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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Computer architecture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Computer_architecture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Computer architecture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Computer_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Instruction_set_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instruction_set_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Instruction set architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instruction_set_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microarchitecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microarchitecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Microarchitecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microarchitecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_computer_hardware_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_computer_hardware_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types of computer hardware systems</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_computer_hardware_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of computer hardware systems subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_computer_hardware_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal_computer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_computer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Personal computer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_computer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Large-scale_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Large-scale_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Large-scale computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Large-scale_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virtual_hardware" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtual_hardware"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Virtual hardware</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtual_hardware-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Embedded_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Embedded_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Embedded system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Embedded_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Components</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Components-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Components subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Power supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motherboard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motherboard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Motherboard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motherboard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_cards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_cards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Expansion cards</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_cards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Input/output" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Input/output"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Input/output</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Input/output-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Sales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Recycling</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Recycling-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Recycling subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Recycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Toxic_computer_components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxic_computer_components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Toxic computer components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxic_computer_components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Environmental effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efforts_for_minimizing_computer_hardware_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efforts_for_minimizing_computer_hardware_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Efforts for minimizing computer hardware waste</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efforts_for_minimizing_computer_hardware_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Computer hardware</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 109 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-109" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">109 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekenaarhardeware" title="Rekenaarhardeware – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rekenaarhardeware" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8" title="عتاد حاسوب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عتاد حاسوب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarabidau_fisico" title="Tarabidau fisico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Tarabidau fisico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%B1%E0%A7%87%E0%A7%B0" title="কম্পিউটাৰ হাৰ্ডৱেৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কম্পিউটাৰ হাৰ্ডৱেৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soporte_f%C3%ADsicu" title="Soporte físicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Soporte físicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparat_t%C9%99chizat%C4%B1" title="Aparat təchizatı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Aparat təchizatı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DA%AF%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="بیلگی‌سایار دونانیمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیلگی‌سایار دونانیمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="কম্পিউটার হার্ডওয়্যার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কম্পিউটার হার্ডওয়্যার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%87%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Апаратнае забеспячэнне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Апаратнае забеспячэнне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8E%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компютърен хардуер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Компютърен хардуер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardver" title="Hardver – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hardver" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periant" title="Periant – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Periant" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maquinari" title="Maquinari – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Maquinari" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caledwedd" title="Caledwedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Caledwedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riistvara" title="Riistvara – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Riistvara" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Υλικό υπολογιστών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υλικό υπολογιστών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aparataro" title="Aparataro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aparataro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="سخت‌افزار رایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سخت‌افزار رایانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B3lb%C3%BAna%C3%B0ur" title="Tólbúnaður – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Tólbúnaður" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mat%C3%A9riel_informatique" title="Matériel informatique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Matériel informatique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crua-earra%C3%AD_r%C3%ADomhaire" title="Crua-earraí ríomhaire – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Crua-earraí ríomhaire" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathar-cruaidh" title="Bathar-cruaidh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Bathar-cruaidh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%B0_%E0%AA%B9%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A1%E0%AA%B5%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B0" title="કમ્પ્યુટર હાર્ડવેર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="કમ્પ્યુટર હાર્ડવેર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0_%ED%95%98%EB%93%9C%EC%9B%A8%EC%96%B4" title="컴퓨터 하드웨어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="컴퓨터 하드웨어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A2" title="Սարքախումբ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սարքախումբ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="हार्डवेयर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हार्डवेयर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwara" title="Hardwara – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Hardwara" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunalna_sklopovska_podr%C5%A1ka" title="Računalna sklopovska podrška – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Računalna sklopovska podrška" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard-varo" title="Hard-varo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Hard-varo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngwaike_k%E1%BB%8Dmputa" title="Ngwaike kọmputa – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ngwaike kọmputa" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perangkat_keras" title="Perangkat keras – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perangkat keras" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinario" title="Machinario – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Machinario" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-computer_hardware" title="I-computer hardware – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-computer hardware" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9lb%C3%BAna%C3%B0ur" title="Vélbúnaður – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vélbúnaður" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%94" title="חומרה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חומרה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piranti_kasar" title="Piranti kasar – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Piranti kasar" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B2mp%C3%B9trow%C3%B4_hard-w%C3%B4ra" title="Kòmpùtrowô hard-wôra – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Kòmpùtrowô hard-wôra" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Компьютерлік жабдықтама – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Компьютерлік жабдықтама" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C5%9Fkalav" title="Hişkalav – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Hişkalav" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AE%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%A7" title="ຮາດແວ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຮາດແວ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparatus_computatralis" title="Apparatus computatralis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Apparatus computatralis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datora_aparat%C5%ABra" title="Datora aparatūra – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Datora aparatūra" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technin%C4%97_%C4%AFranga" title="Techninė įranga – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Techninė įranga" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabend%C3%A9_ma_es%C3%A1lela" title="Mabendé ma esálela – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mabendé ma esálela" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardver" title="Hardver – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hardver" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Машинска опрема – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Машинска опрема" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BC" title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ ഹാർഡ്‌വെയർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ ഹാർഡ്‌വെയർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkakasan_komputer" title="Perkakasan komputer – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perkakasan komputer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B6" title="Компьютерын техник хангамж – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Компьютерын техник хангамж" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%9F%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%92%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9D%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA" title="ကွန်ပျူတာ ဟတ်ဒ်ဝဲလ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကွန်ပျူတာ ဟတ်ဒ်ဝဲလ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="कम्प्युटर हार्डवेयर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कम्प्युटर हार्डवेयर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0" title="हार्डवेयर – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="हार्डवेयर" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A7%E3%82%A2" title="ハードウェア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハードウェア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskinvare" title="Maskinvare – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Maskinvare" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskinvare" title="Maskinvare – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Maskinvare" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D2%A5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%88" title="Аппарат вораҥдыш – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Аппарат вораҥдыш" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B9%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A1%E0%AD%B1%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B0" title="ହାର୍ଡୱେର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ହାର୍ଡୱେର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabajjii_Kedeedaa(Computer_hardware)" title="Jabajjii Kedeedaa(Computer hardware) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Jabajjii Kedeedaa(Computer hardware)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparat_ta%CA%BCminoti" title="Apparat taʼminoti – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Apparat taʼminoti" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0" title="ਕੰਪਿਊਟਰ ਹਾਰਡਵੇਅਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੰਪਿਊਟਰ ਹਾਰਡਵੇਅਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%BC%D8%B1_%D8%B3%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="د کمپیوټر سختغالی – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د کمپیوټر سختغالی" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprz%C4%99t_komputerowy" title="Sprzęt komputerowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sprzęt komputerowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinchi_kaq" title="Sinchi kaq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sinchi kaq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Гардвер – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Гардвер" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_haurdware" title="Computer haurdware – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Computer haurdware" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardueri" title="Hardueri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hardueri" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%98%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C" title="පරිගණක දෘඩාංග – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිගණක දෘඩාංග" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Computer hardware" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardv%C3%A9r" title="Hardvér – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hardvér" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strojna_oprema_ra%C4%8Dunalnika" title="Strojna oprema računalnika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Strojna oprema računalnika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Hardware" title="Computer Hardware – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Computer Hardware" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%95%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8E%D8%B1" title="ڕەقامێر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕەقامێر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Рачунарски хардвер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рачунарски хардвер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardver" title="Hardver – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hardver" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietokonelaitteisto" title="Tietokonelaitteisto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tietokonelaitteisto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maskinvara" title="Maskinvara – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Maskinvara" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_(kompyuter)" title="Hardware (kompyuter) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Hardware (kompyuter)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="கணினி வன்பொருள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கணினி வன்பொருள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A1%E0%B1%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="కంప్యూటర్ హార్డ్‌వేర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కంప్యూటర్ హార్డ్‌వేర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ฮาร์ดแวร์คอมพิวเตอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฮาร์ดแวร์คอมพิวเตอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Сахтафзори роёна – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Сахтафзори роёна" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgisayar_donan%C4%B1m%C4%B1" title="Bilgisayar donanımı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilgisayar donanımı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Апаратне забезпечення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Апаратне забезпечення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1_%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1" title="کمپیوٹر ہارڈویئر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کمپیوٹر ہارڈویئر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Hardware" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%E1%BA%A7n_c%E1%BB%A9ng_m%C3%A1y_t%C3%ADnh" title="Phần cứng máy tính – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phần cứng máy tính" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Computer hardware" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A1%AC%E4%BB%B6" title="硬件 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="硬件" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%95%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%92" title="הארטווארג – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="הארטווארג" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E7%A1%AC%E4%BB%B6" title="電腦硬件 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電腦硬件" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA%E7%A1%AC%E4%BB%B6" title="计算机硬件 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="计算机硬件" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/PDP-11-M7270.jpg/170px-PDP-11-M7270.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/PDP-11-M7270.jpg/255px-PDP-11-M7270.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/PDP-11-M7270.jpg/340px-PDP-11-M7270.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1767" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/PDP-11" title="PDP-11">PDP-11</a> CPU board</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Computer hardware</b> includes the physical parts of a <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU), <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random access memory (RAM)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">motherboard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">computer data storage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">graphics card</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sound_card" title="Sound card">sound card</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_case" title="Computer case">computer case</a>. It includes external devices such as a <a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">monitor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">mouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">keyboard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_speakers" title="Computer speakers">speakers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a> is a set of written instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Hardware derived its name from the fact it is <i><a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hard</a></i> or rigid with respect to changes, whereas software is <i>soft</i> because it is easy to change. </p><p>Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or <a href="/wiki/Instruction_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction (computing)">instruction</a>. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> system, although <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">other systems</a> exist with only hardware. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></div> <p>Early computing devices were more complicated than the ancient <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> date to the seventeenth century. French mathematician <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> designed a gear-based device that could add and subtract, selling around 50 models. The <a href="/wiki/Stepped_reckoner" title="Stepped reckoner">stepped reckoner</a> was invented by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a> by 1676, which could also divide and multiply. Due to the limitations of contemporary fabrication and design flaws, Leibniz' reckoner was not very functional, but similar devices (<a href="/wiki/Leibniz_wheel" title="Leibniz wheel">Leibniz wheel</a>) remained in use into the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201113-14_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201113-14-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 19th century, Englishman <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Difference_engine" title="Difference engine">difference engine</a>, a mechanical device to calculate <a href="/wiki/Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomials</a> for astronomical purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201114_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201114-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Babbage also designed a general-purpose computer that was never built. Much of the design was incorporated into the earliest computers: <a href="/wiki/Punch_card" class="mw-redirect" title="Punch card">punch cards</a> for input and output, <a href="/wiki/Memory_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory (computing)">memory</a>, an arithmetic unit analogous to <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing units</a>, and even a primitive <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> similar to <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201115_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201115-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1936, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Turing_machine" title="Universal Turing machine">universal Turing machine</a> to model any type of computer, proving that no computer would be able to solve the <a href="/wiki/Entscheidungsproblem" title="Entscheidungsproblem">decision problem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201121,_23_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201121,_23-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The universal Turing machine was a type of <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a> capable of mimicking the operations of any <a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machine</a> (computer model) based on the <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a> instructions passed to it. The storage of <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer programs</a> is key to the operation of modern computers and is the connection between computer hardware and software.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201125_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201125-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even prior to this, in the mid-19th century mathematician <a href="/wiki/George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a> invented <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a>—a system of logic where each <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a> is either true or false. Boolean algebra is now the basis of the <a href="/wiki/Circuit_(computer_science)" title="Circuit (computer science)">circuits</a> that model the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> and other components of <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> that make up modern computer hardware.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201134–35_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201134–35-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1945, Turing finished the design for a computer (the <a href="/wiki/Automatic_Computing_Engine" title="Automatic Computing Engine">Automatic Computing Engine</a>) that was never built.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201171–72_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201171–72-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Von_Neumann_Architecture.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Von_Neumann_Architecture.svg/220px-Von_Neumann_Architecture.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Von_Neumann_Architecture.svg/330px-Von_Neumann_Architecture.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Von_Neumann_Architecture.svg/440px-Von_Neumann_Architecture.