_Group_and_Benjamin_Constant">Coppet Group and Benjamin Constant</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marie_El%C3%A9onore_Godefroid_-_Portrait_of_Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Marie_El%C3%A9onore_Godefroid_-_Portrait_of_Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl.jpg/170px-Marie_El%C3%A9onore_Godefroid_-_Portrait_of_Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Marie_El%C3%A9onore_Godefroid_-_Portrait_of_Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl.jpg/255px-Marie_El%C3%A9onore_Godefroid_-_Portrait_of_Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Marie_El%C3%A9onore_Godefroid_-_Portrait_of_Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl.jpg/340px-Marie_El%C3%A9onore_Godefroid_-_Portrait_of_Mme_de_Sta%C3%ABl.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1458" data-file-height="1923" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a></figcaption></figure> The development into maturity of modern classical in contrast to ancient liberalism took place before and soon after the French Revolution. One of the historic centres of this development was at <a href="/wiki/Coppet_Castle" title="Coppet Castle">Coppet Castle</a> near <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, where the eponymous <a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Coppet group</a> gathered under the aegis of the exiled writer and <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salonnière</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a>, in the period between the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s First Empire (1804) and the <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">Bourbon Restoration</a> of 1814–1815.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The unprecedented concentration of European thinkers who met there was to have a considerable influence on the development of nineteenth-century liberalism and, incidentally, <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romanticism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> They included <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Sismondi" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean de Sismondi">Jean de Sismondi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Victor_de_Bonstetten" title="Charles Victor de Bonstetten">Charles Victor de Bonstetten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prosper_de_Barante" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosper de Barante">Prosper de Barante</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Peter_Brougham,_1st_Baron_Brougham_and_Vaux" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux">Henry Brougham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Alphonse de Lamartine</a>, Sir <a href="/wiki/James_Mackintosh" title="James Mackintosh">James Mackintosh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juliette_R%C3%A9camier" title="Juliette Récamier">Juliette Récamier</a> and <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_Schlegel" title="August Wilhelm Schlegel">August Wilhelm Schlegel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_(1767-1830),_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/220px-Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/330px-Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg/440px-Roche_-_Portrait_de_Benjamin_Constant_%281767-1830%29%2C_%C3%A9crivain_et_homme_politique_-_P1679_-_Mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2525" data-file-height="3086" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a>, a Franco-Swiss political activist and theorist</figcaption></figure> Among them was also one of the first thinkers to go by the name of "liberal", the <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Edinburgh University">Edinburgh University</a>-educated Swiss Protestant, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a>, who looked to the United Kingdom rather than to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> for a practical model of freedom in a large mercantile society. He distinguished between the "Liberty of the Ancients" and the "Liberty of the Moderns".<a href="#cite_note-AncientModern-98">[98]</a> The Liberty of the Ancients was a participatory <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a> liberty,<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> which gave the citizens the right to influence politics directly through debates and votes in the public assembly.<a href="#cite_note-AncientModern-98">[98]</a> In order to support this degree of participation, citizenship was a burdensome moral obligation requiring a considerable investment of time and energy. Generally, this required a sub-group of slaves to do much of the productive work, leaving citizens free to deliberate on public affairs. Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous male societies, where they could congregate in one place to transact public affairs.<a href="#cite_note-AncientModern-98">[98]</a> In contrast, the Liberty of the Moderns was based on the possession of <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a>, the rule of law, and freedom from excessive state interference. Direct participation would be limited: a necessary consequence of the size of modern states and the inevitable result of creating a mercantile society where there were no slaves, but almost everybody had to earn a living through work. Instead, the voters would elect <a href="/wiki/Legislator" title="Legislator">representatives</a> who would deliberate in Parliament on the people's behalf and would save citizens from daily political involvement.<a href="#cite_note-AncientModern-98">[98]</a> The importance of Constant's writings on the liberty of the ancients and that of the "moderns" has informed the understanding of liberalism, as has his critique of the French Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The British philosopher and historian of ideas, Sir <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a>, has pointed to the debt owed to Constant.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_liberalism">British liberalism</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">Liberalism in Britain</a> was based on core concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> government with minimal intervention and taxation and a <a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget" title="Balanced budget">balanced budget</a>. Classical liberals were committed to individualism, liberty and equal rights. Writers such as <a href="/wiki/John_Bright" title="John Bright">John Bright</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Richard Cobden</a> opposed aristocratic privilege and property, which they saw as an impediment to developing a class of <a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">yeoman</a> farmers.<a href="#cite_note-Vincent,_pp._29–30-102">[102]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:T.H._Green.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/T.H._Green.png/170px-T.H._Green.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/T.H._Green.png/255px-T.H._Green.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/T.H._Green.png/340px-T.H._Green.png 2x" data-file-width="1755" data-file-height="2492" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/T._H._Green" title="T. H. Green">T. H. Green</a>, an influential <a href="/wiki/List_of_liberal_theorists" title="List of liberal theorists">liberal philosopher</a> who established in Prolegomena to Ethics (1884) the first major foundations for what later became known as <a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">positive liberty</a> and in a few years, his ideas became the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_welfare_reforms" title="Liberal welfare reforms">official policy</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a> in <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">Britain</a>, precipitating the rise of <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">social liberalism</a> and the modern <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a></figcaption></figure> Beginning in the late 19th century, a new conception of liberty entered the liberal intellectual arena. This new kind of liberty became known as <a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">positive liberty</a> to distinguish it from the prior <a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">negative version</a>, and it was first developed by <a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/T._H._Green" title="T. H. Green">T. H. Green</a>. Green rejected the idea that humans were driven solely by <a href="/wiki/Self-interest" title="Self-interest">self-interest</a>, emphasising instead the complex circumstances involved in the evolution of our <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">moral character</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Adams_1998-103">[103]</a>: 54–55  In a very profound step for the future of modern liberalism, he also tasked society and political institutions with the enhancement of individual freedom and identity and the development of moral character, will and reason and the state to create the conditions that allow for the above, allowing genuine <a href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">choice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Adams_1998-103">[103]</a>: 54–55  Foreshadowing the new liberty as the freedom to act rather than to avoid suffering from the acts of others, Green wrote the following: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">If it were ever reasonable to wish that the usage of words had been other than it has been ... one might be inclined to wish that the term 'freedom' had been confined to the ... power to do what one wills.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></blockquote> Rather than previous liberal conceptions viewing society as populated by selfish individuals, Green viewed society as an organic whole in which all individuals have a <a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">duty</a> to promote the <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Adams_1998-103">[103]</a>: 55  His ideas spread rapidly and were developed by other thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Trelawny_Hobhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse">Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_A._Hobson" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Hobson">John A. Hobson</a>. In a few years, this New Liberalism had become the essential social and political programme of the Liberal Party in Britain,<a href="#cite_note-Adams_1998-103">[103]</a>: 58  and it would encircle much of the world in the 20th century. In addition to examining negative and positive liberty, liberals have tried to understand the proper relationship between liberty and democracy. As they struggled to expand <a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">suffrage rights</a>, liberals increasingly understood that people left out of the <a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">democratic decision-making process</a> were liable to the "<a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">tyranny of the majority</a>", a concept explained in Mill's On Liberty and <a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835) by <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Alexis de Tocqueville</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._36-105">[105]</a> As a response, liberals began demanding proper safeguards to thwart majorities in their attempts at suppressing the <a href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">rights of minorities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._36-105">[105]</a> Besides liberty, liberals have developed several other principles important to the construction of their philosophical structure, such as equality, pluralism and tolerance. Highlighting the confusion over the first principle, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> commented, "equality is at once the most natural and at times the most chimeral of things".<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> All forms of liberalism assume in some basic sense that individuals are equal.<a href="#cite_note-auto-107">[107]</a> In maintaining that people are naturally equal, liberals assume they all possess the same right to liberty.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> In other words, no one is inherently entitled to enjoy the benefits of liberal society more than anyone else, and all people are <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equal subjects before the law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._40-109">[109]</a> Beyond this basic conception, liberal theorists diverge in their understanding of equality. American philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> emphasised the need to ensure equality under the law and the equal distribution of material resources that individuals required to develop their <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">aspirations</a> in life.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._40-109">[109]</a> Libertarian thinker <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a> disagreed with Rawls, championing the former version of <a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Lockean equality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._40-109">[109]</a> To contribute to the development of liberty, liberals also have promoted concepts like pluralism and tolerance. By pluralism, liberals refer to the proliferation of opinions and beliefs that characterise a stable <a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">social order</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Unlike many of their competitors and predecessors, liberals do not seek <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">conformity</a> and homogeneity in how people think. Their efforts have been geared towards establishing a governing framework that <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resolution" title="Conflict resolution">harmonises and minimises conflicting views</a> but still allows those views to exist and flourish.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> For liberal philosophy, pluralism leads easily to toleration. Since individuals will hold diverging viewpoints, liberals argue, they ought to uphold and respect the right of one another to disagree.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._44-112">[112]</a> From the liberal perspective, toleration was initially connected to <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious toleration</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a> condemning "the stupidity of religious persecution and ideological wars".<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._44-112">[112]</a> Toleration also played a central role in the <a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">ideas of Kant</a> and John Stuart Mill. Both thinkers believed that society would contain different conceptions of a good ethical life and that people should be allowed to make their own choices without interference from the state or other individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Young,_p._44-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberal_economic_theory">Liberal economic theory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liberalescoruneses.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Liberalescoruneses.JPG/300px-Liberalescoruneses.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Liberalescoruneses.JPG/450px-Liberalescoruneses.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Liberalescoruneses.JPG/600px-Liberalescoruneses.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Monument to the liberals of the 19th century in Agra del Orzán neighborhood, <a href="/wiki/La_Coru%C3%B1a" class="mw-redirect" title="La Coruña">La Coruña</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a>, published in 1776, followed by the French liberal economist <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say</a>'s treatise on <a href="/wiki/Say%27s_Political_Economy" title="Say's Political Economy">Political Economy</a> published in 1803 and expanded in 1830 with practical applications, were to provide most of the ideas of economics until the publication of <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>'s Principles in 1848.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 63, 68  Smith addressed the motivation for economic activity, the causes of <a href="/wiki/Pricing" title="Pricing">prices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Distribution_of_wealth" title="Distribution of wealth">wealth distribution</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">policies</a> the state should follow to maximise <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 64  Smith wrote that as long as <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply, demand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Price" title="Price">prices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">competition</a> were left free of government regulation, the pursuit of material self-interest, rather than altruism, maximises society's wealth<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> through profit-driven production of goods and services. An "<a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a>" directed individuals and firms to work toward the nation's good as an unintended consequence of efforts to maximise their gain. This provided a moral justification for accumulating wealth, which some had previously viewed as sinful.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 64  Smith assumed that workers could be <a href="/wiki/Salary" title="Salary">paid</a> as low as was necessary for their survival, which <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus" title="Thomas Robert Malthus">Thomas Robert Malthus</a> later transformed into the "<a href="/wiki/Iron_law_of_wages" title="Iron law of wages">iron law of wages</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 65  His main emphasis was on the benefit of free internal and <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, which he thought could increase wealth through specialisation in production.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 66  He also opposed restrictive <a href="/wiki/Trade_preference" title="Trade preference">trade preferences</a>, state grants of <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopolies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Employers%27_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Employers' organisation">employers' organisations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 67  Government should be limited to defence, <a href="/wiki/Public_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Public work">public works</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">administration of justice</a>, financed by <a href="/wiki/Income_tax" title="Income tax">taxes based on income</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 68  Smith was one of the progenitors of the idea, which was long central to classical liberalism and has resurfaced in the <a href="/wiki/Globalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Globalisation">globalisation</a> literature of the later 20th and early 21st centuries, that free trade promotes peace.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Smith's economics was carried into practice in the 19th century with the lowering of tariffs in the 1820s, the repeal of the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Relief_Act_1662" title="Poor Relief Act 1662">Poor Relief Act</a> that had restricted the mobility of labour in 1834 and the end of the rule of the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> over India in 1858.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 69  In his Treatise (Traité d'économie politique), Say states that any production process requires effort, knowledge and the "application" of the entrepreneur. He sees entrepreneurs as intermediaries in the production process who combine productive factors such as land, capital and labour to meet the consumers' demands. As a result, they play a central role in the economy through their coordinating function. He also highlights qualities essential for successful entrepreneurship and focuses on judgement, in that they have continued to assess market needs and the means to meet them. This requires an "unerring market sense". Say views entrepreneurial income primarily as the high revenue paid in compensation for their skills and expert knowledge. He does so by contrasting the enterprise and supply-of-capital functions, distinguishing the entrepreneur's earnings on the one hand and the remuneration of capital on the other. This differentiates his theory from that of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a>, who describes entrepreneurial rent as short-term profits which compensate for high risk (Schumpeterian rent). Say himself also refers to risk and uncertainty along with innovation without analysing them in detail. Say is also credited with <a href="/wiki/Say%27s_law" title="Say's law">Say's law</a>, or the law of markets which may be summarised as "<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">Aggregate supply</a> creates its own <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Supply_creates_its_own_demand" title="Supply creates its own demand">Supply creates its own demand</a>", or "Supply constitutes its own demand" and "Inherent in supply is the need for its own consumption". The related phrase "supply creates its own demand" was coined by <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, who criticized Say's separate formulations as amounting to the same thing. Some advocates of Say's law who disagree with Keynes have claimed that Say's law can be summarized more accurately as "production precedes consumption" and that what Say is stating is that for consumption to happen, one must produce something of value so that it can be traded for money or barter for consumption later.<a href="#cite_note-clower92-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Say argues, "products are paid for with products" (1803, p. 153) or "a glut occurs only when too much resource is applied to making one product and not enough to another" (1803, pp. 178–179).<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Related reasoning appears in the work of <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> and earlier in that of his Scottish classical economist father, <a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">James Mill</a> (1808). Mill senior restates Say's law in 1808: "production of commodities creates, and is the one and universal cause which creates a market for the commodities produced".<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> In addition to Smith's and Say's legacies, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a>' theories of population and <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Iron_law_of_wages" title="Iron law of wages">Iron law of wages</a> became central doctrines of classical economics.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 76  Meanwhile, Jean-Baptiste Say challenged Smith's <a href="/wiki/Labour_theory_of_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour theory of value">labour theory of value</a>, believing that prices were determined by utility and also emphasised the critical role of the entrepreneur in the economy. However, neither of those observations became accepted by British economists at the time. Malthus wrote <a href="/wiki/An_Essay_on_the_Principle_of_Population" title="An Essay on the Principle of Population">An Essay on the Principle of Population</a> in 1798,<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 71–72  becoming a major influence on classical liberalism. Malthus claimed that population growth would outstrip food production because the population grew geometrically while food production grew arithmetically. As people were provided with food, they would reproduce until their growth outstripped the food supply. Nature would then provide a check to growth in the forms of vice and misery. No gains in income could prevent this, and any welfare for the poor would be self-defeating. The poor were, in fact, responsible for their problems which could have been avoided through self-restraint.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 72  Several liberals, including Adam Smith and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Richard Cobden</a>, argued that the free exchange of goods between nations would lead to world peace.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Smith argued that as societies progressed, the spoils of war would rise, but the costs of war would rise further, making war difficult and costly for industrialised nations.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Cobden believed that military expenditures worsened the state's welfare and benefited a small but concentrated elite minority, combining his <a href="/wiki/Little_Englander" title="Little Englander">Little Englander</a> beliefs with opposition to the economic restrictions of mercantilist policies. To Cobden and many classical liberals, those who advocated peace must also advocate free markets.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a> was seen as a <a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">political justification</a> for implementing <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">economic liberalism</a> by British governments, an idea dominating economic policy from the 1840s. Although utilitarianism prompted legislative and administrative reform, and John Stuart Mill's later writings foreshadowed the welfare state, it was mainly used as a premise for a laissez-faire approach.<a href="#cite_note-Richardson_2001-123">[123]</a>: 32  The central concept of utilitarianism, developed by <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>, was that <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> should seek to provide "the greatest happiness of the greatest number". While this could be interpreted as a justification for state action to <a href="/wiki/Poverty_reduction" title="Poverty reduction">reduce poverty</a>, it was used by classical liberals to justify inaction with the argument that the net benefit to all individuals would be higher.