CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="Yes"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Activity Against Microbes | Discover Nano</title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Activity Against Microbes"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Discover Nano - Zinc oxide is an essential ingredient of many enzymes, sun screens, and ointments for pain and itch relief. Its microcrystals are very efficient light absorbers in the UVA and UVB..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figa_HTML.gif"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="11671"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Activity Against Microbes"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Nanoscale Research Letters 2018 13:1"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2018-05-08"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="ReviewPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2018 The Author(s)."/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2018 The Author(s)."/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="Zinc oxide is an essential ingredient of many enzymes, sun screens, and ointments for pain and itch relief. Its microcrystals are very efficient light absorbers in the UVA and UVB region of spectra due to wide bandgap. Impact of zinc oxide on biological functions depends on its morphology, particle size, exposure time, concentration, pH, and biocompatibility. They are more effective against microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina lutea, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas vulgaris, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger. Mechanism of action has been ascribed to the activation of zinc oxide nanoparticles by light, which penetrate the bacterial cell wall via diffusion. It has been confirmed from SEM and TEM images of the bacterial cells that zinc oxide nanoparticles disintegrate the cell membrane and accumulate in the cytoplasm where they interact with biomolecules causing cell apoptosis leading to cell death."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1556-276X"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Nanoscale Research Letters"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2018-05-08"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="13"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="ReviewPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="1"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="13"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2018 The Author(s)."/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Nanoscale Research Letters"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Nanoscale Res Lett"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer US"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1556-276X"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Activity Against Microbes"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="13"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2018/12"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2018/05/08"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="1"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="13"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Nano Review"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content=""/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3"/> <meta name="size" content="298188"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="Zinc oxide is an essential ingredient of many enzymes, sun screens, and ointments for pain and itch relief. Its microcrystals are very efficient light abso"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Siddiqi, Khwaja Salahuddin"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="ur Rahman, Aziz"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Tajuddin"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Husen, Azamal"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Nanotechnology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Nanotechnology and Microengineering"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Nanoscale Science and Technology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Nanochemistry"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Molecular Medicine"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nano Res Lett; citation_title=Phytosynthesis of nanoparticles: concept, controversy and application; citation_author=A Husen, KS Siddiqi; citation_volume=9; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=229; citation_doi=10.1186/1556-276X-9-229; citation_id=CR1"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nanobiotechnol; citation_title=Plants and microbes assisted selenium nanoparticles: characterization and application; citation_author=A Husen, KS Siddiqi; citation_volume=12; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=28; citation_doi=10.1186/s12951-014-0028-6; citation_id=CR2"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nanobiotechnol; citation_title=Carbon and fullerene nanomaterials in plant system; citation_author=A Husen, KS Siddiqi; citation_volume=12; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=16; citation_doi=10.1186/1477-3155-12-16; citation_id=CR3"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nano Res Lett; citation_title=Fabrication of metal nanoparticles from fungi and metal salts: scope and application; citation_author=KS Siddiqi, A Husen; citation_volume=11; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=98; citation_doi=10.1186/s11671-016-1311-2; citation_id=CR4"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nano Res Lett; citation_title=Fabrication of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles by algae and their toxic effects; citation_author=KS Siddiqi, A Husen; citation_volume=11; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=363; citation_doi=10.1186/s11671-016-1580-9; citation_id=CR5"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nano Res Lett; citation_title=Engineered gold nanoparticles and plant adaptation potential; citation_author=KS Siddiqi, A Husen; citation_volume=11; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=400; citation_doi=10.1186/s11671-016-1607-2; citation_id=CR6"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nano Res Lett; citation_title=Green synthesis, characterization and uses of palladium/platinum nanoparticles; citation_author=KS Siddiqi, A Husen; citation_volume=11; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=482; citation_doi=10.1186/s11671-016-1695-z; citation_id=CR7"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nano Res Lett; citation_title=Biogenic fabrication of iron/iron oxide nanoparticles and their application; citation_author=KS Siddiqi, A Rahman, null Tajuddin, A Husen; citation_volume=11; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=498; citation_doi=10.1186/s11671-016-1714-0; citation_id=CR8"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Trace Elements Med Biol; citation_title=Recent advances in plant-mediated engineered gold nanoparticles and their application in biological system; citation_author=KS Siddiqi, A Husen; citation_volume=40; citation_publication_date=2017; citation_pages=10-23; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.11.012; citation_id=CR9"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nanobiotechnol; citation_title=A review on biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their biocidal properties; citation_author=KS Siddiqi, A Husen, RAK Rao; citation_volume=16; citation_publication_date=2018; citation_pages=14; citation_doi=10.1186/s12951-018-0334-5; citation_id=CR10"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Biotechnol Adv; citation_title=Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials; citation_author=M Rai, A Yadav, A Gade; citation_volume=27; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=76-83; citation_doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.09.002; citation_id=CR11"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Microbiol Methods; citation_title=Quantitative evaluation of antibacterial activities of metallic oxide powders (ZnO, MgO and CaO) by conductimetric assay; citation_author=J Sawai; citation_volume=54; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_pages=177-182; citation_doi=10.1016/S0167-7012(03)00037-X; citation_id=CR12"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nutr; citation_title=Zinc oxide protects cultured enterocytes from the damage induced by Escherichia coli; citation_author=M Roselli, A Finamore, I Garaguso, MS Britti, E Mengheri; citation_volume=133; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_pages=4077-4082; citation_doi=10.1093/jn/133.12.4077; citation_id=CR13"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Husen A (2017) Gold nanoparticles from plant system: Synthesis, characterization and their application, In: Nanoscience and Plant–Soil Systems Vol.–48 (Eds. Ghorbanpourn M, Manika K, Varma A) Springer International Publishing AG, Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland, pp.455–479"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Food Add Cont: Part A; citation_title=Applications and implications of nanotechnologies for the food sector; citation_author=Q Chaudhry, M Scotter, J Blackburn, B Ross, A Boxall, L Castle, R Aitken, R Watkins; citation_volume=25; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=241-258; citation_doi=10.1080/02652030701744538; citation_id=CR15"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nutr Biochem; citation_title=Zinc and diabetes—clinical links and molecular mechanisms; citation_author=J Jansen, W Karges, L Rink; citation_volume=20; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=399-417; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jnutbio.2009.01.009; citation_id=CR16"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Biochem Biophys Res Commun; citation_title=Zinc protects cyclophosphamide-induced testicular damage in rat: involvement of metallothionein, tesmin and Nrf2; citation_author=KP Maremanda, S Khan, G Jena; citation_volume=445; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=591-596; citation_doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.055; citation_id=CR17"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Eur J Pharmacol; citation_title=Zinc oxide nanoparticles, a novel candidate for the treatment of allergic inflammatory diseases; citation_author=MH Kim, JH Seo, HM Kim, HJ Jeong; citation_volume=738; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=31-39; citation_doi=10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.05.030; citation_id=CR18"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Na Rev Neurosci; citation_title=The neurobiology of zinc in health and disease; citation_author=CJ Frederickson, JY Koh, AI Bush; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_pages=449-462; citation_doi=10.1038/nrn1671; citation_id=CR19"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Medicine in the days of the pharaohs; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_id=CR20; citation_author=B Halioua; citation_author=B Ziskind; citation_publisher=Press of Harvard University Press"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Appl Phys; citation_title=A comprehensive review of ZnO materials and devices; citation_author=U Ozgur, IA Ya, C Liu, A Teke, MA Reshchikov, S Doğan, V Avrutin, SJ Cho, H Morkoç; citation_volume=98; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_pages=041301; citation_doi=10.1063/1.1992666; citation_id=CR21"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Klingshirn C ZnO: from basics towards applications. Phys Status Solidi 244:3027–3073"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Use of an antimicrobial agent. European patent; citation_publication_date=1999; citation_id=CR23; citation_author=TP De Graaf; citation_author=E Galley; citation_author=KE Butcher"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Dry deodorant containinga sesquiterpene alcohol and zinc oxide; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_id=CR24; citation_author=J Brahms; citation_author=J Mattai; citation_author=R Jacoby; citation_author=S Chopra; citation_author=E Guenin"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Chemical and process design handbook; citation_publication_date=2002; citation_id=CR25; citation_author=JG Speight; citation_publisher=McGraw Hill, Inc."/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Zinc oxide: properties and applications; citation_publication_date=1976; citation_id=CR26; citation_author=HE Brown; citation_publisher=International Lead Zinc Research Organization"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Food Sci; citation_title=Sensory trial to assess the acceptability of zinc fortificants added to iron-fortified wheat products; citation_author=D Lopes de Romana, KH Brown, JX Guinard; citation_volume=67; citation_publication_date=2002; citation_pages=461-465; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb11429.x; citation_id=CR27"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Coll Surf A; citation_title=Zinc oxide nanoparticles incorporated in ultrathin layer silicate films and their photocatalytic properties; citation_author=T Szabo, J Nemeth, I Dekany; citation_volume=230; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_pages=23-35; citation_doi=10.1016/j.colsurfa.2003.09.010; citation_id=CR28"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Industrial inorganic pigments; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_id=CR29; citation_author=G Auer; citation_author=WD Griebler; citation_author=B Jahn; citation_publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Macromol Symp; citation_title=Various ways to reduce zinc oxide levels in S-SBR rubber compounds; citation_author=G Heideman, JWM Noordermeer, RN Datta, WM Noordermeer, B van Baarle; citation_volume=245-246; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_pages=657-667; citation_doi=10.1002/masy.200651393; citation_id=CR30"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Handbook of inorganic chemicals; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_id=CR31; citation_author=P Patnaik; citation_publisher=McGraw Hill"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=BioMed Res Inter; citation_title=Pharmacokinetic and toxicological evaluation of a zinc gluconate-based chemical sterilant using in vitro and in silico approaches; citation_author=CF Araujo-Lima, RJM Nunes, RM Carpes, FAF Aiub, I Felzenszwalb; citation_volume=2017; citation_publication_date=2017; citation_pages=5746768; citation_doi=10.1155/2017/5746768; citation_id=CR32"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Mater Lett; citation_title=Solvothermal synthesis and photoluminescence properties of ZnO nanorods and nanorod assemblies from ZnO2 nanoparticles; citation_author=TX Wang, TJ Lou; citation_volume=62; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=2329-2331; citation_doi=10.1016/j.matlet.2007.11.083; citation_id=CR33"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Catal; citation_title=Topotactic synthesis of mesoporous ZnS and ZnO nanoplates and their photocatalytic activity; citation_author=JS Jang, CJ Yu, SH Choi, SM Ji, ES Kim, JS Lee; citation_volume=254; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=144-155; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jcat.2007.12.010; citation_id=CR34"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Synth React Inorg Met Org Chem Nano-Met Chem; citation_title=Nanostructure of ZnO fabricated via french process and its correlation to electrical properties of semiconducting varistors; citation_author=S Mahmud, M Johar, PGA Abdullah, J Chong, AK Mohamad; citation_volume=36; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_pages=155-159; citation_doi=10.1080/15533170500524462; citation_id=CR35"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Sol-Gel Sci Technol; citation_title=Fabrication of mesoporous ZnO nanosheets from precursor templates grown in aqueous solutions; citation_author=K Kakiuchi, E Hosono, T Kimura, H Imai, S Fujihara; citation_volume=39; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_pages=63-72; citation_doi=10.1007/s10971-006-6321-6; citation_id=CR36"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Mahmud S, Abdullah MJ (2006) Nanotripods of zinc oxide, IEEE Conf. Emerging Technol.—Nanoelectron pp. 442–446"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Mater Chem Phys; citation_title=Control on the morphologies of tetrapod ZnO nanocrystals; citation_author=L Shen, H Zhang, S Guo; citation_volume=114; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=580-583; citation_doi=10.1016/j.matchemphys.2008.10.004; citation_id=CR38"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Micron; citation_title=Structures of planar defects in ZnO nanobelts and nanowires; citation_author=Y Ding, ZL Wang; citation_volume=40; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=335-342; citation_doi=10.1016/j.micron.2008.10.008; citation_id=CR39"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Mater Tod; citation_title=Nanostructures of zinc oxide; citation_author=ZL Wang; citation_volume=7; citation_publication_date=2004; citation_pages=26-33; citation_doi=10.1016/S1369-7021(04)00286-X; citation_id=CR40"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Phys Condens Mat; citation_title=Zinc oxide nanostructures: growth, properties and applications; citation_author=ZL Wang; citation_volume=16; citation_publication_date=2004; citation_pages=R829-R858; citation_doi=10.1088/0953-8984/16/25/R01; citation_id=CR41"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Dalton Trans; citation_title=Aqueous pathways for the formation of zinc oxide nanoparticles; citation_author=A Moezzi, M Cortie, A McDonagh; citation_volume=40; citation_publication_date=2011; citation_pages=4871-4878; citation_doi=10.1039/c0dt01748e; citation_id=CR42"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Mater Chem Phys; citation_title=Morphology control of ZnO particles via aqueous solution route at low temperature; citation_author=J Xie, P Li, Y Li, Y Wang, Y Wei; citation_volume=114; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=943-947; citation_doi=10.1016/j.matchemphys.2008.11.007; citation_id=CR43"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Active and intelligent packaging for milk and milk products; citation_inbook_title=Engineering aspects of milk and dairy products; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=175-199; citation_id=CR44; citation_author=NFF Soares; citation_author=CAS Silva; citation_author=P Santiago-Silva; citation_author=PJP Espitia; citation_author=MPJC Gonçalves; citation_author=MJG Lopez; citation_author=J Miltz; citation_author=MA Cerqueira; citation_author=AA Vicente; citation_author=J Teixeira; citation_author=WA da Silva; citation_author=DA Botrel; citation_publisher=CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group pp"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nutr; citation_title=Zinc status in human immunodeficiency virus infection; citation_author=MK Baum, G Shor-Posner, A Campa; citation_volume=130; citation_publication_date=2000; citation_pages=1421S-1423S; citation_doi=10.1093/jn/130.5.1421S; citation_id=CR45"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Water Res; citation_title=Effect of zinc on viral-host interactions in a rainbow trout cell line, RTG-2; citation_author=JM Hiller, A Perlmutter; citation_volume=5; citation_publication_date=1971; citation_pages=703-710; citation_doi=10.1016/0043-1354(71)90092-3; citation_id=CR46"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Food Control; citation_title=New EU regulation aspects and global market of active and intelligent packaging for food industry applications; citation_author=D Restuccia, UG Spizzirri, OI Parisi, G Giuseppe Cirillo, F Iemma, F Puoci, G Vinci, N Picci; citation_volume=21; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=1425-1435; citation_doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.04.028; citation_id=CR47"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Food Bioprocess Technol; citation_title=Zinc oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, antimicrobial activity and food packaging application; citation_author=PJP Espitia, NFF Soares, JSR Coimbra, NJ Andrade, RS Cruz, EAA Medeiros; citation_volume=5; citation_publication_date=2015; citation_pages=1447-1464; citation_doi=10.1007/s11947-012-0797-6; citation_id=CR48"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Sci Total Environ; citation_title=In vitro evaluation of cytotoxicity of engineered metal oxide nanoparticles; citation_author=X Hu, S Cook, P Wang, HM Hwang; citation_volume=407; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=3070-3072; citation_doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.01.033; citation_id=CR49"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=PLoS One; citation_title=Effects of long-term exposure to zinc oxide nanoparticles on development, zinc metabolism and biodistribution of minerals (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn) in mice; citation_author=C Wang, J Lu, L Zhou, J Li, J Xu, W Li, L Zhang, X Zhong, T Wang; citation_volume=11; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0164434; citation_id=CR50"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nanotoxicology; citation_title=Organ biodistribution, clearance, and genotoxicity of orally administered zinc oxide nanoparticles in mice; citation_author=CH Li, CC Shen, YW Cheng, SH Huang, CC Wu, CC Kao, JW Liao, JJ Kang; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=746-756; citation_doi=10.3109/17435390.2011.620717; citation_id=CR51"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="Singh A, Singh NB, Afzal S, Singh T, Hussain I (2017) Zinc oxide nanoparticles: a review of their biological synthesis, antimicrobial activity, uptake, translocation and biotransformation in plants. J Mater Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-017-1544-1 "/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Environ Health Perspect; citation_title=Oxidative stress in toxicology: established mammalian and emerging piscine model systems; citation_author=SA Kelly, CM Havrilla, TC Brady, KH Abramo, ED Levin; citation_volume=106; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_pages=375-384; citation_doi=10.1289/ehp.98106375; citation_id=CR53"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Biochim Biophys Acta; citation_title=Lipid peroxidation, antioxidant protection and aging; citation_author=LE Rikans, KR Hornbrook; citation_volume=1362; citation_publication_date=1997; citation_pages=116-127; citation_doi=10.1016/S0925-4439(97)00067-7; citation_id=CR54"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nanopart Res; citation_title=Investigation into the antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO nanofluids); citation_author=L Zhang, Y Jiang, Y Ding, M Povey, D York; citation_volume=9; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=479-489; citation_doi=10.1007/s11051-006-9150-1; citation_id=CR55"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Ferment Bioeng; citation_title=Hydrogen peroxide as an antibacterial factor in zinc oxide powder slurry; citation_author=J Sawai, S Shoji, H Igarashi, A Hashimoto, T Kokugan, M Shimizu, H Kojima; citation_volume=86; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_pages=521-522; citation_doi=10.1016/S0922-338X(98)80165-7; citation_id=CR56"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Environ Pollut; citation_title=Phytotoxicity of nanoparticles: inhibition of seed germination and root growth; citation_author=D Lin, B Xing; citation_volume=150; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=243-250; citation_doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2007.01.016; citation_id=CR57"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Environ Toxicol Chem; citation_title=Bio-tests and biosensors in ecotoxicological risk assessment of field soils polluted with zinc, lead and cadmium; citation_author=A Kahru, A Ivask, K Kasemets, L Pollumaa, I Kurvet, M François, HC Dubourguier; citation_volume=24; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_pages=2973-2982; citation_doi=10.1897/05-002R1.1; citation_id=CR58"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Chemosphere; citation_title=Toxicity of nanosized and bulk ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to bacteria Vibrio fischeri and crustaceans Daphnia magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus; citation_author=M Heinlaan, A Ivask, I Blinova, HC Dubourguier, A Kahru; citation_volume=71; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=1308-1316; citation_doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.11.047; citation_id=CR59"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Gen J Virol; citation_title=A small percentage of influenza virus M1 protein contains zinc but zinc does not influence in vitro M1 RNA interaction; citation_author=C Elster, E Fourest, F Baudin, K Larsen, S Cusack, RW Ruigrok; citation_volume=75; citation_publication_date=1994; citation_pages=37-42; citation_doi=10.1099/0022-1317-75-1-37; citation_id=CR60"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Biochemistry; citation_title=Zn2+ promotes the self-association of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 integrase in vitro; citation_author=SP Lee, J Xiao, JR Knutson, MS Lewis, MK Han; citation_volume=36; citation_publication_date=1997; citation_pages=173-180; citation_doi=10.1021/bi961849o; citation_id=CR61"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Water Res; citation_title=Comparative eco-toxicity of nanoscale TiO2, SiO2, and ZnO water suspensions; citation_author=LK Adams, DY Lyon, PJJ Alvarez; citation_volume=40; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_pages=3527-3532; citation_doi=10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.004; citation_id=CR62"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nano Lett; citation_title=Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium; citation_author=R Brayner, R Ferrari-Iliou, N Brivois, S Djediat, MF Benedetti, F Fiévet; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_pages=866-870; citation_doi=10.1021/nl052326h; citation_id=CR63"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Langmuir; citation_title=Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal agents; citation_author=PK Stoimenov, RL Klinger, GL Marchin, KJ Klabunde; citation_volume=18; citation_publication_date=2002; citation_pages=6679-6686; citation_doi=10.1021/la0202374; citation_id=CR64"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Mater Sci Mater Med; citation_title=Effect of lattice constant of zinc oxide on antibacterial characteristics; citation_author=O Yamamoto, M Komatsu, J Sawai, ZE Nakagawa; citation_volume=15; citation_publication_date=2004; citation_pages=847-851; citation_doi=10.1023/B:JMSM.0000036271.35440.36; citation_id=CR65"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nanomedicine; citation_title=Selective toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles toward Gram-positive bacteria and cancer cells by apoptosis through lipid peroxidation; citation_author=M Premanathan, K Karthikeyan, K Jeyasubramanian, G Manivannan; citation_volume=7; citation_publication_date=2011; citation_pages=184-192; citation_doi=10.1016/j.nano.2010.10.001; citation_id=CR66"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Chem Biol; citation_title=Unmodified cadmium telluride quantum dots induce reactive oxygen species formation leading to multiple organelle damage and cell death; citation_author=J Lovric, SJ Cho, FM Winnik, D Maysinger; citation_volume=12; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_pages=1227-1234; citation_doi=10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.09.008; citation_id=CR67"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nano Lett; citation_title=Comparison of the abilities of ambient and manufactured nanoparticles to induce cellular toxicity according to an oxidative stress paradigm; citation_author=T Xia, M Kovochich, J Brant, M Hotze, J Sempf, T Oberley, C Sioutas, JI Yeh, MR Wiesner, AE Nel; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_pages=1794-1807; citation_doi=10.1021/nl061025k; citation_id=CR68"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Environ Sci Technol; citation_title=Titanium dioxide (P25) produces reactive oxygen species in immortalized brain microglia (BV2): implications for nanoparticle neurotoxicity; citation_author=TC Long, N Saleh, RD Tilton, GV Lowry, B Veronesi; citation_volume=40; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_pages=4346-4352; citation_doi=10.1021/es060589n; citation_id=CR69"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nanomedicine; citation_title=Topical application of zinc oxide nanoparticles reduces bacterial skin infection in mice and exhibits antibacterial activity by inducing oxidative stress response and cell membrane disintegration in macrophages; citation_author=R Pati, RK Mehta, S Mohanty, A Padhi, M Sengupta, B Vaseeharan, C Goswami, A Sonawane; citation_volume=10; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=1195-1208; citation_doi=10.1016/j.nano.2014.02.012; citation_id=CR70"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nano Res Lett; citation_title=Plant response to engineered metal oxide nanoparticles; citation_author=KS Siddiqi, A Husen; citation_volume=12; citation_publication_date=2017; citation_pages=92; citation_doi=10.1186/s11671-017-1861-y; citation_id=CR71"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Appl Microbiol; citation_title=Antibacterial activities of zinc oxide nanoparticles against Escherichia coli O157:H7; citation_author=Y Liu, L He, A Mustapha, H Li, ZQ Hu, M Lin; citation_volume=107; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=1193-1201; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04303.x; citation_id=CR72"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Phys Chem B; citation_title=Differential susceptibility of Escherichia coli cells toward transition metal-doped and matrix-embedded ZnO nanoparticles; citation_author=RK Dutta, PK Sharma, R Bhargave, N Kumar, AC Pandey; citation_volume=114; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=5594-5599; citation_doi=10.1021/jp1004488; citation_id=CR73"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Biomed Mater Res B; citation_title=ZnO nanoparticles enhanced antibacterial activity of ciprofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli; citation_author=M Banoee, S Seif, ZE Nazari, P Jafari-Fesharaki, HR Shahverdi, A Moballegh, KM Moghaddam, AR Shahverdi; citation_volume=93B; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=557-561; citation_doi=10.1002/jbm.b.31615; citation_id=CR74"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Sci Total Environ; citation_title=Microbial toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles (CuO, NiO, ZnO, and Sb2O3) to Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Streptococcus aureus; citation_author=YW Baek, YJ An; citation_volume=409; citation_publication_date=2011; citation_pages=1603-1608; citation_doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.01.014; citation_id=CR75"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_title=Toxicity of metal and metal oxide nanoparticle; citation_inbook_title=Handbook on the toxicology of metals; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=75-112; citation_id=CR76; citation_author=HL Karlsson; citation_author=MS Toprak; citation_author=B Fadeel; citation_publisher=Academic Press pp"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Part Fibre Toxicol; citation_title=Progressive severe lung injury by zinc oxide nanoparticles; the role of Zn2+ dissolution inside lysosomes; citation_author=WS Cho, R Duffin, SE Howie, CJ Scotton, WA Wallace, W Macnee, M Bradley, IL Megson, K Donaldson; citation_volume=8; citation_publication_date=2011; citation_pages=27; citation_doi=10.1186/1743-8977-8-27; citation_id=CR77"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=PLoS One; citation_title=Gene expression profiling of immune-competent human cells exposed to engineered zinc oxide or titanium dioxide nanoparticles; citation_author=S Tuomela, R Autio, T Buerki-Thurnherr, O Arslan, A Kunzmann, B Andersson-Willman, P Wick, S Mathur, A Scheynius, HF Krug, B Fadeel, R Lahesmaa; citation_volume=8; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0068415; citation_id=CR78"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nanosci Nanotechnol; citation_title=Nanoscale ZnO induces cytotoxicity and DNA damage in human cell lines and rat primary neuronal cells; citation_author=HM Chiang, Q Xia, X Zou, C Wang, S Wang, BJ Miller, PC Howard, JJ Yin, FA Beland, H Yu, PP Fu; citation_volume=12; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=2126-2135; citation_doi=10.1166/jnn.2012.5758; citation_id=CR79"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=IET Nanobiotechnol; citation_title=Biogenic synthsis of nanostructured iron compound: applications and perspectives; citation_author=AB Seabra, P Haddad, N Duran; citation_volume=7; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_pages=90-99; citation_doi=10.1049/iet-nbt.2012.0047; citation_id=CR80"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Apoptosis; citation_title=Zinc oxide nanoparticles induce oxidative DNA damage and ROS-triggered mitochondria mediated apoptosis in human liver cells (HepG2); citation_author=V Sharma, D Anderson, A Dhawan; citation_volume=17; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=852-870; citation_doi=10.1007/s10495-012-0705-6; citation_id=CR81"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Int J Nanomedicine; citation_title=Antimicrobial activity of metal oxide nanoparticles against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria: a comparative study; citation_author=A Azam, AS Ahmed, M Oves, MS Khan, SS Habib, A Memic; citation_volume=7; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=6003-6009; citation_doi=10.2147/IJN.S35347; citation_id=CR82"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Int J Inorg Mater; citation_title=Influence of particle size on the antibacterial activity of zinc oxide; citation_author=O Yamamoto; citation_volume=3; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_pages=643-646; citation_doi=10.1016/S1466-6049(01)00197-0; citation_id=CR83"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Small; citation_title=Cellular uptake and toxicity of Au55 clusters; citation_author=M Tsoli, H Kuhn, W Brandau, H Esche, G Schmid; citation_volume=1; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_pages=841-844; citation_doi=10.1002/smll.200500104; citation_id=CR84"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Appl Phys Lett; citation_title=Selective toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles to prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems; citation_author=KM Reddy, K Feris, J Bell, DG Wingett, C Hanley, A Punnoose; citation_volume=90; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=2139021-2139023; citation_id=CR85"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Enviorn Sci Health; citation_title=Toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles in mammalian cells; citation_author=HA Jeng, J Swanson; citation_volume=41; citation_publication_date=2006; citation_pages=2699-2711; citation_doi=10.1080/10934520600966177; citation_id=CR86"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Mater Sci Mater Med; citation_title=Role of size scale of ZnO nanoparticles and microparticles on toxicity toward bacteria and osteoblast cancer cells; citation_author=S Nair, A Sasidharan, VV Divya Rani, D Menon, S Nair, K Manzoor, S Raina; citation_volume=20; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=S235-S241; citation_doi=10.1007/s10856-008-3548-5; citation_id=CR87"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Langmuir; citation_title=Size-dependent bacterial growth inhibition and mechanism of antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles; citation_author=KR Raghupathi, RT Koodali, AC Manna; citation_volume=27; citation_publication_date=2011; citation_pages=4020-4028; citation_doi=10.1021/la104825u; citation_id=CR88"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=FEMS Microbiol Lett; citation_title=Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles suspensions on a broad spectrum of microorganisms; citation_author=N Jones, B Ray, RT Koodali, AC Manna; citation_volume=279; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=71-76; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.01012.x; citation_id=CR89"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nanosci; citation_title=In vitro cytotoxicity of nanoparticles: a comparison between particle size and cell type; citation_author=D Sahu, GM Kannan, M Tailang, R Vijayaraghavan; citation_volume=2016; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=4023852; citation_doi=10.1155/2016/4023852; citation_id=CR90"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Int J Nanomedicine; citation_title=Zinc oxide nanoparticles exhibit cytotoxicity and genotoxicity through oxidative stress responses in human lung fibroblasts and Drosophila melanogaster; citation_author=CT Ng, LQ Yong, MP Hande, CN Ong, LE Yu, BH Bay, GH Baeg; citation_volume=12; citation_publication_date=2017; citation_pages=1621-1637; citation_doi=10.2147/IJN.S124403; citation_id=CR91"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=PLoS One; citation_title=Toxicity of functional nano-micro zinc oxide tetrapods: impact of cell culture conditions, cellular age and material properties; citation_author=H Papavlassopoulos, YK Mishra, S Kaps, I Paulowicz, R Abdelaziz, M Elbahri, E Maser, R Adelung, C Röhl; citation_volume=9; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0084983; citation_id=CR92"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Int J Nanomedicine; citation_title=Zinc oxide nanoparticles as selective killers of proliferating cells; citation_author=L Taccola, V Raffa, C Riggio, O Vittorio, MC Iorio, R Vanacore, A Pietrabissa, A Cuschieri; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=2011; citation_pages=1129-1140; citation_id=CR93"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Toxicol Appl Pharmacol; citation_title=Oxidative stress and NFkappaB activation in the lungs of rats: a synergistic interaction between soot and iron particles; citation_author=YM Zhou, CY Zhong, IM Kennedy, VJ Leppert, KE Pinkerton; citation_volume=190; citation_publication_date=2003; citation_pages=157-169; citation_doi=10.1016/S0041-008X(03)00157-1; citation_id=CR94"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Appl Toxicol; citation_title=Comparative study of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced by four typical nanomaterials: the role of particle size, shape and composition; citation_author=H Yang, C Liu, D Yang, H Zhang, Z Xi; citation_volume=29; citation_publication_date=2009; citation_pages=69-78; citation_doi=10.1002/jat.1385; citation_id=CR95"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Adv Funct Mater; citation_title=Antibacterial surface coatings from zinc oxide nanoparticles embedded in poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) hydrogel surface layers; citation_author=VB Schwartz, F Thétiot, S Ritz, S Pütz, L Choritz, A Lappas, R Förch, K Landfester, U Jonas; citation_volume=22; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=2376-2386; citation_doi=10.1002/adfm.201102980; citation_id=CR96"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Colloids Surf B; citation_title=Influence of size scale and morphology on antibacterial properties of ZnO powders hydrothermally synthesized using different surface stabilizing agents; citation_author=A Stankovic, S Dimitrijevic, D Uskokovic; citation_volume=102; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_pages=21-28; citation_doi=10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.07.033; citation_id=CR97"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Chem Rev; citation_title=Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, stabilization, vectorization, physicochemical characterizations, and biological applications; citation_author=S Laurent, D Forge, M Port, A Roch, C Robic, LV Elst, RN Muller; citation_volume=108; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=2064-2110; citation_doi=10.1021/cr068445e; citation_id=CR98"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Ceram Soc Jpn; citation_title=Influence of powder characteristic of ZnO on antibacterial activity: effect of specific surface area; citation_author=O Yamamoto, M Hotta, J Sawai, J Sawai, T Sasamoto, H Kojima; citation_volume=106; citation_publication_date=1998; citation_pages=1007-1011; citation_doi=10.2109/jcersj.106.1007; citation_id=CR99"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=ACS Appl Mater Interfaces; citation_title=Flexible and microporous chitosan hydrogel/nano ZnO composite bandages for wound dressing: in vitro and in vivo evaluation; citation_author=PTS Kumar, VK Lakshmanan, TV Anilkumar, C Ramya, P Reshmi, AG Unnikrishnan, SV Nair, R Jayakumar; citation_volume=4; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=2618-2629; citation_doi=10.1021/am300292v; citation_id=CR100"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=ACS Nano; citation_title=Use of a rapid cytotoxicity screening approach to engineer a safer zinc oxide nanoparticle through iron doping; citation_author=S George, S Pokhrel, T Xia, B Gilbert, Z Ji, M Schowalter, A Rosenauer, R Damoiseaux, KA Bradley, L Mädler, AE Nel; citation_volume=4; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=15-12; citation_doi=10.1021/nn901503q; citation_id=CR101"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Toxicol Lett; citation_title=Role of the dissolved zinc ion and reactive oxygen species in cytotoxicity of ZnO nanoparticles; citation_author=W Song, J Zhang, J Guo, J Zhang, F Ding, L Li, Z Sun; citation_volume=199; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=389-339; citation_doi=10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.10.003; citation_id=CR102"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Nanotoxicology; citation_title=In vitro mechanistic study towards a better understanding of ZnO nanoparticle toxicity; citation_author=T Buerki-Thurnherr, L Xiao, L Diener, O Arslan, C Hirsch, X Maeder-Althaus, K Grieder, B Wampfler, S Mathur, P Wick, HF Krug; citation_volume=7; citation_publication_date=2013; citation_pages=402-416; citation_doi=10.3109/17435390.2012.666575; citation_id=CR103"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=ACS Nano; citation_title=The fate of ZnO nanoparticles administered to human bronchial epithelial cells; citation_author=B Gilbert, SC Fakra, T Xia, S Pokhrel, L Mädler, AE Nel; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=4921-4930; citation_doi=10.1021/nn300425a; citation_id=CR104"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Mater Sci Technol; citation_title=Antibacterial characterization of silver nanoparticles against E. Coli ATCC-15224; citation_author=M Raffi, F Hussain, TM Bhatti, JI Akhter, A Hameed, MM Hasan; citation_volume=24; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=2192-2196; citation_id=CR105"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Environ Sci Technol; citation_title=Size dependent and reactive oxygen species related nanosilver toxicity to nitrifying bacteria; citation_author=OK Choi, ZQ Hu; citation_volume=42; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=4583-4588; citation_doi=10.1021/es703238h; citation_id=CR106"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Proteome Res; citation_title=Proteomic analysis of the mode of antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles; citation_author=CN Lok, CM Ho, R Chen, QY He, WY Yu, H Sun, PK Tam, JF Chiu, CM Che; citation_volume=5; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_pages=916-924; citation_doi=10.1021/pr0504079; citation_id=CR107"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Appl Environ Microbiol; citation_title=Does the antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles depend on the shape of the nanoparticle? A study of the gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli; citation_author=S Pal, YK Tak, JM Song; citation_volume=73; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=1712-1720; citation_doi=10.1128/AEM.02218-06; citation_id=CR108"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Colloid Interf Sci; citation_title=Silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agent: a case study on E. coli as a model for Gram-negative bacteria; citation_author=I Sondi, B Salopek-Sondi; citation_volume=275; citation_publication_date=2004; citation_pages=177-182; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jcis.2004.02.012; citation_id=CR109"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Nanobiotechnol; citation_title=Interaction of silver nanoparticles with HIV-1; citation_author=J Elechiguerra, J Burt, J Morones, A Camacho-Bragado, X Gao, HH Lara, MJ Yacaman; citation_volume=3; citation_publication_date=2005; citation_pages=6; citation_doi=10.1186/1477-3155-3-6; citation_id=CR110"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Langmuir; citation_title=Toxicological effect of ZnO nanoparticles based on bacteria; citation_author=Z Huang, X Zheng, D Yan, G Yin, X Liao, Y Kang, Y Yao, D Huang, B Hao; citation_volume=24; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=4140-4144; citation_doi=10.1021/la7035949; citation_id=CR111"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=J Photochem Photobiol B; citation_title=Photocatalysis effect of nanometer TiO2 and TiO2-coated ceramic plate on hepatitis B virus; citation_author=L Zan, W Fa, T Peng, ZK Gong; citation_volume=86; citation_publication_date=2007; citation_pages=165-169; citation_doi=10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2006.09.002; citation_id=CR112"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Food Bioprocess Technol; citation_title=Nano zinc oxide-loaded calcium alginate films with potential antibacterial properties; citation_author=KS Bajpai, N Chand, V Chaurasia; citation_volume=5; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=1871-1881; citation_doi=10.1007/s11947-011-0587-6; citation_id=CR113"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Appl Environ Microbiol; citation_title=Antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of zinc oxide nanoparticles against Campylobacter jejuni; citation_author=Y Xie, Y He, LP Irwin, T Jin, X Shi; citation_volume=77; citation_publication_date=2011; citation_pages=2325-2331; citation_doi=10.1128/AEM.02149-10; citation_id=CR114"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Food Control; citation_title=Zinc oxide nanoparticles loaded active packaging, a challenge study against Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat poultry meat; citation_author=A Akbar, AK Anal; citation_volume=38; citation_publication_date=2014; citation_pages=88-95; citation_doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.09.065; citation_id=CR115"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Int J Nanomedicine; citation_title=Zinc oxide nanoparticles selectively induce apoptosis in human cancer cells through reactive oxygen species; citation_author=MJ Akhtar, M Ahamed, S Kumar, MA Majeed Khan, J Ahmad, SA Alrokayan; citation_volume=7; citation_publication_date=2012; citation_pages=845-857; citation_id=CR116"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Sci Rep; citation_title=Toxicity of ZnO and TiO2 to Escherichia coli cells; citation_author=YH Leung, X Xu, APY Ma, F Liu, AMC Ng, Z Shen, LA Gethings, MY Guo, AB Djurišić, PKH Lee, HK Lee, WK Chan, FCC Leung; citation_volume=6; citation_publication_date=2016; citation_pages=35243; citation_doi=10.1038/srep35243; citation_id=CR117"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Bioresour Technol; citation_title=Interaction and nanotoxic effect of ZnO and Ag nanoparticles on mesophilic and halophilic bacterial cells; citation_author=R Sinha, R Karan, A Sinha, SK Khare; citation_volume=102; citation_publication_date=2011; citation_pages=1516-1520; citation_doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2010.07.117; citation_id=CR118"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=FEMS Microbiol Lett; citation_title=Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticle suspensions on a broad spectrum of microorganisms; citation_author=N Jones, B Ray, KT Ranjit, AC Manna; citation_volume=279; citation_publication_date=2008; citation_pages=71-76; citation_doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.01012.x; citation_id=CR119"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Appl Microbiol Biotechnol; citation_title=Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles prepared via non-hydrolytic solution route; citation_author=R Wahab, A Mishra, SI Yun, YS Kim, HS Shin; citation_volume=87; citation_publication_date=2010; citation_pages=1917-1925; citation_doi=10.1007/s00253-010-2692-2; citation_id=CR120"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Siddiqi, Khwaja Salahuddin"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="ks_siddiqi@yahoo.co.in"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="ur Rahman, Aziz"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="rahman.mdi@gmail.com"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Saidla (Unani Pharmacy), Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Tajuddin"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="drtajuddinamu@gmail.com"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Saidla (Unani Pharmacy), Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Husen, Azamal"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="adroot92@yahoo.co.in"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"/> <meta name="citation_cover_date" content="2018/12/01"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="SpringerLink"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Activity Against Microbes - Discover Nano"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Zinc oxide is an essential ingredient of many enzymes, sun screens, and ointments for pain and itch relief. Its microcrystals are very efficient light absorbers in the UVA and UVB region of spectra due to wide bandgap. Impact of zinc oxide on biological functions depends on its morphology, particle size, exposure time, concentration, pH, and biocompatibility. They are more effective against microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina lutea, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas vulgaris, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger. Mechanism of action has been ascribed to the activation of zinc oxide nanoparticles by light, which penetrate the bacterial cell wall via diffusion. It has been confirmed from SEM and TEM images of the bacterial cells that zinc oxide nanoparticles disintegrate the cell membrane and accumulate in the cytoplasm where they interact with biomolecules causing cell apoptosis leading to cell death."