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption>Von Neumann architecture scheme</figcaption></figure> <p>Around this time, technological advancement in <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> enabled the construction of the first computers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201172_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201172-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Building on Babbage's design, relay computers were built by <a href="/wiki/George_Stibitz" title="George Stibitz">George Stibitz</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Laboratories">Bell Laboratories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Howard_Aiken" class="mw-redirect" title="Howard Aiken">Howard Aiken</a>, who engineered the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">MARK I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201115_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201115-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 1945, mathematician <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>—working on the <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> project at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a>—devised the underlying <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a> that has served as the template for most modern computers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201172,_74_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201172,_74-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Von Neumann's design featured a centralized <a href="/wiki/Memory_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory (computing)">memory</a> that stored both data and programs, a <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU) with priority of access to the memory, and <a href="/wiki/I/O" class="mw-redirect" title="I/O">input and output (I/O) units</a>. Von Neumann used a single <a href="/wiki/Bus_(computing)" title="Bus (computing)">bus</a> to transfer data, meaning that his solution to the storage problem by locating programs and data adjacent to each other created the <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_bottleneck" class="mw-redirect" title="Von Neumann bottleneck">Von Neumann bottleneck</a> when the system tries to fetch both at the same time—often throttling the system's performance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlum201174_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlum201174-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Computer_architecture">Computer architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Computer architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Growth_in_processor_performance,_1978%E2%80%932010.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Growth_in_processor_performance%2C_1978%E2%80%932010.png/220px-Growth_in_processor_performance%2C_1978%E2%80%932010.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Growth_in_processor_performance%2C_1978%E2%80%932010.png/330px-Growth_in_processor_performance%2C_1978%E2%80%932010.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Growth_in_processor_performance%2C_1978%E2%80%932010.png/440px-Growth_in_processor_performance%2C_1978%E2%80%932010.png 2x" data-file-width="1984" data-file-height="1194" /></a><figcaption>Growth in processor performance (as measured by benchmarks),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201141–42_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201141–42-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1978–2010</figcaption></figure> <p>Computer architecture requires prioritizing between different goals, such as cost, speed, availability, and energy efficiency. The designer must have a good grasp of the hardware requirements and many different aspects of computing, from <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compilers</a> to integrated circuit design.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201111_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201111-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cost has also become a significant constraint for manufacturers seeking to sell their products for less money than competitors offering a very similar <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a>. Profit margins have also been reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201127–28,_32_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201127–28,_32-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even when the performance is not increasing, the cost of components has been dropping over time due to improved manufacturing techniques that have fewer components rejected at <a href="/wiki/Quality_assurance" title="Quality assurance">quality assurance</a> stage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201127_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201127-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instruction_set_architecture">Instruction set architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Instruction set architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most common <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">instruction set architecture</a> (ISA)—the interface between a computer's hardware and software—is based on the one devised by von Neumann in 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendelson20222_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendelson20222-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the separation of the computing unit and the I/O system in many diagrams, typically the hardware is shared, with a bit in the computing unit indicating whether it is in computation or I/O mode.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendelson20222–3_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendelson20222–3-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common types of ISAs include CISC (<a href="/wiki/Complex_instruction_set_computer" title="Complex instruction set computer">complex instruction set computer</a>), RISC (<a href="/wiki/Reduced_instruction_set_computer" title="Reduced instruction set computer">reduced instruction set computer</a>), <a href="/wiki/Vector_processor" title="Vector processor">vector operations</a>, and hybrid modes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendelson20223_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendelson20223-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CISC involves using a larger expression set to minimize the number of instructions the machines need to use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendelson20228_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendelson20228-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on a recognition that only a few instructions are commonly used, RISC shrinks the instruction set for added simplicity, which also enables the inclusion of more <a href="/wiki/Register_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Register (computing)">registers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMendelson202215_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMendelson202215-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the invention of RISC in the 1980s, RISC based architectures that used <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_(computing)" title="Pipeline (computing)">pipelining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caching" class="mw-redirect" title="Caching">caching</a> to increase performance displaced CISC architectures, particularly in applications with restrictions on power usage or space (such as <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a>). From 1986 to 2003, the annual rate of improvement in hardware performance exceeded 50 percent, enabling the development of new computing devices such as <a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">tablets</a> and mobiles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20112_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20112-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alongside the density of transistors, DRAM memory as well as flash and magnetic disk storage also became exponentially more compact and cheaper. The rate of improvement slackened off in the twenty-first century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201117–18_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201117–18-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the twenty-first century, increases in performance have been driven by increasing exploitation of <a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallelism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20119,_44_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20119,_44-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applications are often parallelizable in two ways: either the same function is running across multiple areas of data (<a href="/wiki/Data_parallelism" title="Data parallelism">data parallelism</a>) or different tasks can be performed simultaneously with limited interaction (<a href="/wiki/Task_parallelism" title="Task parallelism">task parallelism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20119_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20119-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These forms of parallelism are accommodated by various hardware strategies, including <a href="/wiki/Instruction-level_parallelism" title="Instruction-level parallelism">instruction-level parallelism</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Instruction_pipelining" title="Instruction pipelining">instruction pipelining</a>), vector architectures and <a href="/wiki/Graphical_processing_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Graphical processing unit">graphical processing units</a> (GPUs) that are able to implement data parallelism, thread-level parallelism and request-level parallelism (both implementing task-level parallelism).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20119_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20119-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microarchitecture">Microarchitecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Microarchitecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Microarchitecture" title="Microarchitecture">Microarchitecture</a>, also known as computer organization, refers to high-level hardware questions such as the design of the CPU, memory, and memory <a href="/wiki/Interconnect_(integrated_circuits)" title="Interconnect (integrated circuits)">interconnect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201115_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201115-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Memory_hierarchy" title="Memory hierarchy">Memory hierarchy</a> ensures that the memory quicker to access (and more expensive) is located closer to the CPU, while slower, cheaper memory for large-volume storage is located further away.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20213_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20213-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Memory is typically segregated to separate programs from data and limit an attacker's ability to alter programs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20214_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20214-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most computers use <a href="/wiki/Virtual_memory" title="Virtual memory">virtual memory</a> to simplify addressing for programs, using the <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> to map virtual memory to different areas of the finite physical memory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202151–52_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202151–52-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling">Cooling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Computer processors generate heat, and excessive heat impacts their performance and can harm the components. Many computer chips will automatically throttle their performance to avoid overheating. Computers also typically have mechanisms for dissipating excessive heat, such as air or liquid coolers for the CPU and GPU and heatsinks for other components, such as the <a href="/wiki/RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="RAM">RAM</a>. <a href="/wiki/Computer_case" title="Computer case">Computer cases</a> are also often ventilated to help dissipate heat from the computer.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Data_center" title="Data center">Data centers</a> typically use more sophisticated cooling solutions to keep the operating temperature of the entire center safe. Air-cooled systems are more common in smaller or older data centers, while liquid-cooled immersion (where each computer is surrounded by cooling fluid) and direct-to-chip (where the cooling fluid is directed to each computer chip) can be more expensive but are also more efficient.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most computers are designed to be more powerful than their cooling system, but their sustained operations cannot exceed the capacity of the cooling system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201122_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201122-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While performance can be temporarily increased when the computer is not hot (<a href="/wiki/Overclocking" title="Overclocking">overclocking</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201126_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201126-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in order to protect the hardware from excessive heat, the system will automatically reduce performance or shut down the processor if necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201122_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201122-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Processors also will shut off or enter a low power mode when inactive to reduce heat.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201125_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201125-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Power delivery as well as heat dissipation are the most challenging aspects of hardware design,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201121_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201121-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and have been the limiting factor to the development of smaller and faster chips since the early twenty-first century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201125_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201125-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increases in performance require a commensurate increase in energy use and cooling demand.