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 76  His philosophy proved highly influential on government policy and led to increased Benthamite attempts at government <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">social control</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Robert Peel</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Police" title="Metropolitan Police">Metropolitan Police</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prison_reform" title="Prison reform">prison reforms</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouses</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_psychiatric_institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="History of psychiatric institutions">asylums</a> for the mentally ill. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Keynesian_economics">Keynesian economics</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keynes_1933.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Keynes_1933.jpg/170px-Keynes_1933.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Keynes_1933.jpg/255px-Keynes_1933.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Keynes_1933.jpg 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, one of the most influential economists of modern times and whose ideas, which are still <a href="/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Keynesian_resurgence" class="mw-redirect" title="2008–09 Keynesian resurgence">widely felt</a>, formalized modern liberal economic policy.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, the English economist <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> (1883–1946) gave the definitive liberal response to the economic crisis. Keynes had been "brought up" as a classical liberal, but especially after World War I, became increasingly a welfare or social liberal.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> A prolific writer, among many other works, he had begun a theoretical work examining the relationship between unemployment, money and prices back in the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Keynes was deeply critical of the British government's <a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">austerity</a> measures <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Great Depression in the United Kingdom">during the Great Depression</a>. He believed <a href="/wiki/Budget_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Budget deficit">budget deficits</a> were a good thing, a product of <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recessions</a>. He wrote: "For Government borrowing of one kind or another is nature's remedy, so to speak, for preventing business losses from being, in so severe a slump as the present one, so great as to bring production altogether to a standstill".<a href="#cite_note-Cassidy2011-126">[126]</a> At the height of the Great Depression in 1933, Keynes published The Means to Prosperity, which contained specific policy recommendations for tackling unemployment in a global recession, chiefly counter cyclical public spending. The Means to Prosperity contains one of the first mentions of the <a href="/wiki/Multiplier_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiplier effect">multiplier effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Skid30s-127">[127]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/170px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/255px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg/340px-Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6205" data-file-height="8066" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, with its periods of worldwide economic hardship, formed the backdrop against which the <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_Revolution" title="Keynesian Revolution">Keynesian Revolution</a> took place (the image is <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Lange" title="Dorothea Lange">Dorothea Lange</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Migrant_Mother" title="Migrant Mother">Migrant Mother</a> depiction of destitute <a href="/wiki/Pea-pickers" title="Pea-pickers">pea-pickers</a> in California, taken in March 1936).</figcaption></figure> Keynes's <a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">magnum opus</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a>, was published in 1936<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> and served as a theoretical justification for the <a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">interventionist policies</a> Keynes favoured for tackling a recession. The General Theory challenged the earlier <a href="/wiki/Neo-classical_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-classical economics">neo-classical economic</a> paradigm, which had held that the <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a> would naturally establish <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a> equilibrium if it were unfettered by government interference. <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical economists</a> believed in <a href="/wiki/Say%27s_law" title="Say's law">Say's law</a>, which states that "<a href="/wiki/Supply_creates_its_own_demand" title="Supply creates its own demand">supply creates its own demand</a>" and that in a <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free market</a>, workers would always be willing to lower their wages to a level where employers could profitably offer them jobs. An innovation from Keynes was the concept of <a href="/wiki/Sticky_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sticky (economics)">price stickiness</a>, i.e. the recognition that, in reality, workers often refuse to lower their wage demands even in cases where a classical economist might argue it is <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> for them to do so. Due in part to price stickiness, it was established that the interaction of "<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Aggregate_supply" title="Aggregate supply">aggregate supply</a>" may lead to stable unemployment equilibria, and in those cases, it is the state and not the market that economies must depend on for their salvation. The book advocated activist economic policy by the government to stimulate demand in times of high unemployment, for example, by spending on public works. In 1928, he wrote: "Let us be up and doing, using our idle resources to increase our wealth. ... With men and plants unemployed, it is ridiculous to say that we cannot afford these new developments. It is precisely with these plants and these men that we shall afford them".<a href="#cite_note-Cassidy2011-126">[126]</a> Where the market failed to allocate resources properly, the government was required to stimulate the economy until private funds could start flowing again—a "prime the pump" kind of strategy designed to boost <a href="/wiki/Industrial_production" title="Industrial production">industrial production</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberal_feminist_theory">Liberal feminist theory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal feminism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_(c._1797).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg/170px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg/255px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg/340px-Mary_Wollstonecraft_by_John_Opie_%28c._1797%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="1244" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a>, widely regarded as the pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">liberal feminism</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal feminism</a>, the dominant tradition in <a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">feminist history</a>, is an <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualistic</a> form of <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a> that focuses on women's ability to maintain their equality through their actions and choices. Liberal feminists hope to eradicate all barriers to <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">gender equality</a>, claiming that the continued existence of such barriers eviscerates the individual rights and freedoms ostensibly guaranteed by a liberal social order.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> They argue that society believes women are naturally <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">less intellectually and physically capable</a> than men; thus, it tends to <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">discriminate against women</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">academy</a>, the forum and the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_sexism" title="Occupational sexism">marketplace</a>. Liberal feminists believe that "female subordination is rooted in a set of customary and legal constraints that blocks women's entrance to and success in the so-called public world". They strive for sexual equality via political and legal reform.<a href="#cite_note-Tong,_Rosemarie_1989-131">[131]</a> British <a href="/wiki/List_of_women_philosophers" title="List of women philosophers">philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a> (1759–1797) is widely regarded as the pioneer of liberal feminism, with <a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Woman" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Woman">A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</a> (1792) expanding the boundaries of liberalism to include women in the political structure of liberal society.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> In her writings, such as A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Wollstonecraft commented on society's view of women and encouraged women to use their voices in making decisions separate from those previously made for them. Wollstonecraft "denied that women are, by nature, more pleasure seeking and pleasure giving than men. She reasoned that if they were confined to the same cages that trap women, men would develop the same flawed characters. What Wollstonecraft most wanted for women was personhood".<a href="#cite_note-Tong,_Rosemarie_1989-131">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> was also an early proponent of feminism. In his article <a href="/wiki/The_Subjection_of_Women" title="The Subjection of Women">The Subjection of Women</a> (1861, published 1869), Mill attempted to prove that the legal subjugation of women is wrong and that it should give way to perfect equality.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> He believed that both sexes should have equal rights under the law and that "until conditions of equality exist, no one can possibly assess the natural differences between women and men, distorted as they have been. What is natural to the two sexes can only be found out by allowing both to develop and use their faculties freely".<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Mill frequently spoke of this imbalance and wondered if women were able to feel the same "genuine unselfishness" that men did in providing for their families. This unselfishness Mill advocated is the one "that motivates people to take into account the good of society as well as the good of the individual person or small family unit".<a href="#cite_note-Tong,_Rosemarie_1989-131">[131]</a> Like Mary Wollstonecraft, Mill compared sexual inequality to slavery, arguing that their husbands are often just as abusive as masters and that a human being controls nearly every aspect of life for another human being. In his book The Subjection of Women, Mill argues that three major parts of women's lives are hindering them: society and gender construction, education and marriage.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity feminism</a> is a form of liberal feminism discussed since the 1980s,<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-Halfmann-138">[138]</a> specifically a kind of classically liberal or libertarian feminism.<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-139">[139]</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary psychologist">evolutionary psychologist</a>, defines equity feminism as "a moral doctrine about equal treatment that makes no commitments regarding open empirical issues in psychology or biology".<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Barry Kuhle asserts that equity feminism is compatible with <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a> in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Who_Stole_Feminism%3F" title="Who Stole Feminism?">gender feminism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_liberal_theory">Social liberal theory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social liberalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Charles_Simonde_de_Sismondi_(1773-1842).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Jean_Charles_Simonde_de_Sismondi_%281773-1842%29.png/170px-Jean_Charles_Simonde_de_Sismondi_%281773-1842%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Jean_Charles_Simonde_de_Sismondi_%281773-1842%29.png/255px-Jean_Charles_Simonde_de_Sismondi_%281773-1842%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Jean_Charles_Simonde_de_Sismondi_%281773-1842%29.png/340px-Jean_Charles_Simonde_de_Sismondi_%281773-1842%29.png 2x" data-file-width="436" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sismondi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sismondi">Sismondi</a>, who wrote the first critique of the free market from a liberal perspective in 1819</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Charles_L%C3%A9onard_Simonde_de_Sismondi" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Charles Léonard Simonde de Sismondi">Jean Charles Léonard Simonde de Sismondi</a>'s New Principles of Political Economy (French: Nouveaux principes d'économie politique, ou de la richesse dans ses rapports avec la population) (1819) represents the first comprehensive liberal critique of early capitalism and laissez-faire economics, and his writings, which were studied by <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> among many others, had a profound influence on both liberal and socialist responses to the failures and contradictions of industrial society.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gareth-144">[144]</a> By the end of the 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism#Evolution_of_core_beliefs" title="Classical liberalism">principles of classical liberalism</a> were being increasingly challenged by downturns in <a href="/wiki/Economic_growth" title="Economic growth">economic growth</a>, a growing perception of the <a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">evils of poverty</a>, unemployment and relative deprivation present within modern industrial cities, as well as the agitation of <a href="/wiki/Organised_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Organised labour">organised labour</a>. The ideal of the <a href="/wiki/Self-made_man" title="Self-made man">self-made individual</a> who could make his or her place in the world through hard work and talent seemed increasingly implausible. A major political reaction against the changes introduced by <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> and laissez-faire capitalism came from conservatives concerned about social balance, although <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> later became a more important force for change and reform. Some <a href="/wiki/Victorian_literature" title="Victorian literature">Victorian writers</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a>, became early influential critics of social injustice.<a href="#cite_note-Richardson_2001-123">[123]</a>: 36–37  New liberals began to adapt the old language of liberalism to confront these difficult circumstances, which they believed could only be resolved through a broader and more interventionist conception of the state. An equal right to liberty could not be established merely by ensuring that individuals did not physically interfere with each other or by having impartially formulated and applied laws. More positive and proactive measures were required to ensure that every individual would have an <a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">equal opportunity</a> for success.<a href="#cite_note-eatwell-145">[145]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company,_c1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/170px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/255px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/340px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> greatly influenced 19th-century liberalism</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> contributed enormously to liberal thought by combining elements of classical liberalism with what eventually became known as the new liberalism. Mill's 1859 <a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> addressed the nature and limits of the <a href="/wiki/Power_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (philosophy)">power</a> that can be legitimately exercised by society over the <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individual</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> He gave an impassioned defence of free speech, arguing that free <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Necessary_condition" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessary condition">necessary condition</a> for intellectual and social progress. Mill defined "<a href="/wiki/Social_liberty" class="mw-redirect" title="Social liberty">social liberty</a>" as protection from "the tyranny of political rulers". He introduced many different concepts of the form tyranny can take, referred to as social tyranny and <a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">tyranny of the majority</a>. Social liberty meant limits on the ruler's power through obtaining recognition of political liberties or rights and establishing a system of "<a href="/wiki/Constitutional" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional">constitutional</a> checks".<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> His definition of liberty, influenced by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Warren" title="Josiah Warren">Josiah Warren</a>, was that the <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individual</a> ought to be free to do as he wishes unless he harms others.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> However, although Mill's initial <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">economic philosophy</a> supported <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free markets</a> and argued that <a href="/wiki/Progressive_tax" title="Progressive tax">progressive taxation</a> penalised those who worked harder,<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> he later altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his Principles of Political Economy in defence of a socialist outlook and defending some socialist causes,<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> including the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-operative wage system. Another early liberal convert to greater government intervention was <a href="/wiki/T._H._Green" title="T. H. Green">T. H. Green</a>. Seeing the effects of alcohol, he believed that the state should foster and protect the social, political and economic environments in which individuals will have the best chance of acting according to their consciences. The state should intervene only where there is a clear, proven and strong tendency of liberty to enslave the individual.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Green regarded the national state as legitimate only to the extent that it upholds a system of rights and obligations most likely to foster individual self-realisation. The New Liberalism or social liberalism movement emerged in about 1900 in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The New Liberals, including intellectuals like L. T. Hobhouse and <a href="/wiki/John_A._Hobson" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Hobson">John A. Hobson</a>, saw individual liberty as something achievable only under favourable social and economic circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-Adams_2011-5">[5]</a>: 29  In their view, the poverty, squalor and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. New Liberals believed these conditions could be ameliorated only through collective action coordinated by a strong, welfare-oriented, interventionist state.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> It supports a <a href="/wiki/Mixed_economy" title="Mixed economy">mixed economy</a> that includes <a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">public</a> and private property in <a href="/wiki/Capital_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital good">capital goods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stanislao_G._Pugliese_1999._p._99-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-Noel_W._Thompson_2006._pp._60–1-155">[155]</a> Principles that can be described as social liberal have been based upon or developed by philosophers such as John Stuart Mill, <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Eduard Bernstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rosselli" title="Carlo Rosselli">Carlo Rosselli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Norberto Bobbio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Chantal Mouffe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Other important social liberal figures include Guido Calogero, <a href="/wiki/Piero_Gobetti" title="Piero Gobetti">Piero Gobetti</a>, Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse and <a href="/wiki/R._H._Tawney" title="R. H. Tawney">R. H. Tawney</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ref72-157">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a> has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics.<a href="#cite_note-ref72-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anarcho-capitalist_theory">Anarcho-capitalist theory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho-capitalism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustave_de_Molinari.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Gustave_de_Molinari.jpg/170px-Gustave_de_Molinari.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Gustave_de_Molinari.jpg/255px-Gustave_de_Molinari.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Gustave_de_Molinari.jpg/340px-Gustave_de_Molinari.jpg 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gustave_de_Molinari" title="Gustave de Molinari">Gustave de Molinari</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_Gartenlaube_(1863)_b_269.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Die_Gartenlaube_%281863%29_b_269.jpg/170px-Die_Gartenlaube_%281863%29_b_269.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Die_Gartenlaube_%281863%29_b_269.jpg/255px-Die_Gartenlaube_%281863%29_b_269.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Die_Gartenlaube_%281863%29_b_269.jpg/340px-Die_Gartenlaube_%281863%29_b_269.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1545" data-file-height="1797" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Julius_Faucher" title="Julius Faucher">Julius Faucher</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical liberalism</a> advocates <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> under the rule of law. <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Anarcho-capitalism</a> goes one step further, with law enforcement and the courts being provided by private companies. Various theorists have espoused legal philosophies similar to anarcho-capitalism. One of the first liberals to discuss the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Privatizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Privatizing">privatizing</a> the protection of individual liberty and property was France's <a href="/wiki/Jakob_Mauvillon" title="Jakob Mauvillon">Jakob Mauvillon</a> in the 18th century. Later in the 1840s, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Faucher" title="Julius Faucher">Julius Faucher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustave_de_Molinari" title="Gustave de Molinari">Gustave de Molinari</a> advocated the same. In his essay The Production of Security, Molinari argued: "No government should have the right to prevent another government from going into competition with it, or to require consumers of security to come exclusively to it for this commodity". Molinari and this new type of anti-state liberal grounded their reasoning on liberal ideals and classical economics. Historian and libertarian <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Raico" title="Ralph Raico">Ralph Raico</a> argued that what these liberal philosophers "had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism".<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Unlike the liberalism of Locke, which saw the state as evolving from society, the anti-state liberals saw a fundamental conflict between the voluntary interactions of people, i.e. society, and the institutions of force, i.e. the state. This society versus state idea was expressed in various ways: natural society vs artificial society, liberty vs authority, society of contract vs society of authority and industrial society vs militant society, to name a few.<a href="#cite_note-Molinari-1849-159">[159]</a> The anti-state liberal tradition in Europe and the United States continued after Molinari in the early writings of <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a> and thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Paul_%C3%89mile_de_Puydt" title="Paul Émile de Puydt">Paul Émile de Puydt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Auberon_Herbert" title="Auberon Herbert">Auberon Herbert</a>. However, the first person to use the term anarcho-capitalism was <a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a>. In the mid-20th century, Rothbard synthesized elements from the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian School</a> of economics, classical liberalism and 19th-century American <a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchist" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist anarchist">individualist anarchists</a> <a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Benjamin Tucker</a> (while rejecting their <a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value" title="Labor theory of value">labour theory of value</a> and the norms they derived from it).