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figa_HTML.gif"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-c6d59aafac.ico> <meta name="theme-color" content="#e6e6e6">   <link rel="stylesheet" media="print" href=/oscar-static/app-springerlink/css/print-b8af42253b.css> <style> html{text-size-adjust:100%;line-height:1.15}body{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;line-height:1.8;margin:0}details,main{display:block}h1{font-size:2em;margin:.67em 0}a{background-color:transparent;color:#025e8d}sub{bottom:-.25em;font-size:75%;line-height:0;position:relative;vertical-align:baseline}img{border:0;height:auto;max-width:100%;vertical-align:middle}button,input{font-family:inherit;font-size:100%;line-height:1.15;margin:0;overflow:visible}button{text-transform:none}[type=button],[type=submit],button{-webkit-appearance:button}[type=search]{-webkit-appearance:textfield;outline-offset:-2px}summary{display:list-item}[hidden]{display:none}button{cursor:pointer}svg{height:1rem;width:1rem} </style> <style>@media only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark) { body{background:#fff;color:#222;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;line-height:1.8;min-height:100%}a{color:#025e8d;text-decoration:underline;text-decoration-skip-ink:auto}button{cursor:pointer}img{border:0;height:auto;max-width:100%;vertical-align:middle}html{box-sizing:border-box;font-size:100%;height:100%;overflow-y:scroll}h1{font-size:2.25rem}h2{font-size:1.75rem}h1,h2,h4{font-weight:700;line-height:1.2}h4{font-size:1.25rem}body{font-size:1.125rem}*{box-sizing:inherit}p{margin-bottom:2rem;margin-top:0}p:last-of-type{margin-bottom:0}.c-ad{text-align:center}@media only screen and (min-width:480px){.c-ad{padding:8px}}.c-ad--728x90{display:none}.c-ad--728x90 .c-ad__inner{min-height:calc(1.5em + 94px)}@media only screen and (min-width:876px){.js .c-ad--728x90{display:none}}.c-ad__label{color:#333;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:400;line-height:1.5;margin-bottom:4px}.c-ad__label,.c-status-message{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-status-message{align-items:center;box-sizing:border-box;display:flex;position:relative;width:100%}.c-status-message :last-child{margin-bottom:0}.c-status-message--boxed{background-color:#fff;border:1px solid #ccc;line-height:1.4;padding:16px}.c-status-message__heading{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:700}.c-status-message__icon{fill:currentcolor;display:inline-block;flex:0 0 auto;height:1.5em;margin-right:8px;transform:translate(0);vertical-align:text-top;width:1.5em}.c-status-message__icon--top{align-self:flex-start}.c-status-message--info .c-status-message__icon{color:#003f8d}.c-status-message--boxed.c-status-message--info{border-bottom:4px solid #003f8d}.c-status-message--error .c-status-message__icon{color:#c40606}.c-status-message--boxed.c-status-message--error{border-bottom:4px solid #c40606}.c-status-message--success .c-status-message__icon{color:#00b8b0}.c-status-message--boxed.c-status-message--success{border-bottom:4px solid #00b8b0}.c-status-message--warning .c-status-message__icon{color:#edbc53}.c-status-message--boxed.c-status-message--warning{border-bottom:4px solid #edbc53}.eds-c-header{background-color:#fff;border-bottom:2px solid #01324b;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1rem;line-height:1.5;padding:8px 0 0}.eds-c-header__container{align-items:center;display:flex;flex-wrap:nowrap;gap:8px 16px;justify-content:space-between;margin:0 auto 8px;max-width:1280px;padding:0 8px;position:relative}.eds-c-header__nav{border-top:2px solid #c5e0f4;padding-top:4px;position:relative}.eds-c-header__nav-container{align-items:center;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;margin:0 auto 4px;max-width:1280px;padding:0 8px;position:relative}.eds-c-header__nav-container>:not(:last-child){margin-right:32px}.eds-c-header__link-container{align-items:center;display:flex;flex:1 0 auto;gap:8px 16px;justify-content:space-between}.eds-c-header__list{list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.eds-c-header__list-item{font-weight:700;margin:0 auto;max-width:1280px;padding:8px}.eds-c-header__list-item:not(:last-child){border-bottom:2px solid #c5e0f4}.eds-c-header__item{color:inherit}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.eds-c-header__item--menu{display:none;visibility:hidden}.eds-c-header__item--menu:first-child+*{margin-block-start:0}}.eds-c-header__item--inline-links{display:none;visibility:hidden}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.eds-c-header__item--inline-links{display:flex;gap:16px 16px;visibility:visible}}.eds-c-header__item--divider:before{border-left:2px solid #c5e0f4;content:"";height:calc(100% - 16px);margin-left:-15px;position:absolute;top:8px}.eds-c-header__brand{padding:16px 8px}.eds-c-header__brand a{display:block;line-height:1;text-decoration:none}.eds-c-header__brand img{height:1.5rem;width:auto}.eds-c-header__link{color:inherit;display:inline-block;font-weight:700;padding:16px 8px;position:relative;text-decoration-color:transparent;white-space:nowrap;word-break:normal}.eds-c-header__icon{fill:currentcolor;display:inline-block;font-size:1.5rem;height:1em;transform:translate(0);vertical-align:bottom;width:1em}.eds-c-header__icon+*{margin-left:8px}.eds-c-header__expander{background-color:#f0f7fc}.eds-c-header__search{display:block;padding:24px 0}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.eds-c-header__search{max-width:70%}}.eds-c-header__search-container{position:relative}.eds-c-header__search-label{color:inherit;display:inline-block;font-weight:700;margin-bottom:8px}.eds-c-header__search-input{background-color:#fff;border:1px solid #000;padding:8px 48px 8px 8px;width:100%}.eds-c-header__search-button{background-color:transparent;border:0;color:inherit;height:100%;padding:0 8px;position:absolute;right:0}.has-tethered.eds-c-header__expander{border-bottom:2px solid #01324b;left:0;margin-top:-2px;top:100%;width:100%;z-index:10}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.has-tethered.eds-c-header__expander--menu{display:none;visibility:hidden}}.has-tethered .eds-c-header__heading{display:none;visibility:hidden}.has-tethered .eds-c-header__heading:first-child+*{margin-block-start:0}.has-tethered .eds-c-header__search{margin:auto}.eds-c-header__heading{margin:0 auto;max-width:1280px;padding:16px 16px 0}.eds-c-pagination{align-items:center;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:.875rem;gap:16px 0;justify-content:center;line-height:1.4;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:32px 0}@media only screen and (min-width:480px){.eds-c-pagination{padding:32px 16px}}.eds-c-pagination__item{margin-right:8px}.eds-c-pagination__item--prev{margin-right:16px}.eds-c-pagination__item--next .eds-c-pagination__link,.eds-c-pagination__item--prev .eds-c-pagination__link{padding:16px 8px}.eds-c-pagination__item--next{margin-left:8px}.eds-c-pagination__item:last-child{margin-right:0}.eds-c-pagination__link{align-items:center;color:#222;cursor:pointer;display:inline-block;font-size:1rem;margin:0;padding:16px 24px;position:relative;text-align:center;transition:all .2s ease 0s}.eds-c-pagination__link:visited{color:#222}.eds-c-pagination__link--disabled{border-color:#555;color:#555;cursor:default}.eds-c-pagination__link--active{background-color:#01324b;background-image:none;border-radius:8px;color:#fff}.eds-c-pagination__link--active:focus,.eds-c-pagination__link--active:hover,.eds-c-pagination__link--active:visited{color:#fff}.eds-c-pagination__link-container{align-items:center;display:flex}.eds-c-pagination__icon{fill:#222;height:1.5rem;width:1.5rem}.eds-c-pagination__icon--disabled{fill:#555}.eds-c-pagination__visually-hidden{clip:rect(0,0,0,0);border:0;clip-path:inset(50%);height:1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute!important;white-space:nowrap;width:1px}.c-breadcrumbs{color:#333;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1rem;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.c-breadcrumbs>li{display:inline}svg.c-breadcrumbs__chevron{fill:#333;height:10px;margin:0 .25rem;width:10px}.c-breadcrumbs--contrast,.c-breadcrumbs--contrast .c-breadcrumbs__link{color:#fff}.c-breadcrumbs--contrast svg.c-breadcrumbs__chevron{fill:#fff}@media only screen and (max-width:479px){.c-breadcrumbs .c-breadcrumbs__item{display:none}.c-breadcrumbs .c-breadcrumbs__item:last-child,.c-breadcrumbs .c-breadcrumbs__item:nth-last-child(2){display:inline}}.c-skip-link{background:#01324b;bottom:auto;color:#fff;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1rem;padding:8px;position:absolute;text-align:center;transform:translateY(-100%);width:100%;z-index:9999}@media (prefers-reduced-motion:reduce){.c-skip-link{transition:top .3s ease-in-out 0s}}@media print{.c-skip-link{display:none}}.c-skip-link:active,.c-skip-link:hover,.c-skip-link:link,.c-skip-link:visited{color:#fff}.c-skip-link:focus{transform:translateY(0)}.l-with-sidebar{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap}.l-with-sidebar>*{margin:0}.l-with-sidebar__sidebar{flex-basis:var(--with-sidebar--basis,400px);flex-grow:1}.l-with-sidebar>:not(.l-with-sidebar__sidebar){flex-basis:0px;flex-grow:999;min-width:var(--with-sidebar--min,53%)}.l-with-sidebar>:first-child{padding-right:4rem}@supports (gap:1em){.l-with-sidebar>:first-child{padding-right:0}.l-with-sidebar{gap:var(--with-sidebar--gap,4rem)}}.c-header__link{color:inherit;display:inline-block;font-weight:700;padding:16px 8px;position:relative;text-decoration-color:transparent;white-space:nowrap;word-break:normal}.app-masthead__colour-4{--background-color:#ff9500;--gradient-light:rgba(0,0,0,.5);--gradient-dark:rgba(0,0,0,.8)}.app-masthead{background:var(--background-color,#0070a8);position:relative}.app-masthead:after{background:radial-gradient(circle at top right,var(--gradient-light,rgba(0,0,0,.4)),var(--gradient-dark,rgba(0,0,0,.7)));bottom:0;content:"";left:0;position:absolute;right:0;top:0}@media only screen and (max-width:479px){.app-masthead:after{background:linear-gradient(225deg,var(--gradient-light,rgba(0,0,0,.4)),var(--gradient-dark,rgba(0,0,0,.7)))}}.app-masthead__container{color:var(--masthead-color,#fff);margin:0 auto;max-width:1280px;padding:0 16px;position:relative;z-index:1}.u-button{align-items:center;background-color:#01324b;background-image:none;border:4px solid transparent;border-radius:32px;cursor:pointer;display:inline-flex;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:700;justify-content:center;line-height:1.3;margin:0;padding:16px 32px;position:relative;transition:all .2s ease 0s;width:auto}.u-button svg,.u-button--contrast svg,.u-button--primary svg,.u-button--secondary svg,.u-button--tertiary svg{fill:currentcolor}.u-button,.u-button:visited{color:#fff}.u-button,.u-button:hover{box-shadow:0 0 0 1px #01324b;text-decoration:none}.u-button:hover{border:4px solid #fff}.u-button:focus{border:4px solid #fc0;box-shadow:none;outline:0;text-decoration:none}.u-button:focus,.u-button:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#01324b}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus svg path,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover svg path,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus svg path,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover svg path,.u-button--primary:focus svg path,.u-button--primary:hover svg path,.u-button:focus svg path,.u-button:hover svg path{fill:#01324b}.u-button--primary{background-color:#01324b;background-image:none;border:4px solid transparent;box-shadow:0 0 0 1px #01324b;color:#fff;font-weight:700}.u-button--primary:visited{color:#fff}.u-button--primary:hover{border:4px solid #fff;box-shadow:0 0 0 1px #01324b;text-decoration:none}.u-button--primary:focus{border:4px solid #fc0;box-shadow:none;outline:0;text-decoration:none}.u-button--primary:focus,.u-button--primary:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#01324b}.u-button--secondary{background-color:#fff;border:4px solid #fff;color:#01324b;font-weight:700}.u-button--secondary:visited{color:#01324b}.u-button--secondary:hover{border:4px solid #01324b;box-shadow:none}.u-button--secondary:focus,.u-button--secondary:hover{background-color:#01324b;color:#fff}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:focus svg path,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:hover svg path,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:focus svg path,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:hover svg path,.u-button--secondary:focus svg path,.u-button--secondary:hover svg path,.u-button--tertiary:focus svg path,.u-button--tertiary:hover svg path{fill:#fff}.u-button--tertiary{background-color:#ebf1f5;border:4px solid transparent;box-shadow:none;color:#666;font-weight:700}.u-button--tertiary:visited{color:#666}.u-button--tertiary:hover{border:4px solid #01324b;box-shadow:none}.u-button--tertiary:focus,.u-button--tertiary:hover{background-color:#01324b;color:#fff}.u-button--contrast{background-color:transparent;background-image:none;color:#fff;font-weight:400}.u-button--contrast:visited{color:#fff}.u-button--contrast,.u-button--contrast:focus,.u-button--contrast:hover{border:4px solid #fff}.u-button--contrast:focus,.u-button--contrast:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#000}.u-button--contrast:focus svg path,.u-button--contrast:hover svg path{fill:#000}.u-button--disabled,.u-button:disabled{background-color:transparent;background-image:none;border:4px solid #ccc;color:#000;cursor:default;font-weight:400;opacity:.7}.u-button--disabled svg,.u-button:disabled svg{fill:currentcolor}.u-button--disabled:visited,.u-button:disabled:visited{color:#000}.u-button--disabled:focus,.u-button--disabled:hover,.u-button:disabled:focus,.u-button:disabled:hover{border:4px solid #ccc;text-decoration:none}.u-button--disabled:focus,.u-button--disabled:hover,.u-button:disabled:focus,.u-button:disabled:hover{background-color:transparent;background-image:none;color:#000}.u-button--disabled:focus svg path,.u-button--disabled:hover svg path,.u-button:disabled:focus svg path,.u-button:disabled:hover svg path{fill:#000}.u-button--small,.u-button--xsmall{font-size:.875rem;padding:2px 8px}.u-button--small{padding:8px 16px}.u-button--large{font-size:1.125rem;padding:10px 35px}.u-button--full-width{display:flex;width:100%}.u-button--icon-left svg{margin-right:8px}.u-button--icon-right svg{margin-left:8px}.u-clear-both{clear:both}.u-container{margin:0 auto;max-width:1280px;padding:0 16px}.u-justify-content-space-between{justify-content:space-between}.u-display-none{display:none}.js .u-js-hide,.u-hide{display:none;visibility:hidden}.u-visually-hidden{clip:rect(0,0,0,0);border:0;clip-path:inset(50%);height:1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute!important;white-space:nowrap;width:1px}.u-icon{fill:currentcolor;display:inline-block;height:1em;transform:translate(0);vertical-align:text-top;width:1em}.u-list-reset{list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.u-ma-16{margin:16px}.u-mt-0{margin-top:0}.u-mt-24{margin-top:24px}.u-mt-32{margin-top:32px}.u-mb-8{margin-bottom:8px}.u-mb-32{margin-bottom:32px}.u-button-reset{background-color:transparent;border:0;padding:0}.u-sans-serif{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.u-serif{font-family:Merriweather,serif}h1,h2,h4{-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased}p{overflow-wrap:break-word;word-break:break-word}.u-h4{font-size:1.25rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.2}.u-mbs-0{margin-block-start:0!important}.c-article-header{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-article-identifiers{color:#6f6f6f;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;font-size:1rem;line-height:1.3;list-style:none;margin:0 0 8px;padding:0}.c-article-identifiers__item{border-right:1px solid #6f6f6f;list-style:none;margin-right:8px;padding-right:8px}.c-article-identifiers__item:last-child{border-right:0;margin-right:0;padding-right:0}@media only screen and (min-width:876px){.c-article-title{font-size:1.875rem;line-height:1.2}}.c-article-author-list{display:inline;font-size:1rem;list-style:none;margin:0 8px 0 0;padding:0;width:100%}.c-article-author-list__item{display:inline;padding-right:0}.c-article-author-list__show-more{display:none;margin-right:4px}.c-article-author-list__button,.js .c-article-author-list__item--hide,.js .c-article-author-list__show-more{display:none}.js .c-article-author-list--long .c-article-author-list__show-more,.js .c-article-author-list--long+.c-article-author-list__button{display:inline}@media only screen and (max-width:767px){.js .c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen{display:none}.js .c-article-author-list--short .c-article-author-list__show-more,.js .c-article-author-list--short+.c-article-author-list__button{display:inline}}#uptodate-client,.js .c-article-author-list--expanded .c-article-author-list__show-more{display:none!important}.js .c-article-author-list--expanded .c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen{display:inline!important}.c-article-author-list__button,.c-button-author-list{background:#ebf1f5;border:4px solid #ebf1f5;border-radius:20px;color:#666;font-size:.875rem;line-height:1.4;padding:2px 11px 2px 8px;text-decoration:none}.c-article-author-list__button svg,.c-button-author-list svg{margin:1px 4px 0 0}.c-article-author-list__button:hover,.c-button-author-list:hover{background:#025e8d;border-color:transparent;color:#fff}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider{padding:8px 16px}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider,.c-notes{border:1px solid #d5d5d5;border-image:initial;border-left:none;border-right:none;margin:24px 0}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider__text{color:#555}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider__text,.c-notes__text{font-size:1rem;margin-bottom:0;padding-bottom:2px;padding-top:2px;text-align:center}.c-article-body .c-article-author-affiliation__address{color:inherit;font-weight:700;margin:0}.c-article-body .c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list{list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.c-article-body .c-article-author-affiliation__authors-item{display:inline;margin-left:0}.c-article-authors-search{margin-bottom:24px;margin-top:0}.c-article-authors-search__item,.c-article-authors-search__title{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-article-authors-search__title{color:#626262;font-size:1.05rem;font-weight:700;margin:0;padding:0}.c-article-authors-search__item{font-size:1rem}.c-article-authors-search__text{margin:0}.c-code-block{border:1px solid #fff;font-family:monospace;margin:0 0 24px;padding:20px}.c-code-block__heading{font-weight:400;margin-bottom:16px}.c-code-block__line{display:block;overflow-wrap:break-word;white-space:pre-wrap}.c-article-share-box{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;margin-bottom:24px}.c-article-share-box__description{font-size:1rem;margin-bottom:8px}.c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info{font-size:.813rem;font-weight:700;margin-bottom:24px;padding-top:4px}.c-article-share-box__only-read-input{border:1px solid #d5d5d5;box-sizing:content-box;display:inline-block;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:700;height:24px;margin-bottom:8px;padding:8px 10px}.c-article-share-box__additional-info{color:#626262;font-size:.813rem}.c-article-share-box__button{background:#fff;box-sizing:content-box;text-align:center}.c-article-share-box__button--link-like{background-color:transparent;border:0;color:#025e8d;cursor:pointer;font-size:.875rem;margin-bottom:8px;margin-left:10px}.c-article-associated-content__container .c-article-associated-content__collection-label{font-size:.875rem;line-height:1.4}.c-article-associated-content__container .c-article-associated-content__collection-title{line-height:1.3}.c-reading-companion{clear:both;min-height:389px}.c-reading-companion__figures-list,.c-reading-companion__references-list{list-style:none;min-height:389px;padding:0}.c-reading-companion__references-list--numeric{list-style:decimal inside}.c-reading-companion__figure-item{border-top:1px solid #d5d5d5;font-size:1rem;padding:16px 8px 16px 0}.c-reading-companion__figure-item:first-child{border-top:none;padding-top:8px}.c-reading-companion__reference-item{font-size:1rem}.c-reading-companion__reference-item:first-child{border-top:none}.c-reading-companion__reference-item a{word-break:break-word}.c-reading-companion__reference-citation{display:inline}.c-reading-companion__reference-links{font-size:.813rem;font-weight:700;list-style:none;margin:8px 0 0;padding:0;text-align:right}.c-reading-companion__reference-links>a{display:inline-block;padding-left:8px}.c-reading-companion__reference-links>a:first-child{display:inline-block;padding-left:0}.c-reading-companion__figure-title{display:block;font-size:1.25rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.2;margin:0 0 8px}.c-reading-companion__figure-links{display:flex;justify-content:space-between;margin:8px 0 0}.c-reading-companion__figure-links>a{align-items:center;display:flex}.c-article-section__figure-caption{display:block;margin-bottom:8px;word-break:break-word}.c-article-section__figure .video,p.app-article-masthead__access--above-download{margin:0 0 16px}.c-article-section__figure-description{font-size:1rem}.c-article-section__figure-description>*{margin-bottom:0}.c-cod{display:block;font-size:1rem;width:100%}.c-cod__form{background:#ebf0f3}.c-cod__prompt{font-size:1.125rem;line-height:1.3;margin:0 0 24px}.c-cod__label{display:block;margin:0 0 4px}.c-cod__row{display:flex;margin:0 0 16px}.c-cod__row:last-child{margin:0}.c-cod__input{border:1px solid #d5d5d5;border-radius:2px;flex-shrink:0;margin:0;padding:13px}.c-cod__input--submit{background-color:#025e8d;border:1px solid #025e8d;color:#fff;flex-shrink:1;margin-left:8px;transition:background-color .2s ease-out 0s,color .2s ease-out 0s}.c-cod__input--submit-single{flex-basis:100%;flex-shrink:0;margin:0}.c-cod__input--submit:focus,.c-cod__input--submit:hover{background-color:#fff;color:#025e8d}.save-data .c-article-author-institutional-author__sub-division,.save-data .c-article-equation__number,.save-data .c-article-figure-description,.save-data .c-article-fullwidth-content,.save-data .c-article-main-column,.save-data .c-article-satellite-article-link,.save-data .c-article-satellite-subtitle,.save-data .c-article-table-container,.save-data .c-blockquote__body,.save-data .c-code-block__heading,.save-data .c-reading-companion__figure-title,.save-data .c-reading-companion__reference-citation,.save-data .c-site-messages--nature-briefing-email-variant .serif,.save-data .c-site-messages--nature-briefing-email-variant.serif,.save-data .serif,.save-data .u-serif,.save-data h1,.save-data h2,.save-data h3{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-pdf-download__link{display:flex;flex:1 1 0%;padding:13px 24px}.c-pdf-download__link:hover{text-decoration:none}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.c-context-bar--sticky .c-pdf-download__link{align-items:center;flex:1 1 183px}}@media only screen and (max-width:320px){.c-context-bar--sticky .c-pdf-download__link{padding:16px}}.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-list,.c-book-body .c-article-recommendations-list{display:flex;flex-direction:row;gap:16px 16px;margin:0;max-width:100%;padding:16px 0 0}.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-list__item,.c-book-body .c-article-recommendations-list__item{flex:1 1 0%}@media only screen and (max-width:767px){.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-list,.c-book-body .c-article-recommendations-list{flex-direction:column}}.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-card__authors{display:none;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:.875rem;line-height:1.5;margin:0 0 8px}@media only screen and (max-width:767px){.c-article-body .c-article-recommendations-card__authors{display:block;margin:0}}.c-article-body .c-article-history{margin-top:24px}.app-article-metrics-bar p{margin:0}.app-article-masthead{display:flex;flex-direction:column;gap:16px 16px;padding:16px 0 24px}.app-article-masthead__info{display:flex;flex-direction:column;flex-grow:1}.app-article-masthead__brand{border-top:1px solid hsla(0,0%,100%,.8);display:flex;flex-direction:column;flex-shrink:0;gap:8px 8px;min-height:96px;padding:16px 0 0}.app-article-masthead__brand img{border:1px solid #fff;border-radius:8px;box-shadow:0 4px 15px 0 hsla(0,0%,50%,.25);height:auto;left:0;position:absolute;width:72px}.app-article-masthead__journal-link{display:block;font-size:1.125rem;font-weight:700;margin:0 0 8px;max-width:400px;padding:0 0 0 88px;position:relative}.app-article-masthead__journal-title{-webkit-box-orient:vertical;-webkit-line-clamp:3;display:-webkit-box;overflow:hidden}.app-article-masthead__submission-link{align-items:center;display:flex;font-size:1rem;gap:4px 4px;margin:0 0 0 88px}.app-article-masthead__access{align-items:center;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;font-size:.875rem;font-weight:300;gap:4px 4px;margin:0}.app-article-masthead__buttons{display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;gap:16px 16px}.app-article-masthead__access svg,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary svg,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary svg,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary svg,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary svg{fill:currentcolor}.app-article-masthead a{color:#fff}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary{background-color:#025e8d;background-image:none;border:2px solid transparent;box-shadow:none;color:#fff;font-weight:700}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:visited,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:visited{color:#fff}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover{text-decoration:none}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus{border:4px solid #fc0;box-shadow:none;outline:0;text-decoration:none}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus,.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:focus,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#01324b}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--primary:hover{background:0 0;border:2px solid #025e8d;box-shadow:none;color:#025e8d}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary{background:0 0;border:2px solid #025e8d;color:#025e8d;font-weight:700}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:visited,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:visited{color:#01324b}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:hover,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:hover{background-color:#01324b;background-color:#025e8d;border:2px solid transparent;box-shadow:none;color:#fff}.app-masthead--pastel .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:focus,.c-context-bar--sticky .c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button--secondary:focus{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;border:4px solid #fc0;color:#01324b}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.app-article-masthead{flex-direction:row;gap:64px 64px;padding:24px 0}.app-article-masthead__brand{border:0;padding:0}.app-article-masthead__brand img{height:auto;position:static;width:auto}.app-article-masthead__buttons{align-items:center;flex-direction:row;margin-top:auto}.app-article-masthead__journal-link{display:flex;flex-direction:column;gap:24px 24px;margin:0 0 8px;padding:0}.app-article-masthead__submission-link{margin:0}}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.app-article-masthead__brand{flex-basis:400px}}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers{font-size:.875rem;font-weight:300;line-height:1;margin:0 0 8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers--cite-list{margin:0 0 16px}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers *{color:#fff}.app-article-masthead .c-cod{display:none}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers__item{border-left:1px solid #fff;border-right:0;margin:0 17px 8px -9px;padding:0 0 0 8px}.app-article-masthead .c-article-identifiers__item--cite{border-left:0}.app-article-metrics-bar{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;font-size:1rem;padding:16px 0 0;row-gap:24px}.app-article-metrics-bar__item{padding:0 16px 0 0}.app-article-metrics-bar__count{font-weight:700}.app-article-metrics-bar__label{font-weight:400;padding-left:4px}.app-article-metrics-bar__icon{height:auto;margin-right:4px;margin-top:-4px;width:auto}.app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon{margin:4px 0 0 4px}.app-article-metrics-bar a{color:#000}.app-article-metrics-bar .app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics{padding-right:0}.app-overview-section .c-article-author-list,.app-overview-section__authors{line-height:2}.app-article-metrics-bar{margin-top:8px}.c-book-toc-pagination+.c-book-section__back-to-top{margin-top:0}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider__text--chapter{color:#222;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;padding:20px 0}.c-article-body .c-article-access-provider__text--chapter svg.c-status-message__icon{fill:#003f8d;vertical-align:middle}.c-article-body-section__content--separator{padding-top:40px}.c-pdf-download__link{max-height:44px}.app-article-access .u-button--primary,.app-article-access .u-button--primary:visited{color:#fff}.c-article-sidebar{display:none}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.c-article-sidebar{display:block}}.c-cod__form{border-radius:12px}.c-cod__label{font-size:.875rem}.c-cod .c-status-message{align-items:center;justify-content:center;margin-bottom:16px;padding-bottom:16px}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.c-cod .c-status-message{align-items:inherit}}.c-cod .c-status-message__icon{margin-top:4px}.c-cod .c-cod__prompt{font-size:1rem;margin-bottom:16px}.c-article-body .app-article-access,.c-book-body .app-article-access{display:block}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.c-article-body .app-article-access,.c-book-body .app-article-access{display:none}}.c-article-body .app-card-service{margin-bottom:32px}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.c-article-body .app-card-service{display:none}}.app-article-access .buybox__buy .u-button--secondary,.app-article-access .u-button--primary,.c-cod__row .u-button--primary{background-color:#025e8d;border:2px solid #025e8d;box-shadow:none;font-size:1rem;font-weight:700;gap:8px 8px;justify-content:center;line-height:1.5;padding:8px 24px}.app-article-access .buybox__buy .u-button--secondary,.app-article-access .u-button--primary:hover,.c-cod__row .u-button--primary:hover{background-color:#fff;color:#025e8d}.app-article-access .buybox__buy .u-button--secondary:hover{background-color:#025e8d;color:#fff}.buybox__buy .c-notes__text{color:#666;font-size:.875rem;padding:0 16px 8px}.c-cod__input{flex-basis:auto;width:100%}.c-article-title{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:2.25rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.2;margin:12px 0}.c-reading-companion__figure-item figure{margin:0}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.c-article-title{margin:16px 0}}.app-article-access{border:1px solid #c5e0f4;border-radius:12px}.app-article-access__heading{border-bottom:1px solid #c5e0f4;font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1.125rem;font-weight:700;margin:0;padding:16px;text-align:center}.app-article-access .buybox__info svg{vertical-align:middle}.c-article-body .app-article-access p{margin-bottom:0}.app-article-access .buybox__info{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:1rem;margin:0}.app-article-access{margin:0 0 32px}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.app-article-access{margin:0 0 24px}}.c-status-message{font-size:1rem}.c-article-body{font-size:1.125rem}.c-article-body dl,.c-article-body ol,.c-article-body p,.c-article-body ul{margin-bottom:32px;margin-top:0}.c-article-access-provider__text:last-of-type,.c-article-body .c-notes__text:last-of-type{margin-bottom:0}.c-article-body ol p,.c-article-body ul p{margin-bottom:16px}.c-article-section__figure-caption{font-family:Merriweather Sans,Helvetica Neue,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}.c-reading-companion__figure-item{border-top-color:#c5e0f4}.c-reading-companion__sticky{max-width:400px}.c-article-section .c-article-section__figure-description>*{font-size:1rem;margin-bottom:16px}.c-reading-companion__reference-item{border-top:1px solid #d5d5d5;padding:16px 0}.c-reading-companion__reference-item:first-child{padding-top:0}.c-article-share-box__button,.js .c-article-authors-search__item .c-article-button{background:0 0;border:2px solid #025e8d;border-radius:32px;box-shadow:none;color:#025e8d;font-size:1rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.5;margin:0;padding:8px 24px;transition:all .2s ease 0s}.c-article-authors-search__item .c-article-button{width:100%}.c-pdf-download .u-button{background-color:#fff;border:2px solid #fff;color:#01324b;justify-content:center}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button svg,.c-pdf-download .u-button svg{fill:currentcolor}.c-pdf-download .u-button:visited{color:#01324b}.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{border:4px solid #01324b;box-shadow:none}.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus,.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{background-color:#01324b}.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus svg path,.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover svg path{fill:#fff}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button{background-image:none;border:2px solid;color:#fff}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:visited{color:#fff}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{text-decoration:none}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus{box-shadow:none;outline:0;text-decoration:none}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus,.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{background-color:#fff;background-image:none;color:#01324b}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus svg path,.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:hover svg path{fill:#01324b}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button,.c-pdf-download .u-button{box-shadow:none;font-size:1rem;font-weight:700;line-height:1.5;padding:8px 24px}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button{background-color:#025e8d}.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{border:2px solid #fff}.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus,.c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{background:0 0;box-shadow:none;color:#fff}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:hover{border:2px solid #025e8d;box-shadow:none;color:#025e8d}.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus,.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus{border:2px solid #025e8d}.c-article-share-box__button:focus:focus,.c-article__pill-button:focus:focus,.c-context-bar__container .c-pdf-download .u-button:focus:focus,.c-pdf-download .u-button:focus:focus{outline:3px solid #08c;will-change:transform}.c-pdf-download__link .u-icon{padding-top:0}.c-bibliographic-information__column button{margin-bottom:16px}.c-article-body .c-article-author-affiliation__list p,.c-article-body .c-article-author-information__list p,figure{margin:0}.c-article-share-box__button{margin-right:16px}.c-status-message--boxed{border-radius:12px}.c-article-associated-content__collection-title{font-size:1rem}.app-card-service__description,.c-article-body .app-card-service__description{color:#222;margin-bottom:0;margin-top:8px}.app-article-access__subscriptions a,.app-article-access__subscriptions a:visited,.app-book-series-listing__item a,.app-book-series-listing__item a:hover,.app-book-series-listing__item a:visited,.c-article-author-list a,.c-article-author-list a:visited,.c-article-buy-box a,.c-article-buy-box a:visited,.c-article-peer-review a,.c-article-peer-review a:visited,.c-article-satellite-subtitle a,.c-article-satellite-subtitle a:visited,.c-breadcrumbs__link,.c-breadcrumbs__link:hover,.c-breadcrumbs__link:visited{color:#000}.c-article-author-list svg{height:24px;margin:0 0 0 6px;width:24px}.c-article-header{margin-bottom:32px}@media only screen and (min-width:876px){.js .c-ad--conditional{display:block}}.u-lazy-ad-wrapper{background-color:#fff;display:none;min-height:149px}@media only screen and (min-width:876px){.u-lazy-ad-wrapper{display:block}}p.c-ad__label{margin-bottom:4px}.c-ad--728x90{background-color:#fff;border-bottom:2px solid #cedbe0} } </style> <style>@media only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark) { .eds-c-header__brand img{height:24px;width:203px}.app-article-masthead__journal-link img{height:93px;width:72px}@media only screen and (min-width:769px){.app-article-masthead__journal-link img{height:161px;width:122px}} } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" data-test="critical-css-handler" data-inline-css-source="critical-css" href=/oscar-static/app-springerlink/css/core-darwin-5272567b64.css media="print" onload="this.media='all';this.onload=null"> <link rel="stylesheet" data-test="critical-css-handler" data-inline-css-source="critical-css" href="/oscar-static/app-springerlink/css/enhanced-darwin-article-72ba046d97.css" media="print" onload="this.media='only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark)';this.onload=null"> <script type="text/javascript"> config = { env: 'live', site: '11671.springer.com', siteWithPath: '11671.springer.com' + window.location.pathname, twitterHashtag: '11671', cmsPrefix: 'https://studio-cms.springernature.com/studio/', figshareScriptUrl: 'https://widgets.figshare.com/static/figshare.js', hasFigshareInvoked: false, publisherBrand: 'Springer', mustardcut: false }; </script> <script> window.dataLayer = [{"GA Key":"UA-26408784-1","DOI":"10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3","Page":"article","springerJournal":true,"Publishing Model":"Open Access","page":{"attributes":{"environment":"live"}},"Country":"HK","japan":false,"doi":"10.1186-s11671-018-2532-3","Journal Id":11671,"Journal Title":"Nanoscale Research Letters","imprint":"Springer","Keywords":"Zinc oxide nanoparticles, Microorganisms, Antimicrobial, Toxicity, Mechanism, Biodistribution","kwrd":["Zinc_oxide_nanoparticles","Microorganisms","Antimicrobial","Toxicity","Mechanism","Biodistribution"],"Labs":"Y","ksg":"Krux.segments","kuid":"Krux.uid","Has Body":"Y","Features":[],"Open Access":"Y","hasAccess":"Y","bypassPaywall":"N","user":{"license":{"businessPartnerID":[],"businessPartnerIDString":""}},"Access Type":"open","Bpids":"","Bpnames":"","BPID":["1"],"VG Wort Identifier":"vgzm.415900-10.1186-s11671-018-2532-3","Full HTML":"Y","Subject Codes":["SCZ","SCZ14000","SCT18000","SCP25140","SCC33000","SCB1700X"],"pmc":["Z","Z14000","T18000","P25140","C33000","B1700X"],"session":{"authentication":{"loginStatus":"N"},"attributes":{"edition":"academic"}},"content":{"serial":{"eissn":"1556-276X","pissn":"1931-7573"},"type":"Article","category":{"pmc":{"primarySubject":"Materials Science","primarySubjectCode":"Z","secondarySubjects":{"1":"Nanotechnology","2":"Nanotechnology and Microengineering","3":"Nanoscale Science and Technology","4":"Nanochemistry","5":"Molecular Medicine"},"secondarySubjectCodes":{"1":"Z14000","2":"T18000","3":"P25140","4":"C33000","5":"B1700X"}},"sucode":"SC5","articleType":"Nano Review"},"attributes":{"deliveryPlatform":"oscar"}},"Event Category":"Article"}]; </script> <script data-test="springer-link-article-datalayer"> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ ga4MeasurementId: 'G-B3E4QL2TPR', ga360TrackingId: 'UA-26408784-1', twitterId: 'o47a7', baiduId: 'aef3043f025ccf2305af8a194652d70b', ga4ServerUrl: 'https://collect.springer.com', imprint: 'springerlink', page: { attributes:{ featureFlags: [{ name: 'darwin-orion', active: true }, { name: 'chapter-books-recs', active: true } ], darwinAvailable: true } } }); </script> <script> (function(w, d) { w.config = w.config || {}; w.config.mustardcut = false; if (w.matchMedia && w.matchMedia('only print, only all and (prefers-color-scheme: no-preference), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: light), only all and (prefers-color-scheme: dark)').matches) { w.config.mustardcut = true; d.classList.add('js'); d.classList.remove('grade-c'); d.classList.remove('no-js'); } })(window, document.documentElement); </script> <script class="js-entry"> if (window.config.mustardcut) { (function(w, d) { window.Component = {}; window.suppressShareButton = false; window.onArticlePage = true; var currentScript = d.currentScript || d.head.querySelector('script.js-entry'); function catchNoModuleSupport() { var scriptEl = d.createElement('script'); return (!('noModule' in scriptEl) && 'onbeforeload' in scriptEl) } var headScripts = [ {'src': '/oscar-static/js/polyfill-es5-bundle-572d4fec60.js', 'async': false} ]; var bodyScripts = [ {'src': '/oscar-static/js/global-article-es5-bundle-dad1690b0d.js', 'async': false, 'module': false}, {'src': '/oscar-static/js/global-article-es6-bundle-e7d03c4cb3.js', 'async': false, 'module': true} ]; function createScript(script) { var scriptEl = d.createElement('script'); scriptEl.src = script.src; scriptEl.async = script.async; if (script.module === true) { scriptEl.type = "module"; if (catchNoModuleSupport()) { scriptEl.src = ''; } } else if (script.module === false) { scriptEl.setAttribute('nomodule', true) } if (script.charset) { scriptEl.setAttribute('charset', script.charset); } return scriptEl; } for (var i = 0; i < headScripts.length; ++i) { var scriptEl = createScript(headScripts[i]); currentScript.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptEl, currentScript.nextSibling); } d.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', function() { for (var i = 0; i < bodyScripts.length; ++i) { var scriptEl = createScript(bodyScripts[i]); d.body.appendChild(scriptEl); } }); // Webfont repeat view var config = w.config; if (config && config.publisherBrand && sessionStorage.fontsLoaded === 'true') { d.documentElement.className += ' webfonts-loaded'; } })(window, document); } </script> <script data-src="https://cdn.optimizely.com/js/27195530232.js" data-cc-script="C03"></script> <script data-test="gtm-head"> window.initGTM = function() { if (window.config.mustardcut) { (function (w, d, s, l, i) { w[l] = w[l] || []; w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(), event: 'gtm.js'}); var f = d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j = d.createElement(s), dl = l != 'dataLayer' ? '&l=' + l : ''; j.async = true; j.src = 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id=' + i + dl; f.parentNode.insertBefore(j, f); })(window, document, 'script', 'dataLayer', 'GTM-MRVXSHQ'); } } </script> <script> (function (w, d, t) { function cc() { var h = w.location.hostname; var e = d.createElement(t), s = d.getElementsByTagName(t)[0]; if (h.indexOf('springer.com') > -1 && h.indexOf('biomedcentral.com') === -1 && h.indexOf('springeropen.com') === -1) { if (h.indexOf('link-qa.springer.com') > -1 || h.indexOf('test-www.springer.com') > -1) { e.src = 'https://cmp.springer.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-17-52.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } else { e.src = 'https://cmp.springer.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-17-52.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } } else if (h.indexOf('biomedcentral.com') > -1) { if (h.indexOf('biomedcentral.com.qa') > -1) { e.src = 'https://cmp.biomedcentral.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-15-36.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } else { e.src = 'https://cmp.biomedcentral.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-15-36.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } } else if (h.indexOf('springeropen.com') > -1) { if (h.indexOf('springeropen.com.qa') > -1) { e.src = 'https://cmp.springernature.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-16-34.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } else { e.src = 'https://cmp.springernature.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-16-34.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-MRVXSHQ')"); } } else if (h.indexOf('springernature.com') > -1) { if (h.indexOf('beta-qa.springernature.com') > -1) { e.src = 'https://cmp.springernature.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-49-43.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-NK22KLS')"); } else { e.src = 'https://cmp.springernature.com/production_live/en/consent-bundle-49-43.js'; e.setAttribute('onload', "initGTM(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-NK22KLS')"); } } else { e.src = '/oscar-static/js/cookie-consent-es5-bundle-cb57c2c98a.js'; e.setAttribute('data-consent', h); } s.insertAdjacentElement('afterend', e); } cc(); })(window, document, 'script'); </script> <link rel="canonical" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3"/> <script type="application/ld+json">{"mainEntity":{"headline":"Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Activity Against Microbes","description":"Zinc oxide is an essential ingredient of many enzymes, sun screens, and ointments for pain and itch relief. Its microcrystals are very efficient light absorbers in the UVA and UVB region of spectra due to wide bandgap. Impact of zinc oxide on biological functions depends on its morphology, particle size, exposure time, concentration, pH, and biocompatibility. They are more effective against microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina lutea, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas vulgaris, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger. Mechanism of action has been ascribed to the activation of zinc oxide nanoparticles by light, which penetrate the bacterial cell wall via diffusion. It has been confirmed from SEM and TEM images of the bacterial cells that zinc oxide nanoparticles disintegrate the cell membrane and accumulate in the cytoplasm where they interact with biomolecules causing cell apoptosis leading to cell death.","datePublished":"2018-05-08T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2018-05-08T00:00:00Z","pageStart":"1","pageEnd":"13","license":"http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","sameAs":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3","keywords":["Zinc oxide nanoparticles","Microorganisms","Antimicrobial","Toxicity","Mechanism","Biodistribution","Nanotechnology","Nanotechnology and Microengineering","Nanoscale Science and Technology","Nanochemistry","Molecular Medicine"],"image":["https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig1_HTML.gif","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig2_HTML.gif","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig3_HTML.gif","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig4_HTML.gif","https://media.springernature.com/lw1200/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig5_HTML.gif"],"isPartOf":{"name":"Nanoscale Research Letters","issn":["1556-276X","1931-7573"],"volumeNumber":"13","@type":["Periodical","PublicationVolume"]},"publisher":{"name":"Springer US","logo":{"url":"https://www.springernature.com/app-sn/public/images/logo-springernature.png","@type":"ImageObject"},"@type":"Organization"},"author":[{"name":"Khwaja Salahuddin Siddiqi","affiliation":[{"name":"Aligarh Muslim University","address":{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Aziz ur Rahman","affiliation":[{"name":"Aligarh Muslim University","address":{"name":"Department of Saidla (Unani Pharmacy), Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Tajuddin","affiliation":[{"name":"Aligarh Muslim University","address":{"name":"Department of Saidla (Unani Pharmacy), Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"@type":"Person"},{"name":"Azamal Husen","url":"http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9120-5540","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Gondar","address":{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia","@type":"PostalAddress"},"@type":"Organization"}],"email":"adroot92@yahoo.co.in","@type":"Person"}],"isAccessibleForFree":true,"@type":"ScholarlyArticle"},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebPage"}</script> </head> <body class="" >  <noscript> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-MRVXSHQ" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript>   <noscript data-test="gtm-body"> <iframe src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-MRVXSHQ" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe> </noscript>  <div class="u-visually-hidden" aria-hidden="true" data-test="darwin-icons"> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><!DOCTYPE svg PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD SVG 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/Graphics/SVG/1.1/DTD/svg11.dtd"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"><symbol id="icon-eds-i-accesses-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.59 1a1 1 0 0 1 .706.291l5.41 5.385a1 1 0 0 1 .294.709v13.077c0 .674-.269 1.32-.747 1.796a2.549 2.549 0 0 1-1.798.742H15a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h4.455a.549.549 0 0 0 .387-.16.535.535 0 0 0 .158-.378V7.8L15.178 3H5.545a.543.543 0 0 0-.538.451L5 3.538v8.607a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1h10.046ZM8 13c2.052 0 4.66 1.61 6.36 3.4l.124.141c.333.41.516.925.516 1.459 0 .6-.232 1.178-.64 1.599C12.666 21.388 10.054 23 8 23c-2.052 0-4.66-1.61-6.353-3.393A2.31 2.31 0 0 1 1 18c0-.6.232-1.178.64-1.6C3.34 14.61 5.948 13 8 13Zm0 2c-1.369 0-3.552 1.348-4.917 2.785A.31.31 0 0 0 3 18c0 .083.031.161.09.222C4.447 19.652 6.631 21 8 21c1.37 0 3.556-1.35 4.917-2.785A.31.31 0 0 0 13 18a.32.32 0 0 0-.048-.17l-.042-.052C11.553 16.348 9.369 15 8 15Zm0 1a2 2 0 1 1 0 4 2 2 0 0 1 0-4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-altmetric-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c5.978 0 10.843 4.77 10.996 10.712l.004.306-.002.022-.002.248C22.843 18.23 17.978 23 12 23 5.925 23 1 18.075 1 12S5.925 1 12 1Zm-1.726 9.246L8.848 12.53a1 1 0 0 1-.718.461L8.003 13l-4.947.014a9.001 9.001 0 0 0 17.887-.001L16.553 13l-2.205 3.53a1 1 0 0 1-1.735-.068l-.05-.11-2.289-6.106ZM12 3a9.001 9.001 0 0 0-8.947 8.013l4.391-.012L9.652 7.47a1 1 0 0 1 1.784.179l2.288 6.104 1.428-2.283a1 1 0 0 1 .722-.462l.129-.008 4.943.012A9.001 9.001 0 0 0 12 3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-bend-down-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m11.852 20.989.058.007L12 21l.075-.003.126-.017.111-.03.111-.044.098-.052.104-.074.082-.073 6-6a1 1 0 0 0-1.414-1.414L13 17.585v-12.2C13 4.075 11.964 3 10.667 3H4a1 1 0 1 0 0 2h6.667c.175 0 .333.164.333.385v12.2l-4.293-4.292a1 1 0 0 0-1.32-.083l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.414l6 6c.035.036.073.068.112.097l.11.071.114.054.105.035.118.025Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-bend-down-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M1 2a1 1 0 0 0 1 1h5v8.585L3.707 8.293a1 1 0 0 0-1.32-.083l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.414l5 5 .063.059.093.069.081.048.105.048.104.035.105.022.096.01h.136l.122-.018.113-.03.103-.04.1-.053.102-.07.052-.043 5.04-5.037a1 1 0 1 0-1.415-1.414L9 11.583V3a2 2 0 0 0-2-2H2a1 1 0 0 0-1 1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-bend-up-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m11.852 3.011.058-.007L12 3l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.104.074.082.073 6 6a1 1 0 1 1-1.414 1.414L13 6.415v12.2C13 19.925 11.964 21 10.667 21H4a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h6.667c.175 0 .333-.164.333-.385v-12.2l-4.293 4.292a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l6-6c.035-.036.073-.068.112-.097l.11-.071.114-.054.105-.035.118-.025Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-bend-up-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M1 13.998a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h5V4.413L3.707 7.705a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.084l-.094-.084a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l5-5 .063-.059.093-.068.081-.05.105-.047.104-.035.105-.022L7.94 1l.136.001.122.017.113.03.103.04.1.053.102.07.052.043 5.04 5.037a1 1 0 1 1-1.415 1.414L9 4.415v8.583a2 2 0 0 1-2 2H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-diagonal-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14 3h6l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.096.067.09.08c.036.035.068.073.097.112l.071.11.054.114.035.105.03.148L21 4v6a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V6.414l-4.293 4.293a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414L17.584 5H14a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L13 4a1 1 0 0 1 1-1ZM4 13a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v3.584l4.293-4.291a1 1 0 1 1 1.414 1.414L6.414 19H10a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L11 20a1 1 0 0 1-1 1l-6.075-.003-.126-.017-.111-.03-.111-.044-.098-.052-.096-.067-.09-.08a1.01 1.01 0 0 1-.097-.112l-.071-.11-.054-.114-.035-.105-.025-.118-.007-.058L3 20v-6a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-diagonal-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m2 15-.082-.004-.119-.016-.111-.03-.111-.044-.098-.052-.096-.067-.09-.08a1.008 1.008 0 0 1-.097-.112l-.071-.11-.031-.062-.034-.081-.024-.076-.025-.118-.007-.058L1 14.02V9a1 1 0 1 1 2 0v2.584l2.793-2.791a1 1 0 1 1 1.414 1.414L4.414 13H7a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L8 14a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2ZM14 1l.081.003.12.