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href="#Alternative_explanations_of_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Alternative explanations of change</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternative_explanations_of_change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Alternative explanations of change subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Alternative_explanations_of_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vitalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vitalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Vitalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vitalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theistic_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theistic_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Theistic evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theistic_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthogenesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthogenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Orthogenesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthogenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lamarckism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lamarckism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Lamarckism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lamarckism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catastrophism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catastrophism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Catastrophism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catastrophism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structuralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structuralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Structuralism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structuralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saltationism,_mutationism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saltationism,_mutationism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Saltationism, mutationism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saltationism,_mutationism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_drift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_drift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Genetic drift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_drift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Combined_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combined_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Combined theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combined_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rebirth_of_natural_selection,_with_continuing_alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebirth_of_natural_selection,_with_continuing_alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Rebirth of natural selection, with continuing alternatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebirth_of_natural_selection,_with_continuing_alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled 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data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eboluzioari_buruz_baztertutako_teoriak" title="Eboluzioari buruz baztertutako teoriak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eboluzioari buruz baztertutako teoriak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%AF%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B4%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="جایگزین‌های فرگشت داروینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جایگزین‌های فرگشت داروینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Non-Darwinian Evolution" redirects here. For the scientific paper written by Jack Lester King and Thomas H. Jukes, see <a href="/wiki/Non-Darwinian_Evolution_(paper)" title="Non-Darwinian Evolution (paper)">Non-Darwinian Evolution (paper)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg/300px-Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="394" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Die_Leiter_des_Auf-_und_Abstiegs.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="524" /></a><figcaption>The mediaeval <a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">great chain of being</a> as a staircase, implying the possibility of progress:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Lull" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramon Lull">Ramon Lull</a>'s <i>Ladder of Ascent and Descent of the Mind</i>, 1305</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Alternatives to Darwinian evolution</b> have been proposed by scholars investigating biology to explain signs of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">relatedness</a> of different groups of living things. The alternatives in question do not deny that evolutionary changes over time are the origin of the diversity of life, nor that the organisms alive today share a common ancestor from the distant past (or ancestors, in some proposals); rather, they propose alternative mechanisms of evolutionary change over time, arguing against mutations acted on by natural selection as the most important driver of evolutionary change. </p><p>This distinguishes them from certain other kinds of arguments that deny that large-scale evolution of any sort has taken place, as in some forms of <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a>, which do not propose alternative mechanisms of evolutionary change but instead deny that evolutionary change has taken place at all. Not all forms of creationism deny that evolutionary change takes place; notably, proponents of <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">theistic evolution</a>, such as the biologist <a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a>, assert that evolutionary change does occur and is responsible for the history of life on Earth, with the proviso that this process has been influenced by a god or gods in some meaningful sense. </p><p>Where the fact of evolutionary change was accepted but the mechanism proposed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, was denied, explanations of evolution such as <a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">orthogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">structuralism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">mutationism</a> (called saltationism before 1900) were entertained. Different factors motivated people to propose non-<a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinian</a> mechanisms of evolution. Natural selection, with its emphasis on death and competition, did not appeal to some naturalists because they felt it immoral, leaving little room for <a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">teleology</a> or the concept of progress (orthogenesis) in the development of life. Some who came to accept evolution, but disliked natural selection, raised religious objections. Others felt that evolution was an inherently progressive process that natural selection alone was insufficient to explain. Still others felt that nature, including the development of life, followed orderly patterns that natural selection could not explain. </p><p>By the start of the 20th century, evolution was generally accepted by biologists but <a href="/wiki/Eclipse_of_Darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipse of Darwinism">natural selection was in eclipse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989246–281_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989246–281-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many alternative theories were proposed, but biologists were quick to discount theories such as orthogenesis, vitalism and Lamarckism which offered no mechanism for evolution. Mutationism did propose a mechanism, but it was not generally accepted. The <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern synthesis</a> a generation later claimed to sweep away all the alternatives to Darwinian evolution, though some have been revived as molecular mechanisms for them have been discovered. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unchanging_forms">Unchanging forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Unchanging forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> did not embrace either divine creation or evolution, instead arguing <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">in his biology</a> that each species (<i>eidos</i>) was immutable, breeding true to its <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">ideal eternal form</a> (not the same as Plato's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">theory of forms</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson200412–13_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson200412–13-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi201589_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi201589-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle's suggestion in <i><a href="/wiki/De_Generatione_Animalium" class="mw-redirect" title="De Generatione Animalium">De Generatione Animalium</a></i> of a fixed hierarchy in nature - a <i>scala naturae</i> ("ladder of nature") provided an early explanation of the continuity of living things.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1968166–169_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1968166–169-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayr1985201–202_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayr1985201–202-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle saw that animals were <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> (functionally end-directed), and had parts that were <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> with those of other animals, but he did not connect these ideas into a concept of evolutionary progress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199643_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199643-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Middle Ages, <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> developed Aristotle's view into the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">great chain of being</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The image of a ladder inherently suggests the possibility of climbing, but both the ancient Greeks and mediaeval scholastics such as <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Lull" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramon Lull">Ramon Lull</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> maintained that each species remained fixed from the moment of its creation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELovejoy2011228_and_passim_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELovejoy2011228_and_passim-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199643_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199643-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1818, however, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire" title="Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire">Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire</a> argued in his <i>Philosophie anatomique</i> that the chain was "a progressive series", where animals like molluscs low on the chain could "rise, by addition of parts, from the simplicity of the first formations to the complication of the creatures at the head of the scale", given sufficient time. Accordingly, Geoffroy and later biologists looked for explanations of such evolutionary change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199695_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199695-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a>'s 1812 <i>Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles</i> set out his doctrine of the correlation of parts, namely that since an organism was a whole system, all its parts mutually corresponded, contributing to the function of the whole. So, from a single bone the zoologist could often tell what class or even genus the animal belonged to. And if an animal had teeth adapted for cutting meat, the zoologist could be sure without even looking that its sense organs would be those of a predator and its intestines those of a carnivore. A species had an irreducible functional complexity, and "none of its parts can change without the others changing too".