<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Anarcho-capitalism advocates the elimination of the state in favour of <a href="/wiki/Individual_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Individual sovereignty">individual sovereignty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_markets" class="mw-redirect" title="Free markets">free markets</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-capitalist">Anarcho-capitalists</a> believe that in the absence of <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a> (law by <a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">decree</a> or <a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">legislation</a>), society would improve itself through the discipline of the free market (or what its proponents describe as a "<a href="/wiki/Voluntary_society" title="Voluntary society">voluntary society</a>").<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stringham51-162">[162]</a> In a theoretical <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-capitalist">anarcho-capitalist</a> society, <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">law enforcement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">courts</a> and all other security services would be operated by privately funded competitors rather than centrally through <a href="/wiki/Taxation" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation">taxation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">Money</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Goods_and_services" title="Goods and services">goods and services</a> would be privately and competitively provided in an <a href="/wiki/Open_market" title="Open market">open market</a>. Anarcho-capitalists say personal and economic activities under anarcho-capitalism would be regulated by victim-based dispute resolution organizations under <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a> and <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a> law rather than by statute through centrally determined punishment under what they describe as "political monopolies".<a href="#cite_note-libertarianpapers-163">[163]</a> A Rothbardian anarcho-capitalist society would operate under a mutually agreed-upon libertarian "legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow".<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Although enforcement methods vary, this pact would recognize <a href="/wiki/Self-ownership" title="Self-ownership">self-ownership</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_principle" title="Non-aggression principle">non-aggression principle</a> (NAP). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_liberalism" title="History of liberalism">History of liberalism</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Cleanup" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">cleanup</a> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. The specific problem is: Needs better presentation and content summarization. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Liberalism" title="Special:EditPage/Liberalism">improve this section</a> if you can. (May 2017) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Locke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/170px-John_Locke.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/255px-John_Locke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/John_Locke.jpg/340px-John_Locke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> was the first to develop a liberal philosophy, including the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">right to private property</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>.</figcaption></figure> Isolated strands of liberal thought had existed in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> since the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a><a href="#cite_note-Murray-165">[165]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a>. The economist <a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Rothbard</a> suggested that Chinese <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> was the first libertarian,<a href="#cite_note-Murray-165">[165]</a> likening Laozi's ideas on government to <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Friedrich Hayek</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">spontaneous order</a>.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> These ideas were first drawn together and systematized as a distinct ideology by the English philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, generally regarded as the father of modern liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-Taverne,_p._18-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Godwin_et_al.,_p._12-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FungCambridge-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-BevirSAGE-59">[59]</a> The first major signs of liberal politics emerged in modern times. These ideas began to coalesce at the time of the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Levellers" title="Levellers">Levellers</a>, a largely ignored minority political movement that primarily consisted of <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presbyterians" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterians">Presbyterians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>, called for <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Freedom of religion in the United Kingdom">freedom of religion</a>, frequent convening of parliament and equality under the law. The <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688 enshrined <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">parliamentary sovereignty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Right_of_revolution" title="Right of revolution">right of revolution</a> in Britain and was referred to by author <a href="/wiki/Steven_Pincus" title="Steven Pincus">Steven Pincus</a> as the "first modern liberal revolution".<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> The development of liberalism continued throughout the 18th century with the burgeoning Enlightenment ideals of the era. This period of profound intellectual vitality questioned old traditions and influenced several <a href="/wiki/Monarchies_in_Europe" title="Monarchies in Europe">European monarchies</a> throughout the 18th century. Political tension between England and its <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">American colonies</a> grew after 1765 and the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> over the issue of <a href="/wiki/No_taxation_without_representation" title="No taxation without representation">taxation without representation</a>, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> and, eventually, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>. After the war, the leaders debated about how to move forward. The <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, written in 1776, now appeared inadequate to provide security or even a functional government. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_in_Congress_Assembled" class="mw-redirect" title="United States in Congress Assembled">Confederation Congress</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia Convention">Constitutional Convention</a> in 1787, which resulted in the writing of a new <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a> establishing a <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federal</a> government. In the context of the times, the Constitution was a republican and liberal document.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> It remains the oldest liberal governing document in effect worldwide. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Montesquieu_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/170px-Montesquieu_1.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/255px-Montesquieu_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/340px-Montesquieu_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="1447" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, who argued for the <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of the powers of government</a></figcaption></figure> The two key events that marked the triumph of liberalism in France were the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">abolition of feudalism in France</a> on the night of 4 August 1789, which marked the collapse of feudal and old traditional rights and privileges and restrictions, as well as the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> in August, itself based on the U.S. Declaration of Independence from 1776.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, the French brought Western Europe the liquidation of the <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal system</a>, the liberalization of <a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property laws</a>, the end of <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">seigneurial dues</a>, the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a>, the legalization of <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a>, the disintegration of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_Europe" title="Jewish ghettos in Europe">Jewish ghettos</a>, the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Inquisition</a>, the end of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, the elimination of church courts and religious authority, the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">metric system</a> and equality under the law for all men.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> His most lasting achievement, the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic code">Civil Code</a>, served as "an object of emulation all over the globe"<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> but also perpetuated further discrimination against women under the banner of the "natural order".<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> The development into maturity of classical liberalism took place before and after the French Revolution in Britain.<a href="#cite_note-Vincent,_pp._29–30-102">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a>, published in 1776, was to provide most of the ideas of economics, at least until the publication of <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>'s Principles in 1848.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 63, 68  Smith addressed the motivation for economic activity, the causes of prices and wealth distribution, and the policies the state should follow to maximise wealth.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-113">[113]</a>: 64  The <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical liberal movement</a> began in the 1790s in England and concentrated on parliamentary and electoral reform, emphasizing natural rights and <a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">popular sovereignty</a>. Radicals like <a href="/wiki/Richard_Price" title="Richard Price">Richard Price</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> saw parliamentary reform as a first step toward dealing with their many grievances, including the treatment of <a href="/wiki/English_Dissenters" title="English Dissenters">Protestant Dissenters</a>, the slave trade, high prices and high taxes.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] In <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America</a>, liberal unrest dates back to the 18th century, when liberal agitation in Latin America led to <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">independence</a> from the imperial power of Spain and Portugal. The new regimes were generally liberal in their political outlook and employed the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>, which emphasized the truth of modern science, to buttress their positions.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> In the United States, a <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">vicious war</a> ensured the integrity of the nation and the abolition of slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/Don_H._Doyle" title="Don H. Doyle">Don H. Doyle</a> has argued that the Union victory in the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> (1861–1865) greatly boosted the course of liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a> liberal <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophers</a> were the most influential in the global tradition of liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> During the 19th and early 20th century, in the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, liberalism influenced periods of reform, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Nahda" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Nahda">Al-Nahda</a>; the rise of secularism, constitutionalism and nationalism; and different intellectuals and religious groups and movements, like the <a href="/wiki/Young_Ottomans" title="Young Ottomans">Young Ottomans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Modernism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Modernism">Islamic Modernism</a>. Prominent of the era were <a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Namık Kemal</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0brahim_%C5%9Einasi" title="İbrahim Şinasi">İbrahim Şinasi</a>. However, the reformist ideas and trends did not reach the common population successfully, as the books, periodicals, and newspapers were accessible primarily to intellectuals and segments of the emerging middle class. Many <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> saw them as foreign influences on the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>. That perception complicated reformist efforts made by Middle Eastern states.<a href="#cite_note-Abdelmoula-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> These changes, along with other factors, helped to create a sense of crisis within Islam, which continues to this day. This led to <a href="/wiki/Islamic_revivalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic revivalism">Islamic revivalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-LindgrenRoss-180">[180]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/220px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/330px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/440px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3133" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption>The iconic painting <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Leading_the_People" title="Liberty Leading the People">Liberty Leading the People</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>, a tableau of the <a href="/wiki/July_Revolution" title="July Revolution">July Revolution</a> in 1830</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suffrage" title="Suffrage">suffrage</a> movements spread, along with representative and democratic ideals. France established an <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">enduring republic</a> in the 1870s. However, nationalism also spread rapidly after 1815. A mixture of liberal and nationalist sentiments in <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> and Germany brought about the unification of the two countries in the late 19th century. A liberal regime came to power in Italy and ended the secular power of the Popes. However, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a> launched a counter-crusade against liberalism. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a> issued the <a href="/wiki/Syllabus_of_Errors" title="Syllabus of Errors">Syllabus of Errors</a> in 1864, condemning liberalism in all its forms. In many countries, liberal forces responded by <a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">expelling the Jesuit order</a>. By the end of the nineteenth century, the principles of classical liberalism were being increasingly challenged, and the ideal of the self-made individual seemed increasingly implausible. Victorian writers like <a href="/wiki/Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a> were early influential critics of social injustice.<a href="#cite_note-Richardson_2001-123">[123]</a>: 36–37  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg.jpg/170px-Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg.jpg/255px-Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg.jpg/340px-Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1909" /></a><figcaption>As a <a href="/wiki/Liberal_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal nationalist">liberal nationalist</a>,<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/K._J._St%C3%A5hlberg" class="mw-redirect" title="K. J. Ståhlberg">K. J. Ståhlberg</a> (1865–1952), the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Finland" title="President of Finland">President of Finland</a>, anchored the state in <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>, guarded the fragile germ of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, and embarked on internal reforms.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a></figcaption></figure> Liberalism gained momentum at the beginning of the 20th century. The bastion of <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocracy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II" title="Nicholas II">Russian Tsar</a>, was overthrown in the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">first phase</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>. The Allied victory in the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> and the collapse of four empires seemed to mark the triumph of liberalism across the European continent, not just among the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">victorious allies</a> but also in Germany and the newly created states of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>. Militarism, as typified by Germany, was defeated and discredited. As Blinkhorn argues, the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of "cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration, national <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a>, free market economics, representative and responsible government, free trade, unionism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>". In the Middle East, liberalism led to constitutional periods, like the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)">Second Constitutional Era</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian constitutional period</a>, but it declined in the late 1930s due to the growth and opposition of <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arab</a> <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">nationalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moaddel1-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-lapidus-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-LorentzIran-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-LindgrenRoss-180">[180]</a> However, many intellectuals advocated liberal values and ideas. Prominent liberals were <a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussein" title="Taha Hussein">Taha Hussein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Lutfi_el-Sayed" title="Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed">Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tawfiq_al-Hakim" title="Tawfiq al-Hakim">Tawfiq al-Hakim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abd_El-Razzak_El-Sanhuri" title="Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri">Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mandur" title="Muhammad Mandur">Muhammad Mandur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR_1944_Color_Portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait.jpg/170px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait.jpg/255px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/FDR_1944_Color_Portrait.jpg/340px-FDR_1944_Color_Portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="3969" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></figcaption></figure> In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">modern liberalism</a> traces its history to the popular presidency of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, who initiated the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> in response to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a> and won an <a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of the United States">unprecedented four elections</a>. The <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal coalition</a> established by Roosevelt left a strong legacy and influenced many future American presidents, including <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Meanwhile, the definitive liberal response to the Great Depression was given by the British economist <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>, who had begun a theoretical work examining the relationship between unemployment, money and prices back in the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> The worldwide Great Depression, starting in 1929, hastened the discrediting of liberal economics and strengthened calls for state control over economic affairs. Economic woes prompted widespread unrest in the European political world, leading to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> as an ideology and a movement against liberalism and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> The rise of fascism in the 1930s eventually culminated in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the deadliest conflict in human history. The <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> prevailed in the war by 1945, and their victory set the stage for the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Communist_state" title="Communist state">Communist</a> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> and the liberal <a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a>. <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">In Iran</a>, liberalism enjoyed wide popularity. In April 1951, the <a href="/wiki/National_Front_(Iran)" title="National Front (Iran)">National Front</a> became the governing coalition when democratically elected <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh" title="Mohammad Mosaddegh">Mohammad Mosaddegh</a>, a liberal nationalist, took office as the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iran" title="Prime Minister of Iran">Prime Minister</a>. However, his way of governing conflicted with Western interests, and he was removed from power in a <a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">coup on 19 August 1953</a>. The coup ended the dominance of liberalism in the country's politics.<a href="#cite_note-jrisen-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-CN-IC-01-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-FP_2013-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> Among the various regional and national movements, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> in the United States during the 1960s strongly highlighted the liberal efforts for <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">equal rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Society" title="Great Society">Great Society</a> project launched by <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> oversaw the creation of <a href="/wiki/Medicare_(United_States)" title="Medicare (United States)">Medicare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicaid" title="Medicaid">Medicaid</a>, the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Head_Start_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="Head Start Program">Head Start</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Job_Corps" title="Job Corps">Job Corps</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/War_on_Poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Poverty">War on Poverty</a> and the passage of the landmark <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, an altogether rapid series of events that some historians have dubbed the "Liberal Hour".<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nizhny_Novgorod._Anti-Corruption_Rally_(26_March_2017).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Nizhny_Novgorod._Anti-Corruption_Rally_%2826_March_2017%29.jpg/220px-Nizhny_Novgorod._Anti-Corruption_Rally_%2826_March_2017%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Nizhny_Novgorod._Anti-Corruption_Rally_%2826_March_2017%29.jpg/330px-Nizhny_Novgorod._Anti-Corruption_Rally_%2826_March_2017%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Nizhny_Novgorod._Anti-Corruption_Rally_%2826_March_2017%29.jpg/440px-Nizhny_Novgorod._Anti-Corruption_Rally_%2826_March_2017%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4204" data-file-height="2802" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_Russian_protests" title="2017–2018 Russian protests">2017–2018 Russian protests</a> were organized by Russia's liberal opposition.</figcaption></figure> The Cold War featured extensive ideological competition and several <a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy wars</a>, but the widely feared <a href="/wiki/World_War_III" title="World War III">World War III</a> between the Soviet Union and the United States never occurred. While communist states and liberal democracies competed against one another, an <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">economic crisis</a> in the 1970s inspired a move away from <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a>, especially under <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> in the United Kingdom and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> in the United States. This trend, known as <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a>, constituted a <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shift</a> away from the <a href="/wiki/Post-war_Keynesian_consensus" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-war Keynesian consensus">post-war Keynesian consensus</a>, which lasted from 1945 to 1980.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Meanwhile, nearing the end of the 20th century, communist states in Eastern Europe <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">collapsed precipitously</a>, leaving liberal democracies as the only major forms of government in the West. At the beginning of World War II, the number of democracies worldwide was about the same as it had been forty years before.