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201156_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201156-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_computer_hardware_systems">Types of computer hardware systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Types of computer hardware systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_computer">Personal computer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Personal computer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Personal_computer,_exploded_6.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Personal_computer%2C_exploded_6.svg/220px-Personal_computer%2C_exploded_6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Personal_computer%2C_exploded_6.svg/330px-Personal_computer%2C_exploded_6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Personal_computer%2C_exploded_6.svg/440px-Personal_computer%2C_exploded_6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1448" data-file-height="872" /></a><figcaption>Basic hardware components of a personal computer, including a <a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">monitor</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">motherboard</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Central_Processing_Unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Processing Unit">CPU</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a>, two <a href="/wiki/Expansion_card" title="Expansion card">expansion cards</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Power_supply_unit_(computer)" title="Power supply unit (computer)">power supply</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc_drive" title="Optical disc drive">optical disc drive</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">hard disk drive</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">keyboard</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Mouse_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouse (computing)">mouse</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Computer_from_inside_018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Computer_from_inside_018.jpg/220px-Computer_from_inside_018.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Computer_from_inside_018.jpg/330px-Computer_from_inside_018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Computer_from_inside_018.jpg/440px-Computer_from_inside_018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1415" data-file-height="1337" /></a><figcaption>Inside a custom-built computer: power supply at the bottom has its own cooling fan</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computer</a> is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility and relatively low price. </p> <ul><li>Desktop personal computers have a <a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">monitor</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">keyboard</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mouse_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouse (computing)">mouse</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Computer_case" title="Computer case">computer case</a>. The computer case holds the <a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">motherboard</a>, fixed or removable <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">disk drives</a> for data storage, the <a href="/wiki/Power_supply_unit_(computer)" title="Power supply unit (computer)">power supply</a>, and may contain other peripheral devices such as <a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">modems</a> or network interfaces. Some models of desktop computers integrated the monitor and keyboard into the same case as the processor and power supply. Separating the elements allows the user to arrange the components in a pleasing, comfortable array, at the cost of managing power and data cables between them.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laptop" title="Laptop">Laptops</a> are designed for portability but operate similarly to desktop PCs.<sup id="cite_ref-PC_hardware_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC_hardware-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may use lower-power or reduced size components, with lower performance than a similarly priced desktop computer.<sup id="cite_ref-desktop_vs_laptop_computer_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-desktop_vs_laptop_computer-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laptops contain the keyboard, display, and processor in one case. The monitor in the folding upper cover of the case can be closed for transportation, to protect the screen and keyboard. Instead of a mouse, laptops may have a <a href="/wiki/Touchpad" title="Touchpad">touchpad</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pointing_stick" title="Pointing stick">pointing stick</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">Tablets</a> are portable computers that use a <a href="/wiki/Touch_screen" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch screen">touch screen</a> as the primary input device. Tablets generally weigh less and are smaller than laptops.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some tablets include fold-out keyboards or offer connections to separate external keyboards. Some models of laptop computers have a detachable keyboard, which allows the system to be configured as a touch-screen tablet. They are sometimes called "2-in-1 detachable laptops" or "tablet-laptop hybrids".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phones</a> are designed to have an extended battery life and light weight, while having less functionality than larger computers. They have diverse hardware architecture, often including antennas, microphones, cameras, <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> devices, and speakers. Power and data connections vary between phones.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Large-scale_computers">Large-scale computers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Large-scale computers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IBM_System_Z9_(type_2094_front).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/IBM_System_Z9_%28type_2094_front%29.jpg/170px-IBM_System_Z9_%28type_2094_front%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/IBM_System_Z9_%28type_2094_front%29.jpg/255px-IBM_System_Z9_%28type_2094_front%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/IBM_System_Z9_%28type_2094_front%29.jpg/340px-IBM_System_Z9_%28type_2094_front%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2088" data-file-height="2561" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/IBM_System_z9" title="IBM System z9">IBM System z9</a> mainframe</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computer</a> is a much larger computer that typically fills a room and may cost many hundreds or thousands of times as much as a personal computer. They are designed to perform large numbers of calculations for governments and large enterprises.</li> <li>In the 1960s and 1970s, more and more departments started to use cheaper and dedicated systems for specific purposes like <a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">process control</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_automation" title="Laboratory automation">laboratory automation</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Minicomputer" title="Minicomputer">minicomputer</a>, or colloquially <b>mini</b>, is a class of smaller <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a> that was developed in the mid-1960s<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and sold for much less than <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and mid-size computers from <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> and its direct competitors.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">Supercomputers</a> can cost hundreds of millions of dollars. They are intended to maximize performance with <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating-point arithmetic</a> and running batch programs that take a very long time (such as weeks) to complete. As a result of the need for communication between parallel programs, the speed of the internal network must be prioritized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20118_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20118-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warehouse_scale_computer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Warehouse scale computer (page does not exist)">Warehouse scale computers</a> are larger versions of <a href="/wiki/Cluster_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster computer">cluster computers</a> that came into fashion with <a href="/wiki/Software_as_a_service" title="Software as a service">software as a service</a> provided via <a href="/wiki/The_internet" class="mw-redirect" title="The internet">the internet</a>. Their design is intended to minimize cost per operation and power usage, as they can cost over $100 million for a warehouse and the computers which go inside (the computers must be replaced every few years). Although availability is crucial for SaaS products, the software is designed to compensate for availability failures—unlike supercomputers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20118_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20118-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtual_hardware">Virtual hardware</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Virtual hardware"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Virtual_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual hardware">Virtual hardware</a> is software that mimics the function of hardware; it is commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_as_a_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrastructure as a Service">infrastructure as a Service</a> (IaaS) and <a href="/wiki/Platform_as_a_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Platform as a Service">platform as a Service</a> (PaaS).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20211,_3_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20211,_3-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Embedded_system">Embedded system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Embedded system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Embedded_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Embedded systems">Embedded systems</a> have the most variation in their processing power and cost: from an 8-bit processor that could cost less than <a href="/wiki/USD" class="mw-redirect" title="USD">USD</a>$0.10, to higher-end processors capable of billions of operations per second and costing over USD$100. Cost is a particular concern with these systems, with designers often choosing the cheapest option that satisfies the performance requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20118–9_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson20118–9-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Components">Components</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case">Case</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_case" title="Computer case">Computer case</a></div> <p>A computer case encloses most of the components of a desktop computer system. It provides mechanical support and protection for internal elements such as the motherboard, disk drives, and power supply, and controls and directs the flow of cooling air over internal components. The case is also part of the system to control electromagnetic interference radiated by the computer and protects internal parts from electrostatic discharge. Large <a href="/wiki/Tower_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Tower case">tower cases</a> provide space for multiple disk drives or other peripherals and usually stand on the floor, while desktop cases provide less expansion room. All-in-one style designs include a video display built into the same case. Portable and laptop computers require cases that provide impact protection for the unit. Hobbyists may decorate the cases with colored lights, paint, or other features, in an activity called <a href="/wiki/Case_modding" title="Case modding">case modding</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_supply">Power supply</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Power supply"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Power_supply_unit_(computer)" title="Power supply unit (computer)">Power supply unit</a></div> <p>Most personal computer power supply units meet the <a href="/wiki/ATX" title="ATX">ATX</a> standard and convert from <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> (AC) at between 120 and 277 <a href="/wiki/Volts" class="mw-redirect" title="Volts">volts</a> provided from a <a href="/wiki/Power_outlet" class="mw-redirect" title="Power outlet">power outlet</a> to <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> (DC) at a much lower voltage: typically 12, 5, or 3.3 volts.