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson200418–21_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson200418–21-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evolutionists expected one part to change at a time, one change to follow another. In Cuvier's view, evolution was impossible, as any one change would unbalance the whole delicate system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson200418–21_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson200418–21-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a>'s 1856 "Essay on Classification" exemplified German philosophical idealism. This held that each species was complex within itself, had complex relationships to other organisms, and fitted precisely into its environment, as a pine tree in a forest, and could not survive outside those circles. The argument from such ideal forms opposed evolution without offering an actual alternative mechanism. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Owen" title="Richard Owen">Richard Owen</a> held a similar view in Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson200442–43,_111_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson200442–43,_111-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Lamarckian social philosopher and evolutionist <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, ironically the author of the phrase "<a href="/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest" title="Survival of the fittest">survival of the fittest</a>" adopted by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989239,_342_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989239,_342-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> used an argument like Cuvier's to oppose natural selection. In 1893, he stated that a change in any one structure of the body would require all the other parts to adapt to fit in with the new arrangement. From this, he argued that it was unlikely that all the changes could appear at the right moment if each one depended on random variation; whereas in a Lamarckian world, all the parts would naturally adapt at once, through a changed pattern of use and disuse.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989149,_253,_259_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989149,_253,_259-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_explanations_of_change">Alternative explanations of change</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Alternative explanations of change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></div> <p>Where the fact of evolutionary change was accepted by biologists but <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> was denied, including but not limited to the late 19th century <a href="/wiki/Eclipse_of_Darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipse of Darwinism">eclipse of Darwinism</a>, alternative scientific explanations such as <a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">orthogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a> and theistic evolution<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were entertained, not necessarily separately. (Purely religious points of view such as young or old earth <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a> are not considered here.) Different factors motivated people to propose non-Darwinian evolutionary mechanisms. Natural selection, with its emphasis on death and competition, did not appeal to some naturalists because they felt it immoral, leaving little room for <a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">teleology</a> or the concept of progress in the development of life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003197_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003197-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004119–120_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004119–120-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these scientists and philosophers, like <a href="/wiki/St._George_Jackson_Mivart" title="St. George Jackson Mivart">St. George Jackson Mivart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>, who came to accept evolution but disliked natural selection, raised religious objections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006209–210_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006209–210-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, such as the biologist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, the botanist <a href="/wiki/George_Henslow" title="George Henslow">George Henslow</a> (son of Darwin's mentor <a href="/wiki/John_Stevens_Henslow" title="John Stevens Henslow">John Stevens Henslow</a>, also a botanist), and the author <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Butler_(novelist)" title="Samuel Butler (novelist)">Samuel Butler</a>, felt that evolution was an inherently progressive process that natural selection alone was insufficient to explain. Still others, including the American paleontologists <a href="/wiki/Edward_Drinker_Cope" title="Edward Drinker Cope">Edward Drinker Cope</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alpheus_Hyatt" title="Alpheus Hyatt">Alpheus Hyatt</a>, had an idealist perspective and felt that nature, including the development of life, followed orderly patterns that natural selection could not explain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some felt that natural selection would be too slow, given the estimates of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of the earth">age of the earth</a> and sun (10–100 million years) being made at the time by physicists such as <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a>, and some felt that natural selection could not work because at the time the models for inheritance involved blending of inherited characteristics, an objection raised by the engineer <a href="/wiki/Fleeming_Jenkin" title="Fleeming Jenkin">Fleeming Jenkin</a> in a review of <i>Origin</i> written shortly after its publication.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004105–129_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004105–129-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another factor at the end of the 19th century was the rise of a new faction of biologists, typified by geneticists like <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a>, who wanted to recast biology as an experimental laboratory science. They distrusted the work of naturalists like Darwin and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a>, dependent on field observations of variation, adaptation, and <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>, as being overly anecdotal. Instead they focused on topics like <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> that could be investigated with controlled experiments in the laboratory, and discounted less accessible phenomena like natural selection and <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> to the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEndersby2007143–147,_182_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEndersby2007143–147,_182-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Theory </th> <th data-sort-type="number">Date </th> <th>Notable<br />proponent </th> <th>Species<br />can change? </th> <th>Mechanism<br />of change </th> <th>Mechanism<br />is physical? </th> <th>Extinction<br />possible? </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">Scala naturae</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="-350 !" style="display:none;"></span>c. 350 BC </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> </td> <td>No </td> <td>None </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>No </td> <td>Characteristics of groups do not fit on linear scale, as Aristotle observed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homology</a> recognised but not connected as evolution with adaptation; not spiritual </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1305 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ramon_Llull" title="Ramon Llull">Llull, Ramon</a>;<br /><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastics</a> </td> <td>No </td> <td>None </td> <td>N/A </td> <td>No </td> <td>Aristotelian, fitted into Christian theology </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirchCobb198576–78_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirchCobb198576–78-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1759 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Caspar_Friedrich_Wolff" title="Caspar Friedrich Wolff">Wolff, Caspar Friedrich</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>A life force in <a href="/wiki/Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> </td> <td>No </td> <td>No? </td> <td>Varieties of theory from Ancient Egypt onwards, often spiritual. Dropped from biology with <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">chemical synthesis</a> of organic molecules e.g. of <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> in 1828 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a> </td> <td>1871–6 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Gray, Asa</a><br /><a href="/wiki/St_George_Jackson_Mivart" class="mw-redirect" title="St George Jackson Mivart">Mivart, St George J.</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Deity supplies beneficial mutations (Gray 1876), or sets (orthogenetic) direction (Mivart 1871) </td> <td>No </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>"Failed the test of <a href="/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological naturalism">methodological naturalism</a> that had come to define science".