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> After 1945, liberal democracies spread very quickly but then retreated. In The Spirit of Democracy, Larry Diamond argues that by 1974 "dictatorship, not democracy, was the way of the world" and that "barely a quarter of independent states chose their governments through competitive, free, and fair elections". Diamond says that democracy bounced back, and by 1995 the world was "predominantly democratic".<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> However, liberalism still faces challenges, especially with the phenomenal growth of China as a model combination of authoritarian government and economic liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> Liberalism is frequently cited as the dominant <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adams_2011-5">[5]</a>: 11  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_and_support">Criticism and support</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fusilamiento_de_Torrijos_(Gisbert).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fusilamiento_de_Torrijos_%28Gisbert%29.jpg/220px-Fusilamiento_de_Torrijos_%28Gisbert%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fusilamiento_de_Torrijos_%28Gisbert%29.jpg/330px-Fusilamiento_de_Torrijos_%28Gisbert%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Fusilamiento_de_Torrijos_%28Gisbert%29.jpg/440px-Fusilamiento_de_Torrijos_%28Gisbert%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3051" data-file-height="1988" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Torrijos_and_his_Companions_on_the_Beach_at_M%C3%A1laga" title="Execution of Torrijos and his Companions on the Beach at Málaga">Execution of José María de Torrijos y Uriarte and his men</a> in 1831 as Spanish King <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand VII of Spain">Ferdinand VII</a> took <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1810%E2%80%9373)#The_Ominous_Decade_(1823–1833)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1810–73)">repressive measures</a> against the liberal forces in his country</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raif_Badawi_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Raif_Badawi_cropped.jpg/170px-Raif_Badawi_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Raif_Badawi_cropped.jpg/255px-Raif_Badawi_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Raif_Badawi_cropped.jpg/340px-Raif_Badawi_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1506" data-file-height="1614" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Raif Badawi</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabian</a> writer and the creator of the website Free Saudi Liberals, who was sentenced to ten years in prison and 1,000 lashes for "insulting Islam" in 2014</figcaption></figure> Liberalism has drawn criticism and support from various ideological groups throughout its history. Despite these complex relationships, some scholars have argued that liberalism actually "rejects ideological thinking" altogether, largely because such thinking could lead to unrealistic expectations for human society.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conservatism">Conservatism</h3></div> Conservatives have attacked what they perceive as the reckless liberal pursuit of progress and material gains, arguing that such preoccupations undermine traditional social values rooted in community and continuity.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> However, a few variations of conservatism, like <a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">liberal conservatism</a>, expound some of the same ideas and principles championed by classical liberalism, including "small government and thriving capitalism".<a href="#cite_note-Grigsby,_p._108-206">[206]</a> The first major proponent of modern conservative thought, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a>, offered a blistering critique of the French Revolution by assailing the liberal pretensions to the power of rationality and the natural equality of all humans.<a href="#cite_note-Grigsby,_p._108-206">[206]</a> Burke was, however, highly influential on other classical liberal thought, and has been praised by both conservatives and liberals alike.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> In the book <a href="/wiki/Why_Liberalism_Failed" title="Why Liberalism Failed">Why Liberalism Failed</a> (2018), <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Deneen_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrick Deneen (author)">Patrick Deneen</a> argued that liberalism has led to <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a>, cultural decline, atomization, <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a>, the erosion of freedoms, and the growth of powerful, centralized bureaucracies.<a href="#cite_note-Linker-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-209">[209]</a> The book also argues that liberalism has replaced old values of community, religion and tradition with self-interest.<a href="#cite_note-:02-209">[209]</a> Russian President <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> believes that "liberalism has become obsolete" and claims that the vast majority of people in the world oppose multiculturalism, immigration, and <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil and political rights</a> for <a href="/wiki/LGBTQ" title="LGBTQ">LGBTQ</a> people.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catholicism">Catholicism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Integralism" title="Integralism">Integralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_democracy" title="Religious democracy">Religious democracy</a></div> One of the most outspoken early critics of liberalism was the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, which resulted in lengthy power struggles between national governments and the Church.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> A movement associated with modern democracy, <a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a>, hopes to spread <a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social ideas</a> and has gained a large following in some European nations.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> The early roots of Christian democracy developed as a reaction against the <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">urbanisation</a> associated with laissez-faire liberalism in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anarchism">Anarchism</h3></div> Anarchists criticize the liberal <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a>, arguing that it creates a state that is "oppressive, violent, corrupt, and inimical to liberty."<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marxism">Marxism</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> rejected the foundational aspects of liberal theory, hoping to destroy both the state and the liberal distinction between society and the individual while fusing the two into a collective whole designed to overthrow the developing capitalist order of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> stated that—in contrast with <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>—liberal science defends <a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">wage slavery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> However, some proponents of liberalism, such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Evans" title="George Henry Evans">George Henry Evans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Gesell" title="Silvio Gesell">Silvio Gesell</a>, were critics of wage slavery.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> believed that liberalization would destroy the political stability of the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People’s Republic of China</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>, making it difficult for development to take place, and is inherently capitalistic. He termed it "<a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_liberalization" title="Bourgeois liberalization">bourgeois liberalization</a>".<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> Thus, some socialists accuse the economic doctrines of liberalism, such as <a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">individual economic freedom</a>, of giving rise to what they view as a system of exploitation that goes against the democratic principles of liberalism, while some liberals oppose the wage slavery that the economic doctrines of capitalism allow.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminism">Feminism</h3></div> Some <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminists</a> argue that liberalism's emphasis on distinguishing between the private and public spheres in society "allow[s] the flourishing of bigotry and intolerance in the private sphere and to require respect for equality only in the public sphere", making "liberalism vulnerable to the right-wing populist attack. Political liberalism has rejected the feminist call to recognize that the <a href="/wiki/Personal_is_political" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal is political">personal is political</a> and has relied on political institutions and processes as barriers against illiberalism."<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism within Islam</a> is supported by some <a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Islamic schools and branches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kurzman_1998-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-Essays_by_Muslims-224">[224]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Al-Baqara_256" title="Al-Baqara 256">Al-Baqara 256</a> verse in <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> supports liberalism by stating "there is no compulsion in religion".<a href="#cite_note-qref|2|256-225">[225]</a> <a href="/wiki/Supremacism#Islamic" title="Supremacism">Islamic supremacism</a>, which includes criminal punishment of <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">apostasy in Islam</a> up to <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a>, opposes liberalism.<a href="#cite_note-g263-226">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_democracy">Social democracy</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a> is an ideology that advocates for the reform of capitalism in a progressive manner. It emerged in the 20th century and was influenced by socialism. Social democracy aims to address what it perceives as the inherent flaws of capitalism through government reform, with a focus on reducing inequality.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Importantly, social democracy does not oppose the state's existence. Several commentators have noted strong similarities between social liberalism and social democracy, with one political scientist[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] calling <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">American liberalism</a> "bootleg social democracy" due to the absence of a significant social democratic tradition in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fascism">Fascism</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Fascism_and_ideology#Liberalism" title="Fascism and ideology">Fascists accuse liberalism</a> of materialism and a lack of spiritual values.<a href="#cite_note-massaschussetts1-229">[229]</a> In particular, fascism opposes liberalism for its <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-revolution1994-230">[230]</a> Fascists believe that the liberal emphasis on individual freedom produces national divisiveness,<a href="#cite_note-massaschussetts1-229">[229]</a> but many fascists agree with liberals in their support of <a href="/wiki/Private_property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Private property rights">private property rights</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-revolution1994-230">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Prospect" title="The American Prospect">The American Prospect</a>, an American political magazine that backs social liberal policies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Black liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_liberalism" title="Constitutional liberalism">Constitutional liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Naumann_Foundation" title="Friedrich Naumann Foundation">Friedrich Naumann Foundation</a>, a global advocacy organisation that supports liberal ideas and policies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Liberal" title="The Liberal">The Liberal</a>, a former British magazine dedicated to coverage of liberal politics and liberal culture</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism by country">Liberalism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Liberals" title="Old Liberals">Old Liberals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Book_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Orange Book liberalism">Orange Book liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox of tolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_according_to_higher_law" title="Rule according to higher law">Rule according to higher law</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> Notes <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> "liberalism In general, the belief that it is the aim of politics to preserve individual rights and to maximize freedom of choice." Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, Third edition 2009, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920516-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920516-5">978-0-19-920516-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-wpt-2"><a href="#cite_ref-wpt_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn1993" class="citation book cs1">Dunn, John (1993). Western Political Theory in the Face of the Future. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43755-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43755-4"><bdi>978-0-521-43755-4</bdi></a>. <q>political rationalism, hostility to autocracy, cultural distaste for conservatism and for tradition in general, tolerance, and ... individualism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Political+Theory+in+the+Face+of+the+Future&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43755-4&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Generally_support-3"><a href="#cite_ref-Generally_support_3-0">^</a> Generally support: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHashemi2009" class="citation book cs1">Hashemi, Nader (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UkVIYjezrF0C&q=liberalism+secularism">Islam, Secularism, and Liberal Democracy: Toward a Democratic Theory for Muslim Societies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-971751-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-971751-4"><bdi>978-0-19-971751-4</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>Liberal democracy requires a form of secularism to sustain itself</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%2C+Secularism%2C+and+Liberal+Democracy%3A+Toward+a+Democratic+Theory+for+Muslim+Societies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-971751-4&rft.aulast=Hashemi&rft.aufirst=Nader&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUkVIYjezrF0C%26q%3Dliberalism%2Bsecularism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonohue2003" class="citation book cs1">Donohue, Kathleen G. (19 December 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=htuTnexZAo8C&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&pg=PA1">Freedom from Want: American Liberalism and the Idea of the Consumer</a>. New Studies in American Intellectual and Cultural History. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7426-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7426-0"><bdi>978-0-8018-7426-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 31 December 2007 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>Three of them – freedom from fear, freedom of speech, and freedom of religion – have long been fundamental to liberalism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+from+Want%3A+American+Liberalism+and+the+Idea+of+the+Consumer&rft.series=New+Studies+in+American+Intellectual+and+Cultural+History&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2003-12-19&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7426-0&rft.aulast=Donohue&rft.aufirst=Kathleen+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhtuTnexZAo8C%26q%3Dliberalism%2Bfreedom%2Bof%2Breligion%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KBzHAAAAIAAJ&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion">"The Economist, Volume 341, Issues 7995–7997"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. 1996. Retrieved 31 December 2007 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>For all three share a belief in the liberal society as defined above: a society that provides constitutional government (rule by law, not by men) and freedom of religion, thought, expression and economic interaction; a society in which ... .</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=The+Economist%2C+Volume+341%2C+Issues+7995%E2%80%937997&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKBzHAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dliberalism%2Bfreedom%2Bof%2Breligion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolin2004" class="citation book cs1">Wolin, Sheldon S. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ndAdGl8ScfcC&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&pg=PA525">Politics and Vision: Continuity and Innovation in Western Political Thought</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11977-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-11977-9"><bdi>978-0-691-11977-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 31 December 2007 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>The most frequently cited rights included freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, property, and procedural rights</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Vision%3A+Continuity+and+Innovation+in+Western+Political+Thought&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-691-11977-9&rft.aulast=Wolin&rft.aufirst=Sheldon+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DndAdGl8ScfcC%26q%3Dliberalism%2Bfreedom%2Bof%2Breligion%26pg%3DPA525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirmageWeissWelch1990" class="citation book cs1">Firmage, Edwin Brown; Weiss, Bernard G.; Welch, John Woodland (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mQJgnEITPRIC&q=liberalism+freedom+of+religion&pg=PA366">Religion and Law: Biblical-Judaic and Islamic Perspectives</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eisenbrauns" title="Eisenbrauns">Eisenbrauns</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-39-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-931464-39-3"><bdi>978-0-931464-39-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 31 December 2007 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>There is no need to expound the foundations and principles of modern liberalism, which emphasises the values of freedom of conscience and freedom of religion</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Law%3A+Biblical-Judaic+and+Islamic+Perspectives&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-931464-39-3&rft.aulast=Firmage&rft.aufirst=Edwin+Brown&rft.au=Weiss%2C+Bernard+G.&rft.au=Welch%2C+John+Woodland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmQJgnEITPRIC%26q%3Dliberalism%2Bfreedom%2Bof%2Breligion%26pg%3DPA366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLalor1883" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Joseph_Lalor" title="John Joseph Lalor">Lalor, John Joseph</a> (1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cyclopaediapoli00lalogoog">Cyclopædia of Political Science, Political Economy, and of the Political History of the United States</a>. Nabu Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cyclopaediapoli00lalogoog/page/n758">760</a>. Retrieved 31 December 2007. <q>Democracy attaches itself to a form of government: liberalism, to liberty and guarantees of liberty. The two may agree; they are not contradictory, but they are neither identical, nor necessarily connected. In the moral order, liberalism is the liberty to think, recognised and practiced. This is primordial liberalism, as the liberty to think is itself the first and noblest of liberties. Man would not be free in any degree or in any sphere of action, if he were not a thinking being endowed with consciousness. The freedom of worship, the freedom of education, and the freedom of the press are derived the most directly from the freedom to think.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cyclop%C3%A6dia+of+Political+Science%2C+Political+Economy%2C+and+of+the+Political+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=760&rft.pub=Nabu+Press&rft.date=1883&rft.aulast=Lalor&rft.aufirst=John+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcyclopaediapoli00lalogoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/liberalism">"Liberalism"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 16 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Liberalism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fliberalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional government">constitutional government</a> and <a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">privacy rights</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2006" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). The Desk Encyclopedia of World History. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 374. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7394-7809-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7394-7809-7"><bdi>978-0-7394-7809-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Desk+Encyclopedia+of+World+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=374&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7394-7809-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_4-1">b</a> Wolfe, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-Adams_2011-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_2011_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_2011_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_2011_5-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2001" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Ian (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/page/10/mode/2up?view=theater">"2: Liberalism and democracy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicalideolog0000adam/mode/2up?view=theater">Political Ideology Today</a>. Politics Today (Second ed.). Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-6019-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-6019-2"><bdi>0-7190-6019-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+Liberalism+and+democracy&rft.btitle=Political+Ideology+Today&rft.place=Manchester+and+New+York&rft.series=Politics+Today&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7190-6019-2&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticalideolog0000adam%2Fpage%2F10%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gould,_p._3-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gould,_p._3_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould,_p._3_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gould,_p._3_6-2">c</a> Gould, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLocke" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke, John</a>. Second Treatise of Government. <q>All mankind ... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Second+Treatise+of+Government&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kirchner,_p._3-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Kirchner,_p._3_8-0">^</a> Kirchner, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPincus2009" class="citation book cs1">Pincus, Steven (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1688firstmodernr00stev">1688: The First Modern Revolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15605-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15605-8"><bdi>978-0-300-15605-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1688%3A+The+First+Modern+Revolution&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-15605-8&rft.aulast=Pincus&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1688firstmodernr00stev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZafirovski2007" class="citation book cs1">Zafirovski, Milan (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GNlT9Qho0tAC&pg=PA237">Liberal Modernity and Its Adversaries: Freedom, Liberalism and Anti-Liberalism in the 21st Century</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16052-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16052-1"><bdi>978-90-04-16052-1</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberal+Modernity+and+Its+Adversaries%3A+Freedom%2C+Liberalism+and+Anti-Liberalism+in+the+21st+Century&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16052-1&rft.aulast=Zafirovski&rft.aufirst=Milan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGNlT9Qho0tAC%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEddy2017" class="citation journal cs1">Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087417000863">"The Politics of Cognition: Liberalism and the Evolutionary Origins of Victorian Education"</a>. British Journal for the History of Science. 50 (4): 677–699. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087417000863">10.1017/S0007087417000863</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-0874">0007-0874</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29019300">29019300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+Politics+of+Cognition%3A+Liberalism+and+the+Evolutionary+Origins+of+Victorian+Education&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=677-699&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=0007-0874&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29019300&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087417000863&rft.aulast=Eddy&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0007087417000863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoerner1985" class="citation book cs1">Koerner, Kirk F. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lta_DwAAQBAJ">Liberalism and Its Critics</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-27957-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-429-27957-7"><bdi>978-0-429-27957-7</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberalism+and+Its+Critics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-429-27957-7&rft.aulast=Koerner&rft.aufirst=Kirk+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLta_DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConway2014" class="citation book cs1">Conway, Martin (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ECIfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA184">"The Limits of an Anti-liberal Europe"</a>. In Gosewinkel, Dieter (ed.). Anti-liberal Europe: A Neglected Story of Europeanization. <a href="/wiki/Berghahn_Books" title="Berghahn Books">Berghahn Books</a>. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78238-426-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78238-426-7"><bdi>978-1-78238-426-7</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>Liberalism, liberal values and liberal institutions formed an integral part of that process of European consolidation. Fifteen years after the end of the Second World War, the liberal and democratic identity of Western Europe had been reinforced on almost all sides by the definition of the West as a place of freedom. Set against the oppression in the Communist East, by the slow development of a greater understanding of the moral horror of Nazism, and by the engagement of intellectuals and others with the new states (and social and political systems) emerging in the non-European world to the South.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Limits+of+an+Anti-liberal+Europe&rft.btitle=Anti-liberal+Europe%3A+A+Neglected+Story+of+Europeanization&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78238-426-7&rft.aulast=Conway&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DECIfAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Stern, Sol (Winter, 2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120730200404/http://www.city-journal.org/2010/20_1_ramparts.html#selection-857.7-857.121">"The Ramparts I Watched."</a> <a href="/wiki/City_Journal_(New_York)" class="mw-redirect" title="City Journal (New York)">City Journal.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFukuyama1989" class="citation journal cs1">Fukuyama, Francis (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184">"The End of History?"</a>. The National Interest (16): 3–18. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0884-9382">0884-9382</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184">24027184</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+National+Interest&rft.atitle=The+End+of+History%3F&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=3-18&rft.date=1989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24027184%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0884-9382&rft.aulast=Fukuyama&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24027184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Worell470-16"><a href="#cite_ref-Worell470_16-0">^</a> Worell, Judith. Encyclopedia of women and gender, Volume I. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-227246-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-227246-3">0-12-227246-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/schleslib.html">"Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180212050753/http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/schleslib.html">Archived</a> 12 February 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a> (1956) from: The Politics of Hope (Boston: Riverside Press, 1962). "Liberalism in the U.S. usage has little in common with the word as used in the politics of any other country, save possibly Britain." </li> <li id="cite_note-Gross,_p._5-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gross,_p._5_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gross,_p._5_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gross,_p._5_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gross,_p._5_18-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gross,_p._5_18-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gross,_p._5_18-5">f</a> Gross, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Kirchner, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Palmer and Colton, p. 479. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Kirchner, Emil J. (1988). Liberal Parties in Western Europe. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32394-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-32394-9">978-0-521-32394-9</a>. "Liberal parties were among the first political parties to form, and their long-serving and influential records, as participants in parliaments and governments, raise important questions ... ." </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsMoriokaStone2006" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Sean; Morioka, Noreen; Stone, Terry Lee (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86">Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design</a>. Gloucester, Mass.: Rockport Publishers. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86">86</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59253-192-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-59253-192-X"><bdi>1-59253-192-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60393965">60393965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Color+Design+Workbook%3A+A+Real+World+Guide+to+Using+Color+in+Graphic+Design&rft.place=Gloucester%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Rockport+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60393965&rft.isbn=1-59253-192-X&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft.au=Morioka%2C+Noreen&rft.au=Stone%2C+Terry+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcolordesignworkb0000ston%2Fpage%2F86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumarJoshi2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kumar, Rohit Vishal; Joshi, Radhika (October–December 2006). "Colour, Colour Everywhere: In Marketing Too". SCMS Journal of Indian Management. 3 (4): 40–46. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0973-3167">0973-3167</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=969272">969272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SCMS+Journal+of+Indian+Management&rft.atitle=Colour%2C+Colour+Everywhere%3A+In+Marketing+Too&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=40-46&rft.date=2006-10%2F2006-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D969272%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.issn=0973-3167&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Rohit+Vishal&rft.au=Joshi%2C+Radhika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Cassel-Picot, Muriel "The Liberal Democrats and the Green Cause: From Yellow to Green" in Leydier, Gilles and Martin, Alexia (2013) Environmental Issues in Political Discourse in Britain and Ireland. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fFgxBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105">p.105</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206080446/https://books.google.ca/books?id=fFgxBwAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA105">Archived</a> 6 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443852838" title="Special:BookSources/9781443852838">9781443852838</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsMoriokaStone2006" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Sean; Morioka, Noreen; Stone, Terry Lee (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86">Color Design Workbook: A Real World Guide to Using Color in Graphic Design</a>. Gloucester, Mass.: <a href="/wiki/Rockport_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockport Publishers">Rockport Publishers</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/colordesignworkb0000ston/page/86">86</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/159253192X" title="Special:BookSources/159253192X"><bdi>159253192X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60393965">60393965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Color+Design+Workbook%3A+A+Real+World+Guide+to+Using+Color+in+Graphic+Design&rft.place=Gloucester%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Rockport+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F60393965&rft.isbn=159253192X&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft.au=Morioka%2C+Noreen&rft.au=Stone%2C+Terry+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcolordesignworkb0000ston%2Fpage%2F86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nordsieck_contents-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Nordsieck_contents_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/content.html">"Content"</a>. 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Retrieved 16 May 2017 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Intellectual+Foundations+of+Chinese+Modernity%3A+Cultural+and+Political+Thought+in+the+Republican+Era&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-139-48823-5&rft.aulast=Fung&rft.aufirst=Edmund+S.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7muduLXtSGMC%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Antoninus, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-Young,_pp._25–6-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Young,_pp._25–6_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, pp. 25–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-Young,_p._24-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._24_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._24_63-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gray,_p._xii-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gray,_p._xii_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gray,_p._xii_65-1">b</a> Gray, p. xii. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Wolfe, pp. 33–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-Taverne,_p._18-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taverne,_p._18_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taverne,_p._18_68-1">b</a> Taverne, p. 18. </li> <li id="cite_note-Godwin_et_al.,_p._12-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Godwin_et_al.,_p._12_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Godwin_et_al.,_p._12_69-1">b</a> Godwin et al., p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Copleston, Frederick. 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Little, Brown Book Group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madame+de+Stael&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+Book+Group&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Fairweather&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofmannRosset2005" class="citation book cs1">Hofmann, Etienne; Rosset, François (2005). Le Groupe de Coppet. Une constellation d'intellectuels européens. Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Groupe+de+Coppet.+Une+constellation+d%27intellectuels+europ%C3%A9ens&rft.pub=Presses+polytechniques+et+universitaires+romandes&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hofmann&rft.aufirst=Etienne&rft.au=Rosset%2C+Fran%C3%A7ois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaume2000" class="citation book cs1">Jaume, Lucien (2000). Coppet, creuset de l'esprit libéral: Les idées politiques et constitutionnelles du Groupe de Madame de Staël. Presses Universitaires d'Aix-Marseille. p. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coppet%2C+creuset+de+l%27esprit+lib%C3%A9ral%3A+Les+id%C3%A9es+politiques+et+constitutionnelles+du+Groupe+de+Madame+de+Sta%C3%ABl&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+d%27Aix-Marseille&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Jaume&rft.aufirst=Lucien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelon1996" class="citation book cs1">Delon, Michel (1996). "Le Groupe de Coppet". In Francillon, Roger (ed.). Histoire de la littérature en Suisse romande t.1. Payot.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Le+Groupe+de+Coppet&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+la+litt%C3%A9rature+en+Suisse+romande+t.1&rft.pub=Payot&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Delon&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coppetinstitute.org">"The Home of French Liberalism"</a>. The Coppet Institute. Retrieved 20 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Home+of+French+Liberalism&rft.pub=The+Coppet+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcoppetinstitute.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKete,_Kathleen2012" class="citation book cs1">Kete, Kathleen (2012). Making Way for Genius: The Aspiring Self in France from the Old Regime to the New. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17482-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-17482-3"><bdi>978-0-300-17482-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Way+for+Genius%3A+The+Aspiring+Self+in+France+from+the+Old+Regime+to+the+New&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-300-17482-3&rft.au=Kete%2C+Kathleen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AncientModern-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AncientModern_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AncientModern_98-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AncientModern_98-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AncientModern_98-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120805184450/http://www.uark.edu/depts/comminfo/cambridge/ancients.html">"Constant, Benjamin, 1988, 'The Liberty of the Ancients Compared with that of the Moderns' (1819), in The Political Writings of Benjamin Constant, ed. Biancamaria Fontana, Cambridge, pp. 309–28"</a>. Uark.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uark.edu/depts/comminfo/cambridge/ancients.html">the original</a> on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 17 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Constant%2C+Benjamin%2C+1988%2C+%27The+Liberty+of+the+Ancients+Compared+with+that+of+the+Moderns%27+%281819%29%2C+in+The+Political+Writings+of+Benjamin+Constant%2C+ed.+Biancamaria+Fontana%2C+Cambridge%2C+pp.+309%E2%80%9328&rft.pub=Uark.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uark.edu%2Fdepts%2Fcomminfo%2Fcambridge%2Fancients.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertholet2021" class="citation journal cs1">Bertholet, Auguste (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slatkine.com/fr/editions-slatkine/75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html">"Constant, Sismondi et la Pologne"</a>. Annales Benjamin Constant. 46: 65–76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+Benjamin+Constant&rft.atitle=Constant%2C+Sismondi+et+la+Pologne&rft.volume=46&rft.pages=65-76&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Bertholet&rft.aufirst=Auguste&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slatkine.com%2Ffr%2Feditions-slatkine%2F75250-book-05077807-3600120175625.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofmann,_Étienne1982" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hofmann, Étienne, ed. (1982). Benjamin Constant, Madame de Staël et le Groupe de Coppet: Actes du Deuxième Congrès de Lausanne à l'occasion du 150e anniversaire de la mort de Benjamin Constant Et Du Troisième Colloque de Coppet, 15–19 juilliet 1980 (in French). Oxford, The <a href="/wiki/Voltaire_Foundation" title="Voltaire Foundation">Voltaire Foundation</a> and Lausanne, Institut Benjamin Constant. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7294-0280-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7294-0280-0"><bdi>0-7294-0280-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benjamin+Constant%2C+Madame+de+Sta%C3%ABl+et+le+Groupe+de+Coppet%3A+Actes+du+Deuxi%C3%A8me+Congr%C3%A8s+de+Lausanne+%C3%A0+l%27occasion+du+150e+anniversaire+de+la+mort+de+Benjamin+Constant+Et+Du+Troisi%C3%A8me+Colloque+de+Coppet%2C+15%E2%80%9319+juilliet+1980&rft.pub=Oxford%2C+The+Voltaire+Foundation+and+Lausanne%2C+Institut+Benjamin+Constant&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-7294-0280-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen,_Frederick2005" class="citation book cs1">Rosen, Frederick (2005). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge. p. 251.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Utilitarianism+from+Hume+to+Mill&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Rosen%2C+Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> According to Berlin, the most eloquent of all defenders of freedom and privacy [was] Benjamin Constant, who had not forgotten the Jacobin dictatorship. </li> <li id="cite_note-Vincent,_pp._29–30-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vincent,_pp._29–30_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vincent,_pp._29–30_102-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincent1992" class="citation book cs1">Vincent, Andrew (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernpoliticali0000vinc/mode/2up?view=theater">Modern Political Ideologies</a>. Oxford, UK, & Cambridge, US: Blackwell. pp. 29–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-16451-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-16451-0"><bdi>0-631-16451-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Political+Ideologies&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK%2C+%26+Cambridge%2C+US&rft.pages=29-30&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-631-16451-0&rft.aulast=Vincent&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernpoliticali0000vinc%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adams_1998-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_1998_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_1998_103-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_1998_103-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams_1998_103-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1998" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Ian (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ideologypolitics0000adam/page/52/mode/2up?view=theater">"New Liberals to Liberal Democrats"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ideologypolitics0000adam/mode/2up?view=theater">Ideology and Politics in Britain Today</a>. Politics Today. Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-5055-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-5055-3"><bdi>0-7190-5055-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=New+Liberals+to+Liberal+Democrats&rft.btitle=Ideology+and+Politics+in+Britain+Today&rft.place=Manchester+%26+New+York&rft.series=Politics+Today&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7190-5055-3&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fideologypolitics0000adam%2Fpage%2F52%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Wempe, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-Young,_p._36-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._36_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._36_105-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Wolfe, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-107"><a href="#cite_ref-auto_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, pp. 39–40. </li> <li id="cite_note-Young,_p._40-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._40_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._40_109-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._40_109-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, pp. 42–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-Young,_p._44-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._44_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._44_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young,_p._44_112-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFYoung2002">Young 2002</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mills-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_113-13">n</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMills2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Mills_(businessman)" title="John Mills (businessman)">Mills, John</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/criticalhistoryo0000mill/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater">A Critical History of Economics</a>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-97130-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-97130-2"><bdi>0-333-97130-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+History+of+Economics&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-333-97130-2&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcriticalhistoryo0000mill%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KpWg1DYxRTwC&dq=%22public+good%22&pg=PA81">The Wealth of Nations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206080447/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpWg1DYxRTwC&pg=PA81&lpg=PA81&dq=%22public+good%22&sa=X#v=onepage&q=%22public%20good%22">Archived</a> 6 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Strahan and Cadell, 1778 </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> See, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Donald Markwell</a>, John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace, Oxford University Press, 2006, chapter 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-clower92-116"><a href="#cite_ref-clower92_116-0">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFClower2004">Clower 2004</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzzClShefiYC&pg=PA92">p. 92</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Bylund, Per. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://twitter.com/perbylund/status/883692795583746049">"Say's Law (the Law of Markets)"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308022031/https://twitter.com/perbylund/status/883692795583746049">Archived</a> 8 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/say.htm">"Information on Jean-Baptiste Say"</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326021523/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/say.htm">Archived</a> 26 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMill1808" class="citation book cs1">Mill, James (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224092944/https://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1668&layout=html">"VI: Consumption"</a>. Commerce Defended. p. 81. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1668&layout=html">the original</a> on 24 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=VI%3A+Consumption&rft.btitle=Commerce+Defended&rft.pages=81&rft.date=1808&rft.aulast=Mill&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_staticxt%26staticfile%3Dshow.php%253Ftitle%3D1668%26layout%3Dhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Erik Gartzke, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.akadns.net/itc/journalism/stille/Politics%20Fall%202007/readings%20weeks%206-7/Economic%20Freedom%20and%20Peace%20--%20Garzke.pdf">Economic Freedom and Peace</a>", in Economic Freedom of the World: 2005 Annual Report (Vancouver: Fraser Institute, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181227133203/http://www.columbia.akadns.net/itc/journalism/stille/Politics%20Fall%202007/readings%20weeks%206-7/Economic%20Freedom%20and%20Peace%20--%20Garzke.pdf">Archived</a> 27 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Michael Doyle, Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism (New York: Norton, 1997), p. 237 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-96947-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-96947-9">0-393-96947-9</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoweMorgan2006" class="citation book cs1">Howe, Anthony; Morgan, Simon (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Eqp4Hae4bmUC">Rethinking nineteenth-century liberalism: Richard Cobden bicentenary essays</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>. pp. 231, 239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5572-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5572-5"><bdi>978-0-7546-5572-5</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+nineteenth-century+liberalism%3A+Richard+Cobden+bicentenary+essays&rft.pages=231%2C+239&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-5572-5&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Morgan%2C+Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEqp4Hae4bmUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richardson_2001-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richardson_2001_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richardson_2001_123-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richardson_2001_123-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2001" class="citation book cs1">Richardson, James L. (2001). Contending Liberalisms in World Politics: Ideology and Power. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/155587939X" title="Special:BookSources/155587939X"><bdi>155587939X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contending+Liberalisms+in+World+Politics%3A+Ideology+and+Power&rft.place=Boulder%2C+Colorado&rft.pub=Lynne+Rienner+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=155587939X&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> See studies of Keynes by, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Roy_Harrod" title="Roy Harrod">Roy Harrod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Skidelsky" title="Robert Skidelsky">Robert Skidelsky</a>, Donald Moggridge, and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Donald Markwell</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPressman1999" class="citation book cs1">Pressman, Steven (1999). Fifty Great Economists. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 96–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-13481-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-13481-1"><bdi>978-0-415-13481-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fifty+Great+Economists&rft.place=London&rft.pages=96-100&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-13481-1&rft.aulast=Pressman&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cassidy2011-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cassidy2011_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cassidy2011_126-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCassidy2011" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Cassidy_(journalist)" title="John Cassidy (journalist)">Cassidy, John</a> (10 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/10/10/the-demand-doctor">"The Demand Doctor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Demand+Doctor&rft.date=2011-10-10&rft.aulast=Cassidy&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2011%2F10%2F10%2Fthe-demand-doctor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skid30s-127"><a href="#cite_ref-Skid30s_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkidelsky2003" class="citation book cs1">Skidelsky, Robert (2003). John Maynard Keynes: 1883–1946: Economist, Philosopher, Statesman. Pan MacMillan Ltd. pp. 494–500, 504, 509–510. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-48867-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-330-48867-9"><bdi>978-0-330-48867-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Maynard+Keynes%3A+1883%E2%80%931946%3A+Economist%2C+Philosopher%2C+Statesman&rft.pages=494-500%2C+504%2C+509-510&rft.pub=Pan+MacMillan+Ltd&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-330-48867-9&rft.aulast=Skidelsky&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTribe1997" class="citation book cs1">Tribe, Keith (1997). Economic careers: economics and economists in Britain, 1930–1970. p. 61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+careers%3A+economics+and+economists+in+Britain%2C+1930%E2%80%931970&rft.pages=61&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Tribe&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Palmer and Colton, p. 808. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Jensen, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-Tong,_Rosemarie_1989-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tong,_Rosemarie_1989_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tong,_Rosemarie_1989_131-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tong,_Rosemarie_1989_131-2">c</a> Tong, Rosemarie. 1989. Feminist Thought: A Comprehensive Introduction. Oxon, United Kingdom: Unwin Human Ltd. Chapter 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Falco, pp. 47–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> John Stuart Mill: critical assessments, Volume 4, By <a href="/wiki/John_Cunningham_Wood" title="John Cunningham Wood">John Cunningham Wood</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Mill, J.S. (1869) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/jsm/women.htm">The Subjection of Women</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150429185554/http://www.constitution.org/jsm/women.htm">Archived</a> 29 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Chapter 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Mill, John Stuart (1869). The Subjection of Women (1869 first ed.). London: Longmans, Green, Reader & Dyer. Retrieved 10 December 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrink2007" class="citation web cs1">Brink, David (9 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill-moral-political/">"Mill's Moral and Political Philosophy"</a>. Stanford University. Retrieved 1 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mill%27s+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=2007-10-09&rft.aulast=Brink&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmill-moral-political%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack1989" class="citation book cs1">Black, Naomi (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kDYqAAAAYAAJ">Social Feminism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801422614" title="Special:BookSources/9780801422614"><bdi>9780801422614</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Feminism&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780801422614&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkDYqAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Halfmann-138"><a href="#cite_ref-Halfmann_138-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalfmann1989" class="citation book cs1">Halfmann, Jost (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q83kxhOsgxYC&pg=PA79">"3. Social Change and Political Mobilization in West Germany"</a>. In Katzenstein, Peter J. (ed.). Industry and Politics in West Germany: Toward the Third Republic. Cornell University Press. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9595-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9595-3"><bdi>978-0-8014-9595-3</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>Equity-feminism differs from equality-feminism</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.+Social+Change+and+Political+Mobilization+in+West+Germany&rft.btitle=Industry+and+Politics+in+West+Germany%3A+Toward+the+Third+Republic&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-9595-3&rft.aulast=Halfmann&rft.aufirst=Jost&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ83kxhOsgxYC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-139"><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_139-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-liberal/#EquFem">"Liberal Feminism"</a>. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 18 October 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Liberal+Feminism&rft.pub=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2007-10-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Ffeminism-liberal%2F%23EquFem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> (revised 30 September 2013) </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinker2002" class="citation book cs1">Pinker, Steven (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blankslatemodern00pink">The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature</a>. Viking. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blankslatemodern00pink/page/341">341</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-03151-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-03151-8"><bdi>0-670-03151-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blank+Slate%3A+The+Modern+Denial+of+Human+Nature&rft.pages=341&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-670-03151-8&rft.aulast=Pinker&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblankslatemodern00pink&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhle2011" class="citation journal cs1">Kuhle, Barry X. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120116120314/http://www.epjournal.net/articles/evolutionary-psychology-is-compatible-with-equity-feminism-but-not-with-gender-feminism-a-reply-to-eagly-and-wood-2011/">"Evolutionary psychology is compatible with equity feminism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_Psychology_(journal)" title="Evolutionary Psychology (journal)">Evolutionary Psychology</a>. Archived from the original on 16 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Psychology&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+psychology+is+compatible+with+equity+feminism&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kuhle&rft.aufirst=Barry+X.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epjournal.net%2Farticles%2Fevolutionary-psychology-is-compatible-with-equity-feminism-but-not-with-gender-feminism-a-reply-to-eagly-and-wood-2011%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStewart1984" class="citation journal cs1">Stewart, Ross E. (1984). 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April 1862. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=harp;cc=harp;rgn=full%20text;idno=harp0024-5;didno=harp0024-5;view=image;seq=00693;node=harp0024-5%3A1">Cornell.edu</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irefeurope.org/col_docs/doc_51_fr.pdf">IREF | Pour la liberte economique et la concurrence fiscale</a> (PDF) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327011315/http://www.irefeurope.org/col_docs/doc_51_fr.pdf">Archived</a> 27 March 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillBentham2004" class="citation book cs1">Mill, John Stuart; Bentham, Jeremy (2004). Ryan, Alan (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/utilitarianismot00mill/page/11">Utilitarianism and other essays</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/utilitarianismot00mill/page/11">11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-043272-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-043272-5"><bdi>978-0-14-043272-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Utilitarianism+and+other+essays&rft.place=London&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-043272-5&rft.aulast=Mill&rft.aufirst=John+Stuart&rft.au=Bentham%2C+Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Futilitarianismot00mill%2Fpage%2F11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Nicholson, P. P., "T. H. Green and State Action: Liquor Legislation", History of Political Thought, 6 (1985), 517–50. Reprinted in A. Vincent, ed., The Philosophy of T. H. Green (Aldershot: Gower, 1986), pp. 76–103 </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Freeden" title="Michael Freeden">Michael Freeden</a>, The New Liberalism: An Ideology of Social Reform (Oxford UP, 1978). </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> The Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, p. 599 </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanislao_G._Pugliese_1999._p._99-154"><a href="#cite_ref-Stanislao_G._Pugliese_1999._p._99_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPugliese1999" class="citation book cs1">Pugliese, Stanislao G. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/carlorossellisoc00pugl">Carlo Rosselli: socialist heretic and antifascist exile</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674000537" title="Special:BookSources/9780674000537"><bdi>9780674000537</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carlo+Rosselli%3A+socialist+heretic+and+antifascist+exile&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780674000537&rft.aulast=Pugliese&rft.aufirst=Stanislao+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcarlorossellisoc00pugl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Noel_W._Thompson_2006._pp._60–1-155"><a href="#cite_ref-Noel_W._Thompson_2006._pp._60–1_155-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2006" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Noel W. (2006). Political economy and the Labour Party: the economics of democratic socialism, 1884–2005 (2nd ed.). Oxon, England; New York, New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 60–61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+economy+and+the+Labour+Party%3A+the+economics+of+democratic+socialism%2C+1884%E2%80%932005&rft.place=Oxon%2C+England%3B+New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=60-61&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Noel+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Nadia Urbinati. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YoS6bMf4toQC">J.S. Mill's political thought: a bicentennial reassessment</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206080447/https://books.google.com/books?id=YoS6bMf4toQC&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> 6 December 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Cambridge, England, UK: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2007 p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-ref72-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ref72_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref72_157-1">b</a> Steve Bastow, James Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://research.gold.ac.uk/1882/">Third way discourse: European ideologies in the twentieth century</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181227181430/http://research.gold.ac.uk/1882/">Archived</a> 27 December 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Edinburgh, Scotland, UK: <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>, Ltd, 2003. p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Raico, Ralph (2004) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mises.org/story/1787">Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th century</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090610035217/http://www.crea.polytechnique.fr/index.htm">Archived</a> 10 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Ecole Polytechnique, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crea.polytechnique.fr/index.htm">Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090610035217/http://www.crea.polytechnique.fr/index.htm">Archived</a> 10 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Unité associée au CNRS </li> <li id="cite_note-Molinari-1849-159"><a href="#cite_ref-Molinari-1849_159-0">^</a> Molinari, Gustave de (1849) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm">The Production of Security</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927000023/http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm">Archived</a> 27 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (trans. J. Huston McCulloch). Retrieved 15 July 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> "A student and disciple of the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, Rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker." 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NO. 3 (2011) </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Rothbard, Murray. For A New Liberty. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mises.org/rothbard/newliberty11.asp">12 The Public Sector, III: Police, Law, and the Courts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111213124557/http://mises.org/rothbard/newliberty11.asp">Archived</a> 13 December 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murray_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray_165-1">b</a> Rothbard, Murray (2005). Excerpt from "Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire", The Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. IX, No. 2 (Fall 1990) at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mises.org/daily/1967">mises.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141108220713/http://mises.org/daily/1967">Archived</a> 8 November 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Rothbard, Murray (2005). 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London: London: routledge. pp. 96–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-13481-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-13481-1"><bdi>978-0-415-13481-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fifty+Great+Economists&rft.place=London&rft.pages=96-100&rft.pub=London%3A+routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-13481-1&rft.aulast=Pressman&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Heywood, pp. 218–26. </li> <li id="cite_note-jrisen-191"><a href="#cite_ref-jrisen_191-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Risen2000" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Risen" title="James Risen">James Risen</a> (16 April 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html">"Secrets of History: The C.I.A. in Iran"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 3 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Secrets+of+History%3A+The+C.I.A.+in+Iran&rft.date=2000-04-16&rft.au=James+Risen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flibrary%2Fworld%2Fmideast%2F041600iran-cia-index.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Clandestine Service History: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran (March 1954). p. iii. </li> <li id="cite_note-CN-IC-01-193"><a href="#cite_ref-CN-IC-01_193-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC&pg=PA775">Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization</a>. I.B.Tauris. 2007. pp. 775 of 1082. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-347-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-347-6"><bdi>978-1-84511-347-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ends+of+British+Imperialism%3A+The+Scramble+for+Empire%2C+Suez%2C+and+Decolonization&rft.pages=775+of+1082&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-347-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNQnpQNKeKKAC%26pg%3DPA775&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FP_2013-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FP_2013_194-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryne2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bryne, Malcolm (18 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/08/19/cia-admits-it-was-behind-irans-coup/">"CIA Admits It Was Behind Iran's Coup"</a>. Foreign Policy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=CIA+Admits+It+Was+Behind+Iran%27s+Coup&rft.date=2013-08-18&rft.aulast=Bryne&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2013%2F08%2F19%2Fcia-admits-it-was-behind-irans-coup%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> The CIA's history of the 1953 coup in Iran is made up of the following documents: a historian's note, a summary introduction, a lengthy narrative account written by Donald N. Wilber and as appendices five planning documents he attached. Published on 18 June 2000 under the title <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html">"The C.I.A. in Iran"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130125113825/http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html">Archived</a> 25 January 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by The New York Times. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Mackenzie and Weisbrot, p. 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Mackenzie and Weisbrot, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalley2004" class="citation journal cs1">Palley, Thomas I (5 May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fpif.org/from_keynesianism_to_neoliberalism_shifting_paradigms_in_economics/">"From Keynesianism to Neoliberalism: Shifting Paradigms in Economics"</a>. Foreign Policy in Focus. Retrieved 25 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy+in+Focus&rft.atitle=From+Keynesianism+to+Neoliberalism%3A+Shifting+Paradigms+in+Economics&rft.date=2004-05-05&rft.aulast=Palley&rft.aufirst=Thomas+I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffpif.org%2Ffrom_keynesianism_to_neoliberalism_shifting_paradigms_in_economics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincent2009" class="citation book cs1">Vincent, Andrew (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=igrwb3rsOOUC&pg=PA339">Modern Political Ideologies</a>. 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(27 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ft.com/video/a49cfa25-610e-438c-b11d-5dac19619e08">"Liberalism 'has outlived its purpose' — President Putin speaks exclusively to the Financial Times"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Financial_Times" title="Financial Times">Financial Times</a>. 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Wildside Press LLC. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4344-6352-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4344-6352-4"><bdi>978-1-4344-6352-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Culture+and+Cultural+Revolution&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Wildside+Press+LLC&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4344-6352-4&rft.aulast=Lenin&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCsoSQ6vD8fUC%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ssa.gov/history/paine4.html">"Social Security Online History Pages"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150315055647/http://www.ssa.gov/history/paine4.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 1 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Social+Security+Online+History+Pages&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ssa.gov%2Fhistory%2Fpaine4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguez2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Junius_P._Rodriguez" title="Junius P. Rodriguez">Rodriguez, Junius P.</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4X44KbDBl9gC&pg=PA500">Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia</a>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. p. 500. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-544-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-544-5"><bdi>978-1-85109-544-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+United+States%3A+A+Social%2C+Political%2C+and+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=500&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-544-5&rft.aulast=Rodriguez&rft.aufirst=Junius+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4X44KbDBl9gC%26pg%3DPA500&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220227203520/http://www.qstheory.cn/books/2019-07/31/c_1119485398_58.htm">"《邓小平文选第三卷》《在党的十二届六中全会上的讲话》"</a> (in Chinese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qstheory.cn/books/2019-07/31/c_1119485398_58.htm">the original</a> on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022. <q>大家可以回想一下，粉碎"四人帮"以后，全国人大在一九八○年通过一个议案，取消宪法中的关于"大鸣、大放、大辩论、大字报"这一条。为什么做这件事？因为有一股自由化思潮。搞自由化，就会破坏我们安定团结的政治局面。没有一个安定团结的政治局面，就不可能搞建设。 自由化本身就是资产阶级的，没有什么无产阶级的、社会主义的自由化，自由化本身就是对我们现行政策、现行制度的对抗，或者叫反对，或者叫修改。实际情况是，搞自由化就是要把我们引导到资本主义道路上去，所以我们用反对资产阶级自由化这个提法。管什么这里用过、那里用过，无关重要，现实政治要求我们在决议中写这个。我主张用。</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E9%82%93%E5%B0%8F%E5%B9%B3%E6%96%87%E9%80%89%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E5%8D%B7%E3%80%8B%E3%80%8A%E5%9C%A8%E5%85%9A%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%8C%E5%B1%8A%E5%85%AD%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%A8%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%8A%E7%9A%84%E8%AE%B2%E8%AF%9D%E3%80%8B&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qstheory.cn%2Fbooks%2F2019-07%2F31%2Fc_1119485398_58.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeauchamp2019" class="citation web cs1">Beauchamp, Zack (9 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/9/9/20750160/liberalism-trump-putin-socialism-reactionary">"The anti-liberal moment"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vox_(website)" title="Vox (website)">Vox</a>. Retrieved 6 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=The+anti-liberal+moment&rft.date=2019-09-09&rft.aulast=Beauchamp&rft.aufirst=Zack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fpolicy-and-politics%2F2019%2F9%2F9%2F20750160%2Fliberalism-trump-putin-socialism-reactionary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStopler2021" class="citation journal cs1">Stopler, Gila (8 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/19/2/393/6272532">"The personal is political: The feminist critique of liberalism and the challenge of right-wing populism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Constitutional_Law" title="International Journal of Constitutional Law">International Journal of Constitutional Law</a>. 19 (2): 393–402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficon%2Fmoab032">10.1093/icon/moab032</a>. Retrieved 13 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Constitutional+Law&rft.atitle=The+personal+is+political%3A+The+feminist+critique+of+liberalism+and+the+challenge+of+right-wing+populism&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=393-402&rft.date=2021-05-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficon%2Fmoab032&rft.aulast=Stopler&rft.aufirst=Gila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Ficon%2Farticle%2F19%2F2%2F393%2F6272532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kurzman_1998-223"><a href="#cite_ref-Kurzman_1998_223-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurzman1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kurzman" title="Charles Kurzman">Kurzman, Charles</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4n8HSe9SfXMC&pg=PA1">"Liberal Islam and Its Islamic Context"</a>. In Kurzman, Charles (ed.). Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 1–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195116229" title="Special:BookSources/9780195116229"><bdi>9780195116229</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37368975">37368975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Liberal+Islam+and+Its+Islamic+Context&rft.btitle=Liberal+Islam%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=1-26&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F37368975&rft.isbn=9780195116229&rft.aulast=Kurzman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4n8HSe9SfXMC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Essays_by_Muslims-224"><a href="#cite_ref-Essays_by_Muslims_224-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSafi2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Omid_Safi" title="Omid Safi">Safi, Omid</a>, ed. 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M., Sanjeev (10 October 2018). "Islam and the Question of Confessional Religious Identity: The Islamic State, Apostasy, and the Making of a Theology of Violence". Contemporary Review of the Middle East. 5 (4). SAGE Publications: 327–348. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2347798918806415">10.1177/2347798918806415</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2347-7989">2347-7989</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contemporary+Review+of+the+Middle+East&rft.atitle=Islam+and+the+Question+of+Confessional+Religious+Identity%3A+The+Islamic+State%2C+Apostasy%2C+and+the+Making+of+a+Theology+of+Violence&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=327-348&rft.date=2018-10-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F2347798918806415&rft.issn=2347-7989&rft.aulast=Kumar+H.+M.&rft.aufirst=Sanjeev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Lightfoot, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Susser, p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-massaschussetts1-229">^ <a href="#cite_ref-massaschussetts1_229-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-massaschussetts1_229-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerryChaseJacobJacob2009" class="citation book cs1">Perry, Marvin; Chase, Myrna; Jacob, Margaret; Jacob, James R. 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Boston, Massachusetts: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt_Publishing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company">Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company</a>. p. 760.