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.096.067.09.08c.036.035.068.073.097.112l.071.11.031.062.034.081.024.076.03.148L15 2v5a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V4.414l-2.96 2.96A1 1 0 1 1 8.626 5.96L11.584 3H9a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L8 2a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h5Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-down-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m20.707 12.728-7.99 7.98a.996.996 0 0 1-.561.281l-.157.011a.998.998 0 0 1-.788-.384l-7.918-7.908a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.416L11 17.576V4a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v13.598l6.293-6.285a1 1 0 0 1 1.32-.082l.095.083a1 1 0 0 1-.001 1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-down-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m1.293 8.707 6 6 .063.059.093.069.081.048.105.049.104.034.056.013.118.017L8 15l.076-.003.122-.017.113-.03.085-.032.063-.03.098-.058.06-.043.05-.043 6.04-6.037a1 1 0 0 0-1.414-1.414L9 11.583V2a1 1 0 1 0-2 0v9.585L2.707 7.293a1 1 0 0 0-1.32-.083l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-left-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m11.272 3.293-7.98 7.99a.996.996 0 0 0-.281.561L3 12.001c0 .32.15.605.384.788l7.908 7.918a1 1 0 0 0 1.416-1.414L6.424 13H20a1 1 0 0 0 0-2H6.402l6.285-6.293a1 1 0 0 0 .082-1.32l-.083-.095a1 1 0 0 0-1.414.001Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-left-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m7.293 1.293-6 6-.059.063-.069.093-.048.081-.049.105-.034.104-.013.056-.017.118L1 8l.003.076.017.122.03.113.032.085.03.063.058.098.043.06.043.05 6.037 6.04a1 1 0 0 0 1.414-1.414L4.417 9H14a1 1 0 0 0 0-2H4.415l4.292-4.293a1 1 0 0 0 .083-1.32l-.083-.094a1 1 0 0 0-1.414 0Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m12.728 3.293 7.98 7.99a.996.996 0 0 1 .281.561l.011.157c0 .32-.15.605-.384.788l-7.908 7.918a1 1 0 0 1-1.416-1.414L17.576 13H4a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h13.598l-6.285-6.293a1 1 0 0 1-.082-1.32l.083-.095a1 1 0 0 1 1.414.001Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m8.707 1.293 6 6 .059.063.069.093.048.081.049.105.034.104.013.056.017.118L15 8l-.003.076-.017.122-.03.113-.032.085-.03.063-.058.098-.043.06-.043.05-6.037 6.04a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414L11.583 9H2a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h9.585L7.293 2.707a1 1 0 0 1-.083-1.32l.083-.094a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 0Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-up-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m3.293 11.272 7.99-7.98a.996.996 0 0 1 .561-.281L12.001 3c.32 0 .605.15.788.384l7.918 7.908a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.416L13 6.424V20a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V6.402l-6.293 6.285a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.082l-.095-.083a1 1 0 0 1 .001-1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-arrow-up-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="m1.293 7.293 6-6 .063-.059.093-.069.081-.048.105-.049.104-.034.056-.013.118-.017L8 1l.076.003.122.017.113.03.085.032.063.03.098.058.06.043.05.043 6.04 6.037a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414L9 4.417V14a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V4.415L2.707 8.707a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-article-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M8 7a1 1 0 0 0 0 2h4a1 1 0 1 0 0-2H8ZM8 11a1 1 0 1 0 0 2h8a1 1 0 1 0 0-2H8ZM7 16a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h8a1 1 0 1 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1-1-1Z"/><path d="M5.545 1A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 3 3.538v16.924A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 5.545 23h12.91A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 21 20.462V3.5A2.5 2.5 0 0 0 18.5 1H5.545ZM5 3.538C5 3.245 5.24 3 5.545 3H18.5a.5.5 0 0 1 .5.5v16.962c0 .293-.24.538-.546.538H5.545A.542.542 0 0 1 5 20.462V3.538Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-book-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M18.5 1A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 21 3.5v12c0 1.16-.79 2.135-1.86 2.418l-.14.031V21h1a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L21 22a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H6.5A3.5 3.5 0 0 1 3 19.5v-15A3.5 3.5 0 0 1 6.5 1h12ZM17 18H6.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 0-1.493 1.356L5 19.5A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 6.5 21H17v-3Zm1.5-15h-12A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 5 4.5v11.837l.054-.025a3.481 3.481 0 0 1 1.254-.307L6.5 16h12a.5.5 0 0 0 .492-.41L19 15.5v-12a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5ZM15 6a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H9a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-book-series-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M1 3.786C1 2.759 1.857 2 2.82 2H6.18c.964 0 1.82.759 1.82 1.786V4h3.168c.668 0 1.298.364 1.616.938.158-.109.333-.195.523-.252l3.216-.965c.923-.277 1.962.204 2.257 1.187l4.146 13.82c.296.984-.307 1.957-1.23 2.234l-3.217.965c-.923.277-1.962-.203-2.257-1.187L13 10.005v10.21c0 1.04-.878 1.785-1.834 1.785H7.833c-.291 0-.575-.07-.83-.195A1.849 1.849 0 0 1 6.18 22H2.821C1.857 22 1 21.241 1 20.214V3.786ZM3 4v11h3V4H3Zm0 16v-3h3v3H3Zm15.075-.04-.814-2.712 2.874-.862.813 2.712-2.873.862Zm1.485-5.49-2.874.862-2.634-8.782 2.873-.862 2.635 8.782ZM8 20V6h3v14H8Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-calendar-acceptance-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1h1.5C20.817 4 22 5.183 22 6.5v13c0 1.317-1.183 2.5-2.5 2.5h-15C3.183 22 2 20.817 2 19.5v-13C2 5.183 3.183 4 4.5 4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-.212 0-.5.288-.5.5v13c0 .212.288.5.5.5h15c.212 0 .5-.288.5-.5v-13c0-.212-.288-.5-.5-.5H18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-.534 7.747a1 1 0 0 1 .094 1.412l-4.846 5.538a1 1 0 0 1-1.352.141l-2.77-2.076a1 1 0 0 1 1.2-1.6l2.027 1.519 4.236-4.84a1 1 0 0 1 1.411-.094ZM7.5 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1H14a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8.5v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-calendar-date-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1h1.5C20.817 4 22 5.183 22 6.5v13c0 1.317-1.183 2.5-2.5 2.5h-15C3.183 22 2 20.817 2 19.5v-13C2 5.183 3.183 4 4.5 4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-.212 0-.5.288-.5.5v13c0 .212.288.5.5.5h15c.212 0 .5-.288.5-.5v-13c0-.212-.288-.5-.5-.5H18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1ZM8 15a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2Zm4 0a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2Zm-4-4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2Zm4 0a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2Zm4 0a1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 1 0 0 1 0-2ZM7.5 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1H14a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8.5v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-calendar-decision-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1h1.5C20.817 4 22 5.183 22 6.5v13c0 1.317-1.183 2.5-2.5 2.5h-15C3.183 22 2 20.817 2 19.5v-13C2 5.183 3.183 4 4.5 4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-.212 0-.5.288-.5.5v13c0 .212.288.5.5.5h15c.212 0 .5-.288.5-.5v-13c0-.212-.288-.5-.5-.5H18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-2.935 8.246 2.686 2.645c.34.335.34.883 0 1.218l-2.686 2.645a.858.858 0 0 1-1.213-.009.854.854 0 0 1 .009-1.21l1.05-1.035H7.984a.992.992 0 0 1-.984-1c0-.552.44-1 .984-1h5.928l-1.051-1.036a.854.854 0 0 1-.085-1.121l.076-.088a.858.858 0 0 1 1.213-.009ZM7.5 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1H14a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8.5v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-calendar-impact-factor-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1h1.5C20.817 4 22 5.183 22 6.5v13c0 1.317-1.183 2.5-2.5 2.5h-15C3.183 22 2 20.817 2 19.5v-13C2 5.183 3.183 4 4.5 4a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-.212 0-.5.288-.5.5v13c0 .212.288.5.5.5h15c.212 0 .5-.288.5-.5v-13c0-.212-.288-.5-.5-.5H18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-3.2 6.924a.48.48 0 0 1 .125.544l-1.52 3.283h2.304c.27 0 .491.215.491.483a.477.477 0 0 1-.13.327l-4.18 4.484a.498.498 0 0 1-.69.031.48.48 0 0 1-.125-.544l1.52-3.284H9.291a.487.487 0 0 1-.491-.482c0-.121.047-.238.13-.327l4.18-4.484a.498.498 0 0 1 .69-.031ZM7.5 2a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1H14a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8.5v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-call-papers-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g><path d="m20.707 2.883-1.414 1.414a1 1 0 0 0 1.414 1.414l1.414-1.414a1 1 0 0 0-1.414-1.414Z"/><path d="M6 16.054c0 2.026 1.052 2.943 3 2.943a1 1 0 1 1 0 2c-2.996 0-5-1.746-5-4.943v-1.227a4.068 4.068 0 0 1-1.83-1.189 4.553 4.553 0 0 1-.87-1.455 4.868 4.868 0 0 1-.3-1.686c0-1.17.417-2.298 1.17-3.14.38-.426.834-.767 1.338-1 .51-.237 1.06-.36 1.617-.36L6.632 6H7l7.932-2.895A2.363 2.363 0 0 1 18 5.36v9.28a2.36 2.36 0 0 1-3.069 2.25l.084.03L7 14.997H6v1.057Zm9.637-11.057a.415.415 0 0 0-.083.008L8 7.638v5.536l7.424 1.786.104.02c.035.01.072.02.109.02.2 0 .363-.16.363-.36V5.36c0-.2-.163-.363-.363-.363Zm-9.638 3h-.874a1.82 1.82 0 0 0-.625.111l-.15.063a2.128 2.128 0 0 0-.689.517c-.42.47-.661 1.123-.661 1.81 0 .34.06.678.176.992.114.308.28.585.485.816.4.447.925.691 1.464.691h.874v-5Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/><path d="M20 8.997h2a1 1 0 1 1 0 2h-2a1 1 0 1 1 0-2ZM20.707 14.293l1.414 1.414a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414l-1.414-1.414a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414Z"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-card-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M19.615 2c.315 0 .716.067 1.14.279.76.38 1.245 1.107 1.245 2.106v15.23c0 .315-.067.716-.279 1.14-.38.76-1.107 1.245-2.106 1.245H4.385a2.56 2.56 0 0 1-1.14-.279C2.485 21.341 2 20.614 2 19.615V4.385c0-.315.067-.716.279-1.14C2.659 2.485 3.386 2 4.385 2h15.23Zm0 2H4.385c-.213 0-.265.034-.317.14A.71.71 0 0 0 4 4.385v15.23c0 .213.034.265.14.317a.71.71 0 0 0 .245.068h15.23c.213 0 .265-.034.317-.14a.71.71 0 0 0 .068-.245V4.385c0-.213-.034-.265-.14-.317A.71.71 0 0 0 19.615 4ZM17 16a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h10Zm0-3a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h10Zm-.5-7A1.5 1.5 0 0 1 18 7.5v3a1.5 1.5 0 0 1-1.5 1.5h-9A1.5 1.5 0 0 1 6 10.5v-3A1.5 1.5 0 0 1 7.5 6h9ZM16 8H8v2h8V8Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-cart-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M5.76 1a1 1 0 0 1 .994.902L7.155 6h13.34c.18 0 .358.02.532.057l.174.045a2.5 2.5 0 0 1 1.693 3.103l-2.069 7.03c-.36 1.099-1.398 1.823-2.49 1.763H8.65c-1.272.015-2.352-.927-2.546-2.244L4.852 3H2a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L1 2a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h3.76Zm2.328 14.51a.555.555 0 0 0 .55.488l9.751.001a.533.533 0 0 0 .527-.357l2.059-7a.5.5 0 0 0-.48-.642H7.351l.737 7.51ZM18 19a2 2 0 1 1 0 4 2 2 0 0 1 0-4ZM8 19a2 2 0 1 1 0 4 2 2 0 0 1 0-4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-check-circle-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18Zm5.125 4.72a1 1 0 0 1 .156 1.405l-6 7.5a1 1 0 0 1-1.421.143l-3-2.5a1 1 0 0 1 1.28-1.536l2.217 1.846 5.362-6.703a1 1 0 0 1 1.406-.156Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-check-filled-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm5.125 6.72a1 1 0 0 0-1.406.155l-5.362 6.703-2.217-1.846a1 1 0 1 0-1.28 1.536l3 2.5a1 1 0 0 0 1.42-.143l6-7.5a1 1 0 0 0-.155-1.406Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M3.305 8.28a1 1 0 0 0-.024 1.415l7.495 7.762c.314.345.757.543 1.224.543.467 0 .91-.198 1.204-.522l7.515-7.783a1 1 0 1 0-1.438-1.39L12 15.845l-7.28-7.54A1 1 0 0 0 3.4 8.2l-.096.082Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-down-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M13.692 5.278a1 1 0 0 1 .03 1.414L9.103 11.51a1.491 1.491 0 0 1-2.188.019L2.278 6.692a1 1 0 0 1 1.444-1.384L8 9.771l4.278-4.463a1 1 0 0 1 1.318-.111l.096.081Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-left-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.72 3.305a1 1 0 0 0-1.415-.024l-7.762 7.495A1.655 1.655 0 0 0 6 12c0 .467.198.91.522 1.204l7.783 7.515a1 1 0 1 0 1.39-1.438L8.155 12l7.54-7.28A1 1 0 0 0 15.8 3.4l-.082-.096Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-left-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M10.722 2.308a1 1 0 0 0-1.414-.03L4.49 6.897a1.491 1.491 0 0 0-.019 2.188l4.838 4.637a1 1 0 1 0 1.384-1.444L6.229 8l4.463-4.278a1 1 0 0 0 .111-1.318l-.081-.096Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-right-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M8.28 3.305a1 1 0 0 1 1.415-.024l7.762 7.495c.345.314.543.757.543 1.224 0 .467-.198.91-.522 1.204l-7.783 7.515a1 1 0 1 1-1.39-1.438L15.845 12l-7.54-7.28A1 1 0 0 1 8.2 3.4l.082-.096Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M5.278 2.308a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-.03l4.819 4.619a1.491 1.491 0 0 1 .019 2.188l-4.838 4.637a1 1 0 1 1-1.384-1.444L9.771 8 5.308 3.722a1 1 0 0 1-.111-1.318l.081-.096Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-up-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M20.695 15.72a1 1 0 0 0 .024-1.415l-7.495-7.762A1.655 1.655 0 0 0 12 6c-.467 0-.91.198-1.204.522l-7.515 7.783a1 1 0 1 0 1.438 1.39L12 8.155l7.28 7.54a1 1 0 0 0 1.319.106l.096-.082Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-chevron-up-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M13.692 10.722a1 1 0 0 0 .03-1.414L9.103 4.49a1.491 1.491 0 0 0-2.188-.019L2.278 9.308a1 1 0 0 0 1.444 1.384L8 6.229l4.278 4.463a1 1 0 0 0 1.318.111l.096-.081Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-citations-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.59 1a1 1 0 0 1 .706.291l5.41 5.385a1 1 0 0 1 .294.709v13.077c0 .674-.269 1.32-.747 1.796a2.549 2.549 0 0 1-1.798.742h-5.843a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h5.843a.549.549 0 0 0 .387-.16.535.535 0 0 0 .158-.378V7.8L15.178 3H5.545a.543.543 0 0 0-.538.451L5 3.538v8.607a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1h10.046ZM5.483 14.35c.197.26.17.62-.049.848l-.095.083-.016.011c-.36.24-.628.45-.804.634-.393.409-.59.93-.59 1.562.077-.019.192-.028.345-.028.442 0 .84.158 1.195.474.355.316.532.716.532 1.2 0 .501-.173.9-.518 1.198-.345.298-.767.446-1.266.446-.672 0-1.209-.195-1.612-.585-.403-.39-.604-.976-.604-1.757 0-.744.11-1.39.33-1.938.222-.549.49-1.009.807-1.38a4.28 4.28 0 0 1 .992-.88c.07-.043.148-.087.232-.133a.881.881 0 0 1 1.121.245Zm5 0c.197.26.17.62-.049.848l-.095.083-.016.011c-.36.24-.628.45-.804.634-.393.409-.59.93-.59 1.562.077-.019.192-.028.345-.028.442 0 .84.158 1.195.474.355.316.532.716.532 1.2 0 .501-.173.9-.518 1.198-.345.298-.767.446-1.266.446-.672 0-1.209-.195-1.612-.585-.403-.39-.604-.976-.604-1.757 0-.744.11-1.39.33-1.938.222-.549.49-1.009.807-1.38a4.28 4.28 0 0 1 .992-.88c.07-.043.148-.087.232-.133a.881.881 0 0 1 1.121.245Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.4 1c1.238 0 2.274.865 2.536 2.024L18.5 3C19.886 3 21 4.14 21 5.535v14.93C21 21.86 19.886 23 18.5 23h-13C4.114 23 3 21.86 3 20.465V5.535C3 4.14 4.114 3 5.5 3h1.57c.27-1.147 1.3-2 2.53-2h4.8Zm4.115 4-1.59.024A2.601 2.601 0 0 1 14.4 7H9.6c-1.23 0-2.26-.853-2.53-2H5.5c-.27 0-.5.234-.5.535v14.93c0 .3.23.535.5.535h13c.27 0 .5-.234.5-.535V5.535c0-.3-.23-.535-.485-.535Zm-1.909 4.205a1 1 0 0 1 .19 1.401l-5.334 7a1 1 0 0 1-1.344.23l-2.667-1.75a1 1 0 1 1 1.098-1.672l1.887 1.238 4.769-6.258a1 1 0 0 1 1.401-.19ZM14.4 3H9.6a.6.6 0 0 0-.6.6v.8a.6.6 0 0 0 .6.6h4.8a.6.6 0 0 0 .6-.6v-.8a.6.6 0 0 0-.6-.6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-clipboard-report-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.4 1c1.238 0 2.274.865 2.536 2.024L18.5 3C19.886 3 21 4.14 21 5.535v14.93C21 21.86 19.886 23 18.5 23h-13C4.114 23 3 21.86 3 20.465V5.535C3 4.14 4.114 3 5.5 3h1.57c.27-1.147 1.3-2 2.53-2h4.8Zm4.115 4-1.59.024A2.601 2.601 0 0 1 14.4 7H9.6c-1.23 0-2.26-.853-2.53-2H5.5c-.27 0-.5.234-.5.535v14.93c0 .3.23.535.5.535h13c.27 0 .5-.234.5-.535V5.535c0-.3-.23-.535-.485-.535Zm-2.658 10.929a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h7.857Zm0-3.929a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h7.857ZM14.4 3H9.6a.6.6 0 0 0-.6.6v.8a.6.6 0 0 0 .6.6h4.8a.6.6 0 0 0 .6-.6v-.8a.6.6 0 0 0-.6-.6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-close-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18ZM8.707 7.293 12 10.585l3.293-3.292a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 1.414L13.415 12l3.292 3.293a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414L12 13.415l-3.293 3.292a1 1 0 1 1-1.414-1.414L10.585 12 7.293 8.707a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-cloud-upload-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m12.852 10.011.028-.004L13 10l.075.003.126.017.086.022.136.052.098.052.104.074.082.073 3 3a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 1-1.32-.083L14 13.416V20a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-6.586l-1.293 1.293a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l3-3 .112-.097.11-.071.114-.054.105-.035.118-.025Zm.587-7.962c3.065.362 5.497 2.662 5.992 5.562l.013.085.207.073c2.117.782 3.496 2.845 3.337 5.097l-.022.226c-.297 2.561-2.503 4.491-5.124 4.502a1 1 0 1 1-.009-2c1.619-.007 2.967-1.186 3.147-2.733.179-1.542-.86-2.979-2.487-3.353-.512-.149-.894-.579-.981-1.165-.21-2.237-2-4.035-4.308-4.308-2.31-.273-4.497 1.06-5.25 3.19l-.049.113c-.234.468-.718.756-1.176.743-1.418.057-2.689.857-3.32 2.084a3.668 3.668 0 0 0 .262 3.798c.796 1.136 2.169 1.764 3.583 1.635a1 1 0 1 1 .182 1.992c-2.125.194-4.193-.753-5.403-2.48a5.668 5.668 0 0 1-.403-5.86c.85-1.652 2.449-2.79 4.323-3.092l.287-.039.013-.028c1.207-2.741 4.125-4.404 7.186-4.042Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-collection-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M21 7a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v12.5a2.5 2.5 0 0 1-2.5 2.5H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h11.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-5.5-5A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 18 4.5v12a2.5 2.5 0 0 1-2.5 2.5h-11A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 2 16.5v-12A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 4.5 2h11Zm0 2h-11a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5v12a.5.5 0 0 0 .5.5h11a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5v-12a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5ZM13 13a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h6Zm0-3.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h6ZM13 6a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H7a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-conference-series-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M4.5 2A2.5 2.5 0 0 0 2 4.5v11A2.5 2.5 0 0 0 4.5 18h2.37l-2.534 2.253a1 1 0 0 0 1.328 1.494L9.88 18H11v3a1 1 0 1 0 2 0v-3h1.12l4.216 3.747a1 1 0 0 0 1.328-1.494L17.13 18h2.37a2.5 2.5 0 0 0 2.5-2.5v-11A2.5 2.5 0 0 0 19.5 2h-15ZM20 6V4.5a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5h-15a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5V6h16ZM4 8v7.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .5.5h15a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5V8H4Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-delivery-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M8.51 20.598a3.037 3.037 0 0 1-3.02 0A2.968 2.968 0 0 1 4.161 19L3.5 19A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 1 16.5v-11A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 3.5 3h10a2.5 2.5 0 0 1 2.45 2.004L16 5h2.527c.976 0 1.855.585 2.27 1.49l2.112 4.62a1 1 0 0 1 .091.416v4.856C23 17.814 21.889 19 20.484 19h-.523a1.01 1.01 0 0 1-.121-.007 2.96 2.96 0 0 1-1.33 1.605 3.037 3.037 0 0 1-3.02 0A2.968 2.968 0 0 1 14.161 19H9.838a2.968 2.968 0 0 1-1.327 1.597Zm-2.024-3.462a.955.955 0 0 0-.481.73L5.999 18l.001.022a.944.944 0 0 0 .388.777l.098.065c.316.181.712.181 1.028 0A.97.97 0 0 0 8 17.978a.95.95 0 0 0-.486-.842 1.037 1.037 0 0 0-1.028 0Zm10 0a.955.955 0 0 0-.481.73l-.005.156a.944.944 0 0 0 .388.777l.098.065c.316.181.712.181 1.028 0a.97.97 0 0 0 .486-.886.95.95 0 0 0-.486-.842 1.037 1.037 0 0 0-1.028 0ZM21 12h-5v3.17a3.038 3.038 0 0 1 2.51.232 2.993 2.993 0 0 1 1.277 1.45l.058.155.058-.005.581-.002c.27 0 .516-.263.516-.618V12Zm-7.5-7h-10a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5v11a.5.5 0 0 0 .5.5h.662a2.964 2.964 0 0 1 1.155-1.491l.172-.107a3.037 3.037 0 0 1 3.022 0A2.987 2.987 0 0 1 9.843 17H13.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5v-11a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5Zm5.027 2H16v3h4.203l-1.224-2.677a.532.532 0 0 0-.375-.316L18.527 7Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-download-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M22 18.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-3.5 3.5h-13A3.5 3.5 0 0 1 2 18.5V18a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v.5A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 5.5 20h13a1.5 1.5 0 0 0 1.5-1.5V18a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v.5Zm-3.293-7.793-6 6-.063.059-.093.069-.081.048-.105.049-.104.034-.056.013-.118.017L12 17l-.076-.003-.122-.017-.113-.03-.085-.032-.063-.03-.098-.058-.06-.043-.05-.043-6.04-6.037a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414l4.294 4.29L11 3a1 1 0 0 1 2 0l.001 10.585 4.292-4.292a1 1 0 0 1 1.32-.083l.094.083a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-edit-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17.149 2a2.38 2.38 0 0 1 1.699.711l2.446 2.46a2.384 2.384 0 0 1 .005 3.38L10.01 19.906a1 1 0 0 1-.434.257l-6.3 1.8a1 1 0 0 1-1.237-1.237l1.8-6.3a1 1 0 0 1 .257-.434L15.443 2.718A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 17.15 2Zm-3.874 5.689-7.586 7.536-1.234 4.319 4.318-1.234 7.54-7.582-3.038-3.039ZM17.149 4a.395.395 0 0 0-.286.126L14.695 6.28l3.029 3.029 2.162-2.173a.384.384 0 0 0 .106-.197L20 6.864c0-.103-.04-.2-.119-.278l-2.457-2.47A.385.385 0 0 0 17.149 4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-education-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M12.41 2.088a1 1 0 0 0-.82 0l-10 4.5a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.824L3 9.047v7.124A3.001 3.001 0 0 0 4 22a3 3 0 0 0 1-5.83V9.948l1 .45V14.5a1 1 0 0 0 .087.408L7 14.5c-.913.408-.912.41-.912.41l.001.003.003.006.007.015a1.988 1.988 0 0 0 .083.16c.054.097.131.225.236.373.21.297.53.68.993 1.057C8.351 17.292 9.824 18 12 18c2.176 0 3.65-.707 4.589-1.476.463-.378.783-.76.993-1.057a4.162 4.162 0 0 0 .319-.533l.007-.015.003-.006v-.003h.002s0-.002-.913-.41l.913.408A1 1 0 0 0 18 14.5v-4.103l4.41-1.985a1 1 0 0 0 0-1.824l-10-4.5ZM16 11.297l-3.59 1.615a1 1 0 0 1-.82 0L8 11.297v2.94a3.388 3.388 0 0 0 .677.739C9.267 15.457 10.294 16 12 16s2.734-.543 3.323-1.024a3.388 3.388 0 0 0 .677-.739v-2.94ZM4.437 7.5 12 4.097 19.563 7.5 12 10.903 4.437 7.5ZM3 19a1 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 1-2 0Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-error-diamond-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12.002 1c.702 0 1.375.279 1.871.775l8.35 8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1 .001 3.744l-8.353 8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1-3.742 0l-8.353-8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1 0-3.744l8.353-8.353.156-.142c.424-.362.952-.58 1.507-.625l.21-.008Zm0 2a.646.646 0 0 0-.38.123l-.093.08-8.34 8.34a.646.646 0 0 0-.18.355L3 12c0 .171.068.336.19.457l8.353 8.354a.646.646 0 0 0 .914 0l8.354-8.354a.646.646 0 0 0-.001-.914l-8.351-8.354A.646.646 0 0 0 12.002 3ZM12 14.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .144 2.993L12 17.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3ZM12 6a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v5a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V7a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-error-filled-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12.002 1c.702 0 1.375.279 1.871.775l8.35 8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1 .001 3.744l-8.353 8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1-3.742 0l-8.353-8.353a2.646 2.646 0 0 1 0-3.744l8.353-8.353.156-.142c.424-.362.952-.58 1.507-.625l.21-.008ZM12 14.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3l.144-.007A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 12 14.5ZM12 6a1 1 0 0 0-1 1v5a1 1 0 0 0 2 0V7a1 1 0 0 0-1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-external-link-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 2a1 1 0 1 1 0 2H4.6c-.371 0-.6.209-.6.5v15c0 .291.229.5.6.5h14.8c.371 0 .6-.209.6-.5V15a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v4.5c0 1.438-1.162 2.5-2.6 2.5H4.6C3.162 22 2 20.938 2 19.5v-15C2 3.062 3.162 2 4.6 2H9Zm6 0h6l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.096.067.09.08c.036.035.068.073.097.112l.071.11.054.114.035.105.03.148L22 3v6a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V5.414l-6.693 6.693a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414L18.584 4H15a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L14 3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-external-link-small" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path d="M5 1a1 1 0 1 1 0 2l-2-.001V13L13 13v-2a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v2c0 1.15-.93 2-2.067 2H3.067C1.93 15 1 14.15 1 13V3c0-1.15.93-2 2.067-2H5Zm4 0h5l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.096.067.09.08.044.047.073.093.051.083.054.113.035.105.03.148L15 2v5a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V4.414L9.107 8.307a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414L11.584 3H9a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L8 2a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-file-download-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.5 1a1 1 0 0 1 .707.293l5.5 5.5A1 1 0 0 1 21 7.5v12.962A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 18.455 23H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 3 20.462V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1H14.5Zm-.415 2h-8.54A.542.542 0 0 0 5 3.538v16.924c0 .296.243.538.545.538h12.91a.542.542 0 0 0 .545-.538V7.915L14.085 3ZM12 7a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v6.585l2.293-2.292a1 1 0 0 1 1.32-.083l.094.083a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414l-4 4a1.008 1.008 0 0 1-.112.097l-.11.071-.114.054-.105.035-.149.03L12 18l-.075-.003-.126-.017-.111-.03-.111-.044-.098-.052-.096-.067-.09-.08-4-4a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414L11 14.585V8a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-file-report-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.5 1a1 1 0 0 1 .707.293l5.5 5.5A1 1 0 0 1 21 7.5v12.962c0 .674-.269 1.32-.747 1.796a2.549 2.549 0 0 1-1.798.742H5.545c-.674 0-1.32-.267-1.798-.742A2.535 2.535 0 0 1 3 20.462V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1H14.5Zm-.415 2h-8.54A.542.542 0 0 0 5 3.538v16.924c0 .142.057.278.158.379.102.102.242.159.387.159h12.91a.549.549 0 0 0 .387-.16.535.535 0 0 0 .158-.378V7.915L14.085 3ZM16 17a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Zm0-3a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Zm-4.793-6.207L13 9.585l1.793-1.792a1 1 0 0 1 1.32-.083l.094.083a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414l-2.5 2.5a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 0L10.5 9.915l-1.793 1.792a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l2.5-2.5a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 0Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-file-text-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.5 1a1 1 0 0 1 .707.293l5.5 5.5A1 1 0 0 1 21 7.5v12.962A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 18.455 23H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 3 20.462V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1H14.5Zm-.415 2h-8.54A.542.542 0 0 0 5 3.538v16.924c0 .296.243.538.545.538h12.91a.542.542 0 0 0 .545-.538V7.915L14.085 3ZM16 15a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Zm0-4a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Zm-5-4a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-file-upload-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14.5 1a1 1 0 0 1 .707.293l5.5 5.5A1 1 0 0 1 21 7.5v12.962A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 18.455 23H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 3 20.462V3.538A2.542 2.542 0 0 1 5.545 1H14.5Zm-.415 2h-8.54A.542.542 0 0 0 5 3.538v16.924c0 .296.243.538.545.538h12.91a.542.542 0 0 0 .545-.538V7.915L14.085 3Zm-2.233 4.011.058-.007L12 7l.075.003.126.017.111.03.111.044.098.052.104.074.082.073 4 4a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.414l-.094.083a1 1 0 0 1-1.32-.083L13 10.415V17a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-6.585l-2.293 2.292a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l4-4 .112-.097.11-.071.114-.054.105-.035.118-.025Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-filter-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M21 2a1 1 0 0 1 .82 1.573L15 13.314V18a1 1 0 0 1-.31.724l-.09.076-4 3A1 1 0 0 1 9 21v-7.684L2.18 3.573a1 1 0 0 1 .707-1.567L3 2h18Zm-1.921 2H4.92l5.9 8.427a1 1 0 0 1 .172.45L11 13v6l2-1.5V13a1 1 0 0 1 .117-.469l.064-.104L19.079 4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-funding-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M23 8A7 7 0 1 0 9 8a7 7 0 0 0 14 0ZM9.006 12.225A4.07 4.07 0 0 0 6.12 11.02H2a.979.979 0 1 0 0 1.958h4.12c.558 0 1.094.222 1.489.617l2.207 2.288c.27.27.27.687.012.944a.656.656 0 0 1-.928 0L7.744 15.67a.98.98 0 0 0-1.386 1.384l1.157 1.158c.535.536 1.244.791 1.946.765l.041.002h6.922c.874 0 1.597.748 1.597 1.688 0 .203-.146.354-.309.354H7.755c-.487 0-.96-.178-1.339-.504L2.64 17.259a.979.979 0 0 0-1.28 1.482L5.137 22c.733.631 1.66.979 2.618.979h9.957c1.26 0 2.267-1.043 2.267-2.312 0-2.006-1.584-3.646-3.555-3.646h-4.529a2.617 2.617 0 0 0-.681-2.509l-2.208-2.287ZM16 3a5 5 0 1 0 0 10 5 5 0 0 0 0-10Zm.979 3.5a.979.979 0 1 0-1.958 0v3a.979.979 0 1 0 1.958 0v-3Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-hashtag-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18ZM9.52 18.189a1 1 0 1 1-1.964-.378l.437-2.274H6a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h2.378l.592-3.076H6a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h3.354l.51-2.65a1 1 0 1 1 1.964.378l-.437 2.272h3.04l.51-2.65a1 1 0 1 1 1.964.378l-.438 2.272H18a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-1.917l-.592 3.076H18a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-2.893l-.51 2.652a1 1 0 1 1-1.964-.378l.437-2.274h-3.04l-.51 2.652Zm.895-4.652h3.04l.591-3.076h-3.04l-.591 3.076Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-home-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M5 22a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-8.586l-1.293 1.293a1 1 0 0 1-1.32.083l-.094-.083a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.414l10-10a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 0l10 10a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414L20 12.415V21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H5Zm7-17.585-6 5.999V20h5v-4a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v4h5v-9.585l-6-6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-image-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M19.615 2A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 22 4.385v15.23A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 19.615 22H4.385A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 2 19.615V4.385A2.385 2.385 0 0 1 4.385 2h15.23Zm0 2H4.385A.385.385 0 0 0 4 4.385v15.23c0 .213.172.385.385.385h1.244l10.228-8.76a1 1 0 0 1 1.254-.037L20 13.392V4.385A.385.385 0 0 0 19.615 4Zm-3.07 9.283L8.703 20h10.912a.385.385 0 0 0 .385-.385v-3.713l-3.455-2.619ZM9.5 6a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 0 7 3.5 3.5 0 0 1 0-7Zm0 2a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0 3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0-3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-impact-factor-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M16.49 2.672c.74.694.986 1.765.632 2.712l-.04.1-1.549 3.54h1.477a2.496 2.496 0 0 1 2.485 2.34l.005.163c0 .618-.23 1.21-.642 1.675l-7.147 7.961a2.48 2.48 0 0 1-3.554.165 2.512 2.512 0 0 1-.633-2.712l.042-.103L9.108 15H7.46c-1.393 0-2.379-1.11-2.455-2.369L5 12.473c0-.593.142-1.145.628-1.692l7.307-7.944a2.48 2.48 0 0 1 3.555-.165ZM14.43 4.164l-7.33 7.97c-.083.093-.101.214-.101.34 0 .277.19.526.46.526h4.163l.097-.009c.015 0 .03.003.046.009.181.078.264.32.186.5l-2.554 5.817a.512.512 0 0 0 .127.552.48.48 0 0 0 .69-.033l7.155-7.97a.513.513 0 0 0 .13-.34.497.497 0 0 0-.49-.502h-3.988a.355.355 0 0 1-.328-.497l2.555-5.844a.512.512 0 0 0-.127-.552.48.48 0 0 0-.69.033Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-info-circle-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18Zm0 7a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v5h1.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-5a1 1 0 0 1 0-2H11v-4h-.5a1 1 0 0 1-.993-.883L9.5 11a1 1 0 0 1 1-1H12Zm0-4.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .144 2.993L12 8.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-info-filled-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 9h-1.5a1 1 0 0 0-1 1l.007.117A1 1 0 0 0 10.5 12h.5v4H9.5a1 1 0 0 0 0 2h5a1 1 0 0 0 0-2H13v-5a1 1 0 0 0-1-1Zm0-4.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3l.144-.007A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 12 5.5Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-journal-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M18.5 1A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 21 3.5v14a2.5 2.5 0 0 1-2.5 2.5h-13a.5.5 0 1 0 0 1H20a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H5.5A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 3 20.5v-17A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 5.5 1h13ZM7 3H5.5a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5v14.549l.016-.002c.104-.02.211-.035.32-.042L5.5 18H7V3Zm11.5 0H9v15h9.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5v-14a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5ZM16 5a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v4a1 1 0 0 1-1 1h-5a1 1 0 0 1-1-1V6a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h5Zm-1 2h-3v2h3V7Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-mail-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M20.462 3C21.875 3 23 4.184 23 5.619v12.762C23 19.816 21.875 21 20.462 21H3.538C2.125 21 1 19.816 1 18.381V5.619C1 4.184 2.125 3 3.538 3h16.924ZM21 8.158l-7.378 6.258a2.549 2.549 0 0 1-3.253-.008L3 8.16v10.222c0 .353.253.619.538.619h16.924c.285 0 .538-.266.538-.619V8.158ZM20.462 5H3.538c-.264 0-.5.228-.534.542l8.65 7.334c.2.165.492.165.684.007l8.656-7.342-.001-.025c-.044-.3-.274-.516-.531-.516Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-mail-send-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M20.444 5a2.562 2.562 0 0 1 2.548 2.37l.007.078.001.123v7.858A2.564 2.564 0 0 1 20.444 18H9.556A2.564 2.564 0 0 1 7 15.429l.001-7.977.007-.082A2.561 2.561 0 0 1 9.556 5h10.888ZM21 9.331l-5.46 3.51a1 1 0 0 1-1.08 0L9 9.332v6.097c0 .317.251.571.556.571h10.888a.564.564 0 0 0 .556-.571V9.33ZM20.444 7H9.556a.543.543 0 0 0-.32.105l5.763 3.706 5.766-3.706a.543.543 0 0 0-.32-.105ZM4.308 5a1 1 0 1 1 0 2H2a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h2.308Zm0 5.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H2a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h2.308Zm0 5.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H2a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h2.308Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-mentions-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m9.452 1.293 5.92 5.92 2.92-2.92a1 1 0 0 1 1.415 1.414l-2.92 2.92 5.92 5.92a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.415 10.371 10.371 0 0 1-10.378 2.584l.652 3.258A1 1 0 0 1 12 23H2a1 1 0 0 1-.874-1.486l4.789-8.62C4.194 9.074 4.9 4.43 8.038 1.292a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 0Zm-2.355 13.59L3.699 21h7.081l-.689-3.442a10.392 10.392 0 0 1-2.775-2.396l-.22-.28Zm1.69-11.427-.07.09a8.374 8.374 0 0 0 11.737 11.737l.089-.071L8.787 3.456Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-menu-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M21 4a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H3a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h18Zm-4 7a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h14Zm4 7a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h18Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-metrics-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M3 22a1 1 0 0 1-1-1V3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h6a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v7h4V8a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h6a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v13a1 1 0 0 1-.883.993L21 22H3Zm17-2V9h-4v11h4Zm-6-8h-4v8h4v-8ZM8 4H4v16h4V4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-news-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M17.384 3c.975 0 1.77.787 1.77 1.762v13.333c0 .462.354.846.815.899l.107.006.109-.006a.915.915 0 0 0 .809-.794l.006-.105V8.19a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v9.905A2.914 2.914 0 0 1 20.077 21H3.538a2.547 2.547 0 0 1-1.644-.601l-.147-.135A2.516 2.516 0 0 1 1 18.476V4.762C1 3.787 1.794 3 2.77 3h14.614Zm-.231 2H3v13.476c0 .11.035.216.1.304l.054.063c.101.1.24.157.384.157l13.761-.001-.026-.078a2.88 2.88 0 0 1-.115-.655l-.004-.17L17.153 5ZM14 15.021a.979.979 0 1 1 0 1.958H6a.979.979 0 1 1 0-1.958h8Zm0-8c.54 0 .979.438.979.979v4c0 .54-.438.979-.979.979H6A.979.979 0 0 1 5.021 12V8c0-.54.438-.979.979-.979h8Zm-.98 1.958H6.979v2.041h6.041V8.979Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-newsletter-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M21 10a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v9.5a2.5 2.5 0 0 1-2.5 2.5h-15A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 2 20.5V11a1 1 0 0 1 2 0v.439l8 4.888 8-4.889V11a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-1 3.783-7.479 4.57a1 1 0 0 1-1.042 0l-7.48-4.57V20.5a.5.5 0 0 0 .501.5h15a.5.5 0 0 0 .5-.5v-6.717ZM15 9a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H9a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h6Zm2.5-8A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 20 3.5V9a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V3.5a.5.5 0 0 0-.5-.5h-11a.5.5 0 0 0-.5.5V9a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V3.5A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 6.5 1h11ZM15 5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2H9a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-notifcation-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M14 20a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-4a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h4ZM3 18l-.133-.007c-1.156-.124-1.156-1.862 0-1.986l.3-.012C4.32 15.923 5 15.107 5 14V9.5C5 5.368 8.014 2 12 2s7 3.368 7 7.5V14c0 1.107.68 1.923 1.832 1.995l.301.012c1.156.124 1.156 1.862 0 1.986L21 18H3Zm9-14C9.17 4 7 6.426 7 9.5V14c0 .671-.146 1.303-.416 1.858L6.51 16h10.979l-.073-.142a4.192 4.192 0 0 1-.412-1.658L17 14V9.5C17 6.426 14.83 4 12 4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-publish-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g><path d="M16.296 1.291A1 1 0 0 0 15.591 1H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 3 3.538V13a1 1 0 1 0 2 0V3.538l.007-.087A.543.543 0 0 1 5.545 3h9.633L20 7.8v12.662a.534.534 0 0 1-.158.379.548.548 0 0 1-.387.159H11a1 1 0 1 0 0 2h8.455c.674 0 1.32-.267 1.798-.742A2.534 2.534 0 0 0 22 20.462V7.385a1 1 0 0 0-.294-.709l-5.41-5.385Z"/><path d="M10.762 16.647a1 1 0 0 0-1.525-1.294l-4.472 5.271-2.153-1.665a1 1 0 1 0-1.224 1.582l2.91 2.25a1 1 0 0 0 1.374-.144l5.09-6ZM16 10a1 1 0 1 1 0 2H8a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h8ZM12 7a1 1 0 0 0-1-1H8a1 1 0 1 0 0 2h3a1 1 0 0 0 1-1Z"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-refresh-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g><path d="M7.831 5.636H6.032A8.76 8.76 0 0 1 9 3.631 8.549 8.549 0 0 1 12.232 3c.603 0 1.192.063 1.76.182C17.979 4.017 21 7.632 21 12a1 1 0 1 0 2 0c0-5.296-3.674-9.746-8.591-10.776A10.61 10.61 0 0 0 5 3.851V2.805a1 1 0 0 0-.987-1H4a1 1 0 0 0-1 1v3.831a1 1 0 0 0 1 1h3.831a1 1 0 0 0 .013-2h-.013ZM17.968 18.364c-1.59 1.632-3.784 2.636-6.2 2.636C6.948 21 3 16.993 3 12a1 1 0 1 0-2 0c0 6.053 4.799 11 10.768 11 2.788 0 5.324-1.082 7.232-2.85v1.045a1 1 0 1 0 2 0v-3.831a1 1 0 0 0-1-1h-3.831a1 1 0 0 0 0 2h1.799Z"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-search-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M11 1c5.523 0 10 4.477 10 10 0 2.4-.846 4.604-2.256 6.328l3.963 3.965a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414l-3.965-3.963A9.959 9.959 0 0 1 11 21C5.477 21 1 16.523 1 11S5.477 1 11 1Zm0 2a8 8 0 1 0 0 16 8 8 0 0 0 0-16Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-settings-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M11.382 1h1.24a2.508 2.508 0 0 1 2.334 1.63l.523 1.378 1.59.933 1.444-.224c.954-.132 1.89.3 2.422 1.101l.095.155.598 1.066a2.56 2.56 0 0 1-.195 2.848l-.894 1.161v1.896l.92 1.163c.6.768.707 1.812.295 2.674l-.09.17-.606 1.08a2.504 2.504 0 0 1-2.531 1.25l-1.428-.223-1.589.932-.523 1.378a2.512 2.512 0 0 1-2.155 1.625L12.65 23h-1.27a2.508 2.508 0 0 1-2.334-1.63l-.524-1.379-1.59-.933-1.443.225c-.954.132-1.89-.3-2.422-1.101l-.095-.155-.598-1.066a2.56 2.56 0 0 1 .195-2.847l.891-1.161v-1.898l-.919-1.162a2.562 2.562 0 0 1-.295-2.674l.09-.17.606-1.08a2.504 2.504 0 0 1 2.531-1.25l1.43.223 1.618-.938.524-1.375.07-.167A2.507 2.507 0 0 1 11.382 1Zm.003 2a.509.509 0 0 0-.47.338l-.65 1.71a1 1 0 0 1-.434.51L7.6 6.85a1 1 0 0 1-.655.123l-1.762-.275a.497.497 0 0 0-.498.252l-.61 1.088a.562.562 0 0 0 .04.619l1.13 1.43a1 1 0 0 1 .216.62v2.585a1 1 0 0 1-.207.61L4.15 15.339a.568.568 0 0 0-.036.634l.601 1.072a.494.494 0 0 0 .484.26l1.78-.278a1 1 0 0 1 .66.126l2.2 1.292a1 1 0 0 1 .43.507l.648 1.71a.508.508 0 0 0 .467.338h1.263a.51.51 0 0 0 .47-.34l.65-1.708a1 1 0 0 1 .428-.507l2.201-1.292a1 1 0 0 1 .66-.126l1.763.275a.497.497 0 0 0 .498-.252l.61-1.088a.562.562 0 0 0-.04-.619l-1.13-1.43a1 1 0 0 1-.216-.62v-2.585a1 1 0 0 1 .207-.61l1.105-1.437a.568.568 0 0 0 .037-.634l-.601-1.072a.494.494 0 0 0-.484-.26l-1.78.278a1 1 0 0 1-.66-.126l-2.2-1.292a1 1 0 0 1-.43-.507l-.649-1.71A.508.508 0 0 0 12.62 3h-1.234ZM12 8a4 4 0 1 1 0 8 4 4 0 0 1 0-8Zm0 2a2 2 0 1 0 0 4 2 2 0 0 0 0-4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-shipping-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M16.515 2c1.406 0 2.706.728 3.352 1.902l2.02 3.635.02.042.036.089.031.105.012.058.01.073.004.075v11.577c0 .64-.244 1.255-.683 1.713a2.356 2.356 0 0 1-1.701.731H4.386a2.356 2.356 0 0 1-1.702-.731 2.476 2.476 0 0 1-.683-1.713V7.948c.01-.217.083-.43.22-.6L4.2 3.905C4.833 2.755 6.089 2.032 7.486 2h9.029ZM20 9H4v10.556a.49.49 0 0 0 .075.26l.053.07a.356.356 0 0 0 .257.114h15.23c.094 0 .186-.04.258-.115a.477.477 0 0 0 .127-.33V9Zm-2 7.5a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-4a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h4ZM16.514 4H13v3h6.3l-1.183-2.13c-.288-.522-.908-.87-1.603-.87ZM11 3.999H7.51c-.679.017-1.277.36-1.566.887L4.728 7H11V3.999Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-step-guide-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M11.394 9.447a1 1 0 1 0-1.788-.894l-.88 1.759-.019-.02a1 1 0 1 0-1.414 1.415l1 1a1 1 0 0 0 1.601-.26l1.5-3ZM12 11a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h3a1 1 0 1 1 0 2h-3a1 1 0 0 1-1-1ZM12 17a1 1 0 0 1 1-1h3a1 1 0 1 1 0 2h-3a1 1 0 0 1-1-1ZM10.947 14.105a1 1 0 0 1 .447 1.342l-1.5 3a1 1 0 0 1-1.601.26l-1-1a1 1 0 1 1 1.414-1.414l.02.019.879-1.76a1 1 0 0 1 1.341-.447Z"/><path d="M5.545 1A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 3 3.538v16.924A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 5.545 23h12.91A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 21 20.462V7.5a1 1 0 0 0-.293-.707l-5.5-5.5A1 1 0 0 0 14.5 1H5.545ZM5 3.538C5 3.245 5.24 3 5.545 3h8.54L19 7.914v12.547c0 .294-.24.539-.546.539H5.545A.542.542 0 0 1 5 20.462V3.538Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-submission-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g><path d="M5 3.538C5 3.245 5.24 3 5.545 3h9.633L20 7.8v12.662a.535.535 0 0 1-.158.379.549.549 0 0 1-.387.159H6a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-2.5a1 1 0 1 0-2 0V20a3 3 0 0 0 3 3h13.455c.673 0 1.32-.266 1.798-.742A2.535 2.535 0 0 0 22 20.462V7.385a1 1 0 0 0-.294-.709l-5.41-5.385A1 1 0 0 0 15.591 1H5.545A2.542 2.542 0 0 0 3 3.538V7a1 1 0 0 0 2 0V3.538Z"/><path d="m13.707 13.707-4 4a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 0l-.083-.094a1 1 0 0 1 .083-1.32L10.585 14 2 14a1 1 0 1 1 0-2l8.583.001-2.29-2.294a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414l4.037 4.04.043.05.043.06.059.098.03.063.031.085.03.113.017.122L14 13l-.004.087-.017.118-.013.056-.034.104-.049.105-.048.081-.07.093-.058.063Z"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-table-1-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M4.385 22a2.56 2.56 0 0 1-1.14-.279C2.485 21.341 2 20.614 2 19.615V4.385c0-.315.067-.716.279-1.14C2.659 2.485 3.386 2 4.385 2h15.23c.315 0 .716.067 1.14.279.76.38 1.245 1.107 1.245 2.106v15.23c0 .315-.067.716-.279 1.14-.38.76-1.107 1.245-2.106 1.245H4.385ZM4 19.615c0 .213.034.265.14.317a.71.71 0 0 0 .245.068H8v-4H4v3.615ZM20 16H10v4h9.615c.213 0 .265-.034.317-.14a.71.71 0 0 0 .068-.245V16Zm0-2v-4H10v4h10ZM4 14h4v-4H4v4ZM19.615 4H10v4h10V4.385c0-.213-.034-.265-.14-.317A.71.71 0 0 0 19.615 4ZM8 4H4.385l-.082.002c-.146.01-.19.047-.235.138A.71.71 0 0 0 4 4.385V8h4V4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-table-2-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M4.384 22A2.384 2.384 0 0 1 2 19.616V4.384A2.384 2.384 0 0 1 4.384 2h15.232A2.384 2.384 0 0 1 22 4.384v15.232A2.384 2.384 0 0 1 19.616 22H4.384ZM10 15H4v4.616c0 .212.172.384.384.384H10v-5Zm5 0h-3v5h3v-5Zm5 0h-3v5h2.616a.384.384 0 0 0 .384-.384V15ZM10 9H4v4h6V9Zm5 0h-3v4h3V9Zm5 0h-3v4h3V9Zm-.384-5H4.384A.384.384 0 0 0 4 4.384V7h16V4.384A.384.384 0 0 0 19.616 4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-tag-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m12.621 1.998.127.004L20.496 2a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 1.497 1.355L22 3.5l-.005 7.669c.038.456-.133.905-.447 1.206l-9.02 9.018a2.075 2.075 0 0 1-2.932 0l-6.99-6.99a2.075 2.075 0 0 1 .001-2.933L11.61 2.47c.246-.258.573-.418.881-.46l.131-.011Zm.286 2-8.885 8.886a.075.075 0 0 0 0 .106l6.987 6.988c.03.03.077.03.106 0l8.883-8.883L19.999 4l-7.092-.002ZM16 6.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .144 2.993L16 9.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-trash-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c2.717 0 4.913 2.232 4.997 5H21a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-1v12.5c0 1.389-1.152 2.5-2.556 2.5H6.556C5.152 23 4 21.889 4 20.5V8H3a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h4.003l.001-.051C7.114 3.205 9.3 1 12 1Zm6 7H6v12.5c0 .238.19.448.454.492l.102.008h10.888c.315 0 .556-.232.556-.5V8Zm-4 3a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v6.005a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V12a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-4 0a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v6a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-6a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm2-8c-1.595 0-2.914 1.32-2.996 3h5.991v-.02C14.903 4.31 13.589 3 12 3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-account-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 16c-1.806 0-3.52.994-4.664 2.698A8.947 8.947 0 0 0 12 21a8.958 8.958 0 0 0 4.664-1.301C15.52 17.994 13.806 17 12 17Zm0-14a9 9 0 0 0-6.25 15.476C7.253 16.304 9.54 15 12 15s4.747 1.304 6.25 3.475A9 9 0 0 0 12 3Zm0 3a4 4 0 1 1 0 8 4 4 0 0 1 0-8Zm0 2a2 2 0 1 0 0 4 2 2 0 0 0 0-4Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-add-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm9 10a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v3h3a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-3v3a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-3h-3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h3v-3a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-5.545-.15a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 11.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-assign-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M16.226 13.298a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-.01l.084.093a1 1 0 0 1-.073 1.32L15.39 17H22a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-6.611l2.262 2.298a1 1 0 0 1-1.425 1.404l-3.939-4a1 1 0 0 1 0-1.404l3.94-4Zm-3.771-.449a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.781 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 10.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L11.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378ZM9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-block-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm9 10a5 5 0 1 1 0 10 5 5 0 0 1 0-10Zm-5.545-.15a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 11.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378ZM15 18a3 3 0 0 0 4.294 2.707l-4.001-4c-.188.391-.293.83-.293 1.293Zm3-3c-.463 0-.902.105-1.294.293l4.001 4A3 3 0 0 0 18 15Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-check-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm13.647 12.237a1 1 0 0 1 .116 1.41l-5.091 6a1 1 0 0 1-1.375.144l-2.909-2.25a1 1 0 1 1 1.224-1.582l2.153 1.665 4.472-5.271a1 1 0 0 1 1.41-.116Zm-8.139-.977c.22.214.428.44.622.678a1 1 0 1 1-1.548 1.266 6.025 6.025 0 0 0-1.795-1.49.86.86 0 0 1-.163-.048l-.079-.036a5.721 5.721 0 0 0-2.62-.63l-.194.006c-2.76.134-5.022 2.177-5.592 4.864l-.035.175-.035.213c-.03.201-.05.405-.06.61L3.003 20 10 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L11 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876l.005-.223.02-.356.02-.222.03-.248.022-.15c.02-.133.044-.265.071-.397.44-2.178 1.725-4.105 3.595-5.301a7.75 7.75 0 0 1 3.755-1.215l.12-.004a7.908 7.908 0 0 1 5.87 2.252Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-delete-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6ZM4.763 13.227a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378 1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.781 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20H11.5a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897Zm11.421 1.543 2.554 2.553 2.555-2.553a1 1 0 0 1 1.414 1.414l-2.554 2.554 2.554 2.555a1 1 0 0 1-1.414 1.414l-2.555-2.554-2.554 2.554a1 1 0 0 1-1.414-1.414l2.553-2.555-2.553-2.554a1 1 0 0 1 1.414-1.414Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-edit-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="m19.876 10.77 2.831 2.83a1 1 0 0 1 0 1.415l-7.246 7.246a1 1 0 0 1-.572.284l-3.277.446a1 1 0 0 1-1.125-1.13l.461-3.277a1 1 0 0 1 .283-.567l7.23-7.246a1 1 0 0 1 1.415-.001Zm-7.421 2.08a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 7.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L8.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378Zm6.715.042-6.29 6.3-.23 1.639 1.633-.222 6.302-6.302-1.415-1.415ZM9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-linked-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.65 6c.31 0 .706.066 1.122.274C17.522 6.65 18 7.366 18 8.35v12.3c0 .31-.066.706-.274 1.122-.375.75-1.092 1.228-2.076 1.228H3.35a2.52 2.52 0 0 1-1.122-.274C1.478 22.35 1 21.634 1 20.65V8.35c0-.31.066-.706.274-1.122C1.65 6.478 2.366 6 3.35 6h12.3Zm0 2-12.376.002c-.134.007-.17.04-.21.12A.672.672 0 0 0 3 8.35v12.3c0 .198.028.24.122.287.09.044.2.063.228.063h.887c.788-2.269 2.814-3.5 5.263-3.5 2.45 0 4.475 1.231 5.263 3.5h.887c.198 0 .24-.028.287-.122.044-.09.063-.2.063-.228V8.35c0-.198-.028-.24-.122-.287A.672.672 0 0 0 15.65 8ZM9.5 19.5c-1.36 0-2.447.51-3.06 1.5h6.12c-.613-.99-1.7-1.5-3.06-1.5ZM20.65 1A2.35 2.35 0 0 1 23 3.348V15.65A2.35 2.35 0 0 1 20.65 18H20a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h.65a.35.35 0 0 0 .35-.35V3.348A.35.35 0 0 0 20.65 3H8.35a.35.35 0 0 0-.35.348V4a1 1 0 1 1-2 0v-.652A2.35 2.35 0 0 1 8.35 1h12.3ZM9.5 10a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 0 7 3.5 3.5 0 0 1 0-7Zm0 2a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0 3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0-3Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-multiple-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm6 0a5 5 0 0 1 0 10 1 1 0 0 1-.117-1.993L15 9a3 3 0 0 0 0-6 1 1 0 0 1 0-2ZM9 3a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm8.857 9.545a7.99 7.99 0 0 1 2.651 1.715A8.31 8.31 0 0 1 23 20.134V21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1h-3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h1.995l-.005-.153a6.307 6.307 0 0 0-1.673-3.945l-.204-.209a5.99 5.99 0 0 0-1.988-1.287 1 1 0 1 1 .732-1.861Zm-3.349 1.715A8.31 8.31 0 0 1 17 20.134V21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.877c.044-4.343 3.387-7.908 7.638-8.115a7.908 7.908 0 0 1 5.87 2.252ZM9.016 14l-.285.006c-3.104.15-5.58 2.718-5.725 5.9L3.004 20h11.991l-.005-.153a6.307 6.307 0 0 0-1.673-3.945l-.204-.209A5.924 5.924 0 0 0 9.3 14.008L9.016 14Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-notify-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm10 18v1a1 1 0 0 1-2 0v-1h-3a1 1 0 0 1 0-2v-2.818C14 13.885 15.777 12 18 12s4 1.885 4 4.182V19a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-3Zm-6.545-8.15a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 11.