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004126_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004126-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discounted by biologists by 1900<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a><sup id="cite_ref-Brown2001_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brown2001-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1859 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Baer" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl von Baer">Baer, Karl von</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>"Purposeful creation" </td> <td>No </td> <td>Yes? </td> <td>Many variants in 19th and 20th centuries </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a><sup id="cite_ref-Teilhard2003_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teilhard2003-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />inc. <a href="/wiki/Emergent_evolution" title="Emergent evolution">emergent evolution</a> </td> <td>1959 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>"Inherent progressive tendency" (<a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a>, vitalist) </td> <td>No </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Spiritual theory, emergence of mind, <a href="/wiki/Omega_Point" title="Omega Point">Omega Point</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler200386–95_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler200386–95-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1809 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Use and disuse; inheritance of acquired characteristics </td> <td>So it was thought, but none was found </td> <td>No </td> <td>Part of his view of <a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">orthogenesis</a>. Dropped from biology as <a href="/wiki/Weismann_barrier" title="Weismann barrier">Weismann barrier</a> prevents changes in somatic cells from affecting germ line in <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonads</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudwick1972131–134_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudwick1972131–134-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1812 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Cuvier, Georges</a> </td> <td>No </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinctions</a> caused by natural events such as <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">floods</a> </td> <td>Yes, for reducing number of species </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>To explain extinctions and <a href="/wiki/Faunal_succession" class="mw-redirect" title="Faunal succession">faunal succession</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a>; repopulation by new species after such events noted but left unexplained </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse2013419_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse2013419-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1917 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="D'Arcy Thompson">Thompson, D'Arcy</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a>, physical forces </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Yes? </td> <td>Many variants, some influenced by <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003265–270_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003265–270-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004127–129,_157–167_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004127–129,_157–167-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />or <a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a> </td> <td>1831 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire" title="Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire">Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Étienne</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Large <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Yes? </td> <td>Sudden production of new <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> under environmental pressure </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Neutral theory of molecular evolution">Neutral theory of molecular evolution</a><sup id="cite_ref-Kimura83_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kimura83-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>1968 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Motoo_Kimura" title="Motoo Kimura">Kimura, Motoo</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Only at molecular level; fits in with natural selection at higher levels. Observed '<a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">molecular clock</a>' supports neutral drift; not a rival to natural selection, as does not cause evolution of <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinian evolution</a><sup id="cite_ref-Lewontin70_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lewontin70-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> </td> <td>1859 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a> </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Yes </td> <td>Lacked mechanisms of <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a> until birth of <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, 1900; Darwin instead proposed <a href="/wiki/Pangenesis" title="Pangenesis">pangenesis</a> and some degree of inheritance of acquired characteristics </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vitalism">Vitalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Vitalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/170px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/255px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg/340px-Albert_Edelfelt_-_Louis_Pasteur_-_1885.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2082" data-file-height="2532" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> believed that only living things could carry out <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a>. Painting by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Edelfelt" title="Albert Edelfelt">Albert Edelfelt</a>, 1885</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></div> <p>Vitalism holds that living organisms differ from other things in containing something non-physical, such as a fluid or vital spirit, that makes them live.<sup id="cite_ref-Bechtel_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechtel-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory dates to ancient Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirchCobb198576–78_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirchCobb198576–78-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a> times, vitalism stood in contrast to the mechanistic explanation of biological systems started by <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>. Nineteenth century chemists set out to disprove the claim that forming organic compounds required vitalist influence.<sup id="cite_ref-Bechtel_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechtel-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1828, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a> showed that <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> could be made entirely from inorganic chemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> believed that <a href="/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a> required whole organisms, which he supposed carried out chemical reactions found only in living things. The embryologist <a href="/wiki/Hans_Driesch" title="Hans Driesch">Hans Driesch</a>, experimenting on <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a> eggs, showed that separating the first two cells led to two complete but small <a href="/wiki/Blastula" class="mw-redirect" title="Blastula">blastulas</a>, seemingly showing that cell division did not divide the egg into sub-mechanisms, but created more cells each with the vital capability to form a new organism. Vitalism faded out with the demonstration of more satisfactory mechanistic explanations of each of the functions of a living cell or organism.<sup id="cite_ref-Bechtel_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bechtel-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1931, biologists had "almost unanimously abandoned vitalism as an acknowledged belief."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theistic_evolution">Theistic evolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theistic evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a></div> <p>The American botanist <a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a> used the name "theistic evolution"<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for his point of view, presented in his 1876 book <i>Essays and Reviews Pertaining to Darwinism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that the deity supplies beneficial mutations to guide evolution. <a href="/wiki/St_George_Jackson_Mivart" class="mw-redirect" title="St George Jackson Mivart">St George Jackson Mivart</a> argued instead in his 1871 <i>On the Genesis of Species</i> that the deity, equipped with foreknowledge, sets the direction of evolution by specifying the (orthogenetic) laws that govern it, and leaves species to evolve according to the conditions they experience as time goes by. <a href="/wiki/George_Campbell,_8th_Duke_of_Argyll" title="George Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll">The Duke of Argyll</a> set out similar views in his 1867 book <i>The Reign of Law</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the historian Edward Larson, the theory failed as an explanation in the minds of late 19th century biologists as it broke the rules of <a href="/wiki/Methodological_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodological naturalism">methodological naturalism</a> which they had grown to expect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004126_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004126-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, by around 1900, biologists no longer saw theistic evolution as a valid theory. In Larson's view, by then it "did not even merit a nod among scientists."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 20th century, theistic evolution could take other forms, such as the <a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">orthogenesis</a> of Teilhard de Chardin.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Orthogenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Titanothere_Osborn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Titanothere_Osborn.jpg/170px-Titanothere_Osborn.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Titanothere_Osborn.jpg/255px-Titanothere_Osborn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Titanothere_Osborn.jpg/340px-Titanothere_Osborn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fairfield_Osborn" title="Henry Fairfield Osborn">Henry Fairfield Osborn</a> claimed in 1918 that <a href="/wiki/Titanothere" class="mw-redirect" title="Titanothere">Titanothere</a> horns showed a non-<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptive</a> <a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">orthogenetic</a> trend.