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motherboard">Motherboard</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Motherboard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Computer-motherboard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Computer-motherboard.jpg/220px-Computer-motherboard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Computer-motherboard.jpg/330px-Computer-motherboard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Computer-motherboard.jpg/440px-Computer-motherboard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Computer motherboard</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">Motherboard</a></div> <p>The motherboard is the main component of a computer. It is a board with <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuitry</a> that connects the other parts of the computer including the <a href="/wiki/CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPU</a>, the <a href="/wiki/RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="RAM">RAM</a>, the disk drives (<a href="/wiki/CD" class="mw-redirect" title="CD">CD</a>, <a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard disk">hard disk</a>, or any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_slot" class="mw-redirect" title="Expansion slot">expansion slots</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> (IC) chips in a computer typically contain billions of tiny <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor">metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors</a> (MOSFETs).<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory2018_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory2018-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Components directly attached to or to part of the motherboard include: </p> <ul><li>At least one <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a> (central processing unit), which performs most of the calculations that enable a computer to function.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20218_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20218-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be informally referred to as the brain of the computer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20219_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20219-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It takes program instructions from <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access memory</a> (RAM), interprets and processes them and then sends back results so that the relevant components can carry out the instructions. The CPU is a <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>, which is <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">fabricated</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> (IC) chip. It is usually <a href="/wiki/CPU_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU cooling">cooled</a> by a heatsink and fan, or water-cooling system. Many newer CPUs include an on-die <a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">graphics processing unit</a> (GPU). The <a href="/wiki/Clock_speed" class="mw-redirect" title="Clock speed">clock speed</a> of the CPU governs how fast it executes instructions and is measured in GHz; typical values lie between 1 GHz and 5 GHz.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There is also an increasing trend to add more cores to a processor—with each acting as if it were an independent processor—for increased parallelism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20219_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20219-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The internal bus connects the CPU to the main memory with several lines for simultaneous communication—typically 50 to 100—which are separated into those for addressing or memory, data, and command or control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202175_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202175-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although parallel buses used to be more common, serial buses with a <a href="/wiki/Serializer" class="mw-redirect" title="Serializer">serializer</a> to send more information over the same wire have become more common in the twenty-first century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202178_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202178-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computers with multiple processors will need an interconnection bus, usually managed by a <a href="/wiki/Northbridge_(computing)" title="Northbridge (computing)">northbridge</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Southbridge_(computing)" title="Southbridge (computing)">southbridge</a> manages communication with slower peripheral and I/O devices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202190_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202190-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">Random-access memory</a> (RAM), which stores the code and data that are being actively accessed by the CPU in a hierarchy based on when it is expected to be next used. <a href="/wiki/Processor_register" title="Processor register">Registers</a> are closest to the CPU but have very limited capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202147_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202147-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CPUs also typically have multiple areas of <a href="/wiki/Cache_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cache memory">cache memory</a> that have much more capacity than registers, but much less than main memory; they are slower to access than registers, but much faster than main memory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202149–50_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202149–50-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caching works by prefetching data before the CPU needs it, reducing latency.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202149–50_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202149–50-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201145_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHennessyPatterson201145-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the data the CPU needs is not in the cache, it can be accessed from main memory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202149–50_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202149–50-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cache_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cache memory">Cache memory</a> is typically <a href="/wiki/Static_random-access_memory" title="Static random-access memory">SRAM</a>, while the main memory is typically <a href="/wiki/DRAM" class="mw-redirect" title="DRAM">DRAM</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20213_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20213-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RAM is volatile, meaning its contents will disappear if the computer powers down.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202154_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202154-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Permanent storage or non-volatile memory is typically higher capacity and cheaper than memory, but takes much longer to access. Historically, such storage was typically provided in the form of a hard drive, but <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_drives" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state drives">solid-state drives</a> (SSD) are becoming cheaper and are much faster, thus leading to their increasing adoption. USB drives and network or cloud storage are also options.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202155–56_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202155–56-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">Read-only memory</a> (ROM), which stores the <a href="/wiki/BIOS" title="BIOS">BIOS</a> that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Bootstrapping_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bootstrapping (computing)">Bootstrapping</a>, or "<a href="/wiki/Booting" title="Booting">booting</a>" or "booting up”.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The ROM is typically a <a href="/wiki/Nonvolatile_BIOS_memory" title="Nonvolatile BIOS memory">nonvolatile BIOS memory</a> chip, which can only be written once with special technology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202155_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202155-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/BIOS" title="BIOS">BIOS</a> (Basic Input Output System) includes boot <a href="/wiki/Firmware" title="Firmware">firmware</a> and power management firmware. Newer motherboards use <a href="/wiki/Unified_Extensible_Firmware_Interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Unified Extensible Firmware Interface">Unified Extensible Firmware Interface</a> (UEFI) instead of BIOS.</li></ul></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> (complementary MOS) <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">battery</a>, which powers the <a href="/wiki/CMOS_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="CMOS memory">CMOS memory</a> for date and time in the BIOS chip. This battery is generally a <a href="/wiki/Watch_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Watch battery">watch battery</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFETs</a> make up the <a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator_module" title="Voltage regulator module">voltage regulator module</a> (VRM), which controls how much <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> other hardware components receive.<sup id="cite_ref-tomshardware_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tomshardware-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_cards">Expansion cards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Expansion cards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Expansion_card" title="Expansion card">Expansion card</a></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Expansion_card" title="Expansion card">expansion card</a> in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the expansion bus. Expansion cards can be used to obtain or expand on features not offered by the motherboard.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Using expansion cards for a video processor used to be common, but modern computers are more likely to instead have a GPU integrated into the motherboard.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2021121_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2021121-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Input/output"><span id="Input.2Foutput"></span>Input/output</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Input/output"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></div> <p>Most computers also have an external data bus to connect peripheral devices to the motherboard. Most commonly, <a href="/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Serial Bus">Universal Serial Bus</a> (USB) is used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202174_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202174-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the internal bus, the external bus is connected using a bus controller that allows the peripheral system to operate at a different speed from the CPU.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang202174_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang202174-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Input_device" title="Input device">Input</a> and <a href="/wiki/Output_device" title="Output device">output</a> devices are used to receive data from the external world or write data respectively. Common examples include keyboards and <a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">mice</a> (input) and displays and printers (output). <a href="/wiki/Network_interface_controller" title="Network interface controller">Network interface controllers</a> are used to access <a href="/wiki/The_Internet" class="mw-redirect" title="The Internet">the Internet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang20217_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20217-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> USB ports also allow power to connected devices—a standard USB supplies power at 5 volts and up to 500 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Milliamps&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Milliamps (page does not exist)">milliamps</a> (2.5 <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watts</a>), while powered USB ports with additional pins may allow the delivery of more power—up to 6 <a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">amps</a> at 24v.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWang2021116_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang2021116-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sales">Sales</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Global revenue from computer hardware in 2023 reached $705.17 billion.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recycling">Recycling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Recycling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer recycling">Computer recycling</a></div> <p>Because computer parts contain <a href="/wiki/Hazard" title="Hazard">hazardous</a> materials, there is a growing movement to recycle old and outdated parts.