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378ZM18 14c-1.091 0-2 .964-2 2.182V19h4v-2.818c0-1.165-.832-2.098-1.859-2.177L18 14Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-remove-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M9 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10A5 5 0 0 1 9 1Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm3.455 9.85a1 1 0 1 1-.91 1.78 5.713 5.713 0 0 0-5.705.282c-1.67 1.068-2.728 2.927-2.832 4.956L3.004 20 11.5 20a1 1 0 0 1 .993.883L12.5 21a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H2a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.876c.028-2.812 1.446-5.416 3.763-6.897a7.713 7.713 0 0 1 7.692-.378ZM22 17a1 1 0 0 1 0 2h-8a1 1 0 0 1 0-2h8Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-user-single-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1a5 5 0 1 1 0 10 5 5 0 0 1 0-10Zm0 2a3 3 0 1 0 0 6 3 3 0 0 0 0-6Zm-.406 9.008a8.965 8.965 0 0 1 6.596 2.494A9.161 9.161 0 0 1 21 21.025V22a1 1 0 0 1-1 1H4a1 1 0 0 1-1-1v-.985c.05-4.825 3.815-8.777 8.594-9.007Zm.39 1.992-.299.006c-3.63.175-6.518 3.127-6.678 6.775L5 21h13.998l-.009-.268a7.157 7.157 0 0 0-1.97-4.573l-.214-.213A6.967 6.967 0 0 0 11.984 14Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-warning-circle-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 2a9 9 0 1 0 0 18 9 9 0 0 0 0-18Zm0 11.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .144 2.993L12 17.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3ZM12 6a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v5a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V7a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-warning-filled-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M12 1c6.075 0 11 4.925 11 11s-4.925 11-11 11S1 18.075 1 12 5.925 1 12 1Zm0 13.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3l.144-.007A1.5 1.5 0 0 0 12 14.5ZM12 6a1 1 0 0 0-1 1v5a1 1 0 0 0 2 0V7a1 1 0 0 0-1-1Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-chevron-left-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15.7194 3.3054C15.3358 2.90809 14.7027 2.89699 14.3054 3.28061L6.54342 10.7757C6.19804 11.09 6 11.5335 6 12C6 12.4665 6.19804 12.91 6.5218 13.204L14.3054 20.7194C14.7027 21.103 15.3358 21.0919 15.7194 20.6946C16.103 20.2973 16.0919 19.6642 15.6946 19.2806L8.155 12L15.6946 4.71939C16.0614 4.36528 16.099 3.79863 15.8009 3.40105L15.7194 3.3054Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-chevron-right-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M8.28061 3.3054C8.66423 2.90809 9.29729 2.89699 9.6946 3.28061L17.4566 10.7757C17.802 11.09 18 11.5335 18 12C18 12.4665 17.802 12.91 17.4782 13.204L9.6946 20.7194C9.29729 21.103 8.66423 21.0919 8.28061 20.6946C7.89699 20.2973 7.90809 19.6642 8.3054 19.2806L15.845 12L8.3054 4.71939C7.93865 4.36528 7.90098 3.79863 8.19908 3.40105L8.28061 3.3054Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-alerts" viewBox="0 0 32 32"><path d="M28 12.667c.736 0 1.333.597 1.333 1.333v13.333A3.333 3.333 0 0 1 26 30.667H6a3.333 3.333 0 0 1-3.333-3.334V14a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 2.666 0v1.252L16 21.769l10.667-6.518V14c0-.736.597-1.333 1.333-1.333Zm-1.333 5.71-9.972 6.094c-.427.26-.963.26-1.39 0l-9.972-6.094v8.956c0 .368.299.667.667.667h20a.667.667 0 0 0 .667-.667v-8.956ZM19.333 12a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 0 2.667h-6.666a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 0-2.667h6.666Zm4-10.667a3.333 3.333 0 0 1 3.334 3.334v6.666a1.333 1.333 0 1 1-2.667 0V4.667A.667.667 0 0 0 23.333 4H8.667A.667.667 0 0 0 8 4.667v6.666a1.333 1.333 0 1 1-2.667 0V4.667a3.333 3.333 0 0 1 3.334-3.334h14.666Zm-4 5.334a1.333 1.333 0 0 1 0 2.666h-6.666a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 0-2.666h6.666Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-arrow-up" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="m13.002 7.408 4.88 4.88a.99.99 0 0 0 1.32.08l.09-.08c.39-.39.39-1.03 0-1.42l-6.58-6.58a1.01 1.01 0 0 0-1.42 0l-6.58 6.58a1 1 0 0 0-.09 1.32l.08.1a1 1 0 0 0 1.42-.01l4.88-4.87v11.59a.99.99 0 0 0 .88.99l.12.01c.55 0 1-.45 1-1V7.408z" class="layer"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-checklist" viewBox="0 0 32 32"><path d="M19.2 1.333a3.468 3.468 0 0 1 3.381 2.699L24.667 4C26.515 4 28 5.52 28 7.38v19.906c0 1.86-1.485 3.38-3.333 3.38H7.333c-1.848 0-3.333-1.52-3.333-3.38V7.38C4 5.52 5.485 4 7.333 4h2.093A3.468 3.468 0 0 1 12.8 1.333h6.4ZM9.426 6.667H7.333c-.36 0-.666.312-.666.713v19.906c0 .401.305.714.666.714h17.334c.36 0 .666-.313.666-.714V7.38c0-.4-.305-.713-.646-.714l-2.121.033A3.468 3.468 0 0 1 19.2 9.333h-6.4a3.468 3.468 0 0 1-3.374-2.666Zm12.715 5.606c.586.446.7 1.283.253 1.868l-7.111 9.334a1.333 1.333 0 0 1-1.792.306l-3.556-2.333a1.333 1.333 0 1 1 1.463-2.23l2.517 1.651 6.358-8.344a1.333 1.333 0 0 1 1.868-.252ZM19.2 4h-6.4a.8.8 0 0 0-.8.8v1.067a.8.8 0 0 0 .8.8h6.4a.8.8 0 0 0 .8-.8V4.8a.8.8 0 0 0-.8-.8Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-citation" viewBox="0 0 36 36"><path d="M23.25 1.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 1.06.44l8.25 8.25a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 .44 1.06v19.5c0 2.105-1.645 3.75-3.75 3.75H18a1.5 1.5 0 0 1 0-3h11.25c.448 0 .75-.302.75-.75V11.873L22.628 4.5H8.31a.811.811 0 0 0-.8.68l-.011.13V16.5a1.5 1.5 0 0 1-3 0V5.31A3.81 3.81 0 0 1 8.31 1.5h14.94ZM8.223 20.358a.984.984 0 0 1-.192 1.378l-.048.034c-.54.36-.942.676-1.206.951-.59.614-.885 1.395-.885 2.343.115-.028.288-.042.518-.042.662 0 1.26.237 1.791.711.533.474.799 1.074.799 1.799 0 .753-.259 1.352-.777 1.799-.518.446-1.151.669-1.9.669-1.006 0-1.812-.293-2.417-.878C3.302 28.536 3 27.657 3 26.486c0-1.115.165-2.085.496-2.907.331-.823.734-1.513 1.209-2.071.475-.558.971-.997 1.49-1.318a6.01 6.01 0 0 1 .347-.2 1.321 1.321 0 0 1 1.681.368Zm7.5 0a.984.984 0 0 1-.192 1.378l-.048.034c-.54.36-.942.676-1.206.951-.59.614-.885 1.395-.885 2.343.115-.028.288-.042.518-.042.662 0 1.26.237 1.791.711.533.474.799 1.074.799 1.799 0 .753-.259 1.352-.777 1.799-.518.446-1.151.669-1.9.669-1.006 0-1.812-.293-2.417-.878-.604-.586-.906-1.465-.906-2.636 0-1.115.165-2.085.496-2.907.331-.823.734-1.513 1.209-2.071.475-.558.971-.997 1.49-1.318a6.01 6.01 0 0 1 .347-.2 1.321 1.321 0 0 1 1.681.368Z"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-access-indicator" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><circle cx="4.5" cy="11.5" r="3.5" style="fill:currentColor"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M4 3v3a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V2.923C2 1.875 2.84 1 3.909 1h5.909a1 1 0 0 1 .713.298l3.181 3.231a1 1 0 0 1 .288.702v7.846c0 .505-.197.993-.554 1.354a1.902 1.902 0 0 1-1.355.569H10a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h2V5.64L9.4 3H4Z" clip-rule="evenodd" style="fill:#222"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-github-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M 11.964844 0 C 5.347656 0 0 5.269531 0 11.792969 C 0 17.003906 3.425781 21.417969 8.179688 22.976562 C 8.773438 23.09375 8.992188 22.722656 8.992188 22.410156 C 8.992188 22.136719 8.972656 21.203125 8.972656 20.226562 C 5.644531 20.929688 4.953125 18.820312 4.953125 18.820312 C 4.417969 17.453125 3.625 17.101562 3.625 17.101562 C 2.535156 16.378906 3.703125 16.378906 3.703125 16.378906 C 4.914062 16.457031 5.546875 17.589844 5.546875 17.589844 C 6.617188 19.386719 8.339844 18.878906 9.03125 18.566406 C 9.132812 17.804688 9.449219 17.277344 9.785156 16.984375 C 7.132812 16.710938 4.339844 15.695312 4.339844 11.167969 C 4.339844 9.878906 4.8125 8.824219 5.566406 8.003906 C 5.445312 7.710938 5.03125 6.5 5.683594 4.878906 C 5.683594 4.878906 6.695312 4.566406 8.972656 6.089844 C 9.949219 5.832031 10.953125 5.703125 11.964844 5.699219 C 12.972656 5.699219 14.003906 5.835938 14.957031 6.089844 C 17.234375 4.566406 18.242188 4.878906 18.242188 4.878906 C 18.898438 6.5 18.480469 7.710938 18.363281 8.003906 C 19.136719 8.824219 19.589844 9.878906 19.589844 11.167969 C 19.589844 15.695312 16.796875 16.691406 14.125 16.984375 C 14.558594 17.355469 14.933594 18.058594 14.933594 19.171875 C 14.933594 20.753906 14.914062 22.019531 14.914062 22.410156 C 14.914062 22.722656 15.132812 23.09375 15.726562 22.976562 C 20.480469 21.414062 23.910156 17.003906 23.910156 11.792969 C 23.929688 5.269531 18.558594 0 11.964844 0 Z M 11.964844 0 "/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-limited-access" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M4 3v3a1 1 0 0 1-2 0V2.923C2 1.875 2.84 1 3.909 1h5.909a1 1 0 0 1 .713.298l3.181 3.231a1 1 0 0 1 .288.702V6a1 1 0 1 1-2 0v-.36L9.4 3H4ZM3 8a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V9a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm10 0a1 1 0 0 1 1 1v1a1 1 0 1 1-2 0V9a1 1 0 0 1 1-1Zm-3.5 6a1 1 0 0 1-1 1h-1a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h1a1 1 0 0 1 1 1Zm2.441-1a1 1 0 0 1 2 0c0 .73-.246 1.306-.706 1.664a1.61 1.61 0 0 1-.876.334l-.032.002H11.5a1 1 0 1 1 0-2h.441ZM4 13a1 1 0 0 0-2 0c0 .73.247 1.306.706 1.664a1.609 1.609 0 0 0 .876.334l.032.002H4.5a1 1 0 1 0 0-2H4Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-i-subjects-medium" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><g id="icon-subjects-copy" stroke="none" stroke-width="1" fill-rule="evenodd"><path d="M13.3846154,2 C14.7015971,2 15.7692308,3.06762994 15.7692308,4.38461538 L15.7692308,7.15384615 C15.7692308,8.47082629 14.7015955,9.53846154 13.3846154,9.53846154 L13.1038388,9.53925278 C13.2061091,9.85347965 13.3815528,10.1423885 13.6195822,10.3804178 C13.9722182,10.7330539 14.436524,10.9483278 14.9293854,10.9918129 L15.1153846,11 C16.2068332,11 17.2535347,11.433562 18.0254647,12.2054189 C18.6411944,12.8212361 19.0416785,13.6120766 19.1784166,14.4609738 L19.6153846,14.4615385 C20.932386,14.4615385 22,15.5291672 22,16.8461538 L22,19.6153846 C22,20.9323924 20.9323924,22 19.6153846,22 L16.8461538,22 C15.5291672,22 14.4615385,20.932386 14.4615385,19.6153846 L14.4615385,16.8461538 C14.4615385,15.5291737 15.5291737,14.4615385 16.8461538,14.4615385 L17.126925,14.460779 C17.0246537,14.1465537 16.8492179,13.857633 16.6112344,13.6196157 C16.2144418,13.2228606 15.6764136,13 15.1153846,13 C14.0239122,13 12.9771569,12.5664197 12.2053686,11.7946314 C12.1335167,11.7227795 12.0645962,11.6485444 11.9986839,11.5721119 C11.9354038,11.6485444 11.8664833,11.7227795 11.7946314,11.7946314 C11.0228431,12.5664197 9.97608778,13 8.88461538,13 C8.323576,13 7.78552852,13.2228666 7.38881294,13.6195822 C7.15078359,13.8576115 6.97533988,14.1465203 6.8730696,14.4607472 L7.15384615,14.4615385 C8.47082629,14.4615385 9.53846154,15.5291737 9.53846154,16.8461538 L9.53846154,19.6153846 C9.53846154,20.932386 8.47083276,22 7.15384615,22 L4.38461538,22 C3.06762347,22 2,20.9323876 2,19.6153846 L2,16.8461538 C2,15.5291721 3.06762994,14.4615385 4.38461538,14.4615385 L4.8215823,14.4609378 C4.95831893,13.6120029 5.3588057,12.8211623 5.97459937,12.2053686 C6.69125996,11.488708 7.64500941,11.0636656 8.6514968,11.0066017 L8.88461538,11 C9.44565477,11 9.98370225,10.7771334 10.3804178,10.3804178 C10.6184472,10.1423885 10.7938909,9.85347965 10.8961612,9.53925278 L10.6153846,9.53846154 C9.29840448,9.53846154 8.23076923,8.47082629 8.23076923,7.15384615 L8.23076923,4.38461538 C8.23076923,3.06762994 9.29840286,2 10.6153846,2 L13.3846154,2 Z M7.15384615,16.4615385 L4.38461538,16.4615385 C4.17220099,16.4615385 4,16.63374 4,16.8461538 L4,19.6153846 C4,19.8278134 4.17218833,20 4.38461538,20 L7.15384615,20 C7.36626945,20 7.53846154,19.8278103 7.53846154,19.6153846 L7.53846154,16.8461538 C7.53846154,16.6337432 7.36625679,16.4615385 7.15384615,16.4615385 Z M19.6153846,16.4615385 L16.8461538,16.4615385 C16.6337432,16.4615385 16.4615385,16.6337432 16.4615385,16.8461538 L16.4615385,19.6153846 C16.4615385,19.8278103 16.6337306,20 16.8461538,20 L19.6153846,20 C19.8278229,20 20,19.8278229 20,19.6153846 L20,16.8461538 C20,16.6337306 19.8278103,16.4615385 19.6153846,16.4615385 Z M13.3846154,4 L10.6153846,4 C10.4029708,4 10.2307692,4.17220099 10.2307692,4.38461538 L10.2307692,7.15384615 C10.2307692,7.36625679 10.402974,7.53846154 10.6153846,7.53846154 L13.3846154,7.53846154 C13.597026,7.53846154 13.7692308,7.36625679 13.7692308,7.15384615 L13.7692308,4.38461538 C13.7692308,4.17220099 13.5970292,4 13.3846154,4 Z" id="Shape" fill-rule="nonzero"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-small-arrow-left" viewBox="0 0 16 17"><path stroke="currentColor" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" stroke-width="2" d="M14 8.092H2m0 0L8 2M2 8.092l6 6.035"/></symbol><symbol id="icon-eds-small-arrow-right" viewBox="0 0 16 16"><g fill-rule="evenodd" stroke="currentColor" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" stroke-width="2"><path d="M2 8.092h12M8 2l6 6.092M8 14.127l6-6.035"/></g></symbol><symbol id="icon-orcid-logo" viewBox="0 0 40 40"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M12.281 10.453c.875 0 1.578-.719 1.578-1.578 0-.86-.703-1.578-1.578-1.578-.875 0-1.578.703-1.578 1.578 0 .86.703 1.578 1.578 1.578Zm-1.203 18.641h2.406V12.359h-2.406v16.735Z"/><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M17.016 12.36h6.5c6.187 0 8.906 4.421 8.906 8.374 0 4.297-3.36 8.375-8.875 8.375h-6.531V12.36Zm6.234 14.578h-3.828V14.53h3.703c4.688 0 6.828 2.844 6.828 6.203 0 2.063-1.25 6.203-6.703 6.203Z" clip-rule="evenodd"/></symbol></svg> </div> <a class="c-skip-link" href="#main">Skip to main content</a> <div class="u-lazy-ad-wrapper u-mbs-0"> <div class="c-ad c-ad--728x90 c-ad--conditional" data-test="springer-doubleclick-ad"> <div class="c-ad c-ad__inner" > <p class="c-ad__label">Advertisement</p> <div id="div-gpt-ad-LB1" class="div-gpt-ad grade-c-hide" data-gpt data-gpt-unitpath="/270604982/springerlink/11671/article" data-gpt-sizes="728x90" data-gpt-targeting="pos=top;articleid=s11671-018-2532-3;" data-ad-type="top" style="min-width:728px;min-height:90px"> <noscript> <a href="//pubads.g.doubleclick.net/gampad/jump?iu=/270604982/springerlink/11671/article&sz=728x90&pos=top&articleid=s11671-018-2532-3"> <img data-test="gpt-advert-fallback-img" src="//pubads.g.doubleclick.net/gampad/ad?iu=/270604982/springerlink/11671/article&sz=728x90&pos=top&articleid=s11671-018-2532-3" alt="Advertisement" width="728" height="90"> </a> </noscript> </div> </div> </div> </div> <header class="eds-c-header" data-eds-c-header> <div class="eds-c-header__container" data-eds-c-header-expander-anchor> <div class="eds-c-header__brand"> <a href="https://link.springer.com" data-test=springerlink-logo data-track="click_imprint_logo" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click logo link" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > <img src="/oscar-static/images/darwin/header/img/logo-springer-nature-link-3149409f62.svg" alt="Springer Nature Link"> </a> </div> <a class="c-header__link eds-c-header__link" id="identity-account-widget" href='https://idp.springer.com/auth/personal/springernature?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/S11671-018-2532-3?'><span class="eds-c-header__widget-fragment-title">Log in</span></a> </div> <nav class="eds-c-header__nav" aria-label="header navigation"> <div class="eds-c-header__nav-container"> <div class="eds-c-header__item eds-c-header__item--menu"> <a href="#eds-c-header-nav" class="eds-c-header__link" data-eds-c-header-expander> <svg class="eds-c-header__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-menu-medium"></use> </svg><span>Menu</span> </a> </div> <div class="eds-c-header__item eds-c-header__item--inline-links"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://link.springer.com/journals/" data-track="nav_find_a_journal" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click find a journal" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Find a journal </a> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/authors" data-track="nav_how_to_publish" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click publish with us link" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Publish with us </a> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://link.springernature.com/home/" data-track="nav_track_your_research" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click track your research" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Track your research </a> </div> <div class="eds-c-header__link-container"> <div class="eds-c-header__item eds-c-header__item--divider"> <a href="#eds-c-header-popup-search" class="eds-c-header__link" data-eds-c-header-expander data-eds-c-header-test-search-btn> <svg class="eds-c-header__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-search-medium"></use> </svg><span>Search</span> </a> </div> <div id="ecommerce-header-cart-icon-link" class="eds-c-header__item ecommerce-cart" style="display:inline-block"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://order.springer.com/public/cart" style="appearance:none;border:none;background:none;color:inherit;position:relative"> <svg id="eds-i-cart" class="eds-c-header__icon" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" height="24" width="24" viewBox="0 0 24 24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <path fill="currentColor" fill-rule="nonzero" d="M2 1a1 1 0 0 0 0 2l1.659.001 2.257 12.808a2.599 2.599 0 0 0 2.435 2.185l.167.004 9.976-.001a2.613 2.613 0 0 0 2.61-1.748l.03-.106 1.755-7.82.032-.107a2.546 2.546 0 0 0-.311-1.986l-.108-.157a2.604 2.604 0 0 0-2.197-1.076L6.042 5l-.56-3.17a1 1 0 0 0-.864-.82l-.12-.007L2.001 1ZM20.35 6.996a.63.63 0 0 1 .54.26.55.55 0 0 1 .082.505l-.028.1L19.2 15.63l-.022.05c-.094.177-.282.299-.526.317l-10.145.002a.61.61 0 0 1-.618-.515L6.394 6.999l13.955-.003ZM18 19a2 2 0 1 0 0 4 2 2 0 0 0 0-4ZM8 19a2 2 0 1 0 0 4 2 2 0 0 0 0-4Z"></path> </svg><span>Cart</span><span class="cart-info" style="display:none;position:absolute;top:10px;right:45px;background-color:#C65301;color:#fff;width:18px;height:18px;font-size:11px;border-radius:50%;line-height:17.5px;text-align:center"></span></a> <script>(function () { var exports = {}; if (window.fetch) { "use strict"; Object.defineProperty(exports, "__esModule", { value: true }); exports.headerWidgetClientInit = void 0; var headerWidgetClientInit = function (getCartInfo) { document.body.addEventListener("updatedCart", function () { updateCartIcon(); }, false); return updateCartIcon(); function updateCartIcon() { return getCartInfo() .then(function (res) { return res.json(); }) .then(refreshCartState) .catch(function (_) { }); } function refreshCartState(json) { var indicator = document.querySelector("#ecommerce-header-cart-icon-link .cart-info"); /* istanbul ignore else */ if (indicator && json.itemCount) { indicator.style.display = 'block'; indicator.textContent = json.itemCount > 9 ? '9+' : json.itemCount.toString(); var moreThanOneItem = json.itemCount > 1; indicator.setAttribute('title', "there ".concat(moreThanOneItem ? "are" : "is", " ").concat(json.itemCount, " item").concat(moreThanOneItem ? "s" : "", " in your cart")); } return json; } }; exports.headerWidgetClientInit = headerWidgetClientInit; headerWidgetClientInit( function () { return window.fetch("https://cart.springer.com/cart-info", { credentials: "include", headers: { Accept: "application/json" } }) } ) }})()</script> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </header> <article lang="en" id="main" class="app-masthead__colour-10"> <section class="app-masthead " aria-label="article masthead"> <div class="app-masthead__container"> <div class="app-article-masthead u-sans-serif js-context-bar-sticky-point-masthead" data-track-component="article" data-test="masthead-component"> <div class="app-article-masthead__info"> <nav aria-label="breadcrumbs" data-test="breadcrumbs"> <ol class="c-breadcrumbs c-breadcrumbs--contrast" itemscope itemtype="https://schema.org/BreadcrumbList"> <li class="c-breadcrumbs__item" id="breadcrumb0" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemtype="https://schema.org/ListItem"> <a href="/" class="c-breadcrumbs__link" itemprop="item" data-track="click_breadcrumb" data-track-context="article page" data-track-category="article" data-track-action="breadcrumbs" data-track-label="breadcrumb1"><span itemprop="name">Home</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="1"> <svg class="c-breadcrumbs__chevron" role="img" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="10" height="10" viewBox="0 0 10 10"> <path d="m5.96738168 4.70639573 2.39518594-2.41447274c.37913917-.38219212.98637524-.38972225 1.35419292-.01894278.37750606.38054586.37784436.99719163-.00013556 1.37821513l-4.03074001 4.06319683c-.37758093.38062133-.98937525.38100976-1.367372-.00003075l-4.03091981-4.06337806c-.37759778-.38063832-.38381821-.99150444-.01600053-1.3622839.37750607-.38054587.98772445-.38240057 1.37006824.00302197l2.39538588 2.4146743.96295325.98624457z" fill-rule="evenodd" transform="matrix(0 -1 1 0 0 10)"/> </svg> </li> <li class="c-breadcrumbs__item" id="breadcrumb1" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemtype="https://schema.org/ListItem"> <a href="/journal/11671" class="c-breadcrumbs__link" itemprop="item" data-track="click_breadcrumb" data-track-context="article page" data-track-category="article" data-track-action="breadcrumbs" data-track-label="breadcrumb2"><span itemprop="name">Nanoscale Research Letters</span></a><meta itemprop="position" content="2"> <svg class="c-breadcrumbs__chevron" role="img" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="10" height="10" viewBox="0 0 10 10"> <path d="m5.96738168 4.70639573 2.39518594-2.41447274c.37913917-.38219212.98637524-.38972225 1.35419292-.01894278.37750606.38054586.37784436.99719163-.00013556 1.37821513l-4.03074001 4.06319683c-.37758093.38062133-.98937525.38100976-1.367372-.00003075l-4.03091981-4.06337806c-.37759778-.38063832-.38381821-.99150444-.01600053-1.3622839.37750607-.38054587.98772445-.38240057 1.37006824.00302197l2.39538588 2.4146743.96295325.98624457z" fill-rule="evenodd" transform="matrix(0 -1 1 0 0 10)"/> </svg> </li> <li class="c-breadcrumbs__item" id="breadcrumb2" itemprop="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemtype="https://schema.org/ListItem"> <span itemprop="name">Article</span><meta itemprop="position" content="3"> </li> </ol> </nav> <h1 class="c-article-title" data-test="article-title" data-article-title="">Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Activity Against Microbes</h1> <ul class="c-article-identifiers"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item" data-test="article-category">Nano Review</li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item"> <a href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/open-research/about/the-fundamentals-of-open-access-and-open-research" data-track="click" data-track-action="open access" data-track-label="link" class="u-color-open-access" data-test="open-access">Open access</a> </li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item"> Published: <time datetime="2018-05-08">08 May 2018</time> </li> </ul> <ul class="c-article-identifiers c-article-identifiers--cite-list"> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item"> <span data-test="journal-volume">Volume 13</span>, article number <span data-test="article-number">141</span>, (<span data-test="article-publication-year">2018</span>) </li> <li class="c-article-identifiers__item c-article-identifiers__item--cite"> <a href="#citeas" data-track="click" data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </li> </ul> <div class="app-article-masthead__buttons" data-test="download-article-link-wrapper" data-track-context="masthead"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> <p class="app-article-masthead__access"> <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-check-filled-medium"></use></svg> You have full access to this <a href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/open-research/about/the-fundamentals-of-open-access-and-open-research" data-track="click" data-track-action="open access" data-track-label="link">open access</a> article</p> </div> </div> <div class="app-article-masthead__brand"> <a href="/journal/11671" class="app-article-masthead__journal-link" data-track="click_journal_home" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-context="article page" data-track-label="link"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" media="(min-width: 768px)" width="120" height="159" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w120/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/11671?as=webp, https://media.springernature.com/w316/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/11671?as=webp 2x"> <img width="72" height="95" src="https://media.springernature.com/w72/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/11671?as=webp" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w144/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/11671?as=webp 2x" alt=""> </picture> <span class="app-article-masthead__journal-title">Nanoscale Research Letters</span> </a> <a href="https://www.springer.com/11671/aims-and-scope" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_aims_and_scope" data-track-action="aims and scope" data-track-context="article page" data-track-label="link"> Aims and scope <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> <a href="https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11671/3" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_submit_manuscript" data-track-context="article masthead on springerlink article page" data-track-action="submit manuscript" data-track-label="link"> Submit manuscript <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </section> <div class="c-article-main u-container u-mt-24 u-mb-32 l-with-sidebar" id="main-content" data-component="article-container"> <main class="u-serif js-main-column" data-track-component="article body"> <div class="c-context-bar u-hide" data-test="context-bar" data-context-bar aria-hidden="true"> <div class="c-context-bar__container u-container"> <div class="c-context-bar__title"> Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Activity Against Microbes </div> <div data-test="inCoD" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-pdf-container"> <div class="c-pdf-download u-clear-both u-mb-16"> <a href="/content/pdf/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3.pdf" class="u-button u-button--full-width u-button--primary u-justify-content-space-between c-pdf-download__link" data-article-pdf="true" data-readcube-pdf-url="true" data-test="pdf-link" data-draft-ignore="true" data-track="content_download" data-track-type="article pdf download" data-track-action="download pdf" data-track-label="button" data-track-external download> <span class="c-pdf-download__text">Download PDF</span> <svg aria-hidden="true" focusable="false" width="16" height="16" class="u-icon"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"/></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Khwaja_Salahuddin-Siddiqi-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Khwaja_Salahuddin-Siddiqi-Aff1" data-author-search="Siddiqi, Khwaja Salahuddin">Khwaja Salahuddin Siddiqi</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Aziz-ur_Rahman-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth-Aziz-ur_Rahman-Aff2" data-author-search="ur Rahman, Aziz">Aziz ur Rahman</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup>, </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item c-article-author-list__item--hide-small-screen"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth--Tajuddin-Aff2" data-author-popup="auth--Tajuddin-Aff2" data-author-search="Tajuddin, "> Tajuddin</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff2">2</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__show-more" aria-label="Show all 4 authors for this article" title="Show all 4 authors for this article">…</li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Azamal-Husen-Aff3" data-author-popup="auth-Azamal-Husen-Aff3" data-author-search="Husen, Azamal" data-corresp-id="c1">Azamal Husen<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9120-5540"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0002-9120-5540</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff3">3</a></sup> </li></ul><button aria-expanded="false" class="c-article-author-list__button"><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-down-medium"></use></svg><span>Show authors</span></button> <div data-test="article-metrics"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>82k <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-altmetric-medium"></use> </svg>107 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Altmetric</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon--mentions" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mentions-medium"></use> </svg>15 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Mentions</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Zinc oxide is an essential ingredient of many enzymes, sun screens, and ointments for pain and itch relief. Its microcrystals are very efficient light absorbers in the UVA and UVB region of spectra due to wide bandgap. Impact of zinc oxide on biological functions depends on its morphology, particle size, exposure time, concentration, pH, and biocompatibility. They are more effective against microorganisms such as <i>Bacillus subtilis</i>, <i>Bacillus megaterium</i>, <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, <i>Sarcina lutea</i>, <i>Escherichia coli</i>, <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>, <i>Klebsiella pneumonia</i>, <i>Pseudomonas vulgaris</i>, <i>Candida albicans</i>, and <i>Aspergillus niger</i>. Mechanism of action has been ascribed to the activation of zinc oxide nanoparticles by light, which penetrate the bacterial cell wall via diffusion. It has been confirmed from SEM and TEM images of the bacterial cells that zinc oxide nanoparticles disintegrate the cell membrane and accumulate in the cytoplasm where they interact with biomolecules causing cell apoptosis leading to cell death.</p></div></div></section> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs43450-022-00268-4/MediaObjects/43450_2022_268_Figa_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s43450-022-00268-4?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 1" data-track-label="10.1007/s43450-022-00268-4">Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles with Mangiferin: Optical Properties, <i>In Vitro</i> Release Studies, and Antibacterial Activity </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">08 June 2022</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs40820-015-0040-x/MediaObjects/40820_2015_40_Fig1_HTML.gif" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40820-015-0040-x?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_2" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 2" data-track-label="10.1007/s40820-015-0040-x">Review on Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles: Antibacterial Activity and Toxicity Mechanism </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__access-type">Open access</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">19 April 2015</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w215h120/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs00449-023-02886-1/MediaObjects/449_2023_2886_Figa_HTML.png" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00449-023-02886-1?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_3" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 3" data-track-label="10.1007/s00449-023-02886-1">Recent advances in the synthesis, characterization and biomedical applications of zinc oxide nanoparticles </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Article</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">09 June 2023</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1732620428, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=11671" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div class="main-content"> <section data-title="Background"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec1">Background</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>Nanotechnology deals with the manufacture and application of materials with size of up to 100 nm. They are widely used in a number of processes that include material science, agriculture, food industry, cosmetic, medical, and diagnostic applications [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Husen A, Siddiqi KS (2014) Phytosynthesis of nanoparticles: concept, controversy and application. Nano Res Lett 9:229" href="#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e437">1</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Husen A, Siddiqi KS (2014) Plants and microbes assisted selenium nanoparticles: characterization and application. J Nanobiotechnol 12:28" href="#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e437_1">2</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Husen A, Siddiqi KS (2014) Carbon and fullerene nanomaterials in plant system. J Nanobiotechnol 12:16" href="#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e437_2">3</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2016) Fabrication of metal nanoparticles from fungi and metal salts: scope and application. Nano Res Lett 11:98" href="#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e437_3">4</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2016) Fabrication of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles by algae and their toxic effects. Nano Res Lett 11:363" href="#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e437_4">5</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2016) Engineered gold nanoparticles and plant adaptation potential. Nano Res Lett 11:400" href="#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e437_5">6</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2016) Green synthesis, characterization and uses of palladium/platinum nanoparticles. Nano Res Lett 11:482" href="#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e437_6">7</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Siddiqi KS, Rahman A, Tajuddin, Husen A (2016) Biogenic fabrication of iron/iron oxide nanoparticles and their application. Nano Res Lett 11:498" href="#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e437_7">8</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2017) Recent advances in plant-mediated engineered gold nanoparticles and their application in biological system. J Trace Elements Med Biol 40:10–23" href="#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e437_8">9</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Siddiqi KS, Husen A, Rao RAK (2018) A review on biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their biocidal properties. J Nanobiotechnol 16:14" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e440">10</a>]. Nanosize inorganic compounds have shown remarkable antibacterial activity at very low concentration due to their high surface area to volume ratio and unique chemical and physical features [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Rai M, Yadav A, Gade A (2009) Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnol Adv 27:76–83" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e443">11</a>]. In addition, these particles are also more stable at high temperature and pressure [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Sawai J (2003) Quantitative evaluation of antibacterial activities of metallic oxide powders (ZnO, MgO and CaO) by conductimetric assay. J Microbiol Methods 54:177–182" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e446">12</a>]. Some of them are recognized as nontoxic and even contain mineral elements which are vital for human body [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Roselli M, Finamore A, Garaguso I, Britti MS, Mengheri E (2003) Zinc oxide protects cultured enterocytes from the damage induced by Escherichia coli. J Nutr 133:4077–4082" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e449">13</a>]. It has been reported that the most antibacterial inorganic materials are metallic nanoparticles and metal oxide nanoparticles such as silver, gold, copper, titanium oxide, and zinc oxide [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 14" title="Husen A (2017) Gold nanoparticles from plant system: Synthesis, characterization and their application, In: Nanoscience and Plant–Soil Systems Vol.–48 (Eds. Ghorbanpourn M, Manika K, Varma A) Springer International Publishing AG, Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland, pp.455–479" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e453">14</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Chaudhry Q, Scotter M, Blackburn J, Ross B, Boxall A, Castle L, Aitken R, Watkins R (2008) Applications and implications of nanotechnologies for the food sector. Food Add Cont: Part A 25:241–258" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e456">15</a>].</p><p>Zinc is an essential trace element for human system without which many enzymes such as carbonic anhydrase, carboxypeptidase, and alcohol dehydrogenase become inactive, while the other two members, cadmium and mercury belonging to the same group of elements having the same electronic configuration, are toxic. It is essential for eukaryotes because it modulates many physiological functions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Jansen J, Karges W, Rink L (2009) Zinc and diabetes—clinical links and molecular mechanisms. J Nutr Biochem 20:399–417" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e462">16</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Maremanda KP, Khan S, Jena G (2014) Zinc protects cyclophosphamide-induced testicular damage in rat: involvement of metallothionein, tesmin and Nrf2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 445:591–596" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e465">17</a>]. Bamboo salt, containing zinc, is used as herbal medicine for the treatment of inflammation by regulating caspase-1 activity. Zinc oxide nanoparticles have been shown to reduce mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting the activation of NF-kB (nuclear factor kappa B cells) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="Kim MH, Seo JH, Kim HM, Jeong HJ (2014) Zinc oxide nanoparticles, a novel candidate for the treatment of allergic inflammatory diseases. Eur J Pharmacol 738:31–39" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e468">18</a>].</p><p>Globally, bacterial infections are recognized as serious health issue. New bacterial mutation, antibiotic resistance, outbreaks of pathogenic strains, etc. are increasing, and thus, development of more efficient antibacterial agents is demand of the time. Zinc oxide is known for its antibacterial properties from the time immemorial [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 19" title="Frederickson CJ, Koh JY, Bush AI (2005) The neurobiology of zinc in health and disease. Na Rev Neurosci 6:449–462" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e474">19</a>]. It had been in use during the regime of Pharaohs, and historical records show that zinc oxide was used in many ointments for the treatment of injuries and boils even in 2000 BC [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Halioua B, Ziskind B (2005) Medicine in the days of the pharaohs. Press of Harvard University Press, Belknap" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e477">20</a>]. It is still used in sun screen lotion, as a supplement, photoconductive material, LED, transparent transistors, solar cells, memory devices [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="Ozgur U, Ya IA, Liu C, Teke A, Reshchikov MA, Doğan S, Avrutin V, Cho SJ, Morkoç H (2005) A comprehensive review of ZnO materials and devices. J Appl Phys 98:041301" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e480">21</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 22" title="Klingshirn C ZnO: from basics towards applications. Phys Status Solidi 244:3027–3073" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e483">22</a>], cosmetics [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="De Graaf TP, Galley E, Butcher KE (1999) Use of an antimicrobial agent. European patent, p EP1079799" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e486">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Brahms J, Mattai J, Jacoby R, Chopra S, Guenin E (2005) Dry deodorant containinga sesquiterpene alcohol and zinc oxide. U.S. Patent 20050191257 A1" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e490">24</a>], and catalysis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Speight JG (2002) Chemical and process design handbook. McGraw Hill, Inc., New York" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e493">25</a>]. Although considerable amount of ZnO is produced every year, very small quantity is used as medicine [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Brown HE (1976) Zinc oxide: properties and applications. International Lead Zinc Research Organization, New York" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e496">26</a>]. The US Food and Drug Administration has recognized (21 CFR 182.8991) zinc oxide as safe [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Lopes de Romana D, Brown KH, Guinard JX (2002) Sensory trial to assess the acceptability of zinc fortificants added to iron-fortified wheat products. J Food Sci 67:461–465" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e499">27</a>]. It is characterized by photocatalytic and photooxidizing properties against biochemicals [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Szabo T, Nemeth J, Dekany I (2003) Zinc oxide nanoparticles incorporated in ultrathin layer silicate films and their photocatalytic properties. Coll Surf A 230:23–35" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e502">28</a>].</p><p>Zinc oxide has been classified by EU hazard classification as N; R50-53 (ecotoxic). Compounds of zinc are ecotoxic for mammals and plants in traces [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Auer G, Griebler WD, Jahn B (2005) Industrial inorganic pigments, 3rd edn. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e508">29</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Heideman G, Noordermeer JWM, Datta RN, Noordermeer WM, van Baarle B (2006) Various ways to reduce zinc oxide levels in S-SBR rubber compounds. Macromol Symp 245-246:657–667" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e511">30</a>]. Human body contains about 2–3 g of zinc, and the daily requirement is 10–15 mg [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Auer G, Griebler WD, Jahn B (2005) Industrial inorganic pigments, 3rd edn. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e514">29</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="Patnaik P (2003) Handbook of inorganic chemicals. McGraw Hill, New York" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e517">31</a>]. No report has demonstrated carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, and reproduction toxicity in humans [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Auer G, Griebler WD, Jahn B (2005) Industrial inorganic pigments, 3rd edn. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e520">29</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 32" title="Araujo-Lima CF, Nunes RJM, Carpes RM, Aiub FAF, Felzenszwalb I (2017) Pharmacokinetic and toxicological evaluation of a zinc gluconate-based chemical sterilant using in vitro and in silico approaches. BioMed Res Inter 2017:5746768" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR32" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e524">32</a>]. However, zinc powder inhaled or ingested may produce a condition called zinc fever, which is followed by chill, fever, cough, etc.</p><p>Morphology of zinc oxide nanoparticles depends on the process of synthesis. They may be nanorods, nanoplates [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wang TX, Lou TJ (2008) Solvothermal synthesis and photoluminescence properties of ZnO nanorods and nanorod assemblies from ZnO2 nanoparticles. Mater Lett 62:2329–2331" href="#ref-CR33" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e531">33</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Jang JS, Yu CJ, Choi SH, Ji SM, Kim ES, Lee JS (2008) Topotactic synthesis of mesoporous ZnS and ZnO nanoplates and their photocatalytic activity. J Catal 254:144–155" href="#ref-CR34" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e531_1">34</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Mahmud S, Johar M, Abdullah PGA, Chong J, Mohamad AK (2006) Nanostructure of ZnO fabricated via french process and its correlation to electrical properties of semiconducting varistors. Synth React Inorg Met Org Chem Nano-Met Chem 36:155–159" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e534">35</a>], nanospheres [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 36" title="Kakiuchi K, Hosono E, Kimura T, Imai H, Fujihara S (2006) Fabrication of mesoporous ZnO nanosheets from precursor templates grown in aqueous solutions. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 39:63–72" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR36" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e537">36</a>], nanoboxes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 35" title="Mahmud S, Johar M, Abdullah PGA, Chong J, Mohamad AK (2006) Nanostructure of ZnO fabricated via french process and its correlation to electrical properties of semiconducting varistors. Synth React Inorg Met Org Chem Nano-Met Chem 36:155–159" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR35" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e540">35</a>], hexagonal, tripods [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 37" title="Mahmud S, Abdullah MJ (2006) Nanotripods of zinc oxide, IEEE Conf. Emerging Technol.—Nanoelectron pp. 442–446" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR37" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e543">37</a>], tetrapods [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 38" title="Shen L, Zhang H, Guo S (2009) Control on the morphologies of tetrapod ZnO nanocrystals. Mater Chem Phys 114:580–583" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR38" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e547">38</a>], nanowires, nanotubes, nanorings [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Ding Y, Wang ZL (2009) Structures of planar defects in ZnO nanobelts and nanowires. Micron 40:335–342" href="#ref-CR39" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e550">39</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Wang ZL (2004) Nanostructures of zinc oxide. Mater Tod 7:26–33" href="#ref-CR40" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e550_1">40</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 41" title="Wang ZL (2004) Zinc oxide nanostructures: growth, properties and applications. J Phys Condens Mat 16:R829–R858" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR41" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e553">41</a>], nanocages, and nanoflowers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 42" title="Moezzi A, Cortie M, McDonagh A (2011) Aqueous pathways for the formation of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Dalton Trans 40:4871–4878" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR42" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e556">42</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 43" title="Xie J, Li P, Li Y, Wang Y, Wei Y (2009) Morphology control of ZnO particles via aqueous solution route at low temperature. Mater Chem Phys 114:943–947" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR43" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e559">43</a>]. Zinc oxide nanoparticles are more active against gram-positive bacteria relative to other NPs of the same group of elements. Ready to eat food is more prone to infection by <i>Salmonella</i>, <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, and <i>E. coli</i> which pose a great challenge to food safety and quality. The antimicrobial compounds are incorporated in the packed food to prevent them from damage. Antimicrobial packaging contains a nontoxic material which inhibits or slows down the growth of microbes present in food or packaging material [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 44" title="Soares NFF, Silva CAS, Santiago-Silva P, Espitia PJP, Gonçalves MPJC, Lopez MJG, Miltz J, Cerqueira MA, Vicente AA, Teixeira J, da Silva WA, Botrel DA (2009) Active and intelligent packaging for milk and milk products. In: Coimbra JSR, Teixeira JA (eds) Engineering aspects of milk and dairy products. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group pp, New York, pp 175–199" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR44" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e572">44</a>]. An antimicrobial substance for human consumption must possess the following properties.</p><ol class="u-list-style-none"> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">a)</span> <p>It should be nontoxic.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">b)</span> <p>It should not react with food or container.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">c)</span> <p>It should be of good taste or tasteless.</p> </li> <li> <span class="u-custom-list-number">d)</span> <p>It should not have disagreeable smell.</p> </li> </ol><p>Zinc oxide nanoparticle is one such inorganic metal oxide which fulfills all the above requirements, and hence, it can safely be used as medicine, preservative in packaging, and an antimicrobial agent [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Campa A (2000) Zinc status in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Nutr 130:1421S–1423S" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e624">45</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Hiller JM, Perlmutter A (1971) Effect of zinc on viral-host interactions in a rainbow trout cell line, RTG-2. Water Res 5:703–710" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e627">46</a>]. It easily diffuses into the food material, kill the microbes, and prevent human being from falling ill. In accordance with the regulations 1935/2004/EC and 450/2009/EC of the European Union, active packaging is defined as active material in contact with food with ability to change the composition of the food or the atmosphere around it [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 47" title="Restuccia D, Spizzirri UG, Parisi OI, Giuseppe Cirillo G, Iemma F, Puoci F, Vinci G, Picci N (2010) New EU regulation aspects and global market of active and intelligent packaging for food industry applications. Food Control 21:1425–1435" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR47" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e630">47</a>]. Therefore, it is commonly used as preservative and incorporated in polymeric packaging material to prevent food material from damage by microbes [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 48" title="Espitia PJP, Soares NFF, Coimbra JSR, Andrade NJ, Cruz RS, Medeiros EAA (2015) Zinc oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, antimicrobial activity and food packaging application. Food Bioprocess Technol 5:1447–1464" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR48" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e633">48</a>]. Zinc oxide nanoparticles have been used as an antibacterial substance against <i>Salmonella typhi</i> and <i>S. aureus</i> in vitro. Of all the metal oxide nanoparticles studied thus far, zinc oxide nanoparticles exhibited the highest toxicity against microorganisms [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Hu X, Cook S, Wang P, Hwang HM (2009) In vitro evaluation of cytotoxicity of engineered metal oxide nanoparticles. Sci Total Environ 407:3070–3072" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e643">49</a>]. It has also been demonstrated from SEM and TEM images that zinc oxide nanoparticles first damage the bacterial cell wall, then penetrate, and finally accumulate in the cell membrane. They interfere with metabolic functions of the microbes causing their death. All the characteristics of the zinc oxide nanoparticles depend on their particle size, shape, concentration, and exposure time to the bacterial cell. Further, biodistribution studies of zinc oxide nanoparticles have also been examined. For instance, Wang et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 50" title="Wang C, Lu J, Zhou L, Li J, Xu J, Li W, Zhang L, Zhong X, Wang T (2016) Effects of long-term exposure to zinc oxide nanoparticles on development, zinc metabolism and biodistribution of minerals (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn) in mice. PLoS One 11:e0164434" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR50" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e646">50</a>] have investigated the effect of long-term exposure of zinc oxide nanoparticle on biodistribution and zinc metabolism in mice over 3 to 35 weeks. Their results showed minimum toxicity to mice when they were exposed to 50 and 500 mg/kg zinc oxide nanoparticle in diet. At higher dose of 5000 mg/kg, zinc oxide nanoparticle decreased body weight but increased the weight of the pancreas, brain, and lung. Also, it increased the serum glutamic-pyruvic transaminase activity and mRNA expression of zinc metabolism-related genes such as metallothionein. Biodistribution studies showed the accumulation of sufficient quantity of zinc in the liver, pancreas, kidney, and bones. Absorption and distribution of zinc oxide nanoparticle/zinc oxide microparticles are largely dependent on the particle size. Li et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 51" title="Li CH, Shen CC, Cheng YW, Huang SH, Wu CC, Kao CC, Liao JW, Kang JJ (2012) Organ biodistribution, clearance, and genotoxicity of orally administered zinc oxide nanoparticles in mice. Nanotoxicology 6:746–756" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR51" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e649">51</a>] have studied biodistribution of zinc oxide nanoparticles fed orally or through intraperitoneal injection to 6 weeks old mice. No obvious adverse effect was detected in zinc oxide nanoparticles orally treated mice in 14 days study. However, intraperitoneal injection of 2.5 g/kg body weight given to mice showed accumulation of zinc in the heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, and testes. Nearly ninefold increase in zinc oxide nanoparticle in the liver was observed after 72 h. Zinc oxide nanoparticles have been shown to have better efficiency in liver, spleen, and kidney biodistribution than in orally fed mice. Since zinc oxide nanoparticles are innocuous in low concentrations, they stimulate certain enzymes in man and plants and suppress diseases. Singh et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 52" title="Singh A, Singh NB, Afzal S, Singh T, Hussain I (2017) Zinc oxide nanoparticles: a review of their biological synthesis, antimicrobial activity, uptake, translocation and biotransformation in plants. J Mater Sci. 