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+Ideas%2C+Politics%2C+and+Society+%E2%80%93+From+1600&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=760&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Marvin&rft.au=Chase%2C+Myrna&rft.au=Jacob%2C+Margaret&rft.au=Jacob%2C+James+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-revolution1994-230">^ <a href="#cite_ref-revolution1994_230-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-revolution1994_230-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternhellSznajderAshéri1994" class="citation book cs1">Sternhell, Zeev; Sznajder, Mario; Ashéri, Maia (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221206080448/https://books.google.com/books?id=hnv0F88nLawC&printsec=frontcover">The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution</a>. Princeton, New Jersey: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691044864" title="Special:BookSources/0691044864"><bdi>0691044864</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hnv0F88nLawC">the original</a> on 6 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Fascist+Ideology%3A+From+Cultural+Rebellion+to+Political+Revolution&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0691044864&rft.aulast=Sternhell&rft.aufirst=Zeev&rft.au=Sznajder%2C+Mario&rft.au=Ash%C3%A9ri%2C+Maia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhnv0F88nLawC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography_and_further_reading">Bibliography and further reading</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Alterman" title="Eric Alterman">Alterman, Eric</a>. Why We're Liberals. New York: Viking Adult, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-01860-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-01860-0">0-670-01860-0</a>.</li> <li>Ameringer, Charles. Political parties of the Americas, 1980s to 1990s. Westport: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-27418-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-27418-5">0-313-27418-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Amin, Samir</a>. The liberal virus: permanent war and the americanization of the world. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2004.</li> <li>Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius. The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-954059-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-954059-4">0-19-954059-4</a>.</li> <li>Arnold, N. Scott. Imposing values: an essay on liberalism and regulation. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-495-50112-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-495-50112-3">0-495-50112-3</a>.</li> <li>Auerbach, Alan and Kotlikoff, Laurence. Macroeconomics Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-01170-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-01170-0">0-262-01170-0</a>.</li> <li>Barzilai, Gad. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03079-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-03079-8">978-0-472-03079-8</a>.</li> <li>Bell, Duncan. "What is Liberalism?" Political Theory, 42/6 (2014).</li> <li>Brack, Duncan and Randall, Ed (eds.). Dictionary of Liberal Thought. London: Politico's Publishing, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84275-167-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84275-167-1">978-1-84275-167-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Brandis" title="George Brandis">George Brandis</a>, Tom Harley & <a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Donald Markwell</a> (editors). Liberals Face the Future: Essays on Australian Liberalism, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1984.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Bullock" title="Alan Bullock">Alan Bullock</a> & <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Shock" title="Maurice Shock">Maurice Shock</a> (editors). The Liberal Tradition: From Fox to Keynes, Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>, 1967.</li> <li>Chodos, Robert et al. The unmaking of Canada: the hidden theme in Canadian history since 1945. Halifax: James Lorimer & Company, 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55028-337-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-55028-337-5">1-55028-337-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClower2004" class="citation book cs1">Clower, Robert W. (22 April 2004). "5: Trashing J.B. Say: The Story of a Mare's Nest". In <a href="/wiki/Vela_Velupillai" title="Vela Velupillai">Velupillai, K. Vela</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzzClShefiYC">Macroeconomic Theory and Economic Policy: Essays in Honour of Jean-Paul Fitoussi</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-35650-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-35650-0"><bdi>978-0-203-35650-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5%3A+Trashing+J.B.+Say%3A+The+Story+of+a+Mare%27s+Nest&rft.btitle=Macroeconomic+Theory+and+Economic+Policy%3A+Essays+in+Honour+of+Jean-Paul+Fitoussi&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004-04-22&rft.isbn=978-0-203-35650-0&rft.aulast=Clower&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtzzClShefiYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Coker, Christopher. Twilight of the West. Boulder: Westview Press, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8133-3368-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8133-3368-7">0-8133-3368-7</a>.</li> <li>Taverne, Dick. The march of unreason: science, democracy, and the new fundamentalism. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280485-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280485-5">0-19-280485-5</a>.</li> <li>Diamond, Larry. The Spirit of Democracy. New York: Macmillan, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-7869-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-7869-X">0-8050-7869-X</a>.</li> <li>Dobson, John. Bulls, Bears, Boom, and Bust. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85109-553-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-85109-553-5">1-85109-553-5</a>.</li> <li>Dorrien, Gary. The making of American liberal theology. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-22354-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-22354-0">0-664-22354-0</a>.</li> <li>Farr, Thomas. World of Faith and Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press US, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-517995-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-517995-1">0-19-517995-1</a>.</li> <li>Fawcett, Edmund. Liberalism: The Life of an Idea. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15689-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15689-7">978-0-691-15689-7</a>.</li> <li>Feuer, Lewis. Spinoza and the Rise of Liberalism. New Brunswick: Transaction 1984.</li> <li>Flamm, Michael and Steigerwald, David. Debating the 1960s: liberal, conservative, and radical perspectives. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-2212-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-2212-1">0-7425-2212-1</a>.</li> <li>Freeden, Michael, Javier Fernández-Sebastián, et al. In Search of European Liberalisms: Concepts, Languages, Ideologies (2019)</li> <li>Gallagher, Michael et al. Representative government in modern Europe. New York: McGraw Hill, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-232267-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-232267-5">0-07-232267-5</a>.</li> <li>Gifford, Rob. China Road: A Journey into the Future of a Rising Power. Random House, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-7524-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8129-7524-3">0-8129-7524-3</a>.</li> <li>Godwin, Kenneth et al. School choice tradeoffs: liberty, equity, and diversity. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-72842-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-72842-5">0-292-72842-5</a>.</li> <li>Gould, Andrew. Origins of liberal dominance. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-11015-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-11015-2">0-472-11015-2</a>.</li> <li>Gray, John. Liberalism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-2801-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8166-2801-7">0-8166-2801-7</a>.</li> <li>Grigsby, Ellen. Analyzing Politics: An Introduction to Political Science. Florence: Cengage Learning, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-495-50112-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-495-50112-3">0-495-50112-3</a>.</li> <li>Gross, Jonathan. Byron: the erotic liberal. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-1162-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-1162-6">0-7425-1162-6</a>.</li> <li>Hafner, Danica and Ramet, Sabrina. Democratic transition in Slovenia: value transformation, education, and media. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58544-525-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-58544-525-8">1-58544-525-8</a>.</li> <li>Handelsman, Michael. Culture and Customs of Ecuador. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-30244-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-30244-8">0-313-30244-8</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Hartz" title="Louis Hartz">Hartz, Louis</a>. The liberal tradition in America. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1955. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-651269-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-651269-6">0-15-651269-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeywood2003" class="citation book cs1">Heywood, Andrew (2003). Political Ideologies: An Introduction. New York: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-96177-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-96177-3"><bdi>978-0-333-96177-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Ideologies%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-333-96177-3&rft.aulast=Heywood&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hodge, Carl. Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800–1944. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-33406-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-33406-4">0-313-33406-4</a>.</li> <li>Jensen, Pamela Grande. Finding a new feminism: rethinking the woman question for liberal democracy. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-8189-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8476-8189-0">0-8476-8189-0</a>.</li> <li>Johnson, Paul. The Renaissance: A Short History. New York: Modern Library, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8129-6619-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8129-6619-8">0-8129-6619-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKanazawa2010" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Satoshi_Kanazawa" title="Satoshi Kanazawa">Kanazawa, Satoshi</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://personal.lse.ac.uk/kanazawa/pdfs/SPQ2010.pdf">"Why Liberals and Atheists Are More Intelligent"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Social_Psychology_Quarterly" title="Social Psychology Quarterly">Social Psychology Quarterly</a>. 73 (1): 33–57. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.395.4490">10.1.1.395.4490</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0190272510361602">10.1177/0190272510361602</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25677384">25677384</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2642312">2642312</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Psychology+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Why+Liberals+and+Atheists+Are+More+Intelligent&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-57&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.395.4490%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2642312%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25677384%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0190272510361602&rft.aulast=Kanazawa&rft.aufirst=Satoshi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersonal.lse.ac.uk%2Fkanazawa%2Fpdfs%2FSPQ2010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Karatnycky, Adrian. Freedom in the World. Piscataway: Transaction Publishers, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7658-0760-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7658-0760-2">0-7658-0760-2</a>.</li> <li>Karatnycky, Adrian et al. Nations in transit, 2001. Piscataway: Transaction Publishers, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7658-0897-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7658-0897-8">0-7658-0897-8</a>.</li> <li>Kelly, Paul. Liberalism. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7456-3291-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7456-3291-2">0-7456-3291-2</a>.</li> <li>Kirchner, Emil. Liberal parties in Western Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-32394-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-32394-0">0-521-32394-0</a>.</li> <li>Knoop, Todd. Recessions and Depressions Westport: Greenwood Press, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-38163-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-38163-1">0-313-38163-1</a>.</li> <li>Koerner, Kirk. Liberalism and its critics. Oxford: Taylor & Francis, 1985. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7099-1551-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7099-1551-9">0-7099-1551-9</a>.</li> <li>Lightfoot, Simon. Europeanizing social democracy?: The rise of the Party of European Socialists. New York: Routledge, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-34803-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-34803-X">0-415-34803-X</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domenico_Losurdo" title="Domenico Losurdo">Losurdo, Domenico</a>. Liberalism: a counter-history. London: Verso, 2011.</li> <li>Mackenzie, G. Calvin and Weisbrot, Robert. The liberal hour: Washington and the politics of change in the 1960s. New York: Penguin Group, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59420-170-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-59420-170-6">1-59420-170-6</a>.</li> <li>Manent, Pierre and Seigel, Jerrold. An Intellectual History of Liberalism. Princeton: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-02911-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-02911-3">0-691-02911-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Markwell" title="Donald Markwell">Donald Markwell</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2006.</li> <li>Mazower, Mark. Dark Continent. New York: Vintage Books, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-75704-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-75704-X">0-679-75704-X</a>.</li> <li>Monsma, Stephen and Soper, J. Christopher. The Challenge of Pluralism: Church and State in Five Democracies. Lanham: <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-5417-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-5417-1">0-7425-5417-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Roswell_Palmer" title="Robert Roswell Palmer">Palmer, R.R.</a> and Joel Colton. A History of the Modern World. New York: <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a>, Inc., 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-040826-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-040826-2">0-07-040826-2</a>.</li> <li>Perry, Marvin et al. Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society. Florence, KY: <a href="/wiki/Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage Learning">Cengage Learning</a>, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-547-14742-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-547-14742-2">0-547-14742-2</a>.</li> <li>Pierson, Paul. The New Politics of the Welfare State. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-829756-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-829756-4">0-19-829756-4</a>.</li> <li>Puddington, Arch. Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties. Lanham: <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-5897-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-5897-5">0-7425-5897-5</a>.</li> <li>Riff, Michael. Dictionary of modern political ideologies. Manchester: <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-3289-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-3289-X">0-7190-3289-X</a>.</li> <li>Rivlin, Alice. Reviving the American Dream Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8157-7476-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8157-7476-1">0-8157-7476-1</a>.</li> <li>Ros, Agustin. Profits for all?: the cost and benefits of employee ownership. New York: Nova Publishers, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59033-061-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-59033-061-7">1-59033-061-7</a>.</li> <li>Routledge, Paul et al. The geopolitics reader. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-34148-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-34148-5">0-415-34148-5</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell, Bertrand</a> (2000) [1945]. <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">History of Western Philosophy</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22854-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22854-1"><bdi>978-0-415-22854-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Western+Philosophy&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-22854-1&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Ryan" title="Alan Ryan">Ryan, Alan</a>. The Philosophy of John Stuart Mill. Humanity Books: 1970. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-404-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57392-404-7">978-1-57392-404-7</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Ryan" title="Alan Ryan">Ryan, Alan</a>. The Making of Modern Liberalism (<a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 2012).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Ryan" title="Alan Ryan">Ryan, Alan</a>. On Politics: A History of Political Thought: From Herodotus to the Present. Allen Lane, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-465-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-465-7">978-0-87140-465-7</a>.</li> <li>Shell, Jonathan. The Unconquerable World: Power, Nonviolence, and the Will of the People. New York: Macmillan, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-4457-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-4457-4">0-8050-4457-4</a>.</li> <li>Shaw, G. K. Keynesian Economics: The Permanent Revolution. Aldershot, England: Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1988. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85278-099-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85278-099-1">1-85278-099-1</a>.</li> <li>Sinclair, Timothy. Global governance: critical concepts in political science. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-27662-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-27662-4">0-415-27662-4</a>.</li> <li>Smith, Steven B. Spinoza, Liberalism, and the Question of Jewish Identity. New Haven: Yale University Press 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300066805" title="Special:BookSources/0300066805">0300066805</a></li> <li>Song, Robert. Christianity and Liberal Society. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-826933-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-826933-1">0-19-826933-1</a>.</li> <li>Stacy, Lee. Mexico and the United States. New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7614-7402-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7614-7402-1">0-7614-7402-1</a>.</li> <li>Steindl, Frank. Understanding Economic Recovery in the 1930s. Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-11348-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-11348-8">0-472-11348-8</a>.</li> <li>Susser, Bernard. Political ideology in the modern world. Upper Saddle River: Allyn and Bacon, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-418442-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-418442-X">0-02-418442-X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrivers1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trivers" title="Robert Trivers">Trivers, Robert L.</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/images/uploads/Trivers-EvolutionReciprocalAltruism.pdf">"The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_Quarterly_Review_of_Biology" title="The Quarterly Review of Biology">The Quarterly Review of Biology</a>. 46 (1): 35–57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F406755">10.1086/406755</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2822435">2822435</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19027999">19027999</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Quarterly+Review+of+Biology&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+Reciprocal+Altruism&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35-57&rft.date=1971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19027999%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2822435%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F406755&rft.aulast=Trivers&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgreatergood.berkeley.edu%2Fimages%2Fuploads%2FTrivers-EvolutionReciprocalAltruism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988">.</li> <li>Van den Berghe, Pierre. The Liberal dilemma in South Africa. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>, 1979. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7099-0136-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7099-0136-4">0-7099-0136-4</a>.</li> <li>Van Schie, P. G. C. and Voermann, Gerrit. The dividing line between success and failure: a comparison of Liberalism in the Netherlands and Germany in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Berlin: LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8258-7668-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-8258-7668-3">3-8258-7668-3</a>.</li> <li>Venturelli, Shalini. Liberalizing the European media: politics, regulation, and the public sphere. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-823379-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-823379-5">0-19-823379-5</a>.</li> <li>Wallerstein, Immanuel. The Modern World-System IV: Centrist Liberalism trimphant 1789–1914. Berkeley and Los Angeles: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, 2011.</li> <li>Whitfield, Stephen. Companion to twentieth-century America. Hoboken: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-21100-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-21100-4">0-631-21100-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Wolfe" title="Alan Wolfe">Wolfe, Alan</a>. The Future of Liberalism. New York: <a href="/wiki/Random_House" title="Random House">Random House</a>, Inc., 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-307-38625-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-307-38625-2">0-307-38625-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2002" class="citation book cs1">Young, Shaun (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beyondrawlsanaly0000youn">Beyond Rawls: An Analysis of the Concept of Political Liberalism</a>. Lanham, MD: <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_America" title="University Press of America">University Press of America</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-2240-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-2240-0"><bdi>978-0-7618-2240-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Rawls%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+Concept+of+Political+Liberalism&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-2240-0&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Shaun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbeyondrawlsanaly0000youn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Zvesper, John. Nature and liberty. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-08923-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-08923-9">0-415-08923-9</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>Britain</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Adams, Ian. Ideology and politics in Britain today. Manchester: <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-5056-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-5056-1">0-7190-5056-1</a>.</li> <li>Cook, Richard. The Grand Old Man. Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4191-6449-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4191-6449-X">1-4191-6449-X</a> on Gladstone.</li> <li>Falco, Maria. Feminist interpretations of Mary Wollstonecraft. State College: Penn State Press, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01493-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01493-8">0-271-01493-8</a>.</li> <li>Forster, Greg. John Locke's politics of moral consensus. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-84218-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-84218-2">0-521-84218-2</a>.</li> <li>Locke, John. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Letter_Concerning_Toleration" class="extiw" title="wikisource:A Letter Concerning Toleration">A Letter Concerning Toleration</a>. 1689.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke, John</a>. Two Treatises of Government. reprint, New York: Hafner Publishing Company, Inc., 1947. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-848500-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-848500-9">0-02-848500-9</a>.</li> <li>Wempe, Ben. T. H. Green's theory of positive freedom: from metaphysics to political theory. Exeter: Imprint Academic, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-907845-58-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-907845-58-4">0-907845-58-4</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>France</dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>Frey, Linda and Frey, Marsha. The French Revolution. Westport: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32193-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-32193-0">0-313-32193-0</a>.</li> <li>Hanson, Paul. Contesting the French Revolution. Hoboken: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishing">Blackwell Publishing</a>, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-6083-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-6083-7">1-4051-6083-7</a>.</li> <li>Leroux, Robert, Political Economy and Liberalism in France: The Contributions of Frédéric Bastiat, London and New York, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 2011.</li> <li>Leroux, Robert, and David Hart (eds), French Liberalism in the 19th century. An Anthology, London and New York, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>, 2012.</li> <li>Lyons, Martyn. Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the French Revolution. New York: <a href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Press" title="St. Martin's Press">St. Martin's Press</a>, Inc., 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-12123-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-12123-7">0-312-12123-7</a>.</li> <li>Shlapentokh, Dmitry. The French Revolution and the Russian Anti-Democratic Tradition. Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56000-244-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56000-244-1">1-56000-244-1</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Liberalism <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Liberalism">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Liberalism&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/liberalism">Liberalism</a>—entry at <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/liberalism/">"Liberalism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Liberalism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fliberalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALiberalism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131002050329/http://mason.gmu.edu/~ihs/guide.html">"Guide to Classical Liberal Scholarship"</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Liberalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Liberalism" title="Template:Liberalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Liberalism" title="Template talk:Liberalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Liberalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Liberalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">Due process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Equality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Legal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_principle" title="Harm principle">Harm principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_property" title="Labor theory of property">Labor theory of property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_liberty" title="Positive liberty">Positive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_government" title="Limited government">Limited government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permissive_society" title="Permissive society">Permissive society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_property" title="Public property">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">Civil and political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">To own property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms" title="Right to keep and bear arms">To bear arms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig history</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgism" title="Georgism">Georgist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Radical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clerical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_nationalism" title="Civic nationalism">Civic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whig_history" title="Whig history">Whig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">Physiocratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9distes" title="Encyclopédistes">Encyclopaedist</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conservative_liberalism" title="Conservative liberalism">Conservative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_conservatism" title="Liberal conservatism">Liberal conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_liberalism" title="National liberalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordoliberalism" title="Ordoliberalism">Ordo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_liberalism" title="Social liberalism">Social</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_socialism" title="Liberal socialism">Liberal socialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_liberalism" title="Constitutional liberalism">Constitutional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_patriotism" title="Constitutional patriotism">Constitutional patriotism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_corporatism" title="Liberal corporatism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_internationalism" title="Liberal internationalism">International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left-libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geolibertarianism" title="Geolibertarianism">Geolibertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_liberalism" title="Neoclassical liberalism">Neoclassical liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolibertarianism" title="Paleolibertarianism">Paleolibertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right-libertarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_liberalism" title="Religious liberalism">Religious</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Islamic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_liberalism" title="Secular liberalism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoliberalism" title="Technoliberalism">Techno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberal_parties_by_country" title="Liberal parties by country">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nigeria" title="Liberalism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Senegal" title="Liberalism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Africa" title="Liberalism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Tunisia" title="Liberalism in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Liberalism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_China" title="Liberalism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Liberalism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_India" title="Liberalism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Iran" title="Liberalism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Israel" title="Liberalism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Japan" title="Liberalism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Korea" title="Liberalism in South Korea">South Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinilpa#Anti-Chinilpa_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinilpa">Anti-Chinilpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_reformism" title="Centrist reformism">Centrist reformist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_South_Korea" title="Progressivism in South Korea">Progressive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Philippines)" title="Liberal Party (Philippines)">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Europe" title="Liberalism in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Albania" title="Liberalism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Armenia" title="Liberalism in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Austria" title="Liberalism in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Belgium" title="Liberalism in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Bulgaria" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Croatia" title="Liberalism in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cyprus" title="Liberalism in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Czech_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberalism in the Czech lands">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Denmark" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Estonia" title="Liberalism and centrism in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Finland" title="Liberalism and centrism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_France" title="Liberalism and radicalism in France">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orl%C3%A9anist" title="Orléanist">Orléanist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Georgia" title="Liberalism in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Germany" title="Liberalism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Greece" title="Liberalism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Hungary" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Italy" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlusconism" title="Berlusconism">Berlusconism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberism" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberism">Liberism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Latvia" title="Liberalism in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Lithuania" title="Liberalism in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Luxembourg" title="Liberalism in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Liberalism in North Macedonia">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Moldova" title="Liberalism in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Montenegro" title="Liberalism in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Liberalism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Norway" title="Liberalism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Portugal" title="Liberalism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Russia" title="Liberalism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Serbia" title="Liberalism in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovakia" title="Liberalism in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Slovenia" title="Liberalism in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Spain" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_centrism_in_Sweden" title="Liberalism and centrism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Switzerland" title="Liberalism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Turkey" title="Liberalism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Ukraine" title="Liberalism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Liberalism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gladstonian_liberalism" title="Gladstonian liberalism">Gladstonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Libertarianism in the United Kingdom">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchester_Liberalism" title="Manchester Liberalism">Manchester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscular_liberalism" title="Muscular liberalism">Muscular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radicals_(UK)" title="Radicals (UK)">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiggism" title="Whiggism">Whiggist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America" title="Liberalism and conservatism in Latin America">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Bolivia" title="Liberalism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Brazil" title="Liberalism in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lulism" title="Lulism">Lulism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Chile" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Cuba" title="Liberalism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Ecuador" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Honduras" title="Liberalism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Mexico" title="Liberalism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua" title="Liberalism in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Panama" title="Liberalism in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Paraguay" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Peru" title="Liberalism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Uruguay" title="Liberalism in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Canada" title="Liberalism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Liberalism in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacksonian_democracy" title="Jacksonian democracy">Jacksonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_in_the_United_States" title="Libertarianism in the United States">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">Progressive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Australia" title="Liberalism in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moderates_(Liberal_Party_of_Australia)" title="Moderates (Liberal Party of Australia)">Small-l</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_liberalism_in_New_Zealand" title="Historic liberalism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Priestley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamantios_Korais" title="Adamantios Korais">Korais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_De_Gouges" class="mw-redirect" title="Olympe De Gouges">De Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Guizot" title="François Guizot">Guizot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_List" title="Friedrich List">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalberg-Acton,_1st_Baron_Acton" title="John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton">Acton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Hobhouse" title="Leonard Hobhouse">Hobhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedetto_Croce" title="Benedetto Croce">Croce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_%C4%8Capek" title="Karel Čapek">Čapek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Kymlicka" title="Will Kymlicka">Kymlicka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raif_Badawi" title="Raif Badawi">Badawi</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Politicians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Ko%C5%82%C5%82%C4%85taj" title="Hugo Kołłątaj">Kołłątaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Gervasio_Artigas" title="José Gervasio Artigas">Artigas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Broglie_(1785%E2%80%931870)" title="Victor de Broglie (1785–1870)">Broglie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Lamartine" title="Alphonse de Lamartine">Lamartine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Macaulay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lajos_Kossuth" title="Lajos Kossuth">Kossuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_(politician)" title="Ferenc Deák (politician)">Deák</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Cobden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Benso,_Count_of_Cavour" title="Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour">Cavour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domingo_Faustino_Sarmiento" title="Domingo Faustino Sarmiento">Sarmiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji" title="Dadabhai Naoroji">Naoroji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itagaki_Taisuke" title="Itagaki Taisuke">Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasil_Levski" title="Vasil Levski">Levski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nam%C4%B1k_Kemal" title="Namık Kemal">Kemal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Deakin" title="Alfred Deakin">Deakin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavel_Milyukov" title="Pavel Milyukov">Milyukov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">Lloyd George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaarlo_Juho_St%C3%A5hlberg" title="Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg">Ståhlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale" title="Gopal Krishna Gokhale">Gokhale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Rathenau" title="Walther Rathenau">Rathenau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_I._Madero" title="Francisco I. Madero">Madero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Einaudi" title="Luigi Einaudi">Einaudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lester_B._Pearson" title="Lester B. Pearson">Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertil_Ohlin" title="Bertil Ohlin">Ohlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Jenkins" title="Roy Jenkins">Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Balcerowicz" title="Leszek Balcerowicz">Balcerowicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Verhofstadt" title="Guy Verhofstadt">Verhofstadt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Macron</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Liberal_Network" title="Africa Liberal Network">Africa Liberal Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Liberals_and_Democrats_for_Europe_Party" title="Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party">Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberal_Federation" title="Arab Liberal Federation">Arab Liberal Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Asian_Liberals_and_Democrats" title="Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats">Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Democratic_Party" title="European Democratic Party">European Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Liberal_Youth" title="European Liberal Youth">European Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Alliance_of_Libertarian_Parties" title="International Alliance of Libertarian Parties">International Alliance of Libertarian Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Liberal_Youth" title="International Federation of Liberal Youth">International Federation of Liberal Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_International" title="Liberal International">Liberal International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Network_for_Latin_America" title="Liberal Network for Latin America">Liberal Network for Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Liberal_parties" title="Category:Liberal parties">Liberal parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_South_East_European_Network" title="Liberal South East European Network">Liberal South East European Network</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">Anti-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_views_of_American_academics" title="Political views of American academics">Bias in American academia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias in the media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_Anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualist Anarchism">Anarchist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_value_tax" title="Land value tax">Land value tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirate_Party" title="Pirate Party">Pirate Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sexually liberal feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism Portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Capitalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Capitalism" title="Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Capitalism" title="Template talk:Capitalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Capitalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Aspects and <a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">perspectives</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_of_production" title="Anarchy of production">Anarchy of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centralisation" title="Centralisation">Centralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">Deregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">Economic bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">Entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopreneurship" title="Ecopreneurship">Ecopreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalist_theory" title="History of capitalist theory">History of capitalist theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy#Capitalism" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchantilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchantilism">Merchantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">Multinational corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">Oligopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">Wealth</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_model" title="Anglo-Saxon model">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market#General_principles" title="Free market">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire capitalism">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market capitalism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed capitalism">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="National capitalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-capitalism" title="Neo-capitalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic capitalism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw capitalism">Raw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capitalism" title="Regulatory capitalism">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine capitalism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social capitalism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="State-sponsored capitalism">State-sponsored</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_capitalism" title="Culture of capitalism">Cultural aspects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(shopping)" title="Black Friday (shopping)">Black Friday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_mobility" title="Economic mobility">Economic mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li>Mainstream</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_foundation" title="Private foundation">Private foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law#In_relation_to_economics" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility" title="Labour market flexibility">Labour market flexibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_supply" title="Labour supply">Labour supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity" title="Prosperity">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicate" title="Syndicate">Syndicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_venture_capital" title="Social venture capital">Social venture capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_propaganda" title="Capitalist propaganda">Capitalist propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_fundamentalism" title="Market fundamentalism">Market fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antithesis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Anarcho-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market socialism">Free-market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Market anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-scarcity_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-scarcity economy">Post-scarcity economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_ideologies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_ideologies" title="Template:Political ideologies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_ideologies" title="Template talk:Political ideologies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_ideologies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political ideologies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_ideologies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies" title="List of political ideologies">Political ideologies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Establishment" title="The Establishment">The Establishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">Anti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardline" title="Hardline">Hardline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_moderate" title="Political moderate">Moderate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far-left_politics" title="Far-left politics">Far-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">Centre-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre-right_politics" title="Centre-right politics">Centre-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">Far-right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_radicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political radicalism">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary" title="Revolutionary">Revolutionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerationism" title="Accelerationism">Accelerationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_credit" title="Social credit">Social credit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Position" title="Third Position">Third Position</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Royalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Royalism">Royalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">Extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalism" title="Globalism">Globalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_theory)" title="Pluralism (political theory)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(politics)" title="Regionalism (politics)">Regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretic_politics" title="Syncretic politics">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a> (1313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> (1532)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> (1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ambox_globe_Americas.svg/19px-Ambox_globe_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ambox_globe_Americas.svg/29px-Ambox_globe_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ambox_globe_Americas.svg/38px-Ambox_globe_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Portal:Current events">Current events</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellow_flag_waving.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/18px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/27px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Yellow_flag_waving.svg/35px-Yellow_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Liberalism" title="Portal:Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="diagram" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/19px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/29px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png/38px-Libertarianism-groups-diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="647" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Libertarianism" title="Portal:Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Liberalism at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Liberalism" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Liberalism">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Liberalism" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Liberalism">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Liberalism" class="extiw" title="q:Liberalism">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Liberalism" class="extiw" title="s:Category:Liberalism">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Liberalism" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Liberalism">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Liberalism" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Liberalism">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6216" class="extiw" title="d:Q6216">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link 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