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computer hardware contain dangerous chemicals such as lead, mercury, nickel, and cadmium. According to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</a> these e-wastes have a harmful effect on the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a> unless they are disposed of properly. Making hardware requires energy, and <a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">recycling</a> parts will reduce air <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>, water pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Disposing unauthorized computer equipment is in fact illegal. Legislation makes it mandatory to <a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">recycle</a> computers through the <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a> approved facilities. Recycling a computer can be made easier by taking out certain reusable parts. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a>, DVD drive, the <a href="/wiki/Graphics_hardware" title="Graphics hardware">graphics card</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">hard drive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">SSD</a>, and other similar removable parts can be reused. </p><p>Many materials used in computer hardware can be recovered by recycling for use in future production. Reuse of <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum">aluminum</a>, and a variety of <a href="/wiki/Plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics">plastics</a> that are present in bulk in computers or other electronics can reduce the costs of constructing new systems. Components frequently contain <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">palladium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> as well as other valuable materials suitable for reclamation.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxic_computer_components">Toxic computer components</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Toxic computer components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> contains many toxic materials. It contains lead and chromium in the metal plates. Resistors, semiconductors, infrared detectors, stabilizers, cables, and wires contain cadmium. The circuit boards in a computer contain mercury, and chromium.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When these types of materials, and chemicals are disposed improperly will become hazardous for the environment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_effects">Environmental effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Environmental effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When e-waste byproducts leach into groundwater, are burned, or get mishandled during recycling, it causes harm. Health problems associated with such toxins include impaired mental development, cancer, and damage to the lungs, liver, and kidneys.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Computer components contain many toxic substances, like <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">dioxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">polychlorinated biphenyls</a> (PCBs), <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radioactive isotopes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>. Circuit boards contain considerable quantities of lead-tin solders that are more likely to leach into groundwater or create <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> due to incineration.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recycling of computer hardware is considered environmentally friendly because it prevents <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Toxic_heavy_metal" title="Toxic heavy metal">heavy metals</a> and carcinogens, from entering the atmosphere, landfill or waterways. While electronics consist a small fraction of total waste generated, they are far more dangerous. There is stringent legislation designed to enforce and encourage the sustainable disposal of appliances, the most notable being the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> and the United States National Computer Recycling Act.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efforts_for_minimizing_computer_hardware_waste">Efforts for minimizing computer hardware waste</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Efforts for minimizing computer hardware waste"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"<a href="/wiki/E-cycling" class="mw-redirect" title="E-cycling">E-cycling</a>", the recycling of computer hardware, refers to the donation, reuse, shredding and general collection of used electronics. Generically, the term refers to the process of collecting, brokering, disassembling, repairing and recycling the components or metals contained in used or discarded electronic equipment, otherwise known as <a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">electronic waste</a> (e-waste). "E-cyclable" items include, but are not limited to: televisions, computers, microwave ovens, vacuum cleaners, telephones and cellular phones, stereos, and VCRs and DVDs just about anything that has a cord, light or takes some kind of battery.<sup id="cite_ref-epa-ewaste-presentation_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-epa-ewaste-presentation-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some companies, such as <a href="/wiki/Dell" title="Dell">Dell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apple_Inc." title="Apple Inc.">Apple</a>, will recycle computers of their make or any other make. Otherwise, a computer can be donated to <a href="/wiki/Computer_Aid_International" title="Computer Aid International">Computer Aid International</a> which is an organization that recycles and refurbishes old computers for hospitals, schools, universities, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/28px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/42px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/56px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_hardware" title="Electronic hardware">Electronic hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_for_artificial_intelligence" title="Hardware for artificial intelligence">Hardware for artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_hardware_terms" title="Glossary of computer hardware terms">Glossary of computer hardware terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_hardware_manufacturers" title="List of computer hardware manufacturers">List of computer hardware manufacturers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_computing_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source computing hardware">Open-source computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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.citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited 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Microsoft. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131127145607/http://windows.microsoft.com/en-US/windows-vista/Parts-of-a-computer">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Business+Research+Company&rft.atitle=Computer+Hardware+Market+Size%2C+Trends+and+Global+Forecast+To+2032&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thebusinessresearchcompany.com%2Freport%2Fcomputer-hardware-global-market-report%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520global%2520computer%2520hardware%2520market%2Cleast%2520in%2520the%2520short%2520term.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/how-to-recycle-your-old-computer/">"How to recycle your old computer"</a>. <i>Digital Trends</i>. 18 December 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170417055533/http://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/how-to-recycle-your-old-computer/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Digital+Trends&rft.atitle=How+to+recycle+your+old+computer&rft.date=2016-12-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitaltrends.com%2Fcomputing%2Fhow-to-recycle-your-old-computer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170329142805/https://www.newtechrecycling.com/disposal/computer-recycling/computer-recycling.html">"Newtech Recycling Specializes in Computer Disposal, Laptop Disposal, Desktop Disposal Mainframe Disposal and Server Disposal"</a>. <i>Newtech Recycling, Inc</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newtechrecycling.com/disposal/computer-recycling/computer-recycling.html">the original</a> on 29 March 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Newtech+Recycling%2C+Inc.&rft.atitle=Newtech+Recycling+Specializes+in+Computer+Disposal%2C+Laptop+Disposal%2C+Desktop+Disposal+Mainframe+Disposal+and+Server+Disposal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newtechrecycling.com%2Fdisposal%2Fcomputer-recycling%2Fcomputer-recycling.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert-Tissot2011" class="citation web cs1">Robert-Tissot, Sarah (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170226021016/https://www.raci.org.au/document/item/488">"TANTALUM"</a>. <i>Royal Australian Chemical instatute</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.raci.org.au/document/item/488">the original</a> on 26 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Royal+Australian+Chemical+instatute&rft.atitle=TANTALUM&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Robert-Tissot&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.raci.org.au%2Fdocument%2Fitem%2F488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadilla2019" class="citation web cs1">Padilla, Abraham (February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/niobium/mcs-2019-tanta.pdf">"TANTALUM"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>United states geological survey</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Resource Recovery from Recycling"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>USGS</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Toxic+Components+of+Computers+and+Monitors&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsmallbusiness.chron.com%2Ftoxic-components-computers-monitors-69693.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.electronicstakeback.com/2015/05/28/whats-going-on-with-electronic-waste/">"What's Going On with Electronic Waste? – Electronics TakeBack Coalition"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427103038/http://www.electronicstakeback.com/2015/05/28/whats-going-on-with-electronic-waste/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What%27s+Going+On+with+Electronic+Waste%3F+%E2%80%93+Electronics+TakeBack+Coalition&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.electronicstakeback.com%2F2015%2F05%2F28%2Fwhats-going-on-with-electronic-waste%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToothman2008" class="citation web cs1">Toothman, Jessika (2 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://computer.howstuffworks.com/discarded-old-computer1.htm">"What Happens to your Discarded Old Computer?"</a>. <i>HowStuffWorks</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HowStuffWorks&rft.atitle=What+Happens+to+your+Discarded+Old+Computer%3F&rft.date=2008-06-02&rft.aulast=Toothman&rft.aufirst=Jessika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcomputer.howstuffworks.com%2Fdiscarded-old-computer1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">National Computer Recycling Act of 2005, H.R. 425, 109th Cong. (2005–2006)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-epa-ewaste-presentation-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-epa-ewaste-presentation_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._Gallo2013" class="citation web cs1">T. Gallo, Daniel (15 July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-05/documents/overview.pdf">"Broad Overview of E-Waste Management Policies in the U.S."</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.epa.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.epa.gov&rft.atitle=Broad+Overview+of+E-Waste+Management+Policies+in+the+U.S.&rft.date=2013-07-15&rft.aulast=T.+Gallo&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fsites%2Fproduction%2Ffiles%2F2014-05%2Fdocuments%2Foverview.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchofield2015" class="citation news cs1">Schofield, Jack (19 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/askjack/2015/feb/19/how-safely-recycle-old-pcs-computers">"How can I safely recycle my old PCs?"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427103349/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/askjack/2015/feb/19/how-safely-recycle-old-pcs-computers">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=How+can+I+safely+recycle+my+old+PCs%3F&rft.date=2015-02-19&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Schofield&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2Faskjack%2F2015%2Ffeb%2F19%2Fhow-safely-recycle-old-pcs-computers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlum2011" class="citation book cs1">Blum, Edward K. (2011). <i>Computer Science: The Hardware, Software and Heart of It</i>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-1168-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-1168-0"><bdi>978-1-4614-1168-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Science%3A+The+Hardware%2C+Software+and+Heart+of+It&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-1168-0&rft.aulast=Blum&rft.aufirst=Edward+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHennessyPatterson2011" class="citation book cs1">Hennessy, John L.; Patterson, David A. (2011). <i>Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach</i>. Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-383873-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-383873-5"><bdi>978-0-12-383873-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Architecture%3A+A+Quantitative+Approach&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-12-383873-5&rft.aulast=Hennessy&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft.au=Patterson%2C+David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendelson2022" class="citation book cs1">Mendelson, Avi (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-981-15-6401-7_1-1">"The Architecture"</a>. In Anupam Chattopadhyay (ed.). <i>Handbook of Computer Architecture</i>. Springer Nature. pp. 1–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-15-6401-7_1-1">10.1007/978-981-15-6401-7_1-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-15-6401-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-15-6401-7"><bdi>978-981-15-6401-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Architecture&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Computer+Architecture&rft.pages=1-42&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-15-6401-7_1-1&rft.isbn=978-981-15-6401-7&rft.aulast=Mendelson&rft.aufirst=Avi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Freferenceworkentry%2F10.1007%2F978-981-15-6401-7_1-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang2021" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Shuangbao Paul (2021). <i>Computer Architecture and Organization: Fundamentals and Architecture Security</i>. Springer Nature. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-16-5662-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-16-5662-0"><bdi>978-981-16-5662-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Architecture+and+Organization%3A+Fundamentals+and+Architecture+Security&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-981-16-5662-0&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Shuangbao+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+hardware" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_hardware&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span 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aria-labelledby="Basic_computer_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Basic computer components"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Basic_computer_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Basic <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">components</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Input_device" title="Input device">Input devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pointing_device" title="Pointing device">Pointing devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_tablet" title="Graphics tablet">Graphics tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_controller" title="Game controller">Game controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pen" title="Light pen">Light pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">Mouse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">Optical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_trackpad" title="Optical trackpad">Optical trackpad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pointing_stick" title="Pointing stick">Pointing stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touchpad" title="Touchpad">Touchpad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">Touchscreen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trackball" title="Trackball">Trackball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">Keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_scanner" title="Image scanner">Image scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">Graphics card</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">GPU</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">Microphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_card" title="Sound card">Sound card</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sound_chip" title="Sound chip">Sound chip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webcam" title="Webcam">Webcam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Softcam" title="Softcam">Softcam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Output_device" title="Output device">Output devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">Monitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_visual_display" title="Electronic visual display">Screen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">Printer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plotter" title="Plotter">Plotter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_speakers" title="Computer speakers">Speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_card" title="Sound card">Sound card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">Graphics card</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Removable_media" title="Removable media">Removable <br /> data storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disk_pack" title="Disk pack">Disk pack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_card" title="Memory card">Memory card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USB_flash_drive" title="USB flash drive">USB flash drive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_case" title="Computer case">Computer case</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">Central processing unit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">Motherboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">Memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonvolatile_BIOS_memory" title="Nonvolatile BIOS memory">BIOS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Data storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">HDD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">SSD</a> (<a href="/wiki/SATA" title="SATA">SATA</a> / <a href="/wiki/NVM_Express" title="NVM Express">NVMe</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_hybrid_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state hybrid drive">SSHD</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_supply_unit_(computer)" title="Power supply unit (computer)">Power supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply" title="Switched-mode power supply">SMPS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator_module" title="Voltage regulator module">VRM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_interface_controller" title="Network interface controller">Network interface controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax_modem" title="Fax modem">Fax modem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_card" title="Expansion card">Expansion card</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_port_(hardware)" title="Computer port (hardware)">Ports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USB" title="USB">USB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderbolt_(interface)" title="Thunderbolt (interface)">Thunderbolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phone_connector_(audio)" title="Phone connector (audio)">Analog audio jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DisplayPort" title="DisplayPort">DisplayPort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDMI" title="HDMI">HDMI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obsolete</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_1394" title="IEEE 1394">FireWire</a> (IEEE 1394)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_port" title="Parallel port">Parallel port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_port" title="Serial port">Serial port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_port" title="Game port">Game port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PS/2_port" title="PS/2 port">PS/2 port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_ATA#eSATA" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial ATA">eSATA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Visual_Interface" title="Digital Visual Interface">DVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VGA_connector" title="VGA connector">VGA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Computer_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Computer_science" title="Template:Computer science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_science" title="Template talk:Computer science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Computer science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Computer_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Note: This template roughly follows the 2012 <a href="/wiki/ACM_Computing_Classification_System" title="ACM Computing Classification System">ACM Computing Classification System</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hardware</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_Large_Scale_Integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very Large Scale Integration">Very Large Scale Integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_on_a_chip" title="System on a chip">Systems on Chip (SoCs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_computing" title="Green computing">Energy consumption (Green computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processor_(computing)" title="Processor (computing)">Processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories" title="List of computer size categories">Size</a> / <a href="/wiki/Form_factor_(design)" title="Form factor (design)">Form</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Computer systems organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity" title="Computational complexity">Computational complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependability" title="Dependability">Dependability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">Real-time computing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Network_architecture" title="Network architecture">Network architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Network protocol">Network protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Network components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_scheduler" title="Network scheduler">Network scheduler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_performance" title="Network performance">Network performance evaluation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_service" title="Network service">Network service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middleware" title="Middleware">Middleware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine">Virtual machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_quality" title="Software quality">Software quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language_theory" title="Programming language theory">Software notations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Programming_tool" title="Programming tool">tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compiler_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Compiler construction">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">Domain-specific language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework">Software framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Software library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_repository" title="Software repository">Software repository</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software_development" title="Software development">Software development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Control variable (programming)">Control variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_development_process" title="Software development process">Software development process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Requirements_analysis" title="Requirements analysis">Requirements analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software design">Software design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_construction" title="Software construction">Software construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_deployment" title="Software deployment">Software deployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_maintenance" title="Software maintenance">Software maintenance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_team" title="Programming team">Programming team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_software" title="Open-source software">Open-source model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">Theory of computation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_of_computation" title="Model of computation">Model of computation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_computing" title="Stochastic computing">Stochastic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_language" title="Formal language">Formal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automata_theory" title="Automata theory">Automata theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">Computational complexity theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">Semantics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">Algorithms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithm_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Algorithm design">Algorithm design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms" title="Analysis of algorithms">Analysis of algorithms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_efficiency" title="Algorithmic efficiency">Algorithmic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_algorithm" title="Randomized algorithm">Randomized algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_geometry" title="Computational geometry">Computational geometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics of <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">Discrete mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_software" title="Mathematical software">Mathematical software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">Information theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">Mathematical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_analysis" title="Numerical analysis">Numerical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">Theoretical computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Information_system" title="Information system">Information systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database management system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Information storage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_information_system" title="Enterprise information system">Enterprise information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_software" title="Social software">Social information systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decision_support_system" title="Decision support system">Decision support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Process control">Process control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_database" title="Multimedia database">Multimedia information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_mining" title="Data mining">Data mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">Digital library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computing_platform" title="Computing platform">Computing platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_marketing" title="Digital marketing">Digital marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_retrieval" title="Information retrieval">Information retrieval</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Security</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_methods" title="Formal methods">Formal methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_hacker" title="Security hacker">Security hacker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_service_(telecommunication)" title="Security service (telecommunication)">Security services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system" title="Intrusion detection system">Intrusion detection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_security" title="Hardware security">Hardware security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_security" title="Network security">Network security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">Information security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application_security" title="Application security">Application security</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_design" title="Interaction design">Interaction design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_computing" title="Social computing">Social computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing" title="Ubiquitous computing">Ubiquitous computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visualization_(graphics)" title="Visualization (graphics)">Visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_accessibility" title="Computer accessibility">Accessibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">Concurrency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">Parallel computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">Distributed computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multithreading_(computer_architecture)" title="Multithreading (computer architecture)">Multithreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning" title="Knowledge representation and reasoning">Knowledge representation and reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automated_planning_and_scheduling" title="Automated planning and scheduling">Automated planning and scheduling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Search methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_artificial_intelligence" title="Distributed artificial intelligence">Distributed artificial intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">Machine learning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_learning" title="Supervised learning">Supervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsupervised_learning" title="Unsupervised learning">Unsupervised learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_learning" title="Reinforcement learning">Reinforcement learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-task_learning" title="Multi-task learning">Multi-task learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation (statistics)">Cross-validation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">Rendering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processing unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_reality" title="Mixed reality">Mixed reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">Virtual reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">Image compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_modeling" title="Solid modeling">Solid modeling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied computing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_Computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum Computing">Quantum Computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">E-commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterprise_software" title="Enterprise software">Enterprise software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_mathematics" title="Computational mathematics">Computational mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_social_science" title="Computational social science">Computational social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_engineering" title="Computational engineering">Computational engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Differentiable_computing" title="Template:Differentiable computing">Differentiable computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">Computational healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">Electronic publishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voting" title="Electronic voting">Electronic voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_technology" title="Educational technology">Educational technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Computer_science" title="Category:Computer science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science" title="Outline of computer science">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Template:Glossaries_of_computers" title="Template:Glossaries of computers">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Digital_electronics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Digital_electronics" title="Template:Digital electronics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Digital_electronics" title="Template talk:Digital electronics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Digital_electronics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Digital electronics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Digital_electronics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">Digital electronics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Components</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">Electronic circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)" title="Flip-flop (electronics)">Flip-flop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinational_logic" title="Combinational logic">Combinational logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_logic" title="Sequential logic">Sequential logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">Logic gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boolean_circuit" title="Boolean circuit">Boolean circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> (IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">Hybrid integrated circuit</a> (HIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">Mixed-signal integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a> (3D IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emitter-coupled_logic" title="Emitter-coupled logic">Emitter-coupled logic</a> (ECL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasable_programmable_logic_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Erasable programmable logic device">Erasable programmable logic device</a> (EPLD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrocell_array" title="Macrocell array">Macrocell array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_array" title="Programmable logic array">Programmable logic array</a> (PLA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_device" title="Programmable logic device">Programmable logic device</a> (PLD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_Array_Logic" title="Programmable Array Logic">Programmable Array Logic</a> (PAL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_Array_Logic" title="Generic Array Logic">Generic Array Logic</a> (GAL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_programmable_logic_device" title="Complex programmable logic device">Complex programmable logic device</a> (CPLD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array" title="Field-programmable gate array">Field-programmable gate array</a> (FPGA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-programmable_object_array" title="Field-programmable object array">Field-programmable object array</a> (FPOA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit" title="Application-specific integrated circuit">Application-specific integrated circuit</a> (ASIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensor_Processing_Unit" title="Tensor Processing Unit">Tensor Processing Unit</a> (TPU)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">Digital signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_synthesis" title="Logic synthesis">Logic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_(signal_processing)" title="Digital signal (signal processing)">Digital signal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">Digital signal processing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_minimization_for_Boolean_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit minimization for Boolean functions">Circuit minimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switching_circuit_theory" title="Switching circuit theory">Switching circuit theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_equivalent" title="Gate equivalent">Gate equivalent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electronics_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronics design">Design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_synthesis" title="Logic synthesis">Logic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_and_route" title="Place and route">Place and route</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Placement_(electronic_design_automation)" title="Placement (electronic design automation)">Placement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Routing_(electronic_design_automation)" title="Routing (electronic design automation)">Routing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transaction-level_modeling" title="Transaction-level modeling">Transaction-level modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register-transfer_level" title="Register-transfer level">Register-transfer level</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_description_language" title="Hardware description language">Hardware description language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_synthesis" title="High-level synthesis">High-level synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_equivalence_checking" title="Formal equivalence checking">Formal equivalence checking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_circuit" title="Synchronous circuit">Synchronous logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_circuit" title="Asynchronous circuit">Asynchronous logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite-state_machine" title="Finite-state machine">Finite-state machine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_state_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical state machine">Hierarchical state machine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Computer hardware</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">Digital audio</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">radio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_photography" title="Digital photography">Digital photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephony#Digital_telephony" title="Telephony">Digital telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_video" title="Digital video">Digital video</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_cinematography" title="Digital cinematography">cinematography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_literature" title="Electronic literature">Electronic literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Design issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metastability_(electronics)" title="Metastability (electronics)">Metastability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runt_pulse" title="Runt pulse">Runt pulse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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