 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-017-1544-1
 
 
 " href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR52" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e652">52</a>] have also been recently reviewed the biosynthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticle, their uptake, translocation, and biotransformation in plant system.</p><p>In this review, we have attempted to consolidate all the information regarding zinc oxide nanoparticles as antibacterial agent. The mechanism of interaction of zinc oxide nanoparticles against a variety of microbes has also been discussed in detail.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Antimicrobial Activity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec2">Antimicrobial Activity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>It is universally known that zinc oxide nanoparticles are antibacterial and inhibit the growth of microorganisms by permeating into the cell membrane. The oxidative stress damages lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and DNA [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 53" title="Kelly SA, Havrilla CM, Brady TC, Abramo KH, Levin ED (1998) Oxidative stress in toxicology: established mammalian and emerging piscine model systems. Environ Health Perspect 106:375–384" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR53" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e666">53</a>]. Lipid peroxidation is obviously the most crucial that leads to alteration in cell membrane which eventually disrupt vital cellular functions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 54" title="Rikans LE, Hornbrook KR (1997) Lipid peroxidation, antioxidant protection and aging. Biochim Biophys Acta 1362:116–127" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR54" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e669">54</a>]. It has been supported by oxidative stress mechanism involving zinc oxide nanoparticle in <i>Escherichia coli</i> [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Zhang L, Jiang Y, Ding Y, Povey M, York D (2007) Investigation into the antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO nanofluids). J Nanopart Res 9:479–489" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e675">55</a>]. However, for bulk zinc oxide suspension, external generation of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> has been suggested to describe the anti-bacterial properties [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 56" title="Sawai J, Shoji S, Igarashi H, Hashimoto A, Kokugan T, Shimizu M, Kojima H (1998) Hydrogen peroxide as an antibacterial factor in zinc oxide powder slurry. J Ferment Bioeng 86:521–522" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e683">56</a>]. Also, the toxicity of nanoparticles, releasing toxic ions, has been considered. Since zinc oxide is amphoteric in nature, it reacts with both acids and alkalis giving Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure c-article-section__figure--no-border" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-a"><figure><div class="c-article-section__figure-content" id="Figa"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figa_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Figa" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figa_HTML.gif" alt="figure a" loading="lazy"></picture></div></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-a-desc"></div></div></figure></div><p>The free Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions immediately bind with the biomolecules such as proteins and carbohydrates, and all vital functions of bacteria cease to continue. The toxicity of zinc oxide, zinc nanoparticles, and ZnSO<sub>4</sub>·7H<sub>2</sub>O has been tested (Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Tab1">1</a>) against <i>Vibrio fischeri</i>. It was found that ZnSO<sub>4</sub>·7H<sub>2</sub>O is six times more toxic than zinc oxide nanoparticles and zinc oxide. The nanoparticles are actually dispersed in the solvent, not dissolved, and therefore, they cannot release Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions. The bioavailability of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions is not always 100% and may invariably change with physiological pH, redox potential, and the anions associated with it such as Cl<sup>−</sup> or SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1 The toxicity (30-min EC<sub>50</sub>, EC<sub>20</sub> and NOEC, and MIC) of metal oxide aqueous suspensions CuSO<sub>4</sub> and ZnSO<sub>4</sub>·7H<sub>2</sub>O to bacteria <i>Vibrio fischeri</i> [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Heinlaan M, Ivask A, Blinova I, Dubourguier HC, Kahru A (2008) Toxicity of nanosized and bulk ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to bacteria Vibrio fischeri and crustaceans Daphnia magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus. Chemosphere 71:1308–1316" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e750">59</a>]</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Solubility of zinc oxide (1.6–5.0 mg/L) in aqueous medium is higher than that of zinc oxide nanoparticles (0.3–3.6 mg/L) in the same medium [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 57" title="Lin D, Xing B (2007) Phytotoxicity of nanoparticles: inhibition of seed germination and root growth. Environ Pollut 150:243–250" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR57" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1067">57</a>] which is toxic to algae and crustaceans. Both nano-zinc oxide and bulk zinc oxide are 40–80-fold less toxic than ZnSO<sub>4</sub> against <i>V. fischeri</i>. The higher antibacterial activity of ZnSO<sub>4</sub> is directly proportional to its solubility releasing Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions, which has higher mobility and greater affinity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 58" title="Kahru A, Ivask A, Kasemets K, Pollumaa L, Kurvet I, François M, Dubourguier HC (2005) Bio-tests and biosensors in ecotoxicological risk assessment of field soils polluted with zinc, lead and cadmium. Environ Toxicol Chem 24:2973–2982" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR58" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1080">58</a>] toward biomolecules in the bacterial cell due to positive charge on the Zn<sup>2+</sup> and negative charge on the biomolecules.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure c-article-section__figure--no-border" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-b"><figure><div class="c-article-section__figure-content" id="Figb"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figb_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Figb" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figb_HTML.gif" alt="figure b" loading="lazy"></picture></div></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-b-desc"></div></div></figure></div><p>Since zinc oxide and its nanoparticles have limited solubility, they are less toxic to the microbes than highly soluble ZnSO<sub>4</sub>·7H<sub>2</sub>O. However, it is not essential for metal oxide nanoparticles to enter the bacterial cell to cause toxicity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 59" title="Heinlaan M, Ivask A, Blinova I, Dubourguier HC, Kahru A (2008) Toxicity of nanosized and bulk ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to bacteria Vibrio fischeri and crustaceans Daphnia magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus. Chemosphere 71:1308–1316" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR59" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1101">59</a>]. Contact between nanoparticles and the cell wall is sufficient to cause toxicity. If it is correct, then large amounts of metal nanoparticles are required so that the bacterial cells are completely enveloped and shielded from its environment leaving no chance for nutrition to be absorbed to continue life process. Since nanoparticles and metal ions are smaller than the bacterial cells, it is more likely that they disrupt the cell membrane and inhibit their growth.</p><p>A number of nanosized metal oxides such as ZnO, CuO, Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, La<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, SnO<sub>2</sub>, and TiO<sub>2</sub> have been shown to exhibit the highest toxicity against <i>E. coli</i> [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 49" title="Hu X, Cook S, Wang P, Hwang HM (2009) In vitro evaluation of cytotoxicity of engineered metal oxide nanoparticles. Sci Total Environ 407:3070–3072" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR49" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1127">49</a>]. Zinc oxide nanoparticles are externally used for the treatment of mild bacterial infections, but the zinc ion is an essential trace element for some viruses and human beings which increase enzymatic activity of viral integrase [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 45" title="Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Campa A (2000) Zinc status in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Nutr 130:1421S–1423S" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR45" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1130">45</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 60" title="Elster C, Fourest E, Baudin F, Larsen K, Cusack S, Ruigrok RW (1994) A small percentage of influenza virus M1 protein contains zinc but zinc does not influence in vitro M1 RNA interaction. Gen J Virol 75:37–42" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR60" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1134">60</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 61" title="Lee SP, Xiao J, Knutson JR, Lewis MS, Han MK (1997) Zn2+ promotes the self-association of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 integrase in vitro. Biochemistry 36:173–180" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR61" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1137">61</a>]. It has also been supported by an increase in the infectious pancreatic necrosis virus by 69.6% when treated with 10 mg/L of Zn [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 46" title="Hiller JM, Perlmutter A (1971) Effect of zinc on viral-host interactions in a rainbow trout cell line, RTG-2. Water Res 5:703–710" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR46" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1140">46</a>]. It may be due to greater solubility of Zn ions relative to ZnO alone. The SEM and TEM images have shown that zinc oxide nanoparticles damage the bacterial cell wall [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Zhang L, Jiang Y, Ding Y, Povey M, York D (2007) Investigation into the antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO nanofluids). J Nanopart Res 9:479–489" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1143">55</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Adams LK, Lyon DY, Alvarez PJJ (2006) Comparative eco-toxicity of nanoscale TiO2, SiO2, and ZnO water suspensions. Water Res 40:3527–3532" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1146">62</a>] and increase permeability followed by their accumulation in <i>E. coli</i> preventing their multiplication [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Brayner R, Ferrari-Iliou R, Brivois N, Djediat S, Benedetti MF, Fiévet F (2006) Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett 6:866–870" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1153">63</a>].</p><p>In the recent past, antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticle has been investigated against four known gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, namely <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, <i>E. coli</i>, <i>Salmonella typhimurium</i>, and <i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i>. It was observed that the growth-inhibiting dose of the zinc oxide nanoparticles was 15 μg/ml, although in the case of <i>K. pneumoniae</i>, it was as low as 5 μg/ml [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Brayner R, Ferrari-Iliou R, Brivois N, Djediat S, Benedetti MF, Fiévet F (2006) Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett 6:866–870" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1175">63</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 64" title="Stoimenov PK, Klinger RL, Marchin GL, Klabunde KJ (2002) Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal agents. Langmuir 18:6679–6686" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1178">64</a>]. It has been noticed that with increasing concentration of nanoparticles, growth inhibition of microbes increases. When they were incubated over a period of 4–5 h with a maximum concentration of zinc oxide nanoparticles of 45 μg/ml, the growth was strongly inhibited. It is expected that if the incubation time is increased, the growth inhibition would also increase without much alteration in the mechanism of action [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Brayner R, Ferrari-Iliou R, Brivois N, Djediat S, Benedetti MF, Fiévet F (2006) Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett 6:866–870" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1181">63</a>].</p><p>It has been reported that the metal oxide nanoparticles first damage the bacterial cell membrane and then permeate into it [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 64" title="Stoimenov PK, Klinger RL, Marchin GL, Klabunde KJ (2002) Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal agents. Langmuir 18:6679–6686" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR64" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1187">64</a>]. It has also been proposed that the release of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> may be an alternative to anti-bacterial activity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Yamamoto O, Komatsu M, Sawai J, Nakagawa ZE (2004) Effect of lattice constant of zinc oxide on antibacterial characteristics. J Mater Sci Mater Med 15:847–851" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1194">65</a>]. This proposal, however, requires experimental proof because the mere presence of zinc oxide nanoparticle is not enough to produce H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. Zinc nanoparticles or zinc oxide nanoparticles of extremely low concentration cannot cause toxicity in human system. Daily intake of zinc via food is needed to carry out the regular metabolic functions. Zinc oxide is known to protect the stomach and intestinal tract from damage by <i>E. coli </i>[<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 65" title="Yamamoto O, Komatsu M, Sawai J, Nakagawa ZE (2004) Effect of lattice constant of zinc oxide on antibacterial characteristics. J Mater Sci Mater Med 15:847–851" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR65" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1205">65</a>]. The pH in the stomach varies between 2 to 5, and hence, zinc oxide in the stomach can react with acid to produce Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions. They can help in activating the enzyme carboxy peptidase, carbonic anhydrase, and alcohol dehydrogenase which help in the digestion of carbohydrate and alcohol. Premanathan et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Premanathan M, Karthikeyan K, Jeyasubramanian K, Manivannan G (2011) Selective toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles toward Gram-positive bacteria and cancer cells by apoptosis through lipid peroxidation. Nanomedicine 7:184–192" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1210">66</a>] have reported the toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles against prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The MIC of zinc oxide nanoparticles against <i>E. coli</i>, <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>, and <i>S. aureus</i> were found to be 500 and 125 μg/ml, respectively. Two mechanisms of action have been proposed for the toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles, namely (1) generation of ROS and (2) induction of apoptosis. Metal oxide nanoparticles induce ROS production and put the cells under oxidative stress causing damage to cellular components, i.e., lipids, proteins, and DNA [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lovric J, Cho SJ, Winnik FM, Maysinger D (2005) Unmodified cadmium telluride quantum dots induce reactive oxygen species formation leading to multiple organelle damage and cell death. Chem Biol 12:1227–1234" href="#ref-CR67" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1223">67</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Xia T, Kovochich M, Brant J, Hotze M, Sempf J, Oberley T, Sioutas C, Yeh JI, Wiesner MR, Nel AE (2006) Comparison of the abilities of ambient and manufactured nanoparticles to induce cellular toxicity according to an oxidative stress paradigm. Nano Lett 6:1794–1807" href="#ref-CR68" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1223_1">68</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 69" title="Long TC, Saleh N, Tilton RD, Lowry GV, Veronesi B (2006) Titanium dioxide (P25) produces reactive oxygen species in immortalized brain microglia (BV2): implications for nanoparticle neurotoxicity. Environ Sci Technol 40:4346–4352" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR69" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1226">69</a>]. Zinc oxide nanoparticles, therefore, induce toxicity through apoptosis. They are relatively more toxic to cancer cells than normal cells, although they cannot distinguish between them.</p><p>Recently, Pati et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 70" title="Pati R, Mehta RK, Mohanty S, Padhi A, Sengupta M, Vaseeharan B, Goswami C, Sonawane A (2014) Topical application of zinc oxide nanoparticles reduces bacterial skin infection in mice and exhibits antibacterial activity by inducing oxidative stress response and cell membrane disintegration in macrophages. Nanomedicine 10:1195–1208" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR70" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1232">70</a>] have shown that zinc oxide nanoparticles disrupt bacterial cell membrane integrity, reduce cell surface hydrophobicity, and downregulate the transcription of oxidative stress-resistance genes in bacteria. They enhance intracellular bacterial killing by inducing ROS production. These nanoparticles disrupt biofilm formation and inhibit hemolysis by hemolysin toxin produced by pathogens. Intradermal administration of zinc oxide nanoparticles was found to significantly reduce the skin infection and inflammation in mice and also improved infected skin architecture.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec3">Solubility and Concentration-Dependent Activity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle</h3><p>Nanoparticles have also been used as a carrier to deliver therapeutic agents to treat bacterial infection [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Husen A, Siddiqi KS (2014) Phytosynthesis of nanoparticles: concept, controversy and application. Nano Res Lett 9:229" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1243">1</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2017) Recent advances in plant-mediated engineered gold nanoparticles and their application in biological system. J Trace Elements Med Biol 40:10–23" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1246">9</a>]. Since zinc oxide nanoparticles up to a concentration of 100 μg/ml are harmless to normal body cells, they can be used as an alternative to antibiotics. It was found that 90% bacterial colonies perished after exposing them to a dose of 500–1000 μg/ml of zinc oxide nanoparticles only for 6 h. Even the drug-resistant <i>S. aureus</i>, <i>Mycobacterium smegmatis</i>, and <i>Mycobacterium bovis</i> when treated with zinc oxide nanoparticles in combination with a low dose of anti-tuberculosis drug, rifampicin (0.7 μg/ml), a significant reduction in their growth was observed. These pathogens were completely destroyed when incubated for 24 h with 1000 μg/ml of zinc oxide nanoparticles. It is, therefore, concluded that if the same dose is repeated, the patient with such infective diseases may be completely cured. It was also noted that the size of zinc oxide nanoparticles ranging between 50 and 500 nm have identical effect on bacterial growth inhibition.</p><p>Cytotoxicity of zinc oxide has been studied by many researchers in a variety of microbes and plant systems [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2017) Plant response to engineered metal oxide nanoparticles. Nano Res Lett 12:92" href="#ref-CR71" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1261">71</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Liu Y, He L, Mustapha A, Li H, Hu ZQ, Lin M (2009) Antibacterial activities of zinc oxide nanoparticles against Escherichia coli O157:H7. J Appl Microbiol 107:1193–1201" href="#ref-CR72" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1261_1">72</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Dutta RK, Sharma PK, Bhargave R, Kumar N, Pandey AC (2010) Differential susceptibility of Escherichia coli cells toward transition metal-doped and matrix-embedded ZnO nanoparticles. J Phys Chem B 114:5594–5599" href="#ref-CR73" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1261_2">73</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 74" title="Banoee M, Seif S, Nazari ZE, Jafari-Fesharaki P, Shahverdi HR, Moballegh A, Moghaddam KM, Shahverdi AR (2010) ZnO nanoparticles enhanced antibacterial activity of ciprofloxacin against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. J Biomed Mater Res B 93B:557–561" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR74" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1264">74</a>]. Toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles is concentration and solubility dependent. It has been shown that maximum exposure concentration of zinc oxide (125 mg/l) suspension released 6.8 mg/l of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions. Toxicity is a combined effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles and Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions released in the aqueous medium. However, minimal effect of metal ions was detected which suggests that the bacterial growth inhibition is mainly due to interaction of zinc oxide nanoparticles with microorganisms. The cytotoxic effect of a particular metal oxide nanoparticle is species sensitive which is reflected by the growth inhibition zone for several bacteria [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 75" title="Baek YW, An YJ (2011) Microbial toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles (CuO, NiO, ZnO, and Sb2O3) to Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Streptococcus aureus. Sci Total Environ 409:1603–1608" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR75" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1271">75</a>].</p><p>It has been suggested that growth inhibition of bacterial cells occurs mainly by Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions which are produced by extracellular dissolution of zinc oxide nanoparticles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 76" title="Karlsson HL, Toprak MS, Fadeel B (2014) Toxicity of metal and metal oxide nanoparticle. In: Nordberg GF, Fowler BA, Nordberg M (eds) Handbook on the toxicology of metals, 4th edn. Academic Press pp, London, pp 75–112" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR76" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1279">76</a>]. Cho et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 77" title="Cho WS, Duffin R, Howie SE, Scotton CJ, Wallace WA, Macnee W, Bradley M, Megson IL, Donaldson K (2011) Progressive severe lung injury by zinc oxide nanoparticles; the role of Zn2+ dissolution inside lysosomes. Part Fibre Toxicol 8:27" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR77" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1282">77</a>] have concluded from their studies on rats that zinc oxide nanoparticles remain intact at around neutral or biological pH but rapidly dissolve under acidic conditions (pH 4.5) in the lysosome of the microbes leading to their death. This is true because in acidic condition, zinc oxide dissolves and Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions are produced, which bind to the biomolecules inside the bacterial cell inhibiting their growth.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure c-article-section__figure--no-border" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-c"><figure><div class="c-article-section__figure-content" id="Figc"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figc_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Figc" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figc_HTML.gif" alt="figure c" loading="lazy"></picture></div></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-c-desc"></div></div></figure></div><p>The zinc oxide nanoparticles have been shown to be cytotoxic to different primary immune-competent cells. The transcriptomics analysis showed that nanoparticles had a common gene signature with upregulation of metallothionein genes ascribed to the dissolution of the nanoparticles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 78" title="Tuomela S, Autio R, Buerki-Thurnherr T, Arslan O, Kunzmann A, Andersson-Willman B, Wick P, Mathur S, Scheynius A, Krug HF, Fadeel B, Lahesmaa R (2013) Gene expression profiling of immune-competent human cells exposed to engineered zinc oxide or titanium dioxide nanoparticles. PLoS One 8:e68415" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR78" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1299">78</a>]. However, it could not be ascertained if the absorbed zinc was Zn<sup>2+</sup> or zinc oxide or both, although smaller sized zinc oxide nanoparticles have greater concentration in the blood than larger ones (19 and > 100 nm). The efficiency of zinc oxide nanoparticles depends mainly on the medium of reaction to form Zn<sup>2+</sup> and their penetration into the cell.</p><p>Chiang et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 79" title="Chiang HM, Xia Q, Zou X, Wang C, Wang S, Miller BJ, Howard PC, Yin JJ, Beland FA, Yu H, Fu PP (2012) Nanoscale ZnO induces cytotoxicity and DNA damage in human cell lines and rat primary neuronal cells. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 12:2126–2135" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR79" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1309">79</a>] have reported that dissociation of zinc oxide nanoparticles results in destruction of cellular Zn homeostasis. The characteristic properties of nanoparticles and their impact on biological functions are entirely different from those of the bulk material [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 80" title="Seabra AB, Haddad P, Duran N (2013) Biogenic synthsis of nanostructured iron compound: applications and perspectives. IET Nanobiotechnol 7:90–99" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR80" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1312">80</a>]. Aggregation of nanoparticles influences cytotoxicity of macrophages, and their concentration helps in modulation of nanoparticle aggregation. Low concentration of zinc oxide nanoparticles is ineffective, but at higher concentration (100 μg/ml), they exhibited cytotoxicity which varies from one pathogen to another.</p><p>The inadvertent use of zinc oxide nanoparticles may sometime adversely affect the living system. Their apoptosis and genotoxic potential in human liver cells and cellular toxicity has been studied. It was found that a decrease in liver cell viability occurs when they are exposed to 14–20 μg/ml of zinc oxide nanoparticles for 12 h. It also induced DNA damage by oxidative stress. Sawai et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 56" title="Sawai J, Shoji S, Igarashi H, Hashimoto A, Kokugan T, Shimizu M, Kojima H (1998) Hydrogen peroxide as an antibacterial factor in zinc oxide powder slurry. J Ferment Bioeng 86:521–522" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR56" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1318">56</a>] have demonstrated that ROS generation is directly proportional to the concentration of zinc oxide powder. ROS triggered a decrease in mitochondria membrane potential leading to apoptosis [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 81" title="Sharma V, Anderson D, Dhawan A (2012) Zinc oxide nanoparticles induce oxidative DNA damage and ROS-triggered mitochondria mediated apoptosis in human liver cells (HepG2). Apoptosis 17:852–870" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR81" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1321">81</a>]. Cellular uptake of nanoparticles is not mandatory for cytotoxicity to occur.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec4">Size-Dependent Antibacterial Activity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles</h3><p>In a study, Azam et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Azam A, Ahmed AS, Oves M, Khan MS, Habib SS, Memic A (2012) Antimicrobial activity of metal oxide nanoparticles against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria: a comparative study. Int J Nanomedicine 7:6003–6009" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1332">82</a>] have reported that the antimicrobial activity against both gram-negative (<i>E. coli</i> and <i>P. aeruginosa</i>) and gram-positive (<i>S.</i> and <i>Bacillus subtilis</i>) bacteria increased with increase in surface-to-volume ratio due to a decrease in particle size of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Moreover, in this investigation, zinc oxide nanoparticles have shown maximum (25 mm) bacterial growth inhibition against <i>B. subtilis</i> (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Fig1">1</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig1_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig1_HTML.gif" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Antibacterial activity and/or zone of inhibition produced by zinc oxide nanoparticles against gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial strains namely <b>a</b> <i>Escherichia coli</i>, <b>b</b> <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>, <b>c</b> <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>, and <b>d</b> <i>Bacillus subtilis</i> [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 82" title="Azam A, Ahmed AS, Oves M, Khan MS, Habib SS, Memic A (2012) Antimicrobial activity of metal oxide nanoparticles against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria: a comparative study. Int J Nanomedicine 7:6003–6009" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR82" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1389">82</a>]</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>It has been reported that the smaller size of zinc oxide nanoparticles exhibits greater antibacterial activity than microscale particles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 83" title="Yamamoto O (2013) Influence of particle size on the antibacterial activity of zinc oxide. Int J Inorg Mater 3:643–646" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR83" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1403">83</a>]. For instance, Au<sup>55</sup> nanoparticles of 1.4-nm size have been demonstrated to interact with the major grooves of DNA which accounts for its toxicity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 84" title="Tsoli M, Kuhn H, Brandau W, Esche H, Schmid G (2005) Cellular uptake and toxicity of Au55 clusters. Small 1:841–844" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1408">84</a>]. Although contradictory results have been reported, many workers showed positive effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on bacterial cells. However, Brayner et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Brayner R, Ferrari-Iliou R, Brivois N, Djediat S, Benedetti MF, Fiévet F (2006) Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett 6:866–870" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1411">63</a>] from TEM images have shown that zinc oxide nanoparticle of 10–14 nm were internalized (when exposed to microbes) and damaged the bacterial cell membrane. It is also essential that the zinc/zinc oxide nanoparticles must not be toxic to human being since they are toxic to T cells above 5 mM [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 85" title="Reddy KM, Feris K, Bell J, Wingett DG, Hanley C, Punnoose A (2007) Selective toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles to prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. Appl Phys Lett 90:2139021–2139023" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR85" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1414">85</a>] and to neuroblastoma cells above 1.2 mM [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 86" title="Jeng HA, Swanson J (2006) Toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles in mammalian cells. J Enviorn Sci Health 41:2699–2711" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR86" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1418">86</a>]. Nair et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 87" title="Nair S, Sasidharan A, Divya Rani VV, Menon D, Nair S, Manzoor K, Raina S (2009) Role of size scale of ZnO nanoparticles and microparticles on toxicity toward bacteria and osteoblast cancer cells. J Mater Sci Mater Med 20:S235–S241" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1421">87</a>] have exclusively explored the size effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on bacterial and human cell toxicity. They have studied the influence of zinc oxide nanoparticles on both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and osteoblast cancer cell lines (MG-63).</p><p>It is known that antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticle is inversely proportional to their size and directly proportional to their concentration [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 88" title="Raghupathi KR, Koodali RT, Manna AC (2011) Size-dependent bacterial growth inhibition and mechanism of antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Langmuir 27:4020–4028" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1427">88</a>]. It has also been noticed that it does not require UV light for activation; it functions under normal or even diffused sunlight. Cytotoxic activity perhaps involves both the production of ROS and accumulation of nanoparticles in the cytoplasm or on the outer cell membrane. However, the production of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and its involvement in the activation of nanoparticles cannot be ignored. Raghupathi et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 88" title="Raghupathi KR, Koodali RT, Manna AC (2011) Size-dependent bacterial growth inhibition and mechanism of antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Langmuir 27:4020–4028" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR88" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1434">88</a>] have synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles from different zinc salts and observed that nanoparticles obtained from Zn(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> were smallest in size (12 nm) and largest in surface area (90.4). Authors have shown that the growth inhibition of <i>S. aureus</i> at a concentration of 6 mM of zinc oxide nanoparticles is size dependent. It has also been indicated from the viable cell determination during the exposure of bacterial cells to zinc oxide nanoparticles that the number of cells recovered decreased significantly with decrease in size of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Jones et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 89" title="Jones N, Ray B, Koodali RT, Manna AC (2008) Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles suspensions on a broad spectrum of microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 279:71–76" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1445">89</a>] have shown that zinc oxide nanoparticles of 8-nm diameter inhibited the growth of <i>S. aureus</i>, <i>E. coli</i>, and <i>B. subtilis.</i> Zinc oxide nanoparticles ranging between 12 and 307 nm were selected and confirmed the relationship between antibacterial activity and their size. Their toxicity to microbes has been ascribed to the formation of Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions from zinc oxide when it is suspended in water and also to some extent to a slight change in pH. Since Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions are scarcely released from zinc oxide nanoparticles, the antibacterial activity is mainly owing to smaller zinc oxide nanoparticles. When the size is 12 nm, it inhibits the growth of <i>S. aureus</i>, but when the size exceeds 100 nm, the inhibitory effect is minimal [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 89" title="Jones N, Ray B, Koodali RT, Manna AC (2008) Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles suspensions on a broad spectrum of microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 279:71–76" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR89" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1465">89</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec5">Shape, Composition, and Cytotoxicity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles</h3><p>Zinc oxide nanoparticles have shown cytotoxicity in concentration-dependent manner and type of cells exposed due to different sensitivity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 90" title="Sahu D, Kannan GM, Tailang M, Vijayaraghavan R (2016) In vitro cytotoxicity of nanoparticles: a comparison between particle size and cell type. J Nanosci 2016:4023852" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1476">90</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 91" title="Ng CT, Yong LQ, Hande MP, Ong CN, Yu LE, Bay BH, Baeg GH (2017) Zinc oxide nanoparticles exhibit cytotoxicity and genotoxicity through oxidative stress responses in human lung fibroblasts and Drosophila melanogaster. Int J Nanomedicine 12:1621–1637" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR91" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1479">91</a>]. Sahu et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 90" title="Sahu D, Kannan GM, Tailang M, Vijayaraghavan R (2016) In vitro cytotoxicity of nanoparticles: a comparison between particle size and cell type. J Nanosci 2016:4023852" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR90" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1482">90</a>] have highlighted the difference of cytotoxicity between particle size and different sensitivity of cells toward the particles of the same composition. In another recent study, Ng et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 91" title="Ng CT, Yong LQ, Hande MP, Ong CN, Yu LE, Bay BH, Baeg GH (2017) Zinc oxide nanoparticles exhibit cytotoxicity and genotoxicity through oxidative stress responses in human lung fibroblasts and Drosophila melanogaster. Int J Nanomedicine 12:1621–1637" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR91" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1485">91</a>] examined the concentration-dependent cytotoxicity in human lung MRC5 cells. Authors have reported the uptake and internalization of zinc oxide nanoparticles into the human lung MRC5 cells by using TEM investigation. These particles were noticed in the cytoplasm of the cells in the form of electron dense clusters, which are further observed to be enclosed by vesicles, while zinc oxide nanoparticles were not found in untreated control cells. Papavlassopoulos et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 92" title="Papavlassopoulos H, Mishra YK, Kaps S, Paulowicz I, Abdelaziz R, Elbahri M, Maser E, Adelung R, Röhl C (2014) Toxicity of functional nano-micro zinc oxide tetrapods: impact of cell culture conditions, cellular age and material properties. PLoS One 9:e84983" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR92" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1488">92</a>] have synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticle tetrapods by entirely a novel route known as “Flame transport synthesis approach”. Tetrapods have different morphology compared to the conventionally synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles. Their interaction with mammalian fibroblast cells in vitro has indicated that their toxicity is significantly lower than those of the spherical zinc oxide nanoparticles. Tetrapods exhibited hexagonal wurtzite crystal structure with alternating Zn<sup>2+</sup> and O<sup>2−</sup> ions with three-dimensional geometry. They block the entry of viruses into living cells which is further enhanced by precisely illuminating them with UV radiation. Since zinc oxide tetrapods have oxygen vacancies in their structure, the <i>Herpes simplex</i> viruses are attached via heparan sulfate and denied entry into body cells. Thus, they prevent HSV-1 and HSV-2 infection in vitro. Zinc oxide tetrapods may therefore be used as prophylactic agent against these viral infections. The cytotoxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles also depends on the proliferation rate of mammalian cells [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 66" title="Premanathan M, Karthikeyan K, Jeyasubramanian K, Manivannan G (2011) Selective toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles toward Gram-positive bacteria and cancer cells by apoptosis through lipid peroxidation. Nanomedicine 7:184–192" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR66" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1499">66</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 93" title="Taccola L, Raffa V, Riggio C, Vittorio O, Iorio MC, Vanacore R, Pietrabissa A, Cuschieri A (2011) Zinc oxide nanoparticles as selective killers of proliferating cells. Int J Nanomedicine 6:1129–1140" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR93" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1502">93</a>]. The surface reactivity and toxicity may also be varied by controlling the oxygen vacancy in zinc oxide tetrapods. When they are exposed to UV light, the oxygen vacancy in tetrapods is readily increased. Alternatively, the oxygen vacancy can be decreased by heating them in oxygen-rich environment. Thus, it is the unique property of zinc oxide tetrapods that can be changed at will which consequently alter their antimicrobial efficiency.</p><p>Animal studies have indicated an increase in pulmonary inflammation, oxidative stress, etc. on respiratory exposure to nanoparticles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 94" title="Zhou YM, Zhong CY, Kennedy IM, Leppert VJ, Pinkerton KE (2003) Oxidative stress and NFkappaB activation in the lungs of rats: a synergistic interaction between soot and iron particles. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 190:157–169" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR94" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1508">94</a>]. Yang et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 95" title="Yang H, Liu C, Yang D, Zhang H, Xi Z (2009) Comparative study of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced by four typical nanomaterials: the role of particle size, shape and composition. J Appl Toxicol 29:69–78" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR95" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1511">95</a>] have investigated the cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and oxidative stress of zinc oxide nanoparticles on primary mouse embryo fibroblast cells. It was observed that zinc oxide nanoparticles induced significantly greater cytotoxicity than that induced by carbon and SiO<sub>2</sub> nanoparticles. It was further confirmed by measuring glutathione depletion, malondialdehyde production, superoxide dismutase inhibition, and ROS generation. The potential cytotoxic effects of different nanoparticles have been attributed to their shape.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec6">Polymer-Coated Nanoparticles</h3><p>Many bacterial infections are transmitted by contact with door knobs, key boards, water taps, bath tubs, and telephones; therefore, it is essential to develop and coat such surfaces with inexpensive advanced antibacterial substances so that their growth is inhibited. It is important to use such concentrations of antibacterial substances that they may kill the pathogens but spare the human beings. It may happen only if they are coated with a biocompatible hydrophilic polymer of low cost. Schwartz et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 96" title="Schwartz VB, Thétiot F, Ritz S, Pütz S, Choritz L, Lappas A, Förch R, Landfester K, Jonas U (2012) Antibacterial surface coatings from zinc oxide nanoparticles embedded in poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) hydrogel surface layers. Adv Funct Mater 22:2376–2386" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR96" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1524">96</a>] have reported the preparation of a novel antimicrobial composite material hydrogel by mixing a biocompatible poly (<i>N</i>-isopropylacrylamide) with zinc oxide nanoparticles. The SEM image of the composite film showed uniform distribution of zinc oxide nanoparticles. It exhibited antibacterial activity against <i>E. coli</i> at a very low zinc oxide concentration (1.33 mM). Also, the coating was found to be nontoxic toward mammalian cell line (N1H/3T3) for a period of 1 week. Zinc oxide/hydrogel nanocomposite may safely be used as biomedical coating to prevent people from contracting bacterial infections.</p><p>Although zinc oxide nanoparticles are stable, they have been further stabilized by coating them with different polymers such as polyvinyl pyrolidone (PVP), polyvinyl alcohol <b>(</b>PVA<b>),</b> poly (α, γ, <span class="u-small-caps">l</span>-glutamic acid) (PGA), polyethylene glycol (PEG), chitosan, and dextran [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 97" title="Stankovic A, Dimitrijevic S, Uskokovic D (2013) Influence of size scale and morphology on antibacterial properties of ZnO powders hydrothermally synthesized using different surface stabilizing agents. Colloids Surf B 102:21–28" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR97" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1545">97</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 98" title="Laurent S, Forge D, Port M, Roch A, Robic C, Elst LV, Muller RN (2008) Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, stabilization, vectorization, physicochemical characterizations, and biological applications. Chem Rev 108:2064–2110" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR98" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1548">98</a>]. The antibacterial activity of engineered zinc oxide nanoparticles was examined against gram-negative and gram-positive pathogens, namely <i>E. coli</i> and <i>S. aureus</i> and compared with commercial zinc oxide powder. The polymer-coated spherical zinc oxide nanoparticles showed maximum bacterial cell destruction compared to bulk zinc oxide powder [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 99" title="Yamamoto O, Hotta M, Sawai J, Sawai J, Sasamoto T, Kojima H (1998) Influence of powder characteristic of ZnO on antibacterial activity: effect of specific surface area. J Ceram Soc Jpn 106:1007–1011" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR99" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1558">99</a>]. Since nanoparticles coated with polymers are less toxic due to their low solubility and sustained release, their cytotoxicity can be controlled by coating them with a suitable polymer.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7">Effect of Particle Size and Shape of Polymer-Coated Nanoparticles on Antibacterial Activity</h3><p><i>E. coli</i> and <i>S. aureus</i> exposed to different concentrations of poly ethylene glycol (PEG)-coated zinc oxide nanoparticles (1–7 mM) of varying size (401 nm–1.2 μm) showed that the antimicrobial activity increases with decreasing size and increasing concentration of nanoparticles. However, the effective concentration in all these cases was above 5 mM. There occurs a drastic change in cell morphology of <i>E. coli</i> surface which can be seen from the SEM images of bacteria before and after their exposure to zinc oxide nanoparticles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 84" title="Tsoli M, Kuhn H, Brandau W, Esche H, Schmid G (2005) Cellular uptake and toxicity of Au55 clusters. Small 1:841–844" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR84" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1577">84</a>]. It has been nicely demonstrated by Nair et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 87" title="Nair S, Sasidharan A, Divya Rani VV, Menon D, Nair S, Manzoor K, Raina S (2009) Role of size scale of ZnO nanoparticles and microparticles on toxicity toward bacteria and osteoblast cancer cells. J Mater Sci Mater Med 20:S235–S241" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR87" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1580">87</a>] that PEG-capped zinc oxide particles and zinc oxide nanorods are toxic to human osteoblast cancer cells (MG-63) at concentration above 100 μM. The PEG starch-coated nanorods/nanoparticles do not damage the healthy cells.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec8">In Vivo and In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity for Wound Dressing</h3><p>Of all natural and synthetic wound dressing materials, the chitosan hydrogel microporous bandages laced with zinc oxide nanoparticles developed by Kumar et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 100" title="Kumar PTS, Lakshmanan VK, Anilkumar TV, Ramya C, Reshmi P, Unnikrishnan AG, Nair SV, Jayakumar R (2012) Flexible and microporous chitosan hydrogel/nano ZnO composite bandages for wound dressing: in vitro and in vivo evaluation. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 4:2618–2629" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1591">100</a>] are highly effective in treating burns, wounds, and diabetic foot ulcers. The nanoparticles of approximately 70–120 nm are dispersed on the surface of the bandage. The degradation products of chitosan were identified as <span class="u-small-caps">d</span>-glucosamine and glycosamine glycan. They are nontoxic to the cells because they are already present in our body for the healing of injury. The wound generally contains <i>P. aeruginosa</i>, <i>S. intermedicus</i>, and <i>S. hyicus</i> which were also identified from the swab of mice wound and successfully treated with chitosan zinc oxide bandage in about 3 weeks [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 100" title="Kumar PTS, Lakshmanan VK, Anilkumar TV, Ramya C, Reshmi P, Unnikrishnan AG, Nair SV, Jayakumar R (2012) Flexible and microporous chitosan hydrogel/nano ZnO composite bandages for wound dressing: in vitro and in vivo evaluation. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 4:2618–2629" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR100" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1607">100</a>].