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></div> <p>Orthogenesis or Progressionism is the hypothesis that life has an innate tendency to change, developing in a unilinear fashion in a particular direction, or simply making some kind of definite progress. Many different versions have been proposed, some such as that of <a href="/wiki/Teilhard_de_Chardin" class="mw-redirect" title="Teilhard de Chardin">Teilhard de Chardin</a> openly spiritual, others such as <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Eimer" title="Theodor Eimer">Theodor Eimer</a>'s apparently simply biological. These theories often combined orthogenesis with other supposed mechanisms. For example, Eimer believed in Lamarckian evolution, but felt that internal laws of growth determined which characteristics would be acquired and would guide the long-term direction of evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003249_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003249-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006221_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006221-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Orthogenesis was popular among paleontologists such as <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fairfield_Osborn" title="Henry Fairfield Osborn">Henry Fairfield Osborn</a>. They believed that the fossil record showed unidirectional change, but did not necessarily accept that the mechanism driving orthogenesis was <a href="/wiki/Teleological" class="mw-redirect" title="Teleological">teleological</a> (goal-directed). Osborn argued in his 1918 book <i>Origin and Evolution of Life</i> that trends in <a href="/wiki/Titanothere" class="mw-redirect" title="Titanothere">Titanothere</a> horns were both orthogenetic and non-<a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptive</a>, and could be detrimental to the organism. For instance, they supposed that the large antlers of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_elk" title="Irish elk">Irish elk</a> had caused its extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003249_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003249-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006221_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006221-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Support for orthogenesis fell during the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern synthesis</a> in the 1940s when it became apparent that it could not explain the complex branching patterns of evolution revealed by statistical analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004105–129_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004105–129-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work in the 21st century has supported the mechanism and existence of mutation-biased adaptation (a form of mutationism), meaning that constrained orthogenesis is now seen as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Yampolsky_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yampolsky-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stoltzfus_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoltzfus-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the <a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organizing</a> processes involved in certain aspects of <a href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">embryonic development</a> often exhibit stereotypical morphological outcomes, suggesting that evolution will proceed in preferred directions once key molecular components are in place.<sup id="cite_ref-Newman_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newman-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lamarckism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg/170px-Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg/255px-Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="329" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>, drawn by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Pizzetta" title="Jules Pizzetta">Jules Pizzetta</a>, 1893</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>'s 1809 evolutionary theory, <a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">transmutation of species</a>, was based on a progressive (orthogenetic) drive toward greater complexity. Lamarck also shared the belief, common at the time, that <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance of acquired characteristics">characteristics acquired during an organism's life could be inherited</a> by the next generation, producing adaptation to the environment. Such characteristics were caused by the use or disuse of the affected part of the body. This minor component of Lamarck's theory became known, much later, as <a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler200386–95_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler200386–95-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darwin included <i>Effects of the increased Use and Disuse of Parts, as controlled by Natural Selection</i> in <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, giving examples such as large ground feeding birds getting stronger legs through exercise, and weaker wings from not flying until, like the <a href="/wiki/Ostrich" title="Ostrich">ostrich</a>, they could not fly at all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1872[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDF391viewtypetextpageseq136_108]_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1872[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetitemIDF391viewtypetextpageseq136_108]-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Lamarckism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Lamarckism">neo-Lamarckism</a> was supported by the German biologist <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a>, the American <a href="/wiki/Paleontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologist">paleontologists</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Drinker_Cope" title="Edward Drinker Cope">Edward Drinker Cope</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alpheus_Hyatt" title="Alpheus Hyatt">Alpheus Hyatt</a>, and the American <a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Alpheus_Spring_Packard" title="Alpheus Spring Packard">Alpheus Packard</a>. Butler and Cope believed that this allowed organisms to effectively drive their own evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003236_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003236-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Packard argued that the loss of vision in the blind cave insects he studied was best explained through a Lamarckian process of atrophy through disuse combined with inheritance of acquired characteristics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003236_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003236-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–129_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–129-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006217_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006217-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the English botanist <a href="/wiki/George_Henslow" title="George Henslow">George Henslow</a> studied how environmental stress affected the development of plants, and he wrote that the variations induced by such environmental factors could largely explain evolution; he did not see the need to demonstrate that such variations could actually be inherited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003239–240_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003239–240-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics pointed out that there was no solid evidence for the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Instead, the experimental work of the German biologist <a href="/wiki/August_Weismann" title="August Weismann">August Weismann</a> resulted in the germ plasm theory of inheritance, which Weismann said made the inheritance of acquired characteristics impossible, since the <a href="/wiki/Weismann_barrier" title="Weismann barrier">Weismann barrier</a> would prevent any changes that occurred to the body after birth from being inherited by the next generation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–129_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–129-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003253–255_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003253–255-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">epigenetics</a>, biologists observe that <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a> depend on heritable changes to <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> that do not involve changes to the <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequence</a>. <a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">These changes can cross generations</a> in plants, animals, and <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>. This is not identical to traditional Lamarckism, as the changes do not last indefinitely and do not affect the germ line and hence the evolution of genes.<sup id="cite_ref-Heard_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heard-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Portrait_of_Baron_Georges_Cuvier_Wellcome_L0016365_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1102" data-file-height="1418" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a>, shown here with a fossil fish, proposed <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">catastrophism</a> to explain the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Catastrophism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></div> <p>Catastrophism is the <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a>, argued by the French <a href="/wiki/Anatomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomist">anatomist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleontologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleontologist">paleontologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> in his 1812 <i>Recherches sur les ossements fossiles de quadrupèdes</i>, that the various <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinctions</a> and the patterns of <a href="/wiki/Faunal_succession" class="mw-redirect" title="Faunal succession">faunal succession</a> seen in the <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> record were caused by large-scale natural catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions and, for the most recent extinctions in Eurasia, the inundation of low-lying areas by the <a href="/wiki/Sea" title="Sea">sea</a>. This was explained purely by natural events: he did not mention <a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Noah's flood">Noah's flood</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGowan20013–6_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGowan20013–6-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nor did he ever refer to divine creation as the mechanism for repopulation after an extinction event, though he did not support evolutionary theories such as those of his contemporaries Lamarck and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire either.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudwick1972133–134_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudwick1972133–134-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cuvier believed that the <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratigraphic">stratigraphic</a> record indicated that there had been several such catastrophes, recurring natural events, separated by long periods of stability during the history of life on earth. This led him to believe the Earth was several million years old.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERudwick1972131_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudwick1972131-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Catastrophism has found a place in modern biology with the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period, as proposed in a paper by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Alvarez" title="Walter Alvarez">Walter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a> in 1980. It argued that a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> <a href="/wiki/Alvarez_hypothesis" title="Alvarez hypothesis">struck Earth 66 million years ago</a> at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period. The event, whatever it was, made about 70% of all species extinct, including the <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>, leaving behind the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary">Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Alvarez_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alvarez-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1990, a 180 kilometres (110 mi) candidate crater marking the impact was identified at <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_Crater" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicxulub Crater">Chicxulub</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structuralism">Structuralism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Structuralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism (biology)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transformation_of_Argyropelecus_olfersi_into_Sternoptyx_diaphana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Transformation_of_Argyropelecus_olfersi_into_Sternoptyx_diaphana.jpg/310px-Transformation_of_Argyropelecus_olfersi_into_Sternoptyx_diaphana.