</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec9">Effect of Doping on Toxicity of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles</h3><p>Doping of zinc oxide nanoparticles with iron reduces the toxicity. The concentration of Zn<sup>2+</sup> and zinc oxide nanoparticles is also an important factor for toxicity. The concentration that reduced 50% viability in microbial cells exposed to nano- and microsize zinc oxide is very close to the concentration of Zn<sup>2+</sup> that induced 50% reduction in viability in Zn<sup>2+</sup>-treated cells [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 101" title="George S, Pokhrel S, Xia T, Gilbert B, Ji Z, Schowalter M, Rosenauer A, Damoiseaux R, Bradley KA, Mädler L, Nel AE (2010) Use of a rapid cytotoxicity screening approach to engineer a safer zinc oxide nanoparticle through iron doping. ACS Nano 4:15–12" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR101" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1625">101</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 102" title="Song W, Zhang J, Guo J, Zhang J, Ding F, Li L, Sun Z (2010) Role of the dissolved zinc ion and reactive oxygen species in cytotoxicity of ZnO nanoparticles. Toxicol Lett 199:389–339" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR102" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1628">102</a>].</p><p>Coating of zinc oxide nanoparticles with mercaptopropyl trimethoxysilane or SiO<sub>2</sub> reduces their cytotoxicity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 103" title="Buerki-Thurnherr T, Xiao L, Diener L, Arslan O, Hirsch C, Maeder-Althaus X, Grieder K, Wampfler B, Mathur S, Wick P, Krug HF (2013) In vitro mechanistic study towards a better understanding of ZnO nanoparticle toxicity. Nanotoxicology 7:402–416" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR103" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1636">103</a>]. On the contrary, Gilbert et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 104" title="Gilbert B, Fakra SC, Xia T, Pokhrel S, Mädler L, Nel AE (2012) The fate of ZnO nanoparticles administered to human bronchial epithelial cells. ACS Nano 6:4921–4930" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR104" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1639">104</a>] showed that in BEAS-2B cells, uptake of zinc oxide nanoparticles is the main mechanism of zinc accumulation. Also, they have suggested that zinc oxide nanoparticles dissolve completely generating Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions which are bonded to biomolecules of the target cells. However, the toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles depends on the uptake and their subsequent interaction with target cells.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Interaction Mechanism of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec10-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec10">Interaction Mechanism of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec10-content"><p>Nanoparticles may be toxic to some microorganisms, but they may be essential nutrients to some of them [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Zhang L, Jiang Y, Ding Y, Povey M, York D (2007) Investigation into the antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO nanofluids). J Nanopart Res 9:479–489" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1653">55</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 105" title="Raffi M, Hussain F, Bhatti TM, Akhter JI, Hameed A, Hasan MM (2008) Antibacterial characterization of silver nanoparticles against E. Coli ATCC-15224. J Mater Sci Technol 24:2192–2196" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR105" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1656">105</a>]. Nanotoxicity is essentially related to the microbial cell membrane damage leading to the entry of nanoparticles into the cytoplasm and their accumulation [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Zhang L, Jiang Y, Ding Y, Povey M, York D (2007) Investigation into the antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO nanofluids). J Nanopart Res 9:479–489" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1659">55</a>]. The impact of nanoparticles on the growth of bacteria and viruses largely depends on particle size, shape, concentration, agglomeration, colloidal formulation, and pH of the media [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Choi OK, Hu ZQ (2008) Size dependent and reactive oxygen species related nanosilver toxicity to nitrifying bacteria. Environ Sci Technol 42:4583–4588" href="#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1662">106</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Lok CN, Ho CM, Chen R, He QY, Yu WY, Sun H, Tam PK, Chiu JF, Che CM (2005) Proteomic analysis of the mode of antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles. Proteome Res 5:916–924" href="#ref-CR107" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1662_1">107</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 108" title="Pal S, Tak YK, Song JM (2007) Does the antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles depend on the shape of the nanoparticle? A study of the gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:1712–1720" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR108" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1665">108</a>]. The mechanism of antimicrobial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles has been depicted in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Fig2">2</a>.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 2"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig2_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig2_HTML.gif" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p>Mechanisms of zinc oxide nanoparticle antimicrobial activity</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Zinc oxide nanoparticles are generally less toxic than silver nanoparticles in a broad range of concentrations (20 to 100 mg/l) with average particle size of 480 nm [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Zhang L, Jiang Y, Ding Y, Povey M, York D (2007) Investigation into the antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO nanofluids). J Nanopart Res 9:479–489" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1692">55</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Adams LK, Lyon DY, Alvarez PJJ (2006) Comparative eco-toxicity of nanoscale TiO2, SiO2, and ZnO water suspensions. Water Res 40:3527–3532" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1695">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Brayner R, Ferrari-Iliou R, Brivois N, Djediat S, Benedetti MF, Fiévet F (2006) Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett 6:866–870" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1698">63</a>]. Metal oxide nanoparticles damage the cell membrane and DNA [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Brayner R, Ferrari-Iliou R, Brivois N, Djediat S, Benedetti MF, Fiévet F (2006) Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett 6:866–870" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1701">63</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Sondi I, Salopek-Sondi B (2004) Silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agent: a case study on E. coli as a model for Gram-negative bacteria. J Colloid Interf Sci 275:177–182" href="#ref-CR109" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1704">109</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Elechiguerra J, Burt J, Morones J, Camacho-Bragado A, Gao X, Lara HH, Yacaman MJ (2005) Interaction of silver nanoparticles with HIV-1. J Nanobiotechnol 3:6" href="#ref-CR110" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1704_1">110</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 111" title="Huang Z, Zheng X, Yan D, Yin G, Liao X, Kang Y, Yao Y, Huang D, Hao B (2008) Toxicological effect of ZnO nanoparticles based on bacteria. Langmuir 24:4140–4144" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR111" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1708">111</a>] of microbes via diffusion. However, the production of ROS through photocatalysis causing bacterial cell death cannot be ignored [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 112" title="Zan L, Fa W, Peng T, Gong ZK (2007) Photocatalysis effect of nanometer TiO2 and TiO2-coated ceramic plate on hepatitis B virus. J Photochem Photobiol B 86:165–169" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR112" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1711">112</a>]. UV-Vis spectrum of zinc oxide nanoparticle suspension in aqueous medium exhibits peaks between 370 and 385 nm [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 113" title="Bajpai KS, Chand N, Chaurasia V (2012) Nano zinc oxide-loaded calcium alginate films with potential antibacterial properties. Food Bioprocess Technol 5:1871–1881" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR113" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1714">113</a>]. It has been shown that it produces ROS (hydroxyl radicals, superoxides, and hydrogen peroxide) in the presence of moisture which ostensibly react with bacterial cell material such as protein, lipids, and DNA, eventually causing apoptosis. Xie et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 114" title="Xie Y, He Y, Irwin LP, Jin T, Shi X (2011) Antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of zinc oxide nanoparticles against Campylobacter jejuni. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:2325–2331" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1717">114</a>] have examined the influence of zinc oxide nanoparticles on <i>Campylobacter jejuni</i> cell morphology using SEM images (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Fig3">3</a>). After a 12-h treatment (0.5 mg/ml), <i>C. jejuni</i> was found to be extremely sensitive and cells transformed from spiral shape to coccoid forms. SEM studies showed the ascendency of coccoid forms in the treated cells and display the formation of irregular cell surfaces and cell wall blebs (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Fig3">3a</a>). Moreover, these coccoid cells remained intact and possessed sheathed polar flagella. However, SEM image of the untreated cells clearly showed spiral shapes (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Fig3">3b</a>). In general, it has been demonstrated from SEM and TEM images of bacterial cells treated with zinc oxide nanoparticles that they get ruptured and, in many cases, the nanoparticles damage the cell wall forcing their entry into it [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 114" title="Xie Y, He Y, Irwin LP, Jin T, Shi X (2011) Antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of zinc oxide nanoparticles against Campylobacter jejuni. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:2325–2331" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1736">114</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 115" title="Akbar A, Anal AK (2014) Zinc oxide nanoparticles loaded active packaging, a challenge study against Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat poultry meat. Food Control 38:88–95" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1739">115</a>].</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Fig. 3"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig3_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig3_HTML.gif" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>SEM images of <i>Campylobacter jejuni</i>. <b>a</b> Untreated cells from the same growth conditions were used as a control. <b>b</b> <i>C. jejuni</i> cells in the mid-log phase of growth were treated with 0.5 mg/ml of zinc oxide nanoparticles for 12 h under microaerobic conditions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 114" title="Xie Y, He Y, Irwin LP, Jin T, Shi X (2011) Antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of zinc oxide nanoparticles against Campylobacter jejuni. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:2325–2331" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1764">114</a>]</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Zinc oxide nanoparticles have high impact on the cell surface and may be activated when exposed to UV-Vis light to generate ROS (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) which permeate into the cell body while the negatively charged ROS species such as O<sub>2</sub><sup>2−</sup> remain on the cell surface and affect their integrity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 116" title="Akhtar MJ, Ahamed M, Kumar S, Majeed Khan MA, Ahmad J, Alrokayan SA (2012) Zinc oxide nanoparticles selectively induce apoptosis in human cancer cells through reactive oxygen species. Int J Nanomedicine 7:845–857" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR116" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1785">116</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 117" title="Leung YH, Xu X, Ma APY, Liu F, Ng AMC, Shen Z, Gethings LA, Guo MY, Djurišić AB, Lee PKH, Lee HK, Chan WK, Leung FCC (2016) Toxicity of ZnO and TiO2 to Escherichia coli cells. Sci Rep 6:35243" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR117" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1788">117</a>]. Anti-bacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles against many other bacteria has also been reported [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Husen A, Siddiqi KS (2014) Phytosynthesis of nanoparticles: concept, controversy and application. Nano Res Lett 9:229" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1792">1</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2016) Fabrication of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles by algae and their toxic effects. Nano Res Lett 11:363" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1795">5</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 114" title="Xie Y, He Y, Irwin LP, Jin T, Shi X (2011) Antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of zinc oxide nanoparticles against Campylobacter jejuni. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:2325–2331" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR114" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1798">114</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 115" title="Akbar A, Anal AK (2014) Zinc oxide nanoparticles loaded active packaging, a challenge study against Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat poultry meat. Food Control 38:88–95" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1801">115</a>]. It has been shown from TEM images that the nanoparticles have high impact on the cell surface (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Fig4">4</a>).</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Fig. 4"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig4_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig4_HTML.gif" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p><b>a</b> TEM images of untreated normal <i>Salmonella typhimurium</i> cells. <b>b</b> Effects of nanoparticles on the cells (marked with arrows). <b>c</b>, <b>d</b> Micrograph of deteriorated and ruptured <i>S. typhimurium</i> cells treated with zinc oxide nanoparticles [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 115" title="Akbar A, Anal AK (2014) Zinc oxide nanoparticles loaded active packaging, a challenge study against Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat poultry meat. Food Control 38:88–95" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1835">115</a>]</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Sinha et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 118" title="Sinha R, Karan R, Sinha A, Khare SK (2011) Interaction and nanotoxic effect of ZnO and Ag nanoparticles on mesophilic and halophilic bacterial cells. Bioresour Technol 102:1516–1520" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR118" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1849">118</a>] have also shown the influence of zinc oxide nanoparticles and silver nanoparticles on the growth, membrane structure, and their accumulation in cytoplasm of (a) mesophiles: Enterobacter sp. (gram negative) and <i>B. subtilis</i> (gram positive) and (b) halophiles: halophilic bacterium sp. (gram positive) and Marinobacter sp. (gram negative). Nanotoxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles against halophilic gram-negative Marinobacter species and gram-positive halophilic bacterial species showed 80% growth inhibition. It was demonstrated that zinc oxide nanoparticles below 5 mM concentration are ineffective against bacteria. The bulk zinc oxide also did not affect the growth rate and viable counts, although they showed substantial decrease in these parameters. Enterobacter species showed dramatic alterations in cell morphology and reduction in size when treated with zinc oxide.</p><p>TEM images shown by Akbar and Anal [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 115" title="Akbar A, Anal AK (2014) Zinc oxide nanoparticles loaded active packaging, a challenge study against Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat poultry meat. Food Control 38:88–95" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR115" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1859">115</a>] revealed the disrupted cell membrane and accumulation of zinc oxide nanoparticles in the cytoplasm (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Fig4">4</a>) which was further confirmed by FTIR, XRD, and SEM. It has been suggested that Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions are attached to the biomolecules in the bacterial cell via electrostatic forces. They are actually coordinated with the protein molecules through the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom of protein part. Although there is significant impact of zinc oxide nanoparticles on both the aquatic and terrestrial microorganisms and human system, it is yet to be established whether it is due to nanoparticles alone or is a combined effect of the zinc oxide nanoparticles and Zn<sup>2+</sup> ions [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 55" title="Zhang L, Jiang Y, Ding Y, Povey M, York D (2007) Investigation into the antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO nanofluids). J Nanopart Res 9:479–489" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR55" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1869">55</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 106" title="Choi OK, Hu ZQ (2008) Size dependent and reactive oxygen species related nanosilver toxicity to nitrifying bacteria. Environ Sci Technol 42:4583–4588" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR106" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1873">106</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 109" title="Sondi I, Salopek-Sondi B (2004) Silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agent: a case study on E. coli as a model for Gram-negative bacteria. J Colloid Interf Sci 275:177–182" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR109" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1876">109</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 119" title="Jones N, Ray B, Ranjit KT, Manna AC (2008) Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticle suspensions on a broad spectrum of microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 279:71–76" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR119" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1879">119</a>]. Antibacterial influence of metal oxide nanoparticles includes its diffusion into the bacterial cell, followed by release of metal ions and DNA damage leading to cell death [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 63" title="Brayner R, Ferrari-Iliou R, Brivois N, Djediat S, Benedetti MF, Fiévet F (2006) Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett 6:866–870" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR63" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1882">63</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Sondi I, Salopek-Sondi B (2004) Silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agent: a case study on E. coli as a model for Gram-negative bacteria. J Colloid Interf Sci 275:177–182" href="#ref-CR109" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1885">109</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" title="Elechiguerra J, Burt J, Morones J, Camacho-Bragado A, Gao X, Lara HH, Yacaman MJ (2005) Interaction of silver nanoparticles with HIV-1. J Nanobiotechnol 3:6" href="#ref-CR110" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1885_1">110</a>,<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 111" title="Huang Z, Zheng X, Yan D, Yin G, Liao X, Kang Y, Yao Y, Huang D, Hao B (2008) Toxicological effect of ZnO nanoparticles based on bacteria. Langmuir 24:4140–4144" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR111" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1888">111</a>]. The generation of ROS through photocatalysis is also a reason of antibacterial activity [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 62" title="Adams LK, Lyon DY, Alvarez PJJ (2006) Comparative eco-toxicity of nanoscale TiO2, SiO2, and ZnO water suspensions. Water Res 40:3527–3532" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR62" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1892">62</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 112" title="Zan L, Fa W, Peng T, Gong ZK (2007) Photocatalysis effect of nanometer TiO2 and TiO2-coated ceramic plate on hepatitis B virus. J Photochem Photobiol B 86:165–169" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR112" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1895">112</a>]. Wahab et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 120" title="Wahab R, Mishra A, Yun SI, Kim YS, Shin HS (2010) Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles prepared via non-hydrolytic solution route. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 87:1917–1925" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR120" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1898">120</a>] have shown that when zinc oxide nanoparticles are ingested, their surface area is increased followed by increased absorption and interaction with both the pathogens and the enzymes. Zinc oxide nanoparticles can therefore be used in preventing the biological system from infections. It is clear from TEM images (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Fig5">5a, b</a>) of <i>E. coli</i> incubated for 18 h with MIC of zinc oxide nanoparticles that they had adhered to the bacterial cell wall. The outer cell membrane was ruptured leading to cell lysis. In some cases, the cell cleavage of the microbes has not been noticed, but the zinc oxide nanoparticles can yet be seen entering the inner cell wall (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#Fig5">5c, d</a>). As a consequence of it, the intracellular material leaks out leading to cell death, regardless of the thickness of bacterial cell wall.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-5" data-title="Fig. 5"><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig5" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 5</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/5" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig5_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig5" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fig5_HTML.gif" alt="figure 5" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-5-desc"><p>TEM images of <i>Escherichia coli</i> (<b>a</b>), zinc oxide nanoparticles with <i>E. coli</i> at different stages (<b>b</b> and inset), <i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i> (<b>c</b>), and zinc oxide nanoparticles with <i>K. pneumoniae</i> (<b>d</b> and inset) [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 120" title="Wahab R, Mishra A, Yun SI, Kim YS, Shin HS (2010) Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles prepared via non-hydrolytic solution route. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 87:1917–1925" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR120" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1946">120</a>]</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="article-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3/figures/5" data-track-dest="link:Figure5 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 5" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Mechanism of interaction of zinc oxide nanoparticles with bacterial cells has been outlined below [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 120" title="Wahab R, Mishra A, Yun SI, Kim YS, Shin HS (2010) Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles prepared via non-hydrolytic solution route. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 87:1917–1925" href="/article/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3#ref-CR120" id="ref-link-section-d33949279e1960">120</a>]. Zinc oxide absorbs UV-Vis light from the sun and splits the elements of water.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure c-article-section__figure--no-border" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-d"><figure><div class="c-article-section__figure-content" id="Figd"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figd_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Figd" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figd_HTML.gif" alt="figure d" loading="lazy"></picture></div></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-d-desc"></div></div></figure></div><p>Dissolved oxygen molecules are transformed into superoxide, O<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>, which in turn reacts with H<sup>+</sup> to generate HO<sub>2</sub> radical and after collision with electrons produces hydrogen peroxide anion, HO<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>. They subsequently react with H<sup>+</sup> ions to produce H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure c-article-section__figure--no-border" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-e"><figure><div class="c-article-section__figure-content" id="Fige"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fige_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fige" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Fige_HTML.gif" alt="figure e" loading="lazy"></picture></div></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-e-desc"></div></div></figure></div><p>It has been suggested that negatively charged hydroxyl radicals and superoxide ions cannot penetrate into the cell membrane. The free radicals are so reactive that they cannot stay in free and, therefore, they can either form a molecule or react with a counter ion to give another molecule. However, it is true that zinc oxide can absorb sun light and help in cleaving water molecules which may combine in many ways to give oxygen. Mechanism of oxygen production in the presence of zinc oxide nanoparticles still needs experimental evidence.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure c-article-section__figure--no-border" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-f"><figure><div class="c-article-section__figure-content" id="Figf"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figf_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Figf" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3/MediaObjects/11671_2018_2532_Figf_HTML.gif" alt="figure f" loading="lazy"></picture></div></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-f-desc"></div></div></figure></div><p>Zinc oxide at a dose of 5 μg/ml has been found to be highly effective for all the microorganisms which can be taken as minimum inhibitory dose.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Conclusions"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec11-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Sec11">Conclusions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec11-content"><p>Zinc is an indispensable inorganic element universally used in medicine, biology, and industry. Its daily intake in an adult is 8–15 mg/day, of which approximately 5–6 mg/day is lost through urine and sweat. Also, it is an essential constituent of bones, teeth, enzymes, and many functional proteins. Zinc metal is an essential trace element for man, animal, plant, and bacterial growth while zinc oxide nanoparticles are toxic to many fungi, viruses, and bacteria. People with inherent genetic deficiency of soluble zinc-binding protein suffer from acrodermatitis enteropathica, a genetic disease indicated by python like rough and scaly skin. Although conflicting reports have been received about nanoparticles due to their inadvertent use and disposal, some metal oxide nanoparticles are useful to men, animals, and plants. The essential nutrients become harmful when they are taken in excess. Mutagenic potential of zinc oxide has not been thoroughly studied in bacteria even though DNA-damaging potential has been reported. It is true that zinc oxide nanoparticles are activated by absorption of UV light without disturbing the other rays. If zinc oxide nanoparticles produce ROS, they can damage the skin and cannot be used as sun screen. Antibacterial activity may be catalyzed by sunlight, but hopefully, it can prevent the formation of ROS. Zinc oxide nanoparticles and zinc nanoparticles coated with soluble polymeric material may be used for treating wounds, ulcers, and many microbial infections besides being used as drug carrier in cancer therapy. It has great potential as a safe antibacterial drug which may replace antibiotics in future. Application of zinc oxide nanoparticles in different areas of science, medicine, and technology suggests that it is an indispensable substance which is equally important to man and animals. However, longtime exposure with higher concentration may be harmful to living system.</p></div></div></section> </div> <div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ol class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="1."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR1">Husen A, Siddiqi KS (2014) Phytosynthesis of nanoparticles: concept, controversy and application. Nano Res Lett 9:229</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/1556-276X-9-229" data-track-item_id="10.1186/1556-276X-9-229" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/1556-276X-9-229" aria-label="Article reference 1" data-doi="10.1186/1556-276X-9-229">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXhsFWisLrK" aria-label="CAS reference 1">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 1" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Phytosynthesis%20of%20nanoparticles%3A%20concept%2C%20controversy%20and%20application&journal=Nano%20Res%20Lett&doi=10.1186%2F1556-276X-9-229&volume=9&publication_year=2014&author=Husen%2CA&author=Siddiqi%2CKS"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="2."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR2">Husen A, Siddiqi KS (2014) Plants and microbes assisted selenium nanoparticles: characterization and application. J Nanobiotechnol 12:28</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/s12951-014-0028-6" data-track-item_id="10.1186/s12951-014-0028-6" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/s12951-014-0028-6" aria-label="Article reference 2" data-doi="10.1186/s12951-014-0028-6">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXhvFKrtbvP" aria-label="CAS reference 2">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 2" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Plants%20and%20microbes%20assisted%20selenium%20nanoparticles%3A%20characterization%20and%20application&journal=J%20Nanobiotechnol&doi=10.1186%2Fs12951-014-0028-6&volume=12&publication_year=2014&author=Husen%2CA&author=Siddiqi%2CKS"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="3."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR3">Husen A, Siddiqi KS (2014) Carbon and fullerene nanomaterials in plant system. J Nanobiotechnol 12:16</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/1477-3155-12-16" data-track-item_id="10.1186/1477-3155-12-16" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/1477-3155-12-16" aria-label="Article reference 3" data-doi="10.1186/1477-3155-12-16">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2MXivVahs74%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 3">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 3" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Carbon%20and%20fullerene%20nanomaterials%20in%20plant%20system&journal=J%20Nanobiotechnol&doi=10.1186%2F1477-3155-12-16&volume=12&publication_year=2014&author=Husen%2CA&author=Siddiqi%2CKS"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="4."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR4">Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2016) Fabrication of metal nanoparticles from fungi and metal salts: scope and application. Nano Res Lett 11:98</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/s11671-016-1311-2" data-track-item_id="10.1186/s11671-016-1311-2" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/s11671-016-1311-2" aria-label="Article reference 4" data-doi="10.1186/s11671-016-1311-2">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XjtFClsbY%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 4">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 4" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Fabrication%20of%20metal%20nanoparticles%20from%20fungi%20and%20metal%20salts%3A%20scope%20and%20application&journal=Nano%20Res%20Lett&doi=10.1186%2Fs11671-016-1311-2&volume=11&publication_year=2016&author=Siddiqi%2CKS&author=Husen%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="5."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR5">Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2016) Fabrication of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles by algae and their toxic effects. Nano Res Lett 11:363</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/s11671-016-1580-9" data-track-item_id="10.1186/s11671-016-1580-9" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/s11671-016-1580-9" aria-label="Article reference 5" data-doi="10.1186/s11671-016-1580-9">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhtlCqsL7P" aria-label="CAS reference 5">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 5" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Fabrication%20of%20metal%20and%20metal%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20by%20algae%20and%20their%20toxic%20effects&journal=Nano%20Res%20Lett&doi=10.1186%2Fs11671-016-1580-9&volume=11&publication_year=2016&author=Siddiqi%2CKS&author=Husen%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="6."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR6">Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2016) Engineered gold nanoparticles and plant adaptation potential. Nano Res Lett 11:400</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/s11671-016-1607-2" data-track-item_id="10.1186/s11671-016-1607-2" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/s11671-016-1607-2" aria-label="Article reference 6" data-doi="10.1186/s11671-016-1607-2">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhsFWiur3O" aria-label="CAS reference 6">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 6" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Engineered%20gold%20nanoparticles%20and%20plant%20adaptation%20potential&journal=Nano%20Res%20Lett&doi=10.1186%2Fs11671-016-1607-2&volume=11&publication_year=2016&author=Siddiqi%2CKS&author=Husen%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="7."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR7">Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2016) Green synthesis, characterization and uses of palladium/platinum nanoparticles. Nano Res Lett 11:482</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/s11671-016-1695-z" data-track-item_id="10.1186/s11671-016-1695-z" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/s11671-016-1695-z" aria-label="Article reference 7" data-doi="10.1186/s11671-016-1695-z">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhslOqt7zP" aria-label="CAS reference 7">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 7" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Green%20synthesis%2C%20characterization%20and%20uses%20of%20palladium%2Fplatinum%20nanoparticles&journal=Nano%20Res%20Lett&doi=10.1186%2Fs11671-016-1695-z&volume=11&publication_year=2016&author=Siddiqi%2CKS&author=Husen%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="8."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR8">Siddiqi KS, Rahman A, Tajuddin, Husen A (2016) Biogenic fabrication of iron/iron oxide nanoparticles and their application. Nano Res Lett 11:498</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/s11671-016-1714-0" data-track-item_id="10.1186/s11671-016-1714-0" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/s11671-016-1714-0" aria-label="Article reference 8" data-doi="10.1186/s11671-016-1714-0">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhvVCit7fO" aria-label="CAS reference 8">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 8" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Biogenic%20fabrication%20of%20iron%2Firon%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20and%20their%20application&journal=Nano%20Res%20Lett&doi=10.1186%2Fs11671-016-1714-0&volume=11&publication_year=2016&author=Siddiqi%2CKS&author=Rahman%2CA&author=Tajuddin%2C&author=Husen%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="9."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR9">Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2017) Recent advances in plant-mediated engineered gold nanoparticles and their application in biological system. J Trace Elements Med Biol 40:10–23</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.11.012" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.11.012" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jtemb.2016.11.012" aria-label="Article reference 9" data-doi="10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.11.012">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28XhvFOisLvE" aria-label="CAS reference 9">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 9" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Recent%20advances%20in%20plant-mediated%20engineered%20gold%20nanoparticles%20and%20their%20application%20in%20biological%20system&journal=J%20Trace%20Elements%20Med%20Biol&doi=10.1016%2Fj.jtemb.2016.11.012&volume=40&pages=10-23&publication_year=2017&author=Siddiqi%2CKS&author=Husen%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="10."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR10">Siddiqi KS, Husen A, Rao RAK (2018) A review on biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their biocidal properties. J Nanobiotechnol 16:14</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/s12951-018-0334-5" data-track-item_id="10.1186/s12951-018-0334-5" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/s12951-018-0334-5" aria-label="Article reference 10" data-doi="10.1186/s12951-018-0334-5">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 10" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=A%20review%20on%20biosynthesis%20of%20silver%20nanoparticles%20and%20their%20biocidal%20properties&journal=J%20Nanobiotechnol&doi=10.1186%2Fs12951-018-0334-5&volume=16&publication_year=2018&author=Siddiqi%2CKS&author=Husen%2CA&author=Rao%2CRAK"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="11."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR11">Rai M, Yadav A, Gade A (2009) Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnol Adv 27:76–83</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.09.002" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.09.002" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biotechadv.2008.09.002" aria-label="Article reference 11" data-doi="10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.09.002">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhsV2nsrvO" aria-label="CAS reference 11">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 11" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Silver%20nanoparticles%20as%20a%20new%20generation%20of%20antimicrobials&journal=Biotechnol%20Adv&doi=10.1016%2Fj.biotechadv.2008.09.002&volume=27&pages=76-83&publication_year=2009&author=Rai%2CM&author=Yadav%2CA&author=Gade%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="12."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR12">Sawai J (2003) Quantitative evaluation of antibacterial activities of metallic oxide powders (ZnO, MgO and CaO) by conductimetric assay. J Microbiol Methods 54:177–182</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/S0167-7012(03)00037-X" data-track-item_id="10.1016/S0167-7012(03)00037-X" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0167-7012%2803%2900037-X" aria-label="Article reference 12" data-doi="10.1016/S0167-7012(03)00037-X">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXktFWnurc%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 12">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 12" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Quantitative%20evaluation%20of%20antibacterial%20activities%20of%20metallic%20oxide%20powders%20%28ZnO%2C%20MgO%20and%20CaO%29%20by%20conductimetric%20assay&journal=J%20Microbiol%20Methods&doi=10.1016%2FS0167-7012%2803%2900037-X&volume=54&pages=177-182&publication_year=2003&author=Sawai%2CJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="13."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR13">Roselli M, Finamore A, Garaguso I, Britti MS, Mengheri E (2003) Zinc oxide protects cultured enterocytes from the damage induced by <i>Escherichia coli</i>. J Nutr 133:4077–4082</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1093/jn/133.12.4077" data-track-item_id="10.1093/jn/133.12.4077" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F133.12.4077" aria-label="Article reference 13" data-doi="10.1093/jn/133.12.4077">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXpslGmtLs%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 13">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 13" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20protects%20cultured%20enterocytes%20from%20the%20damage%20induced%20by%20Escherichia%20coli&journal=J%20Nutr&doi=10.1093%2Fjn%2F133.12.4077&volume=133&pages=4077-4082&publication_year=2003&author=Roselli%2CM&author=Finamore%2CA&author=Garaguso%2CI&author=Britti%2CMS&author=Mengheri%2CE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="14."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR14">Husen A (2017) Gold nanoparticles from plant system: Synthesis, characterization and their application, In: Nanoscience and Plant–Soil Systems Vol.–48 (Eds. Ghorbanpourn M, Manika K, Varma A) Springer International Publishing AG, Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland, pp.455–479</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="15."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR15">Chaudhry Q, Scotter M, Blackburn J, Ross B, Boxall A, Castle L, Aitken R, Watkins R (2008) Applications and implications of nanotechnologies for the food sector. Food Add Cont: Part A 25:241–258</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1080/02652030701744538" data-track-item_id="10.1080/02652030701744538" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02652030701744538" aria-label="Article reference 15" data-doi="10.1080/02652030701744538">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXislSqtLk%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 15">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 15" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Applications%20and%20implications%20of%20nanotechnologies%20for%20the%20food%20sector&journal=Food%20Add%20Cont%3A%20Part%20A&doi=10.1080%2F02652030701744538&volume=25&pages=241-258&publication_year=2008&author=Chaudhry%2CQ&author=Scotter%2CM&author=Blackburn%2CJ&author=Ross%2CB&author=Boxall%2CA&author=Castle%2CL&author=Aitken%2CR&author=Watkins%2CR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="16."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR16">Jansen J, Karges W, Rink L (2009) Zinc and diabetes—clinical links and molecular mechanisms. J Nutr Biochem 20:399–417</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.jnutbio.2009.01.009" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.jnutbio.2009.01.009" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jnutbio.2009.01.009" aria-label="Article reference 16" data-doi="10.1016/j.jnutbio.2009.01.009">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXmtVKnt7Y%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 16">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 16" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20and%20diabetes%E2%80%94clinical%20links%20and%20molecular%20mechanisms&journal=J%20Nutr%20Biochem&doi=10.1016%2Fj.jnutbio.2009.01.009&volume=20&pages=399-417&publication_year=2009&author=Jansen%2CJ&author=Karges%2CW&author=Rink%2CL"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="17."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR17">Maremanda KP, Khan S, Jena G (2014) Zinc protects cyclophosphamide-induced testicular damage in rat: involvement of metallothionein, tesmin and Nrf2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 445:591–596</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.055" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.055" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbrc.2014.02.055" aria-label="Article reference 17" data-doi="10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.055">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXjsVKru7Y%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 17">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 17" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20protects%20cyclophosphamide-induced%20testicular%20damage%20in%20rat%3A%20involvement%20of%20metallothionein%2C%20tesmin%20and%20Nrf2&journal=Biochem%20Biophys%20Res%20Commun&doi=10.1016%2Fj.bbrc.2014.02.055&volume=445&pages=591-596&publication_year=2014&author=Maremanda%2CKP&author=Khan%2CS&author=Jena%2CG"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="18."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR18">Kim MH, Seo JH, Kim HM, Jeong HJ (2014) Zinc oxide nanoparticles, a novel candidate for the treatment of allergic inflammatory diseases. Eur J Pharmacol 738:31–39</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.05.030" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.05.030" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejphar.2014.05.030" aria-label="Article reference 18" data-doi="10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.05.030">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXhtFyhtbjM" aria-label="CAS reference 18">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 18" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%2C%20a%20novel%20candidate%20for%20the%20treatment%20of%20allergic%20inflammatory%20diseases&journal=Eur%20J%20Pharmacol&doi=10.1016%2Fj.ejphar.2014.05.030&volume=738&pages=31-39&publication_year=2014&author=Kim%2CMH&author=Seo%2CJH&author=Kim%2CHM&author=Jeong%2CHJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="19."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR19">Frederickson CJ, Koh JY, Bush AI (2005) The neurobiology of zinc in health and disease. Na Rev Neurosci 6:449–462</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1038/nrn1671" data-track-item_id="10.1038/nrn1671" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrn1671" aria-label="Article reference 19" data-doi="10.1038/nrn1671">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXks1OitLg%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 19">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 19" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20neurobiology%20of%20zinc%20in%20health%20and%20disease&journal=Na%20Rev%20Neurosci&doi=10.1038%2Fnrn1671&volume=6&pages=449-462&publication_year=2005&author=Frederickson%2CCJ&author=Koh%2CJY&author=Bush%2CAI"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="20."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR20">Halioua B, Ziskind B (2005) Medicine in the days of the pharaohs. Press of Harvard University Press, Belknap</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 20" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Medicine%20in%20the%20days%20of%20the%20pharaohs&publication_year=2005&author=Halioua%2CB&author=Ziskind%2CB"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="21."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR21">Ozgur U, Ya IA, Liu C, Teke A, Reshchikov MA, Doğan S, Avrutin V, Cho SJ, Morkoç H (2005) A comprehensive review of ZnO materials and devices. J Appl Phys 98:041301</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1063/1.1992666" data-track-item_id="10.1063/1.1992666" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1992666" aria-label="Article reference 21" data-doi="10.1063/1.1992666">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtVelsr%2FF" aria-label="CAS reference 21">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 21" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=A%20comprehensive%20review%20of%20ZnO%20materials%20and%20devices&journal=J%20Appl%20Phys&doi=10.1063%2F1.1992666&volume=98&publication_year=2005&author=Ozgur%2CU&author=Ya%2CIA&author=Liu%2CC&author=Teke%2CA&author=Reshchikov%2CMA&author=Do%C4%9Fan%2CS&author=Avrutin%2CV&author=Cho%2CSJ&author=Morko%C3%A7%2CH"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="22."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR22">Klingshirn C ZnO: from basics towards applications. Phys Status Solidi 244:3027–3073</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="23."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR23">De Graaf TP, Galley E, Butcher KE (1999) Use of an antimicrobial agent. European patent, p EP1079799</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 23" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Use%20of%20an%20antimicrobial%20agent.%20European%20patent&publication_year=1999&author=De%20Graaf%2CTP&author=Galley%2CE&author=Butcher%2CKE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="24."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR24">Brahms J, Mattai J, Jacoby R, Chopra S, Guenin E (2005) Dry deodorant containinga sesquiterpene alcohol and zinc oxide. U.S. Patent 20050191257 A1</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 24" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Dry%20deodorant%20containinga%20sesquiterpene%20alcohol%20and%20zinc%20oxide&publication_year=2005&author=Brahms%2CJ&author=Mattai%2CJ&author=Jacoby%2CR&author=Chopra%2CS&author=Guenin%2CE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="25."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR25">Speight JG (2002) Chemical and process design handbook. McGraw Hill, Inc., New York</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 25" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Chemical%20and%20process%20design%20handbook&publication_year=2002&author=Speight%2CJG"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="26."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR26">Brown HE (1976) Zinc oxide: properties and applications. International Lead Zinc Research Organization, New York</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 26" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%3A%20properties%20and%20applications&publication_year=1976&author=Brown%2CHE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="27."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR27">Lopes de Romana D, Brown KH, Guinard JX (2002) Sensory trial to assess the acceptability of zinc fortificants added to iron-fortified wheat products. J Food Sci 67:461–465</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb11429.x" data-track-item_id="10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb11429.x" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2621.2002.tb11429.x" aria-label="Article reference 27" data-doi="10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb11429.x">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 27" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Sensory%20trial%20to%20assess%20the%20acceptability%20of%20zinc%20fortificants%20added%20to%20iron-fortified%20wheat%20products&journal=J%20Food%20Sci&doi=10.1111%2Fj.1365-2621.2002.tb11429.x&volume=67&pages=461-465&publication_year=2002&author=Lopes%20de%20Romana%2CD&author=Brown%2CKH&author=Guinard%2CJX"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="28."