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Transformation_of_Argyropelecus_olfersi_into_Sternoptyx_diaphana.jpg/465px-Transformation_of_Argyropelecus_olfersi_into_Sternoptyx_diaphana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Transformation_of_Argyropelecus_olfersi_into_Sternoptyx_diaphana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="506" data-file-height="208" /></a><figcaption>In his 1917 book <i><a href="/wiki/On_Growth_and_Form" title="On Growth and Form">On Growth and Form</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="D'Arcy Thompson">D'Arcy Thompson</a> illustrated the <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (geometry)">geometric transformation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Argyropelecus" title="Argyropelecus">one fish's</a> body form into <a href="/wiki/Sternoptyx" title="Sternoptyx">another</a> with a 20° <a href="/wiki/Shear_mapping" title="Shear mapping">shear mapping</a>. He did not discuss the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> causes of such a change, raising suspicions of <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse2013419_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse2013419-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Biological structuralism objects to an exclusively Darwinian explanation of natural selection, arguing that other mechanisms also guide evolution, and sometimes implying that these supersede selection altogether.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse2013419_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse2013419-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Structuralists have proposed different mechanisms that might have guided the formation of <a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plans</a>. Before Darwin, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Geoffroy_Saint-Hilaire" title="Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire">Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire</a> argued that animals shared <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous parts</a>, and that if one was enlarged, the others would be reduced in compensation.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Darwin, <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="D'Arcy Thompson">D'Arcy Thompson</a> hinted at <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">vitalism</a> and offered geometric explanations in his classic 1917 book <i><a href="/wiki/On_Growth_and_Form" title="On Growth and Form">On Growth and Form</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse2013419_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse2013419-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Seilacher" title="Adolf Seilacher">Adolf Seilacher</a> suggested mechanical inflation for "pneu" structures in <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a> fossils such as <i><a href="/wiki/Dickinsonia" title="Dickinsonia">Dickinsonia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeilacher1991251–271_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeilacher1991251–271-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_P._Wagner" title="Günter P. Wagner">Günter P. Wagner</a> argued for developmental bias, structural constraints on <a href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">embryonic development</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner2014_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner2014-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Kauffman" title="Stuart Kauffman">Stuart Kauffman</a> favoured <a href="/wiki/Self-organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-organisation">self-organisation</a>, the idea that complex structure emerges <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistically</a> and spontaneously from the dynamic interaction of all parts of an <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Denton" title="Michael Denton">Michael Denton</a> argued for laws of form by which <a href="/wiki/Universals" class="mw-redirect" title="Universals">Platonic universals</a> or "Types" are self-organised.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1979 <a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Gould" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen J. Gould">Stephen J. Gould</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">biological "spandrels"</a>, features created as a byproduct of the adaptation of nearby structures.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner2014_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner2014-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gerd_M%C3%BCller_(theoretical_biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerd Müller (theoretical biologist)">Gerd Müller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Newman" title="Stuart Newman">Stuart Newman</a> argued that the appearance in the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a> of most of the current <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a> was "pre-<a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Mendelian</a>" evolution caused by plastic responses of morphogenetic systems that were partly organized by physical mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Erwin2011_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erwin2011-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brian_Goodwin" title="Brian Goodwin">Brian Goodwin</a>, described by Wagner as part of "a <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">fringe</a> movement in evolutionary biology",<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner2014_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner2014-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> denied that biological complexity can be <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reduced</a> to natural selection, and argued that <a href="/wiki/Pattern_formation" title="Pattern formation">pattern formation</a> is driven by <a href="/wiki/Morphogenetic_field" title="Morphogenetic field">morphogenetic fields</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Goodwin_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darwinian biologists have criticised structuralism, emphasising that there is plentiful evidence from <a href="/wiki/Deep_homology" title="Deep homology">deep homology</a> that <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> have been involved in shaping organisms throughout <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history">evolutionary history</a>. They accept that some structures such as the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a> self-assemble, but question the ability of self-organisation to drive large-scale evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Held2014_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Held2014-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saltationism,_mutationism"><span id="Saltationism.2C_mutationism"></span>Saltationism, mutationism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Saltationism, mutationism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hugo_de_Vries_(1848-1935),_by_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Schwartze_(1851-1918).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Hugo_de_Vries_%281848-1935%29%2C_by_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Schwartze_%281851-1918%29.jpg/220px-Hugo_de_Vries_%281848-1935%29%2C_by_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Schwartze_%281851-1918%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Hugo_de_Vries_%281848-1935%29%2C_by_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Schwartze_%281851-1918%29.jpg/330px-Hugo_de_Vries_%281848-1935%29%2C_by_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Schwartze_%281851-1918%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Hugo_de_Vries_%281848-1935%29%2C_by_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Schwartze_%281851-1918%29.jpg/440px-Hugo_de_Vries_%281848-1935%29%2C_by_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Schwartze_%281851-1918%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1829" data-file-height="1590" /></a><figcaption>Hugo de Vries, with a painting of an <a href="/wiki/Oenothera" title="Oenothera">evening primrose</a>, the plant which had apparently produced new species by <a href="/wiki/Saltationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltationism">saltation</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Schwartze" title="Thérèse Schwartze">Thérèse Schwartze</a>, 1918</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Saltationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltationism">Saltationism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Saltationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltationism">Saltationism</a><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989211–212,_276–277_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989211–212,_276–277-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> held that new species arise as a result of large <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a>. It was seen as a much faster alternative to the Darwinian concept of a gradual process of small random variations being acted on by natural selection. It was popular with early geneticists such as <a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">Hugo de Vries</a>, who along with <a href="/wiki/Carl_Correns" title="Carl Correns">Carl Correns</a> helped rediscover <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>'s laws of inheritance in 1900, <a href="/wiki/William_Bateson" title="William Bateson">William Bateson</a>, a British zoologist who switched to genetics, and early in his career, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a>. These ideas developed into <a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">mutationism</a>, the mutation theory of evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003265–270_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003265–270-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004127–129,_157–167_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004127–129,_157–167-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This held that species went through periods of rapid mutation, possibly as a result of environmental stress, that could produce multiple mutations, and in some cases completely new species, in a single generation, based on de Vries's experiments with the evening primrose, <i><a href="/wiki/Oenothera" title="Oenothera">Oenothera</a></i>, from 1886. The primroses seemed to be constantly producing new varieties with striking variations in form and color, some of which appeared to be new species because plants of the new generation could only be crossed with one another, not with their parents.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEndersby2007148–162_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEndersby2007148–162-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Joseph Muller</a> showed in 1918 that the new varieties de Vries had observed were the result of <a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">polyploid</a> hybrids rather than rapid genetic mutation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEndersby2007202–205_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEndersby2007202–205-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially, de Vries and Morgan believed that mutations were so large as to create new forms such as subspecies or even species instantly. Morgan's 1910 fruit fly experiments, in which he isolated mutations for characteristics such as white eyes, changed his mind. He saw that mutations represented small <a href="/wiki/Mendelian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendelian">Mendelian</a> characteristics that would only spread through a population when they were beneficial, helped by natural selection. This represented the germ of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern synthesis</a>, and the beginning of the end for mutationism as an evolutionary force.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989310–311_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989310–311-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contemporary biologists accept that mutation and selection both play roles in evolution; the mainstream view is that while mutation supplies material for selection in the form of variation, all non-random outcomes are caused by natural selection.<sup id="cite_ref-Wagner_2013_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wagner_2013-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Nei" title="Masatoshi Nei">Masatoshi Nei</a> argues instead that the production of more efficient genotypes by mutation is fundamental for evolution, and that evolution is often mutation-limited.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoltzfus_on_Nei2014_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoltzfus_on_Nei2014-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic theory">endosymbiotic theory</a> implies rare but major events of saltational evolution by <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a> and colleagues suggested that the absence of RNA signature continuum between <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eukarya" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukarya">eukarya</a> shows that these major lineages materialized via large saltations in cellular organization.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Saltation at a variety of scales is agreed to be possible by mechanisms including <a href="/wiki/Polyploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyploid">polyploidy</a>, which certainly can create new species of plant,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">lateral gene transfer</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Serres_2009_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Serres_2009-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Transposable_element" title="Transposable element">transposable elements</a> (jumping genes).<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_drift">Genetic drift</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Genetic drift"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Different_Types_of_Mutations.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Different_Types_of_Mutations.png/300px-Different_Types_of_Mutations.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Different_Types_of_Mutations.png/450px-Different_Types_of_Mutations.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Different_Types_of_Mutations.png/600px-Different_Types_of_Mutations.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Many <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> are <a href="/wiki/Neutral_mutation" title="Neutral mutation">neutral</a> or silent, having no effect on the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> sequence that is produced when the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> involved is <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translated</a> to <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>, and accumulate over time, forming a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">molecular clock</a>. However this does not cause <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypic</a> evolution.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Neutral theory of molecular evolution">Neutral theory of molecular evolution</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution" title="Neutral theory of molecular evolution">neutral theory of molecular evolution</a>, proposed by <a href="/wiki/Motoo_Kimura" title="Motoo Kimura">Motoo Kimura</a> in 1968, holds that at the <a href="/wiki/DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">molecular level</a> most <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> changes and most of the variation within and between species is not caused by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> but by <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutant</a> <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> that are neutral. A <a href="/wiki/Neutral_mutation" title="Neutral mutation">neutral mutation</a> is one that does not affect an organism's ability to survive and reproduce. The neutral theory allows for the possibility that most mutations are deleterious, but holds that because these are rapidly purged by natural selection, they do not make significant contributions to variation within and between species at the molecular level. Mutations that are not deleterious are assumed to be mostly neutral rather than beneficial.<sup id="cite_ref-Kimura83_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kimura83-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory was controversial as it sounded like a challenge to Darwinian evolution; controversy was intensified by a 1969 paper by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Lester_King" title="Jack Lester King">Jack Lester King</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_H._Jukes" title="Thomas H. Jukes">Thomas H. Jukes</a>, provocatively but misleadingly titled "<a href="/wiki/Non-Darwinian_Evolution_(paper)" title="Non-Darwinian Evolution (paper)">Non-Darwinian Evolution</a>". It provided a wide variety of evidence including <a href="/wiki/Protein_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein sequence">protein sequence</a> comparisons, studies of the Treffers mutator gene in <i><a href="/wiki/E._coli" class="mw-redirect" title="E. coli">E. coli</a></i>, analysis of the genetic code, and comparative <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a>, to argue that most protein evolution is due to neutral mutations and genetic drift.<sup id="cite_ref-KingJukes1969_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KingJukes1969-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Kimura, the theory applies only for evolution at the molecular level, while <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypic</a> evolution is controlled by natural selection, so the neutral theory does not constitute a true alternative.<sup id="cite_ref-Kimura83_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kimura83-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Combined_theories">Combined theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Combined theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alternatives_to_Darwinism.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Alternatives_to_Darwinism.svg/440px-Alternatives_to_Darwinism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Alternatives_to_Darwinism.svg/660px-Alternatives_to_Darwinism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Alternatives_to_Darwinism.svg/880px-Alternatives_to_Darwinism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Multiple explanations have been offered since the 19th century for how evolution took place, given that many scientists initially had objections to natural selection (dashed orange arrows). Many of these theories led (blue arrows) to some form of directed evolution (<a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">orthogenesis</a>), with or without invoking <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">divine control</a> (dotted blue arrows) directly or indirectly. For example, evolutionists like <a href="/wiki/Edward_Drinker_Cope" title="Edward Drinker Cope">Edward Drinker Cope</a> believed in a combination of theistic evolution, Lamarckism, vitalism, and orthogenesis,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989261–262_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989261–262-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> represented by the sequence of arrows on the extreme left of the diagram.</figcaption></figure> <p>The various alternatives to Darwinian evolution by natural selection were not necessarily mutually exclusive. The evolutionary philosophy of the American palaeontologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Drinker_Cope" title="Edward Drinker Cope">Edward Drinker Cope</a> is a case in point. Cope, a religious man, began his career denying the possibility of evolution. In the 1860s, he accepted that evolution could occur, but, influenced by Agassiz, rejected natural selection. Cope accepted instead the theory of recapitulation of evolutionary history during the growth of the embryo - that <a href="/wiki/Ontogeny_recapitulates_phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny">ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny</a>, which Agassiz believed showed a divine plan leading straight up to man, in a pattern revealed both in <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>. Cope did not go so far, seeing that evolution created a branching tree of forms, as Darwin had suggested. Each evolutionary step was however non-random: the direction was determined in advance and had a regular pattern (orthogenesis), and steps were not adaptive but part of a divine plan (theistic evolution). This left unanswered the question of why each step should occur, and Cope switched his theory to accommodate functional adaptation for each change. Still rejecting natural selection as the cause of adaptation, Cope turned to Lamarckism to provide the force guiding evolution. Finally, Cope supposed that Lamarckian use and disuse operated by causing a vitalist growth-force substance, "bathmism", to be concentrated in the areas of the body being most intensively used; in turn, it made these areas develop at the expense of the rest. Cope's complex set of beliefs thus assembled five evolutionary philosophies: recapitulationism, orthogenesis, theistic evolution, Lamarckism, and vitalism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989261–262_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989261–262-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other palaeontologists and field naturalists continued to hold beliefs combining orthogenesis and Lamarckism until the modern synthesis in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989264_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989264-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rebirth_of_natural_selection,_with_continuing_alternatives"><span id="Rebirth_of_natural_selection.2C_with_continuing_alternatives"></span>Rebirth of natural selection, with continuing alternatives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rebirth of natural selection, with continuing alternatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis (20th century)</a></div> <p>By the start of the 20th century, during the <a href="/wiki/Eclipse_of_Darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipse of Darwinism">eclipse of Darwinism</a>, biologists were doubtful of natural selection, but equally were quick to discount theories such as orthogenesis, vitalism and Lamarckism