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR28">Szabo T, Nemeth J, Dekany I (2003) Zinc oxide nanoparticles incorporated in ultrathin layer silicate films and their photocatalytic properties. Coll Surf A 230:23–35</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.colsurfa.2003.09.010" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.colsurfa.2003.09.010" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.colsurfa.2003.09.010" aria-label="Article reference 28" data-doi="10.1016/j.colsurfa.2003.09.010">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXptlGmsbs%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 28">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 28" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20incorporated%20in%20ultrathin%20layer%20silicate%20films%20and%20their%20photocatalytic%20properties&journal=Coll%20Surf%20A&doi=10.1016%2Fj.colsurfa.2003.09.010&volume=230&pages=23-35&publication_year=2003&author=Szabo%2CT&author=Nemeth%2CJ&author=Dekany%2CI"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="29."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR29">Auer G, Griebler WD, Jahn B (2005) Industrial inorganic pigments, 3rd edn. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 29" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Industrial%20inorganic%20pigments&publication_year=2005&author=Auer%2CG&author=Griebler%2CWD&author=Jahn%2CB"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="30."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR30">Heideman G, Noordermeer JWM, Datta RN, Noordermeer WM, van Baarle B (2006) Various ways to reduce zinc oxide levels in S-SBR rubber compounds. Macromol Symp 245-246:657–667</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1002/masy.200651393" data-track-item_id="10.1002/masy.200651393" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fmasy.200651393" aria-label="Article reference 30" data-doi="10.1002/masy.200651393">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXjtFyhtrk%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 30">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 30" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Various%20ways%20to%20reduce%20zinc%20oxide%20levels%20in%20S-SBR%20rubber%20compounds&journal=Macromol%20Symp&doi=10.1002%2Fmasy.200651393&volume=245-246&pages=657-667&publication_year=2006&author=Heideman%2CG&author=Noordermeer%2CJWM&author=Datta%2CRN&author=Noordermeer%2CWM&author=van%20Baarle%2CB"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="31."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR31">Patnaik P (2003) Handbook of inorganic chemicals. McGraw Hill, New York</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 31" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Handbook%20of%20inorganic%20chemicals&publication_year=2003&author=Patnaik%2CP"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="32."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR32">Araujo-Lima CF, Nunes RJM, Carpes RM, Aiub FAF, Felzenszwalb I (2017) Pharmacokinetic and toxicological evaluation of a zinc gluconate-based chemical sterilant using in vitro and in silico approaches. BioMed Res Inter 2017:5746768</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1155/2017/5746768" data-track-item_id="10.1155/2017/5746768" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2017%2F5746768" aria-label="Article reference 32" data-doi="10.1155/2017/5746768">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC1cXjt1altbo%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 32">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 32" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Pharmacokinetic%20and%20toxicological%20evaluation%20of%20a%20zinc%20gluconate-based%20chemical%20sterilant%20using%20in%20vitro%20and%20in%20silico%20approaches&journal=BioMed%20Res%20Inter&doi=10.1155%2F2017%2F5746768&volume=2017&publication_year=2017&author=Araujo-Lima%2CCF&author=Nunes%2CRJM&author=Carpes%2CRM&author=Aiub%2CFAF&author=Felzenszwalb%2CI"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="33."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR33">Wang TX, Lou TJ (2008) Solvothermal synthesis and photoluminescence properties of ZnO nanorods and nanorod assemblies from ZnO2 nanoparticles. Mater Lett 62:2329–2331</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.matlet.2007.11.083" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.matlet.2007.11.083" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.matlet.2007.11.083" aria-label="Article reference 33" data-doi="10.1016/j.matlet.2007.11.083">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXktlGisrc%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 33">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 33" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Solvothermal%20synthesis%20and%20photoluminescence%20properties%20of%20ZnO%20nanorods%20and%20nanorod%20assemblies%20from%20ZnO2%20nanoparticles&journal=Mater%20Lett&doi=10.1016%2Fj.matlet.2007.11.083&volume=62&pages=2329-2331&publication_year=2008&author=Wang%2CTX&author=Lou%2CTJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="34."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR34">Jang JS, Yu CJ, Choi SH, Ji SM, Kim ES, Lee JS (2008) Topotactic synthesis of mesoporous ZnS and ZnO nanoplates and their photocatalytic activity. J Catal 254:144–155</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.jcat.2007.12.010" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.jcat.2007.12.010" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcat.2007.12.010" aria-label="Article reference 34" data-doi="10.1016/j.jcat.2007.12.010">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhsFamsb8%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 34">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 34" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Topotactic%20synthesis%20of%20mesoporous%20ZnS%20and%20ZnO%20nanoplates%20and%20their%20photocatalytic%20activity&journal=J%20Catal&doi=10.1016%2Fj.jcat.2007.12.010&volume=254&pages=144-155&publication_year=2008&author=Jang%2CJS&author=Yu%2CCJ&author=Choi%2CSH&author=Ji%2CSM&author=Kim%2CES&author=Lee%2CJS"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="35."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR35">Mahmud S, Johar M, Abdullah PGA, Chong J, Mohamad AK (2006) Nanostructure of ZnO fabricated via french process and its correlation to electrical properties of semiconducting varistors. Synth React Inorg Met Org Chem Nano-Met Chem 36:155–159</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1080/15533170500524462" data-track-item_id="10.1080/15533170500524462" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15533170500524462" aria-label="Article reference 35" data-doi="10.1080/15533170500524462">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XisFeksr8%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 35">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 35" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Nanostructure%20of%20ZnO%20fabricated%20via%20french%20process%20and%20its%20correlation%20to%20electrical%20properties%20of%20semiconducting%20varistors&journal=Synth%20React%20Inorg%20Met%20Org%20Chem%20Nano-Met%20Chem&doi=10.1080%2F15533170500524462&volume=36&pages=155-159&publication_year=2006&author=Mahmud%2CS&author=Johar%2CM&author=Abdullah%2CPGA&author=Chong%2CJ&author=Mohamad%2CAK"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="36."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR36">Kakiuchi K, Hosono E, Kimura T, Imai H, Fujihara S (2006) Fabrication of mesoporous ZnO nanosheets from precursor templates grown in aqueous solutions. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 39:63–72</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1007/s10971-006-6321-6" data-track-item_id="10.1007/s10971-006-6321-6" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1007/s10971-006-6321-6" aria-label="Article reference 36" data-doi="10.1007/s10971-006-6321-6">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XnvVeltrY%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 36">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 36" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Fabrication%20of%20mesoporous%20ZnO%20nanosheets%20from%20precursor%20templates%20grown%20in%20aqueous%20solutions&journal=J%20Sol-Gel%20Sci%20Technol&doi=10.1007%2Fs10971-006-6321-6&volume=39&pages=63-72&publication_year=2006&author=Kakiuchi%2CK&author=Hosono%2CE&author=Kimura%2CT&author=Imai%2CH&author=Fujihara%2CS"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="37."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR37">Mahmud S, Abdullah MJ (2006) Nanotripods of zinc oxide, IEEE Conf. Emerging Technol.—Nanoelectron pp. 442–446</p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="38."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR38">Shen L, Zhang H, Guo S (2009) Control on the morphologies of tetrapod ZnO nanocrystals. Mater Chem Phys 114:580–583</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.matchemphys.2008.10.004" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.matchemphys.2008.10.004" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.matchemphys.2008.10.004" aria-label="Article reference 38" data-doi="10.1016/j.matchemphys.2008.10.004">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXht1Gktbw%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 38">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 38" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Control%20on%20the%20morphologies%20of%20tetrapod%20ZnO%20nanocrystals&journal=Mater%20Chem%20Phys&doi=10.1016%2Fj.matchemphys.2008.10.004&volume=114&pages=580-583&publication_year=2009&author=Shen%2CL&author=Zhang%2CH&author=Guo%2CS"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="39."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR39">Ding Y, Wang ZL (2009) Structures of planar defects in ZnO nanobelts and nanowires. Micron 40:335–342</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.micron.2008.10.008" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.micron.2008.10.008" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.micron.2008.10.008" aria-label="Article reference 39" data-doi="10.1016/j.micron.2008.10.008">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhvVSgtLo%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 39">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 39" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Structures%20of%20planar%20defects%20in%20ZnO%20nanobelts%20and%20nanowires&journal=Micron&doi=10.1016%2Fj.micron.2008.10.008&volume=40&pages=335-342&publication_year=2009&author=Ding%2CY&author=Wang%2CZL"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="40."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR40">Wang ZL (2004) Nanostructures of zinc oxide. Mater Tod 7:26–33</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/S1369-7021(04)00286-X" data-track-item_id="10.1016/S1369-7021(04)00286-X" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1369-7021%2804%2900286-X" aria-label="Article reference 40" data-doi="10.1016/S1369-7021(04)00286-X">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXlt1WrsLY%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 40">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 40" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Nanostructures%20of%20zinc%20oxide&journal=Mater%20Tod&doi=10.1016%2FS1369-7021%2804%2900286-X&volume=7&pages=26-33&publication_year=2004&author=Wang%2CZL"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="41."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR41">Wang ZL (2004) Zinc oxide nanostructures: growth, properties and applications. J Phys Condens Mat 16:R829–R858</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1088/0953-8984/16/25/R01" data-track-item_id="10.1088/0953-8984/16/25/R01" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0953-8984%2F16%2F25%2FR01" aria-label="Article reference 41" data-doi="10.1088/0953-8984/16/25/R01">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmtVyhtLY%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 41">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 41" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20nanostructures%3A%20growth%2C%20properties%20and%20applications&journal=J%20Phys%20Condens%20Mat&doi=10.1088%2F0953-8984%2F16%2F25%2FR01&volume=16&pages=R829-R858&publication_year=2004&author=Wang%2CZL"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="42."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR42">Moezzi A, Cortie M, McDonagh A (2011) Aqueous pathways for the formation of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Dalton Trans 40:4871–4878</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1039/c0dt01748e" data-track-item_id="10.1039/c0dt01748e" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fc0dt01748e" aria-label="Article reference 42" data-doi="10.1039/c0dt01748e">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXkvFahtrY%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 42">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 42" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Aqueous%20pathways%20for%20the%20formation%20of%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles&journal=Dalton%20Trans&doi=10.1039%2Fc0dt01748e&volume=40&pages=4871-4878&publication_year=2011&author=Moezzi%2CA&author=Cortie%2CM&author=McDonagh%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="43."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR43">Xie J, Li P, Li Y, Wang Y, Wei Y (2009) Morphology control of ZnO particles via aqueous solution route at low temperature. Mater Chem Phys 114:943–947</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.matchemphys.2008.11.007" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.matchemphys.2008.11.007" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.matchemphys.2008.11.007" aria-label="Article reference 43" data-doi="10.1016/j.matchemphys.2008.11.007">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXht1Grsbs%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 43">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 43" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Morphology%20control%20of%20ZnO%20particles%20via%20aqueous%20solution%20route%20at%20low%20temperature&journal=Mater%20Chem%20Phys&doi=10.1016%2Fj.matchemphys.2008.11.007&volume=114&pages=943-947&publication_year=2009&author=Xie%2CJ&author=Li%2CP&author=Li%2CY&author=Wang%2CY&author=Wei%2CY"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="44."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR44">Soares NFF, Silva CAS, Santiago-Silva P, Espitia PJP, Gonçalves MPJC, Lopez MJG, Miltz J, Cerqueira MA, Vicente AA, Teixeira J, da Silva WA, Botrel DA (2009) Active and intelligent packaging for milk and milk products. In: Coimbra JSR, Teixeira JA (eds) Engineering aspects of milk and dairy products. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group pp, New York, pp 175–199</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1201/9781420090390-c8" data-track-item_id="10.1201/9781420090390-c8" data-track-value="chapter reference" data-track-action="chapter reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781420090390-c8" aria-label="Chapter reference 44" data-doi="10.1201/9781420090390-c8">Chapter</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 44" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Active%20and%20intelligent%20packaging%20for%20milk%20and%20milk%20products&doi=10.1201%2F9781420090390-c8&pages=175-199&publication_year=2009&author=Soares%2CNFF&author=Silva%2CCAS&author=Santiago-Silva%2CP&author=Espitia%2CPJP&author=Gon%C3%A7alves%2CMPJC&author=Lopez%2CMJG&author=Miltz%2CJ&author=Cerqueira%2CMA&author=Vicente%2CAA&author=Teixeira%2CJ&author=da%20Silva%2CWA&author=Botrel%2CDA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="45."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR45">Baum MK, Shor-Posner G, Campa A (2000) Zinc status in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Nutr 130:1421S–1423S</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1093/jn/130.5.1421S" data-track-item_id="10.1093/jn/130.5.1421S" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F130.5.1421S" aria-label="Article reference 45" data-doi="10.1093/jn/130.5.1421S">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXivFKmsrc%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 45">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 45" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20status%20in%20human%20immunodeficiency%20virus%20infection&journal=J%20Nutr&doi=10.1093%2Fjn%2F130.5.1421S&volume=130&pages=1421S-1423S&publication_year=2000&author=Baum%2CMK&author=Shor-Posner%2CG&author=Campa%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="46."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR46">Hiller JM, Perlmutter A (1971) Effect of zinc on viral-host interactions in a rainbow trout cell line, RTG-2. Water Res 5:703–710</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/0043-1354(71)90092-3" data-track-item_id="10.1016/0043-1354(71)90092-3" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0043-1354%2871%2990092-3" aria-label="Article reference 46" data-doi="10.1016/0043-1354(71)90092-3">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DyaE38XjtV2ltw%3D%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 46">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 46" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Effect%20of%20zinc%20on%20viral-host%20interactions%20in%20a%20rainbow%20trout%20cell%20line%2C%20RTG-2&journal=Water%20Res&doi=10.1016%2F0043-1354%2871%2990092-3&volume=5&pages=703-710&publication_year=1971&author=Hiller%2CJM&author=Perlmutter%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="47."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR47">Restuccia D, Spizzirri UG, Parisi OI, Giuseppe Cirillo G, Iemma F, Puoci F, Vinci G, Picci N (2010) New EU regulation aspects and global market of active and intelligent packaging for food industry applications. Food Control 21:1425–1435</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.04.028" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.04.028" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodcont.2010.04.028" aria-label="Article reference 47" data-doi="10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.04.028">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 47" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=New%20EU%20regulation%20aspects%20and%20global%20market%20of%20active%20and%20intelligent%20packaging%20for%20food%20industry%20applications&journal=Food%20Control&doi=10.1016%2Fj.foodcont.2010.04.028&volume=21&pages=1425-1435&publication_year=2010&author=Restuccia%2CD&author=Spizzirri%2CUG&author=Parisi%2COI&author=Giuseppe%20Cirillo%2CG&author=Iemma%2CF&author=Puoci%2CF&author=Vinci%2CG&author=Picci%2CN"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="48."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR48">Espitia PJP, Soares NFF, Coimbra JSR, Andrade NJ, Cruz RS, Medeiros EAA (2015) Zinc oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, antimicrobial activity and food packaging application. Food Bioprocess Technol 5:1447–1464</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1007/s11947-012-0797-6" data-track-item_id="10.1007/s11947-012-0797-6" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1007/s11947-012-0797-6" aria-label="Article reference 48" data-doi="10.1007/s11947-012-0797-6">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XosVWrtrc%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 48">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 48" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%3A%20synthesis%2C%20antimicrobial%20activity%20and%20food%20packaging%20application&journal=Food%20Bioprocess%20Technol&doi=10.1007%2Fs11947-012-0797-6&volume=5&pages=1447-1464&publication_year=2015&author=Espitia%2CPJP&author=Soares%2CNFF&author=Coimbra%2CJSR&author=Andrade%2CNJ&author=Cruz%2CRS&author=Medeiros%2CEAA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="49."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR49">Hu X, Cook S, Wang P, Hwang HM (2009) In vitro evaluation of cytotoxicity of engineered metal oxide nanoparticles. Sci Total Environ 407:3070–3072</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.01.033" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.01.033" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2009.01.033" aria-label="Article reference 49" data-doi="10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.01.033">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXivVegt7k%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 49">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 49" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=In%20vitro%20evaluation%20of%20cytotoxicity%20of%20engineered%20metal%20oxide%20nanoparticles&journal=Sci%20Total%20Environ&doi=10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2009.01.033&volume=407&pages=3070-3072&publication_year=2009&author=Hu%2CX&author=Cook%2CS&author=Wang%2CP&author=Hwang%2CHM"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="50."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR50">Wang C, Lu J, Zhou L, Li J, Xu J, Li W, Zhang L, Zhong X, Wang T (2016) Effects of long-term exposure to zinc oxide nanoparticles on development, zinc metabolism and biodistribution of minerals (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn) in mice. PLoS One 11:e0164434</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1371/journal.pone.0164434" data-track-item_id="10.1371/journal.pone.0164434" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0164434" aria-label="Article reference 50" data-doi="10.1371/journal.pone.0164434">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2sXhvFGjuro%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 50">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 50" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Effects%20of%20long-term%20exposure%20to%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20on%20development%2C%20zinc%20metabolism%20and%20biodistribution%20of%20minerals%20%28Zn%2C%20Fe%2C%20Cu%2C%20Mn%29%20in%20mice&journal=PLoS%20One&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0164434&volume=11&publication_year=2016&author=Wang%2CC&author=Lu%2CJ&author=Zhou%2CL&author=Li%2CJ&author=Xu%2CJ&author=Li%2CW&author=Zhang%2CL&author=Zhong%2CX&author=Wang%2CT"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="51."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR51">Li CH, Shen CC, Cheng YW, Huang SH, Wu CC, Kao CC, Liao JW, Kang JJ (2012) Organ biodistribution, clearance, and genotoxicity of orally administered zinc oxide nanoparticles in mice. Nanotoxicology 6:746–756</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.3109/17435390.2011.620717" data-track-item_id="10.3109/17435390.2011.620717" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F17435390.2011.620717" aria-label="Article reference 51" data-doi="10.3109/17435390.2011.620717">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhsFSnsb7P" aria-label="CAS reference 51">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 51" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Organ%20biodistribution%2C%20clearance%2C%20and%20genotoxicity%20of%20orally%20administered%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20in%20mice&journal=Nanotoxicology&doi=10.3109%2F17435390.2011.620717&volume=6&pages=746-756&publication_year=2012&author=Li%2CCH&author=Shen%2CCC&author=Cheng%2CYW&author=Huang%2CSH&author=Wu%2CCC&author=Kao%2CCC&author=Liao%2CJW&author=Kang%2CJJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="52."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR52">Singh A, Singh NB, Afzal S, Singh T, Hussain I (2017) Zinc oxide nanoparticles: a review of their biological synthesis, antimicrobial activity, uptake, translocation and biotransformation in plants. J Mater Sci. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-017-1544-1" data-track="click_references" data-track-action="external reference" data-track-value="external reference" data-track-label="10.1007/s10853-017-1544-1">https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-017-1544-1</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="53."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR53">Kelly SA, Havrilla CM, Brady TC, Abramo KH, Levin ED (1998) Oxidative stress in toxicology: established mammalian and emerging piscine model systems. Environ Health Perspect 106:375–384</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1289/ehp.98106375" data-track-item_id="10.1289/ehp.98106375" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.98106375" aria-label="Article reference 53" data-doi="10.1289/ehp.98106375">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXlsVOhs7o%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 53">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 53" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Oxidative%20stress%20in%20toxicology%3A%20established%20mammalian%20and%20emerging%20piscine%20model%20systems&journal=Environ%20Health%20Perspect&doi=10.1289%2Fehp.98106375&volume=106&pages=375-384&publication_year=1998&author=Kelly%2CSA&author=Havrilla%2CCM&author=Brady%2CTC&author=Abramo%2CKH&author=Levin%2CED"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="54."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR54">Rikans LE, Hornbrook KR (1997) Lipid peroxidation, antioxidant protection and aging. Biochim Biophys Acta 1362:116–127</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/S0925-4439(97)00067-7" data-track-item_id="10.1016/S0925-4439(97)00067-7" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0925-4439%2897%2900067-7" aria-label="Article reference 54" data-doi="10.1016/S0925-4439(97)00067-7">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXhtlOjtrg%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 54">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 54" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Lipid%20peroxidation%2C%20antioxidant%20protection%20and%20aging&journal=Biochim%20Biophys%20Acta&doi=10.1016%2FS0925-4439%2897%2900067-7&volume=1362&pages=116-127&publication_year=1997&author=Rikans%2CLE&author=Hornbrook%2CKR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="55."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR55">Zhang L, Jiang Y, Ding Y, Povey M, York D (2007) Investigation into the antibacterial behaviour of suspensions of ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO nanofluids). J Nanopart Res 9:479–489</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1007/s11051-006-9150-1" data-track-item_id="10.1007/s11051-006-9150-1" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1007/s11051-006-9150-1" aria-label="Article reference 55" data-doi="10.1007/s11051-006-9150-1">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXltFemt7c%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 55">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 55" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Investigation%20into%20the%20antibacterial%20behaviour%20of%20suspensions%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticles%20%28ZnO%20nanofluids%29&journal=J%20Nanopart%20Res&doi=10.1007%2Fs11051-006-9150-1&volume=9&pages=479-489&publication_year=2007&author=Zhang%2CL&author=Jiang%2CY&author=Ding%2CY&author=Povey%2CM&author=York%2CD"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="56."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR56">Sawai J, Shoji S, Igarashi H, Hashimoto A, Kokugan T, Shimizu M, Kojima H (1998) Hydrogen peroxide as an antibacterial factor in zinc oxide powder slurry. J Ferment Bioeng 86:521–522</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/S0922-338X(98)80165-7" data-track-item_id="10.1016/S0922-338X(98)80165-7" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0922-338X%2898%2980165-7" aria-label="Article reference 56" data-doi="10.1016/S0922-338X(98)80165-7">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhvVOhtb8%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 56">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 56" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Hydrogen%20peroxide%20as%20an%20antibacterial%20factor%20in%20zinc%20oxide%20powder%20slurry&journal=J%20Ferment%20Bioeng&doi=10.1016%2FS0922-338X%2898%2980165-7&volume=86&pages=521-522&publication_year=1998&author=Sawai%2CJ&author=Shoji%2CS&author=Igarashi%2CH&author=Hashimoto%2CA&author=Kokugan%2CT&author=Shimizu%2CM&author=Kojima%2CH"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="57."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR57">Lin D, Xing B (2007) Phytotoxicity of nanoparticles: inhibition of seed germination and root growth. Environ Pollut 150:243–250</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.envpol.2007.01.016" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.envpol.2007.01.016" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.envpol.2007.01.016" aria-label="Article reference 57" data-doi="10.1016/j.envpol.2007.01.016">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXht1Krtr7I" aria-label="CAS reference 57">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 57" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Phytotoxicity%20of%20nanoparticles%3A%20inhibition%20of%20seed%20germination%20and%20root%20growth&journal=Environ%20Pollut&doi=10.1016%2Fj.envpol.2007.01.016&volume=150&pages=243-250&publication_year=2007&author=Lin%2CD&author=Xing%2CB"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="58."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR58">Kahru A, Ivask A, Kasemets K, Pollumaa L, Kurvet I, François M, Dubourguier HC (2005) Bio-tests and biosensors in ecotoxicological risk assessment of field soils polluted with zinc, lead and cadmium. Environ Toxicol Chem 24:2973–2982</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1897/05-002R1.1" data-track-item_id="10.1897/05-002R1.1" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1897%2F05-002R1.1" aria-label="Article reference 58" data-doi="10.1897/05-002R1.1">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtFCgsLzF" aria-label="CAS reference 58">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 58" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Bio-tests%20and%20biosensors%20in%20ecotoxicological%20risk%20assessment%20of%20field%20soils%20polluted%20with%20zinc%2C%20lead%20and%20cadmium&journal=Environ%20Toxicol%20Chem&doi=10.1897%2F05-002R1.1&volume=24&pages=2973-2982&publication_year=2005&author=Kahru%2CA&author=Ivask%2CA&author=Kasemets%2CK&author=Pollumaa%2CL&author=Kurvet%2CI&author=Fran%C3%A7ois%2CM&author=Dubourguier%2CHC"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="59."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR59">Heinlaan M, Ivask A, Blinova I, Dubourguier HC, Kahru A (2008) Toxicity of nanosized and bulk ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to bacteria <i>Vibrio fischeri</i> and crustaceans <i>Daphnia magna</i> and <i>Thamnocephalus platyurus</i>. Chemosphere 71:1308–1316</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.11.047" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.11.047" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemosphere.2007.11.047" aria-label="Article reference 59" data-doi="10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.11.047">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXktFCmtro%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 59">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 59" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Toxicity%20of%20nanosized%20and%20bulk%20ZnO%2C%20CuO%20and%20TiO2%20to%20bacteria%20Vibrio%20fischeri%20and%20crustaceans%20Daphnia%20magna%20and%20Thamnocephalus%20platyurus&journal=Chemosphere&doi=10.1016%2Fj.chemosphere.2007.11.047&volume=71&pages=1308-1316&publication_year=2008&author=Heinlaan%2CM&author=Ivask%2CA&author=Blinova%2CI&author=Dubourguier%2CHC&author=Kahru%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="60."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR60">Elster C, Fourest E, Baudin F, Larsen K, Cusack S, Ruigrok RW (1994) A small percentage of influenza virus M1 protein contains zinc but zinc does not influence <i>in vitro</i> M1 RNA interaction. Gen J Virol 75:37–42</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1099/0022-1317-75-1-37" data-track-item_id="10.1099/0022-1317-75-1-37" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2F0022-1317-75-1-37" aria-label="Article reference 60" data-doi="10.1099/0022-1317-75-1-37">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXhsFygsbg%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 60">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 60" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=A%20small%20percentage%20of%20influenza%20virus%20M1%20protein%20contains%20zinc%20but%20zinc%20does%20not%20influence%20in%20vitro%20M1%20RNA%20interaction&journal=Gen%20J%20Virol&doi=10.1099%2F0022-1317-75-1-37&volume=75&pages=37-42&publication_year=1994&author=Elster%2CC&author=Fourest%2CE&author=Baudin%2CF&author=Larsen%2CK&author=Cusack%2CS&author=Ruigrok%2CRW"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="61."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR61">Lee SP, Xiao J, Knutson JR, Lewis MS, Han MK (1997) Zn2+ promotes the self-association of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 integrase in vitro. Biochemistry 36:173–180</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/bi961849o" data-track-item_id="10.1021/bi961849o" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fbi961849o" aria-label="Article reference 61" data-doi="10.1021/bi961849o">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DyaK28XntlyntrY%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 61">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 61" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zn2%2B%20promotes%20the%20self-association%20of%20human%20immunodeficiency%20virus%20type-1%20integrase%20in%20vitro&journal=Biochemistry&doi=10.1021%2Fbi961849o&volume=36&pages=173-180&publication_year=1997&author=Lee%2CSP&author=Xiao%2CJ&author=Knutson%2CJR&author=Lewis%2CMS&author=Han%2CMK"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="62."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR62">Adams LK, Lyon DY, Alvarez PJJ (2006) Comparative eco-toxicity of nanoscale TiO<sub>2</sub>, SiO<sub>2</sub>, and ZnO water suspensions. Water Res 40:3527–3532</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.004" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.004" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.watres.2006.08.004" aria-label="Article reference 62" data-doi="10.1016/j.watres.2006.08.004">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XhtVOgt7fN" aria-label="CAS reference 62">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 62" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Comparative%20eco-toxicity%20of%20nanoscale%20TiO2%2C%20SiO2%2C%20and%20ZnO%20water%20suspensions&journal=Water%20Res&doi=10.1016%2Fj.watres.2006.08.004&volume=40&pages=3527-3532&publication_year=2006&author=Adams%2CLK&author=Lyon%2CDY&author=Alvarez%2CPJJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="63."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR63">Brayner R, Ferrari-Iliou R, Brivois N, Djediat S, Benedetti MF, Fiévet F (2006) Toxicological impact studies based on <i>Escherichia coli</i> bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett 6:866–870</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/nl052326h" data-track-item_id="10.1021/nl052326h" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fnl052326h" aria-label="Article reference 63" data-doi="10.1021/nl052326h">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xit1Wmtrw%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 63">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 63" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Toxicological%20impact%20studies%20based%20on%20Escherichia%20coli%20bacteria%20in%20ultrafine%20ZnO%20nanoparticles%20colloidal%20medium&journal=Nano%20Lett&doi=10.1021%2Fnl052326h&volume=6&pages=866-870&publication_year=2006&author=Brayner%2CR&author=Ferrari-Iliou%2CR&author=Brivois%2CN&author=Djediat%2CS&author=Benedetti%2CMF&author=Fi%C3%A9vet%2CF"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="64."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR64">Stoimenov PK, Klinger RL, Marchin GL, Klabunde KJ (2002) Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal agents. Langmuir 18:6679–6686</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/la0202374" data-track-item_id="10.1021/la0202374" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fla0202374" aria-label="Article reference 64" data-doi="10.1021/la0202374">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XltV2mt7s%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 64">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 64" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Metal%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20as%20bactericidal%20agents&journal=Langmuir&doi=10.1021%2Fla0202374&volume=18&pages=6679-6686&publication_year=2002&author=Stoimenov%2CPK&author=Klinger%2CRL&author=Marchin%2CGL&author=Klabunde%2CKJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="65."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR65">Yamamoto O, Komatsu M, Sawai J, Nakagawa ZE (2004) Effect of lattice constant of zinc oxide on antibacterial characteristics. J Mater Sci Mater Med 15:847–851</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1023/B:JMSM.0000036271.35440.36" data-track-item_id="10.1023/B:JMSM.0000036271.35440.36" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AJMSM.0000036271.35440.36" aria-label="Article reference 65" data-doi="10.1023/B:JMSM.0000036271.35440.36">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmtVCgur4%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 65">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 65" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Effect%20of%20lattice%20constant%20of%20zinc%20oxide%20on%20antibacterial%20characteristics&journal=J%20Mater%20Sci%20Mater%20Med&doi=10.1023%2FB%3AJMSM.0000036271.35440.36&volume=15&pages=847-851&publication_year=2004&author=Yamamoto%2CO&author=Komatsu%2CM&author=Sawai%2CJ&author=Nakagawa%2CZE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="66."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR66">Premanathan M, Karthikeyan K, Jeyasubramanian K, Manivannan G (2011) Selective toxicity of ZnO nanoparticles toward Gram-positive bacteria and cancer cells by apoptosis through lipid peroxidation. Nanomedicine 7:184–192</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.nano.2010.10.001" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.nano.2010.10.001" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nano.2010.10.001" aria-label="Article reference 66" data-doi="10.1016/j.nano.2010.10.001">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXltFGjsL0%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 66">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 66" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Selective%20toxicity%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticles%20toward%20Gram-positive%20bacteria%20and%20cancer%20cells%20by%20apoptosis%20through%20lipid%20peroxidation&journal=Nanomedicine&doi=10.1016%2Fj.nano.2010.10.001&volume=7&pages=184-192&publication_year=2011&author=Premanathan%2CM&author=Karthikeyan%2CK&author=Jeyasubramanian%2CK&author=Manivannan%2CG"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="67."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR67">Lovric J, Cho SJ, Winnik FM, Maysinger D (2005) Unmodified cadmium telluride quantum dots induce reactive oxygen species formation leading to multiple organelle damage and cell death. Chem Biol 12:1227–1234</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.09.008" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.09.008" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chembiol.2005.09.008" aria-label="Article reference 67" data-doi="10.1016/j.chembiol.2005.09.008">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXht1aqu73J" aria-label="CAS reference 67">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 67" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Unmodified%20cadmium%20telluride%20quantum%20dots%20induce%20reactive%20oxygen%20species%20formation%20leading%20to%20multiple%20organelle%20damage%20and%20cell%20death&journal=Chem%20Biol&doi=10.1016%2Fj.chembiol.2005.09.008&volume=12&pages=1227-1234&publication_year=2005&author=Lovric%2CJ&author=Cho%2CSJ&author=Winnik%2CFM&author=Maysinger%2CD"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="68."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR68">Xia T, Kovochich M, Brant J, Hotze M, Sempf J, Oberley T, Sioutas C, Yeh JI, Wiesner MR, Nel AE (2006) Comparison of the abilities of ambient and manufactured nanoparticles to induce cellular toxicity according to an oxidative stress paradigm. Nano Lett 6:1794–1807</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/nl061025k" data-track-item_id="10.1021/nl061025k" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fnl061025k" aria-label="Article reference 68" data-doi="10.1021/nl061025k">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xnt1Ggu78%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 68">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 68" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Comparison%20of%20the%20abilities%20of%20ambient%20and%20manufactured%20nanoparticles%20to%20induce%20cellular%20toxicity%20according%20to%20an%20oxidative%20stress%20paradigm&journal=Nano%20Lett&doi=10.1021%2Fnl061025k&volume=6&pages=1794-1807&publication_year=2006&author=Xia%2CT&author=Kovochich%2CM&author=Brant%2CJ&author=Hotze%2CM&author=Sempf%2CJ&author=Oberley%2CT&author=Sioutas%2CC&author=Yeh%2CJI&author=Wiesner%2CMR&author=Nel%2CAE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="69."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR69">Long TC, Saleh N, Tilton RD, Lowry GV, Veronesi B (2006) Titanium dioxide (P25) produces reactive oxygen species in immortalized brain microglia (BV2): implications for nanoparticle neurotoxicity. Environ Sci Technol 40:4346–4352</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/es060589n" data-track-item_id="10.1021/es060589n" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes060589n" aria-label="Article reference 69" data-doi="10.1021/es060589n">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xlt1yqtLw%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 69">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 69" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Titanium%20dioxide%20%28P25%29%20produces%20reactive%20oxygen%20species%20in%20immortalized%20brain%20microglia%20%28BV2%29%3A%20implications%20for%20nanoparticle%20neurotoxicity&journal=Environ%20Sci%20Technol&doi=10.1021%2Fes060589n&volume=40&pages=4346-4352&publication_year=2006&author=Long%2CTC&author=Saleh%2CN&author=Tilton%2CRD&author=Lowry%2CGV&author=Veronesi%2CB"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="70."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR70">Pati R, Mehta RK, Mohanty S, Padhi A, Sengupta M, Vaseeharan B, Goswami C, Sonawane A (2014) Topical application of zinc oxide nanoparticles reduces bacterial skin infection in mice and exhibits antibacterial activity by inducing oxidative stress response and cell membrane disintegration in macrophages. Nanomedicine 10:1195–1208</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.nano.2014.02.012" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.nano.2014.02.012" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nano.2014.02.012" aria-label="Article reference 70" data-doi="10.1016/j.nano.2014.02.012">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXmsVClsbg%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 70">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 70" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Topical%20application%20of%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20reduces%20bacterial%20skin%20infection%20in%20mice%20and%20exhibits%20antibacterial%20activity%20by%20inducing%20oxidative%20stress%20response%20and%20cell%20membrane%20disintegration%20in%20macrophages&journal=Nanomedicine&doi=10.1016%2Fj.nano.2014.02.012&volume=10&pages=1195-1208&publication_year=2014&author=Pati%2CR&author=Mehta%2CRK&author=Mohanty%2CS&author=Padhi%2CA&author=Sengupta%2CM&author=Vaseeharan%2CB&author=Goswami%2CC&author=Sonawane%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="71."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR71">Siddiqi KS, Husen A (2017) Plant response to engineered metal oxide nanoparticles. Nano Res Lett 12:92</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/s11671-017-1861-y" data-track-item_id="10.1186/s11671-017-1861-y" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/s11671-017-1861-y" aria-label="Article reference 71" data-doi="10.1186/s11671-017-1861-y">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2sXit1Whuro%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 71">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 71" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Plant%20response%20to%20engineered%20metal%20oxide%20nanoparticles&journal=Nano%20Res%20Lett&doi=10.1186%2Fs11671-017-1861-y&volume=12&publication_year=2017&author=Siddiqi%2CKS&author=Husen%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="72."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR72">Liu Y, He L, Mustapha A, Li H, Hu ZQ, Lin M (2009) Antibacterial activities of zinc oxide nanoparticles against <i>Escherichia coli</i> O157:H7. J Appl Microbiol 107:1193–1201</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04303.x" data-track-item_id="10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04303.x" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2672.2009.04303.x" aria-label="Article reference 72" data-doi="10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04303.x">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhtlCjtLnE" aria-label="CAS reference 72">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 72" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Antibacterial%20activities%20of%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20against%20Escherichia%20coli%20O157%3AH7&journal=J%20Appl%20Microbiol&doi=10.1111%2Fj.1365-2672.2009.04303.x&volume=107&pages=1193-1201&publication_year=2009&author=Liu%2CY&author=He%2CL&author=Mustapha%2CA&author=Li%2CH&author=Hu%2CZQ&author=Lin%2CM"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="73."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR73">Dutta RK, Sharma PK, Bhargave R, Kumar N, Pandey AC (2010) Differential susceptibility of Escherichia coli cells toward transition metal-doped and matrix-embedded ZnO nanoparticles. J Phys Chem B 114:5594–5599</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/jp1004488" data-track-item_id="10.1021/jp1004488" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjp1004488" aria-label="Article reference 73" data-doi="10.1021/jp1004488">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXkt1Glu7s%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 73">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 73" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Differential%20susceptibility%20of%20Escherichia%20coli%20cells%20toward%20transition%20metal-doped%20and%20matrix-embedded%20ZnO%20nanoparticles&journal=J%20Phys%20Chem%20B&doi=10.1021%2Fjp1004488&volume=114&pages=5594-5599&publication_year=2010&author=Dutta%2CRK&author=Sharma%2CPK&author=Bhargave%2CR&author=Kumar%2CN&author=Pandey%2CAC"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="74."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR74">Banoee M, Seif S, Nazari ZE, Jafari-Fesharaki P, Shahverdi HR, Moballegh A, Moghaddam KM, Shahverdi AR (2010) ZnO nanoparticles enhanced antibacterial activity of ciprofloxacin against <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> and <i>Escherichia coli</i>. J Biomed Mater Res B 93B:557–561</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1002/jbm.b.31615" data-track-item_id="10.1002/jbm.b.31615" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjbm.b.31615" aria-label="Article reference 74" data-doi="10.1002/jbm.b.31615">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXktlCht7o%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 74">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 74" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=ZnO%20nanoparticles%20enhanced%20antibacterial%20activity%20of%20ciprofloxacin%20against%20Staphylococcus%20aureus%20and%20Escherichia%20coli&journal=J%20Biomed%20Mater%20Res%20B&doi=10.1002%2Fjbm.b.31615&volume=93B&pages=557-561&publication_year=2010&author=Banoee%2CM&author=Seif%2CS&author=Nazari%2CZE&author=Jafari-Fesharaki%2CP&author=Shahverdi%2CHR&author=Moballegh%2CA&author=Moghaddam%2CKM&author=Shahverdi%2CAR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="75."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR75">Baek YW, An YJ (2011) Microbial toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles (CuO, NiO, ZnO, and Sb2O3) to Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Streptococcus aureus. Sci Total Environ 409:1603–1608</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.01.014" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.01.014" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2011.01.014" aria-label="Article reference 75" data-doi="10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.01.014">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXisFWrsLg%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 75">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 75" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Microbial%20toxicity%20of%20metal%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20%28CuO%2C%20NiO%2C%20ZnO%2C%20and%20Sb2O3%29%20to%20Escherichia%20coli%2C%20Bacillus%20subtilis%2C%20and%20Streptococcus%20aureus&journal=Sci%20Total%20Environ&doi=10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2011.01.014&volume=409&pages=1603-1608&publication_year=2011&author=Baek%2CYW&author=An%2CYJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="76."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR76">Karlsson HL, Toprak MS, Fadeel B (2014) Toxicity of metal and metal oxide nanoparticle. In: Nordberg GF, Fowler BA, Nordberg M (eds) Handbook on the toxicology of metals, 4th edn. Academic Press pp, London, pp 75–112</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 76" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Toxicity%20of%20metal%20and%20metal%20oxide%20nanoparticle&pages=75-112&publication_year=2014&author=Karlsson%2CHL&author=Toprak%2CMS&author=Fadeel%2CB"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="77."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR77">Cho WS, Duffin R, Howie SE, Scotton CJ, Wallace WA, Macnee W, Bradley M, Megson IL, Donaldson K (2011) Progressive severe lung injury by zinc oxide nanoparticles; the role of Zn2+ dissolution inside lysosomes. Part Fibre Toxicol 8:27</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/1743-8977-8-27" data-track-item_id="10.1186/1743-8977-8-27" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/1743-8977-8-27" aria-label="Article reference 77" data-doi="10.1186/1743-8977-8-27">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXht1Chsb7K" aria-label="CAS reference 77">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 77" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Progressive%20severe%20lung%20injury%20by%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%3B%20the%20role%20of%20Zn2%2B%20dissolution%20inside%20lysosomes&journal=Part%20Fibre%20Toxicol&doi=10.1186%2F1743-8977-8-27&volume=8&publication_year=2011&author=Cho%2CWS&author=Duffin%2CR&author=Howie%2CSE&author=Scotton%2CCJ&author=Wallace%2CWA&author=Macnee%2CW&author=Bradley%2CM&author=Megson%2CIL&author=Donaldson%2CK"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="78."