which offered no mechanism for evolution. Mutationism did propose a mechanism, but it was not generally accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004128–129_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004128–129-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern synthesis</a> a generation later, roughly between 1918 and 1932, broadly swept away all the alternatives to Darwinism, though some including forms of orthogenesis,<sup id="cite_ref-Stoltzfus_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoltzfus-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">epigenetic mechanisms</a> that resemble Lamarckian <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance of acquired characteristics">inheritance of acquired characteristics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Heard_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heard-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> catastrophism,<sup id="cite_ref-Alvarez_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alvarez-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> structuralism,<sup id="cite_ref-Goodwin_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and mutationism<sup id="cite_ref-Stoltzfus_on_Nei2014_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoltzfus_on_Nei2014-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been revived, such as through the discovery of molecular mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004222–243,_284–286_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004222–243,_284–286-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biology has become Darwinian, but belief in some form of progress (orthogenesis) remains both in the public mind and among biologists. Ruse argues that evolutionary biologists will probably continue to believe in progress for three reasons. Firstly, the <a href="/wiki/Anthropic_principle" title="Anthropic principle">anthropic principle</a> demands people able to ask about the process that led to their own existence, as if they were the pinnacle of such progress. Secondly, scientists in general and evolutionists in particular believe that their work is leading them progressively closer to <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">a true grasp of reality</a>, as knowledge increases, and hence (runs the argument) there is progress in nature also. Ruse notes in this regard that <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> explicitly compares cultural progress with <a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">memes</a> to biological progress with genes. Thirdly, evolutionists are self-selected; they are people, such as the entomologist and sociobiologist <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a>, who are interested in progress to supply a meaning for life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse1996536–539_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse1996536–539-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coloration_evidence_for_natural_selection" title="Coloration evidence for natural selection">Coloration evidence for natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Not to be confused with the more recent use of the term <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">theistic evolution</a>, which refers to a theological belief in the compatibility of science and religion.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gray, and later historians of science, did not refer to a 20th century usage of <a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">theistic evolution</a> (described in that article), that one can accept Darwinian evolution without being an atheist.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199621–23_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuse1996">Ruse 1996</a>, pp. 21–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989246–281-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989246–281_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowler1989">Bowler 1989</a>, pp. 246–281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson200412–13-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson200412–13_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi201589-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi201589_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1968166–169-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1968166–169_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1968">Lloyd 1968</a>, pp. 166–169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeroi2015276–278_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeroi2015">Leroi 2015</a>, pp. 276–278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayr1985201–202-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayr1985201–202_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayr1985">Mayr 1985</a>, pp. 201–202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199643-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199643_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199643_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuse1996">Ruse 1996</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELovejoy2011228_and_passim-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELovejoy2011228_and_passim_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLovejoy2011">Lovejoy 2011</a>, p. 228 and passim.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse199695-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse199695_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuse1996">Ruse 1996</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson200418–21-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson200418–21_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson200418–21_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, pp. 18–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson200442–43,_111-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson200442–43,_111_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, pp. 42–43, 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989239,_342-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989239,_342_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowler1989">Bowler 1989</a>, pp. 239, 342.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989149,_253,_259-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989149,_253,_259_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowler1989">Bowler 1989</a>, pp. 149, 253, 259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003197-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003197_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a>, p. 197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004119–120-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004119–120_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, pp. 119–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006209–210-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuammen2006209–210_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQuammen2006">Quammen 2006</a>, pp. 209–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler2003196–253_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowler2003">Bowler 2003</a>, pp. 196–253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004105–129-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004105–129_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004105–129_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, pp. 105–129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEndersby2007143–147,_182-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEndersby2007143–147,_182_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEndersby2007">Endersby 2007</a>, pp. 143–147, 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirchCobb198576–78-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirchCobb198576–78_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBirchCobb198576–78_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBirchCobb1985">BirchCobb 1985</a>, pp. 76–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004126-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004126_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004126_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004125–128_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, pp. 125–128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown2001-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brown2001_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrownVon_Kitzing2001" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Keven; Von Kitzing, Eberhard (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=egDAfpkONRsC&pg=PA159"><i>Evolution and Bahá'í Belief: ʻAbduʼl-Bahá's Response to Nineteenth-century Darwinism</i></a>. Kalimat Press. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-890688-08-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-890688-08-0"><bdi>978-1-890688-08-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+and+Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD+Belief%3A+%CA%BBAbdu%CA%BCl-Bah%C3%A1%27s+Response+to+Nineteenth-century+Darwinism&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Kalimat+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-890688-08-0&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Keven&rft.au=Von+Kitzing%2C+Eberhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DegDAfpkONRsC%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Teilhard2003-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Teilhard2003_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChardin2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de</a> (2003) [1959]. <i>The Human Phenomenon</i>. 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(1994). "The origins of the neutral theory of molecular evolution". <i>Journal of the History of Biology</i>. <b>27</b> (1): 21–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01058626">10.1007/BF01058626</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11639258">11639258</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:367102">367102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=The+origins+of+the+neutral+theory+of+molecular+evolution&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=21-59&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A367102%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11639258&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01058626&rft.aulast=Dietrich&rft.aufirst=Michael+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hughes, Austin L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.hdy.6801031">"Looking for Darwin in all the wrong places: the misguided quest for positive selection at the nucleotide sequence level"</a>. <i>Heredity</i>. <b>99</b> (4): 364–373. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.hdy.6801031">10.1038/sj.hdy.6801031</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17622265">17622265</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16440448">16440448</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Heredity&rft.atitle=Looking+for+Darwin+in+all+the+wrong+places%3A+the+misguided+quest+for+positive+selection+at+the+nucleotide+sequence+level&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=364-373&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16440448%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17622265&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.hdy.6801031&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Austin+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fsj.hdy.6801031&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989261–262-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989261–262_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989261–262_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowler1989">Bowler 1989</a>, pp. 261–262.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowler1989264-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowler1989264_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBowler1989">Bowler 1989</a>, p. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004128–129-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004128–129_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, pp. 128–129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2004222–243,_284–286-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELarson2004222–243,_284–286_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLarson2004">Larson 2004</a>, pp. 222–243, 284–286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuse1996536–539-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuse1996536–539_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRuse1996">Ruse 1996</a>, pp. 536–539.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirchCobb1985" class="citation book cs1">Birch, Charles; Cobb, John B. (1985). <i>The Liberation of Life: From the Cell to the Community</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Texas" title="University of North Texas">University of North Texas</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9626807-0-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9626807-0-0"><bdi>978-0-9626807-0-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Liberation+of+Life%3A+From+the+Cell+to+the+Community&rft.pub=University+of+North+Texas&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-9626807-0-0&rft.aulast=Birch&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Cobb%2C+John+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Bowler, Peter J.</a> (1989) [1983]. <i>The Eclipse of Darwinism: anti-Darwinian evolutionary theories in the decades around 1900</i>. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4391-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-4391-4"><bdi>978-0-8018-4391-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eclipse+of+Darwinism%3A+anti-Darwinian+evolutionary+theories+in+the+decades+around+1900&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-4391-4&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowler2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler" title="Peter J. Bowler">Bowler, Peter J.</a> (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8"><i>Evolution:The History of an Idea</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6"><bdi>978-0-520-23693-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3AThe+History+of+an+Idea&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-520-23693-6&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1872" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&viewtype=text&pageseq=1"><i>The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life</i></a> (6th ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(publishing_house)" title="John Murray (publishing house)">John Murray</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904633-78-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904633-78-5"><bdi>978-1-904633-78-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Species+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection%2C+or+the+Preservation+of+Favored+Races+in+the+Struggle+for+Life&rft.place=London&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1872&rft.isbn=978-1-904633-78-5&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DF391%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEndersby2007" class="citation book cs1">Endersby, Jim (2007). <i>A Guinea Pig's History of Biology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02713-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02713-8"><bdi>978-0-674-02713-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guinea+Pig%27s+History+of+Biology&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02713-8&rft.aulast=Endersby&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Larson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Larson">Larson, Edward J.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars"><i>Evolution: The Remarkable History of Scientific Theory</i></a>. Modern Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64288-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-64288-6"><bdi>978-0-679-64288-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+Remarkable+History+of+Scientific+Theory&rft.pub=Modern+Library&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-679-64288-6&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionremarka00lars&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeroi2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi" title="Armand Marie Leroi">Leroi, Armand Marie</a> (2015) [2014]. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_Lagoon" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle's Lagoon"><i>The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4"><bdi>978-1-4088-3622-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lagoon%3A+How+Aristotle+Invented+Science&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4&rft.aulast=Leroi&rft.aufirst=Armand+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._E._R._Lloyd" title="G. E. R. Lloyd">Lloyd, G. E. R.</a> (1968). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aristotlegrowths0000lloy"><i>Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09456-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09456-6"><bdi>978-0-521-09456-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%3A+The+Growth+and+Structure+of+His+Thought&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-521-09456-6&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=G.+E.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faristotlegrowths0000lloy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovejoy2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Lovejoy, Arthur O.</a> (2011) [1936]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ByHNG8GzUeAC"><i>The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea</i></a>. Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36153-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36153-9"><bdi>978-0-674-36153-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Chain+of+Being%3A+A+Study+of+the+History+of+an+Idea&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-674-36153-9&rft.aulast=Lovejoy&rft.aufirst=Arthur+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DByHNG8GzUeAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Mayr, Ernst</a> (1985). <i>The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36446-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-36446-2"><bdi>978-0-674-36446-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Biological+Thought%3A+Diversity%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Inheritance&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-674-36446-2&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGowan2001" class="citation book cs1">McGowan, Christopher (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vC4c3Kx746QC"><i>The Dragon Seekers</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0282-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0282-2"><bdi>978-0-7382-0282-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dragon+Seekers&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Perseus+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0282-2&rft.aulast=McGowan&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvC4c3Kx746QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuammen2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Quammen" title="David Quammen">Quammen, David</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reluctantmrdarwi00quam"><i>The Reluctant Mr. Darwin</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlas Books">Atlas Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05981-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05981-6"><bdi>978-0-393-05981-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reluctant+Mr.+Darwin&rft.pub=Atlas+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05981-6&rft.aulast=Quammen&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freluctantmrdarwi00quam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRudwick1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_J._S._Rudwick" title="Martin J. S. Rudwick">Rudwick, Martin J. S.</a> (1972). <i>The Meaning of Fossils</i>. Chicago, Illinois: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73103-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73103-2"><bdi>978-0-226-73103-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Fossils&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-226-73103-2&rft.aulast=Rudwick&rft.aufirst=Martin+J.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuse1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Ruse, Michael</a> (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/monadtomanconcep0000ruse"><i>Monad to man: the Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03248-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03248-4"><bdi>978-0-674-03248-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monad+to+man%3A+the+Concept+of+Progress+in+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03248-4&rft.aulast=Ruse&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmonadtomanconcep0000ruse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuse2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Ruse, Michael</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3VtosxAtq-EC">"17. From Organicism to Mechanism-and Halfway Back?"</a>. In Henning, Brian G.; Scarfe, Adam (eds.). <i>Beyond Mechanism: Putting Life Back Into Biology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Lexington_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexington Books">Lexington Books</a>. p. 419. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780739174371" title="Special:BookSources/9780739174371"><bdi>9780739174371</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=17.+From+Organicism+to+Mechanism-and+Halfway+Back%3F&rft.btitle=Beyond+Mechanism%3A+Putting+Life+Back+Into+Biology&rft.pages=419&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780739174371&rft.aulast=Ruse&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3VtosxAtq-EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeilacher1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Seilacher" title="Adolf Seilacher">Seilacher, Adolf</a> (1991). "Self-Organizing Mechanisms in Morphogenesis and Evolution". In Schmidt-Kittler, Norbert; Vogel, Klaus (eds.). <i>Constructional Morphology and Evolution</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer</a>. pp. 251–271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-76156-0_17">10.1007/978-3-642-76156-0_17</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-76158-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-76158-4"><bdi>978-3-642-76158-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Self-Organizing+Mechanisms+in+Morphogenesis+and+Evolution&rft.btitle=Constructional+Morphology+and+Evolution&rft.pages=251-271&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-76156-0_17&rft.isbn=978-3-642-76158-4&rft.aulast=Seilacher&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlternatives+to+Darwinian+evolution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img 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