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR78">Tuomela S, Autio R, Buerki-Thurnherr T, Arslan O, Kunzmann A, Andersson-Willman B, Wick P, Mathur S, Scheynius A, Krug HF, Fadeel B, Lahesmaa R (2013) Gene expression profiling of immune-competent human cells exposed to engineered zinc oxide or titanium dioxide nanoparticles. PLoS One 8:e68415</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1371/journal.pone.0068415" data-track-item_id="10.1371/journal.pone.0068415" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0068415" aria-label="Article reference 78" data-doi="10.1371/journal.pone.0068415">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXht1aisrjM" aria-label="CAS reference 78">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 78" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Gene%20expression%20profiling%20of%20immune-competent%20human%20cells%20exposed%20to%20engineered%20zinc%20oxide%20or%20titanium%20dioxide%20nanoparticles&journal=PLoS%20One&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0068415&volume=8&publication_year=2013&author=Tuomela%2CS&author=Autio%2CR&author=Buerki-Thurnherr%2CT&author=Arslan%2CO&author=Kunzmann%2CA&author=Andersson-Willman%2CB&author=Wick%2CP&author=Mathur%2CS&author=Scheynius%2CA&author=Krug%2CHF&author=Fadeel%2CB&author=Lahesmaa%2CR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="79."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR79">Chiang HM, Xia Q, Zou X, Wang C, Wang S, Miller BJ, Howard PC, Yin JJ, Beland FA, Yu H, Fu PP (2012) Nanoscale ZnO induces cytotoxicity and DNA damage in human cell lines and rat primary neuronal cells. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 12:2126–2135</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1166/jnn.2012.5758" data-track-item_id="10.1166/jnn.2012.5758" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1166%2Fjnn.2012.5758" aria-label="Article reference 79" data-doi="10.1166/jnn.2012.5758">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XotFOnsbo%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 79">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 79" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Nanoscale%20ZnO%20induces%20cytotoxicity%20and%20DNA%20damage%20in%20human%20cell%20lines%20and%20rat%20primary%20neuronal%20cells&journal=J%20Nanosci%20Nanotechnol&doi=10.1166%2Fjnn.2012.5758&volume=12&pages=2126-2135&publication_year=2012&author=Chiang%2CHM&author=Xia%2CQ&author=Zou%2CX&author=Wang%2CC&author=Wang%2CS&author=Miller%2CBJ&author=Howard%2CPC&author=Yin%2CJJ&author=Beland%2CFA&author=Yu%2CH&author=Fu%2CPP"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="80."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR80">Seabra AB, Haddad P, Duran N (2013) Biogenic synthsis of nanostructured iron compound: applications and perspectives. IET Nanobiotechnol 7:90–99</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1049/iet-nbt.2012.0047" data-track-item_id="10.1049/iet-nbt.2012.0047" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1049%2Fiet-nbt.2012.0047" aria-label="Article reference 80" data-doi="10.1049/iet-nbt.2012.0047">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhs1agsLvL" aria-label="CAS reference 80">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 80" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Biogenic%20synthsis%20of%20nanostructured%20iron%20compound%3A%20applications%20and%20perspectives&journal=IET%20Nanobiotechnol&doi=10.1049%2Fiet-nbt.2012.0047&volume=7&pages=90-99&publication_year=2013&author=Seabra%2CAB&author=Haddad%2CP&author=Duran%2CN"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="81."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR81">Sharma V, Anderson D, Dhawan A (2012) Zinc oxide nanoparticles induce oxidative DNA damage and ROS-triggered mitochondria mediated apoptosis in human liver cells (HepG2). Apoptosis 17:852–870</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1007/s10495-012-0705-6" data-track-item_id="10.1007/s10495-012-0705-6" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1007/s10495-012-0705-6" aria-label="Article reference 81" data-doi="10.1007/s10495-012-0705-6">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XptFWitL0%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 81">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 81" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20induce%20oxidative%20DNA%20damage%20and%20ROS-triggered%20mitochondria%20mediated%20apoptosis%20in%20human%20liver%20cells%20%28HepG2%29&journal=Apoptosis&doi=10.1007%2Fs10495-012-0705-6&volume=17&pages=852-870&publication_year=2012&author=Sharma%2CV&author=Anderson%2CD&author=Dhawan%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="82."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR82">Azam A, Ahmed AS, Oves M, Khan MS, Habib SS, Memic A (2012) Antimicrobial activity of metal oxide nanoparticles against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria: a comparative study. Int J Nanomedicine 7:6003–6009</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.2147/IJN.S35347" data-track-item_id="10.2147/IJN.S35347" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.2147%2FIJN.S35347" aria-label="Article reference 82" data-doi="10.2147/IJN.S35347">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhslerurs%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 82">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 82" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Antimicrobial%20activity%20of%20metal%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20against%20Gram-positive%20and%20Gram-negative%20bacteria%3A%20a%20comparative%20study&journal=Int%20J%20Nanomedicine&doi=10.2147%2FIJN.S35347&volume=7&pages=6003-6009&publication_year=2012&author=Azam%2CA&author=Ahmed%2CAS&author=Oves%2CM&author=Khan%2CMS&author=Habib%2CSS&author=Memic%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="83."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR83">Yamamoto O (2013) Influence of particle size on the antibacterial activity of zinc oxide. Int J Inorg Mater 3:643–646</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/S1466-6049(01)00197-0" data-track-item_id="10.1016/S1466-6049(01)00197-0" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1466-6049%2801%2900197-0" aria-label="Article reference 83" data-doi="10.1016/S1466-6049(01)00197-0">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 83" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Influence%20of%20particle%20size%20on%20the%20antibacterial%20activity%20of%20zinc%20oxide&journal=Int%20J%20Inorg%20Mater&doi=10.1016%2FS1466-6049%2801%2900197-0&volume=3&pages=643-646&publication_year=2013&author=Yamamoto%2CO"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="84."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR84">Tsoli M, Kuhn H, Brandau W, Esche H, Schmid G (2005) Cellular uptake and toxicity of Au55 clusters. Small 1:841–844</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1002/smll.200500104" data-track-item_id="10.1002/smll.200500104" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fsmll.200500104" aria-label="Article reference 84" data-doi="10.1002/smll.200500104">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXntValsrs%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 84">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 84" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Cellular%20uptake%20and%20toxicity%20of%20Au55%20clusters&journal=Small&doi=10.1002%2Fsmll.200500104&volume=1&pages=841-844&publication_year=2005&author=Tsoli%2CM&author=Kuhn%2CH&author=Brandau%2CW&author=Esche%2CH&author=Schmid%2CG"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="85."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR85">Reddy KM, Feris K, Bell J, Wingett DG, Hanley C, Punnoose A (2007) Selective toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles to prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems. Appl Phys Lett 90:2139021–2139023</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:STN:280:DC%2BC2srhvFOisg%3D%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 85">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 85" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Selective%20toxicity%20of%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20to%20prokaryotic%20and%20eukaryotic%20systems&journal=Appl%20Phys%20Lett&volume=90&pages=2139021-2139023&publication_year=2007&author=Reddy%2CKM&author=Feris%2CK&author=Bell%2CJ&author=Wingett%2CDG&author=Hanley%2CC&author=Punnoose%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="86."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR86">Jeng HA, Swanson J (2006) Toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles in mammalian cells. J Enviorn Sci Health 41:2699–2711</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1080/10934520600966177" data-track-item_id="10.1080/10934520600966177" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10934520600966177" aria-label="Article reference 86" data-doi="10.1080/10934520600966177">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xht1yksbnO" aria-label="CAS reference 86">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 86" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Toxicity%20of%20metal%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20in%20mammalian%20cells&journal=J%20Enviorn%20Sci%20Health&doi=10.1080%2F10934520600966177&volume=41&pages=2699-2711&publication_year=2006&author=Jeng%2CHA&author=Swanson%2CJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="87."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR87">Nair S, Sasidharan A, Divya Rani VV, Menon D, Nair S, Manzoor K, Raina S (2009) Role of size scale of ZnO nanoparticles and microparticles on toxicity toward bacteria and osteoblast cancer cells. J Mater Sci Mater Med 20:S235–S241</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1007/s10856-008-3548-5" data-track-item_id="10.1007/s10856-008-3548-5" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1007/s10856-008-3548-5" aria-label="Article reference 87" data-doi="10.1007/s10856-008-3548-5">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhsFOrt7%2FK" aria-label="CAS reference 87">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 87" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Role%20of%20size%20scale%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticles%20and%20microparticles%20on%20toxicity%20toward%20bacteria%20and%20osteoblast%20cancer%20cells&journal=J%20Mater%20Sci%20Mater%20Med&doi=10.1007%2Fs10856-008-3548-5&volume=20&pages=S235-S241&publication_year=2009&author=Nair%2CS&author=Sasidharan%2CA&author=Divya%20Rani%2CVV&author=Menon%2CD&author=Nair%2CS&author=Manzoor%2CK&author=Raina%2CS"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="88."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR88">Raghupathi KR, Koodali RT, Manna AC (2011) Size-dependent bacterial growth inhibition and mechanism of antibacterial activity of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Langmuir 27:4020–4028</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/la104825u" data-track-item_id="10.1021/la104825u" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fla104825u" aria-label="Article reference 88" data-doi="10.1021/la104825u">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXjtVKgtLo%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 88">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 88" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Size-dependent%20bacterial%20growth%20inhibition%20and%20mechanism%20of%20antibacterial%20activity%20of%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles&journal=Langmuir&doi=10.1021%2Fla104825u&volume=27&pages=4020-4028&publication_year=2011&author=Raghupathi%2CKR&author=Koodali%2CRT&author=Manna%2CAC"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="89."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR89">Jones N, Ray B, Koodali RT, Manna AC (2008) Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles suspensions on a broad spectrum of microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 279:71–76</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.01012.x" data-track-item_id="10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.01012.x" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1574-6968.2007.01012.x" aria-label="Article reference 89" data-doi="10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.01012.x">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhslGksLo%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 89">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 89" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Antibacterial%20activity%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticles%20suspensions%20on%20a%20broad%20spectrum%20of%20microorganisms&journal=FEMS%20Microbiol%20Lett&doi=10.1111%2Fj.1574-6968.2007.01012.x&volume=279&pages=71-76&publication_year=2008&author=Jones%2CN&author=Ray%2CB&author=Koodali%2CRT&author=Manna%2CAC"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="90."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR90">Sahu D, Kannan GM, Tailang M, Vijayaraghavan R (2016) <i>In vitro</i> cytotoxicity of nanoparticles: a comparison between particle size and cell type. J Nanosci 2016:4023852</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1155/2016/4023852" data-track-item_id="10.1155/2016/4023852" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2016%2F4023852" aria-label="Article reference 90" data-doi="10.1155/2016/4023852">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC1cXovF2ktrs%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 90">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 90" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=In%20vitro%20cytotoxicity%20of%20nanoparticles%3A%20a%20comparison%20between%20particle%20size%20and%20cell%20type&journal=J%20Nanosci&doi=10.1155%2F2016%2F4023852&volume=2016&publication_year=2016&author=Sahu%2CD&author=Kannan%2CGM&author=Tailang%2CM&author=Vijayaraghavan%2CR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="91."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR91">Ng CT, Yong LQ, Hande MP, Ong CN, Yu LE, Bay BH, Baeg GH (2017) Zinc oxide nanoparticles exhibit cytotoxicity and genotoxicity through oxidative stress responses in human lung fibroblasts and <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i>. Int J Nanomedicine 12:1621–1637</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.2147/IJN.S124403" data-track-item_id="10.2147/IJN.S124403" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.2147%2FIJN.S124403" aria-label="Article reference 91" data-doi="10.2147/IJN.S124403">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC1cXksl2gs78%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 91">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 91" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20exhibit%20cytotoxicity%20and%20genotoxicity%20through%20oxidative%20stress%20responses%20in%20human%20lung%20fibroblasts%20and%20Drosophila%20melanogaster&journal=Int%20J%20Nanomedicine&doi=10.2147%2FIJN.S124403&volume=12&pages=1621-1637&publication_year=2017&author=Ng%2CCT&author=Yong%2CLQ&author=Hande%2CMP&author=Ong%2CCN&author=Yu%2CLE&author=Bay%2CBH&author=Baeg%2CGH"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="92."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR92">Papavlassopoulos H, Mishra YK, Kaps S, Paulowicz I, Abdelaziz R, Elbahri M, Maser E, Adelung R, Röhl C (2014) Toxicity of functional nano-micro zinc oxide tetrapods: impact of cell culture conditions, cellular age and material properties. PLoS One 9:e84983</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1371/journal.pone.0084983" data-track-item_id="10.1371/journal.pone.0084983" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0084983" aria-label="Article reference 92" data-doi="10.1371/journal.pone.0084983">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC2cXitVKltLs%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 92">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 92" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Toxicity%20of%20functional%20nano-micro%20zinc%20oxide%20tetrapods%3A%20impact%20of%20cell%20culture%20conditions%2C%20cellular%20age%20and%20material%20properties&journal=PLoS%20One&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0084983&volume=9&publication_year=2014&author=Papavlassopoulos%2CH&author=Mishra%2CYK&author=Kaps%2CS&author=Paulowicz%2CI&author=Abdelaziz%2CR&author=Elbahri%2CM&author=Maser%2CE&author=Adelung%2CR&author=R%C3%B6hl%2CC"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="93."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR93">Taccola L, Raffa V, Riggio C, Vittorio O, Iorio MC, Vanacore R, Pietrabissa A, Cuschieri A (2011) Zinc oxide nanoparticles as selective killers of proliferating cells. Int J Nanomedicine 6:1129–1140</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXnt1Sisrk%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 93">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 93" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20as%20selective%20killers%20of%20proliferating%20cells&journal=Int%20J%20Nanomedicine&volume=6&pages=1129-1140&publication_year=2011&author=Taccola%2CL&author=Raffa%2CV&author=Riggio%2CC&author=Vittorio%2CO&author=Iorio%2CMC&author=Vanacore%2CR&author=Pietrabissa%2CA&author=Cuschieri%2CA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="94."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR94">Zhou YM, Zhong CY, Kennedy IM, Leppert VJ, Pinkerton KE (2003) Oxidative stress and NFkappaB activation in the lungs of rats: a synergistic interaction between soot and iron particles. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 190:157–169</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/S0041-008X(03)00157-1" data-track-item_id="10.1016/S0041-008X(03)00157-1" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0041-008X%2803%2900157-1" aria-label="Article reference 94" data-doi="10.1016/S0041-008X(03)00157-1">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXls1Cjsb4%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 94">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 94" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Oxidative%20stress%20and%20NFkappaB%20activation%20in%20the%20lungs%20of%20rats%3A%20a%20synergistic%20interaction%20between%20soot%20and%20iron%20particles&journal=Toxicol%20Appl%20Pharmacol&doi=10.1016%2FS0041-008X%2803%2900157-1&volume=190&pages=157-169&publication_year=2003&author=Zhou%2CYM&author=Zhong%2CCY&author=Kennedy%2CIM&author=Leppert%2CVJ&author=Pinkerton%2CKE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="95."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR95">Yang H, Liu C, Yang D, Zhang H, Xi Z (2009) Comparative study of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced by four typical nanomaterials: the role of particle size, shape and composition. J Appl Toxicol 29:69–78</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1002/jat.1385" data-track-item_id="10.1002/jat.1385" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjat.1385" aria-label="Article reference 95" data-doi="10.1002/jat.1385">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXptV2quw%3D%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 95">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 95" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Comparative%20study%20of%20cytotoxicity%2C%20oxidative%20stress%20and%20genotoxicity%20induced%20by%20four%20typical%20nanomaterials%3A%20the%20role%20of%20particle%20size%2C%20shape%20and%20composition&journal=J%20Appl%20Toxicol&doi=10.1002%2Fjat.1385&volume=29&pages=69-78&publication_year=2009&author=Yang%2CH&author=Liu%2CC&author=Yang%2CD&author=Zhang%2CH&author=Xi%2CZ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="96."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR96">Schwartz VB, Thétiot F, Ritz S, Pütz S, Choritz L, Lappas A, Förch R, Landfester K, Jonas U (2012) Antibacterial surface coatings from zinc oxide nanoparticles embedded in poly(<i>N-</i>isopropylacrylamide) hydrogel surface layers. Adv Funct Mater 22:2376–2386</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1002/adfm.201102980" data-track-item_id="10.1002/adfm.201102980" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fadfm.201102980" aria-label="Article reference 96" data-doi="10.1002/adfm.201102980">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XjvVWmsrc%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 96">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 96" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Antibacterial%20surface%20coatings%20from%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20embedded%20in%20poly%28N-isopropylacrylamide%29%20hydrogel%20surface%20layers&journal=Adv%20Funct%20Mater&doi=10.1002%2Fadfm.201102980&volume=22&pages=2376-2386&publication_year=2012&author=Schwartz%2CVB&author=Th%C3%A9tiot%2CF&author=Ritz%2CS&author=P%C3%BCtz%2CS&author=Choritz%2CL&author=Lappas%2CA&author=F%C3%B6rch%2CR&author=Landfester%2CK&author=Jonas%2CU"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="97."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR97">Stankovic A, Dimitrijevic S, Uskokovic D (2013) Influence of size scale and morphology on antibacterial properties of ZnO powders hydrothermally synthesized using different surface stabilizing agents. Colloids Surf B 102:21–28</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.07.033" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.07.033" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.colsurfb.2012.07.033" aria-label="Article reference 97" data-doi="10.1016/j.colsurfb.2012.07.033">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XhslOlt7rF" aria-label="CAS reference 97">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 97" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Influence%20of%20size%20scale%20and%20morphology%20on%20antibacterial%20properties%20of%20ZnO%20powders%20hydrothermally%20synthesized%20using%20different%20surface%20stabilizing%20agents&journal=Colloids%20Surf%20B&doi=10.1016%2Fj.colsurfb.2012.07.033&volume=102&pages=21-28&publication_year=2013&author=Stankovic%2CA&author=Dimitrijevic%2CS&author=Uskokovic%2CD"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="98."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR98">Laurent S, Forge D, Port M, Roch A, Robic C, Elst LV, Muller RN (2008) Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, stabilization, vectorization, physicochemical characterizations, and biological applications. Chem Rev 108:2064–2110</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/cr068445e" data-track-item_id="10.1021/cr068445e" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr068445e" aria-label="Article reference 98" data-doi="10.1021/cr068445e">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXmvFCjtb0%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 98">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 98" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Magnetic%20iron%20oxide%20nanoparticles%3A%20synthesis%2C%20stabilization%2C%20vectorization%2C%20physicochemical%20characterizations%2C%20and%20biological%20applications&journal=Chem%20Rev&doi=10.1021%2Fcr068445e&volume=108&pages=2064-2110&publication_year=2008&author=Laurent%2CS&author=Forge%2CD&author=Port%2CM&author=Roch%2CA&author=Robic%2CC&author=Elst%2CLV&author=Muller%2CRN"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="99."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR99">Yamamoto O, Hotta M, Sawai J, Sawai J, Sasamoto T, Kojima H (1998) Influence of powder characteristic of ZnO on antibacterial activity: effect of specific surface area. J Ceram Soc Jpn 106:1007–1011</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.2109/jcersj.106.1007" data-track-item_id="10.2109/jcersj.106.1007" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.2109%2Fjcersj.106.1007" aria-label="Article reference 99" data-doi="10.2109/jcersj.106.1007">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXmvV2qtro%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 99">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 99" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Influence%20of%20powder%20characteristic%20of%20ZnO%20on%20antibacterial%20activity%3A%20effect%20of%20specific%20surface%20area&journal=J%20Ceram%20Soc%20Jpn&doi=10.2109%2Fjcersj.106.1007&volume=106&pages=1007-1011&publication_year=1998&author=Yamamoto%2CO&author=Hotta%2CM&author=Sawai%2CJ&author=Sawai%2CJ&author=Sasamoto%2CT&author=Kojima%2CH"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="100."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR100">Kumar PTS, Lakshmanan VK, Anilkumar TV, Ramya C, Reshmi P, Unnikrishnan AG, Nair SV, Jayakumar R (2012) Flexible and microporous chitosan hydrogel/nano ZnO composite bandages for wound dressing: in vitro and in vivo evaluation. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 4:2618–2629</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/am300292v" data-track-item_id="10.1021/am300292v" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fam300292v" aria-label="Article reference 100" data-doi="10.1021/am300292v">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38Xltlahs7o%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 100">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 100" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Flexible%20and%20microporous%20chitosan%20hydrogel%2Fnano%20ZnO%20composite%20bandages%20for%20wound%20dressing%3A%20in%20vitro%20and%20in%20vivo%20evaluation&journal=ACS%20Appl%20Mater%20Interfaces&doi=10.1021%2Fam300292v&volume=4&pages=2618-2629&publication_year=2012&author=Kumar%2CPTS&author=Lakshmanan%2CVK&author=Anilkumar%2CTV&author=Ramya%2CC&author=Reshmi%2CP&author=Unnikrishnan%2CAG&author=Nair%2CSV&author=Jayakumar%2CR"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="101."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR101">George S, Pokhrel S, Xia T, Gilbert B, Ji Z, Schowalter M, Rosenauer A, Damoiseaux R, Bradley KA, Mädler L, Nel AE (2010) Use of a rapid cytotoxicity screening approach to engineer a safer zinc oxide nanoparticle through iron doping. ACS Nano 4:15–12</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/nn901503q" data-track-item_id="10.1021/nn901503q" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fnn901503q" aria-label="Article reference 101" data-doi="10.1021/nn901503q">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXjt1Si" aria-label="CAS reference 101">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 101" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Use%20of%20a%20rapid%20cytotoxicity%20screening%20approach%20to%20engineer%20a%20safer%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticle%20through%20iron%20doping&journal=ACS%20Nano&doi=10.1021%2Fnn901503q&volume=4&pages=15-12&publication_year=2010&author=George%2CS&author=Pokhrel%2CS&author=Xia%2CT&author=Gilbert%2CB&author=Ji%2CZ&author=Schowalter%2CM&author=Rosenauer%2CA&author=Damoiseaux%2CR&author=Bradley%2CKA&author=M%C3%A4dler%2CL&author=Nel%2CAE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="102."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR102">Song W, Zhang J, Guo J, Zhang J, Ding F, Li L, Sun Z (2010) Role of the dissolved zinc ion and reactive oxygen species in cytotoxicity of ZnO nanoparticles. Toxicol Lett 199:389–339</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.10.003" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.10.003" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.toxlet.2010.10.003" aria-label="Article reference 102" data-doi="10.1016/j.toxlet.2010.10.003">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsVGnsL3M" aria-label="CAS reference 102">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 102" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Role%20of%20the%20dissolved%20zinc%20ion%20and%20reactive%20oxygen%20species%20in%20cytotoxicity%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticles&journal=Toxicol%20Lett&doi=10.1016%2Fj.toxlet.2010.10.003&volume=199&pages=389-339&publication_year=2010&author=Song%2CW&author=Zhang%2CJ&author=Guo%2CJ&author=Zhang%2CJ&author=Ding%2CF&author=Li%2CL&author=Sun%2CZ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="103."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR103">Buerki-Thurnherr T, Xiao L, Diener L, Arslan O, Hirsch C, Maeder-Althaus X, Grieder K, Wampfler B, Mathur S, Wick P, Krug HF (2013) In vitro mechanistic study towards a better understanding of ZnO nanoparticle toxicity. Nanotoxicology 7:402–416</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.3109/17435390.2012.666575" data-track-item_id="10.3109/17435390.2012.666575" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F17435390.2012.666575" aria-label="Article reference 103" data-doi="10.3109/17435390.2012.666575">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXnt12qt70%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 103">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 103" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=In%20vitro%20mechanistic%20study%20towards%20a%20better%20understanding%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticle%20toxicity&journal=Nanotoxicology&doi=10.3109%2F17435390.2012.666575&volume=7&pages=402-416&publication_year=2013&author=Buerki-Thurnherr%2CT&author=Xiao%2CL&author=Diener%2CL&author=Arslan%2CO&author=Hirsch%2CC&author=Maeder-Althaus%2CX&author=Grieder%2CK&author=Wampfler%2CB&author=Mathur%2CS&author=Wick%2CP&author=Krug%2CHF"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="104."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR104">Gilbert B, Fakra SC, Xia T, Pokhrel S, Mädler L, Nel AE (2012) The fate of ZnO nanoparticles administered to human bronchial epithelial cells. ACS Nano 6:4921–4930</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/nn300425a" data-track-item_id="10.1021/nn300425a" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fnn300425a" aria-label="Article reference 104" data-doi="10.1021/nn300425a">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XnslaisLc%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 104">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 104" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=The%20fate%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticles%20administered%20to%20human%20bronchial%20epithelial%20cells&journal=ACS%20Nano&doi=10.1021%2Fnn300425a&volume=6&pages=4921-4930&publication_year=2012&author=Gilbert%2CB&author=Fakra%2CSC&author=Xia%2CT&author=Pokhrel%2CS&author=M%C3%A4dler%2CL&author=Nel%2CAE"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="105."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR105">Raffi M, Hussain F, Bhatti TM, Akhter JI, Hameed A, Hasan MM (2008) Antibacterial characterization of silver nanoparticles against <i>E. Coli</i> ATCC-15224. J Mater Sci Technol 24:2192–2196</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 105" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Antibacterial%20characterization%20of%20silver%20nanoparticles%20against%20E.%20Coli%20ATCC-15224&journal=J%20Mater%20Sci%20Technol&volume=24&pages=2192-2196&publication_year=2008&author=Raffi%2CM&author=Hussain%2CF&author=Bhatti%2CTM&author=Akhter%2CJI&author=Hameed%2CA&author=Hasan%2CMM"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="106."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR106">Choi OK, Hu ZQ (2008) Size dependent and reactive oxygen species related nanosilver toxicity to nitrifying bacteria. Environ Sci Technol 42:4583–4588</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/es703238h" data-track-item_id="10.1021/es703238h" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes703238h" aria-label="Article reference 106" data-doi="10.1021/es703238h">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXlslOjsLk%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 106">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 106" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Size%20dependent%20and%20reactive%20oxygen%20species%20related%20nanosilver%20toxicity%20to%20nitrifying%20bacteria&journal=Environ%20Sci%20Technol&doi=10.1021%2Fes703238h&volume=42&pages=4583-4588&publication_year=2008&author=Choi%2COK&author=Hu%2CZQ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="107."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR107">Lok CN, Ho CM, Chen R, He QY, Yu WY, Sun H, Tam PK, Chiu JF, Che CM (2005) Proteomic analysis of the mode of antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles. Proteome Res 5:916–924</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/pr0504079" data-track-item_id="10.1021/pr0504079" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fpr0504079" aria-label="Article reference 107" data-doi="10.1021/pr0504079">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XitlSktb8%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 107">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 107" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Proteomic%20analysis%20of%20the%20mode%20of%20antibacterial%20action%20of%20silver%20nanoparticles&journal=Proteome%20Res&doi=10.1021%2Fpr0504079&volume=5&pages=916-924&publication_year=2005&author=Lok%2CCN&author=Ho%2CCM&author=Chen%2CR&author=He%2CQY&author=Yu%2CWY&author=Sun%2CH&author=Tam%2CPK&author=Chiu%2CJF&author=Che%2CCM"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="108."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR108">Pal S, Tak YK, Song JM (2007) Does the antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles depend on the shape of the nanoparticle? A study of the gram-negative bacterium <i>Escherichia coli</i>. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:1712–1720</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1128/AEM.02218-06" data-track-item_id="10.1128/AEM.02218-06" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.02218-06" aria-label="Article reference 108" data-doi="10.1128/AEM.02218-06">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXjs1ahtrk%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 108">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 108" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Does%20the%20antibacterial%20activity%20of%20silver%20nanoparticles%20depend%20on%20the%20shape%20of%20the%20nanoparticle%3F%20A%20study%20of%20the%20gram-negative%20bacterium%20Escherichia%20coli&journal=Appl%20Environ%20Microbiol&doi=10.1128%2FAEM.02218-06&volume=73&pages=1712-1720&publication_year=2007&author=Pal%2CS&author=Tak%2CYK&author=Song%2CJM"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="109."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR109">Sondi I, Salopek-Sondi B (2004) Silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agent: a case study on <i>E. coli</i> as a model for Gram-negative bacteria. J Colloid Interf Sci 275:177–182</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.jcis.2004.02.012" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.jcis.2004.02.012" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jcis.2004.02.012" aria-label="Article reference 109" data-doi="10.1016/j.jcis.2004.02.012">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXktFKktL4%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 109">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 109" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Silver%20nanoparticles%20as%20antimicrobial%20agent%3A%20a%20case%20study%20on%20E.%20coli%20as%20a%20model%20for%20Gram-negative%20bacteria&journal=J%20Colloid%20Interf%20Sci&doi=10.1016%2Fj.jcis.2004.02.012&volume=275&pages=177-182&publication_year=2004&author=Sondi%2CI&author=Salopek-Sondi%2CB"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="110."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR110">Elechiguerra J, Burt J, Morones J, Camacho-Bragado A, Gao X, Lara HH, Yacaman MJ (2005) Interaction of silver nanoparticles with HIV-1. J Nanobiotechnol 3:6</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1186/1477-3155-3-6" data-track-item_id="10.1186/1477-3155-3-6" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1186/1477-3155-3-6" aria-label="Article reference 110" data-doi="10.1186/1477-3155-3-6">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 110" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Interaction%20of%20silver%20nanoparticles%20with%20HIV-1&journal=J%20Nanobiotechnol&doi=10.1186%2F1477-3155-3-6&volume=3&publication_year=2005&author=Elechiguerra%2CJ&author=Burt%2CJ&author=Morones%2CJ&author=Camacho-Bragado%2CA&author=Gao%2CX&author=Lara%2CHH&author=Yacaman%2CMJ"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="111."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR111">Huang Z, Zheng X, Yan D, Yin G, Liao X, Kang Y, Yao Y, Huang D, Hao B (2008) Toxicological effect of ZnO nanoparticles based on bacteria. Langmuir 24:4140–4144</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1021/la7035949" data-track-item_id="10.1021/la7035949" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fla7035949" aria-label="Article reference 111" data-doi="10.1021/la7035949">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjtlOjtrk%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 111">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 111" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Toxicological%20effect%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticles%20based%20on%20bacteria&journal=Langmuir&doi=10.1021%2Fla7035949&volume=24&pages=4140-4144&publication_year=2008&author=Huang%2CZ&author=Zheng%2CX&author=Yan%2CD&author=Yin%2CG&author=Liao%2CX&author=Kang%2CY&author=Yao%2CY&author=Huang%2CD&author=Hao%2CB"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="112."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR112">Zan L, Fa W, Peng T, Gong ZK (2007) Photocatalysis effect of nanometer TiO2 and TiO2-coated ceramic plate on hepatitis B virus. J Photochem Photobiol B 86:165–169</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2006.09.002" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2006.09.002" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jphotobiol.2006.09.002" aria-label="Article reference 112" data-doi="10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2006.09.002">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhsFenug%3D%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 112">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 112" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Photocatalysis%20effect%20of%20nanometer%20TiO2%20and%20TiO2-coated%20ceramic%20plate%20on%20hepatitis%20B%20virus&journal=J%20Photochem%20Photobiol%20B&doi=10.1016%2Fj.jphotobiol.2006.09.002&volume=86&pages=165-169&publication_year=2007&author=Zan%2CL&author=Fa%2CW&author=Peng%2CT&author=Gong%2CZK"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="113."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR113">Bajpai KS, Chand N, Chaurasia V (2012) Nano zinc oxide-loaded calcium alginate films with potential antibacterial properties. Food Bioprocess Technol 5:1871–1881</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1007/s11947-011-0587-6" data-track-item_id="10.1007/s11947-011-0587-6" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1007/s11947-011-0587-6" aria-label="Article reference 113" data-doi="10.1007/s11947-011-0587-6">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XosVWrtr8%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 113">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 113" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Nano%20zinc%20oxide-loaded%20calcium%20alginate%20films%20with%20potential%20antibacterial%20properties&journal=Food%20Bioprocess%20Technol&doi=10.1007%2Fs11947-011-0587-6&volume=5&pages=1871-1881&publication_year=2012&author=Bajpai%2CKS&author=Chand%2CN&author=Chaurasia%2CV"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="114."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR114">Xie Y, He Y, Irwin LP, Jin T, Shi X (2011) Antibacterial activity and mechanism of action of zinc oxide nanoparticles against <i>Campylobacter jejuni</i>. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:2325–2331</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1128/AEM.02149-10" data-track-item_id="10.1128/AEM.02149-10" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAEM.02149-10" aria-label="Article reference 114" data-doi="10.1128/AEM.02149-10">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXhtVWktLjJ" aria-label="CAS reference 114">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 114" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Antibacterial%20activity%20and%20mechanism%20of%20action%20of%20zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20against%20Campylobacter%20jejuni&journal=Appl%20Environ%20Microbiol&doi=10.1128%2FAEM.02149-10&volume=77&pages=2325-2331&publication_year=2011&author=Xie%2CY&author=He%2CY&author=Irwin%2CLP&author=Jin%2CT&author=Shi%2CX"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="115."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR115">Akbar A, Anal AK (2014) Zinc oxide nanoparticles loaded active packaging, a challenge study against <i>Salmonella typhimurium</i> and <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> in ready-to-eat poultry meat. Food Control 38:88–95</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.09.065" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.09.065" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.foodcont.2013.09.065" aria-label="Article reference 115" data-doi="10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.09.065">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3sXhvFWjtr%2FK" aria-label="CAS reference 115">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 115" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20loaded%20active%20packaging%2C%20a%20challenge%20study%20against%20Salmonella%20typhimurium%20and%20Staphylococcus%20aureus%20in%20ready-to-eat%20poultry%20meat&journal=Food%20Control&doi=10.1016%2Fj.foodcont.2013.09.065&volume=38&pages=88-95&publication_year=2014&author=Akbar%2CA&author=Anal%2CAK"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="116."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR116">Akhtar MJ, Ahamed M, Kumar S, Majeed Khan MA, Ahmad J, Alrokayan SA (2012) Zinc oxide nanoparticles selectively induce apoptosis in human cancer cells through reactive oxygen species. Int J Nanomedicine 7:845–857</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC38XjvFWrs70%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 116">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 116" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles%20selectively%20induce%20apoptosis%20in%20human%20cancer%20cells%20through%20reactive%20oxygen%20species&journal=Int%20J%20Nanomedicine&volume=7&pages=845-857&publication_year=2012&author=Akhtar%2CMJ&author=Ahamed%2CM&author=Kumar%2CS&author=Majeed%20Khan%2CMA&author=Ahmad%2CJ&author=Alrokayan%2CSA"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="117."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR117">Leung YH, Xu X, Ma APY, Liu F, Ng AMC, Shen Z, Gethings LA, Guo MY, Djurišić AB, Lee PKH, Lee HK, Chan WK, Leung FCC (2016) Toxicity of ZnO and TiO<sub>2</sub> to <i>Escherichia coli</i> cells. Sci Rep 6:35243</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1038/srep35243" data-track-item_id="10.1038/srep35243" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep35243" aria-label="Article reference 117" data-doi="10.1038/srep35243">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC28Xhs1yisrzF" aria-label="CAS reference 117">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 117" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Toxicity%20of%20ZnO%20and%20TiO2%20to%20Escherichia%20coli%20cells&journal=Sci%20Rep&doi=10.1038%2Fsrep35243&volume=6&publication_year=2016&author=Leung%2CYH&author=Xu%2CX&author=Ma%2CAPY&author=Liu%2CF&author=Ng%2CAMC&author=Shen%2CZ&author=Gethings%2CLA&author=Guo%2CMY&author=Djuri%C5%A1i%C4%87%2CAB&author=Lee%2CPKH&author=Lee%2CHK&author=Chan%2CWK&author=Leung%2CFCC"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="118."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR118">Sinha R, Karan R, Sinha A, Khare SK (2011) Interaction and nanotoxic effect of ZnO and Ag nanoparticles on mesophilic and halophilic bacterial cells. Bioresour Technol 102:1516–1520</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1016/j.biortech.2010.07.117" data-track-item_id="10.1016/j.biortech.2010.07.117" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biortech.2010.07.117" aria-label="Article reference 118" data-doi="10.1016/j.biortech.2010.07.117">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXitlShtQ%3D%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 118">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 118" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Interaction%20and%20nanotoxic%20effect%20of%20ZnO%20and%20Ag%20nanoparticles%20on%20mesophilic%20and%20halophilic%20bacterial%20cells&journal=Bioresour%20Technol&doi=10.1016%2Fj.biortech.2010.07.117&volume=102&pages=1516-1520&publication_year=2011&author=Sinha%2CR&author=Karan%2CR&author=Sinha%2CA&author=Khare%2CSK"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="119."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR119">Jones N, Ray B, Ranjit KT, Manna AC (2008) Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticle suspensions on a broad spectrum of microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 279:71–76</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.01012.x" data-track-item_id="10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.01012.x" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1574-6968.2007.01012.x" aria-label="Article reference 119" data-doi="10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.01012.x">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhslGksLo%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 119">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 119" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Antibacterial%20activity%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticle%20suspensions%20on%20a%20broad%20spectrum%20of%20microorganisms&journal=FEMS%20Microbiol%20Lett&doi=10.1111%2Fj.1574-6968.2007.01012.x&volume=279&pages=71-76&publication_year=2008&author=Jones%2CN&author=Ray%2CB&author=Ranjit%2CKT&author=Manna%2CAC"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li><li class="c-article-references__item js-c-reading-companion-references-item" data-counter="120."><p class="c-article-references__text" id="ref-CR120">Wahab R, Mishra A, Yun SI, Kim YS, Shin HS (2010) Antibacterial activity of ZnO nanoparticles prepared via non-hydrolytic solution route. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 87:1917–1925</p><p class="c-article-references__links u-hide-print"><a data-track="click_references" rel="noopener" data-track-label="10.1007/s00253-010-2692-2" data-track-item_id="10.1007/s00253-010-2692-2" data-track-value="article reference" data-track-action="article reference" href="https://link.springer.com/doi/10.1007/s00253-010-2692-2" aria-label="Article reference 120" data-doi="10.1007/s00253-010-2692-2">Article</a> <a data-track="click_references" rel="nofollow noopener" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" data-track-value="cas reference" data-track-action="cas reference" href="/articles/cas-redirect/1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXoslant7o%3D" aria-label="CAS reference 120">CAS</a> <a data-track="click_references" data-track-action="google scholar reference" data-track-value="google scholar reference" data-track-label="link" data-track-item_id="link" rel="nofollow noopener" aria-label="Google Scholar reference 120" href="http://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?&title=Antibacterial%20activity%20of%20ZnO%20nanoparticles%20prepared%20via%20non-hydrolytic%20solution%20route&journal=Appl%20Microbiol%20Biotechnol&doi=10.1007%2Fs00253-010-2692-2&volume=87&pages=1917-1925&publication_year=2010&author=Wahab%2CR&author=Mishra%2CA&author=Yun%2CSI&author=Kim%2CYS&author=Shin%2CHS"> Google Scholar</a> </p></li></ol><p class="c-article-references__download u-hide-print"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="download citation references" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3?format=refman&flavour=references">Download references<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p></div></div></div></section></div><section data-title="Acknowledgements"><div class="c-article-section" id="Ack1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Ack1">Acknowledgements</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Ack1-content"><p>The authors are thankful to publishers for the permission to adopt the table and figures in this review.</p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="author-information" data-title="Author information"><div class="c-article-section" id="author-information-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="author-information">Author information</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="author-information-content"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="affiliations">Authors and Affiliations</h3><ol class="c-article-author-affiliation__list"><li id="Aff1"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, 202002, India</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Khwaja Salahuddin Siddiqi</p></li><li id="Aff2"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Saidla (Unani Pharmacy), Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, 202002, India</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Aziz ur Rahman & Tajuddin</p></li><li id="Aff3"><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__address">Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, University of Gondar, P.O. Box #196, Gondar, Ethiopia</p><p class="c-article-author-affiliation__authors-list">Azamal Husen</p></li></ol><div class="u-js-hide u-hide-print" data-test="author-info"><span class="c-article__sub-heading">Authors</span><ol class="c-article-authors-search u-list-reset"><li id="auth-Khwaja_Salahuddin-Siddiqi-Aff1"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Khwaja Salahuddin Siddiqi</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Khwaja%20Salahuddin%20Siddiqi" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Khwaja%20Salahuddin%20Siddiqi" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Khwaja%20Salahuddin%20Siddiqi%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Aziz-ur_Rahman-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Aziz ur Rahman</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Aziz%20ur%20Rahman" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Aziz%20ur%20Rahman" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Aziz%20ur%20Rahman%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth--Tajuddin-Aff2"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name"> Tajuddin</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=%20Tajuddin" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=%20Tajuddin" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22%20Tajuddin%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li><li id="auth-Azamal-Husen-Aff3"><span class="c-article-authors-search__title u-h3 js-search-name">Azamal Husen</span><div class="c-article-authors-search__list"><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--left"><a href="/search?dc.creator=Azamal%20Husen" class="c-article-button" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - publication" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">View author publications</a></div><div class="c-article-authors-search__item c-article-authors-search__list-item--right"><p class="search-in-title-js c-article-authors-search__text">You can also search for this author in <span class="c-article-identifiers"><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=search&term=Azamal%20Husen" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - pubmed" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">PubMed</a><span class="u-hide"> </span><a class="c-article-identifiers__item" href="http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?as_q=&num=10&btnG=Search+Scholar&as_epq=&as_oq=&as_eq=&as_occt=any&as_sauthors=%22Azamal%20Husen%22&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&as_allsubj=all&hl=en" data-track="click" data-track-action="author link - scholar" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Google Scholar</a></span></p></div></div></li></ol></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="contributions">Contributions</h3><p>AH, KSS, AR, and T gathered the research data. AH and KSS analyzed these data and wrote this review paper. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="corresponding-author">Corresponding author</h3><p id="corresponding-author-list">Correspondence to <a id="corresp-c1" href="mailto:adroot92@yahoo.co.in">Azamal Husen</a>.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Ethics declarations"><div class="c-article-section" id="ethics-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="ethics">Ethics declarations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="ethics-content"> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar1">Competing interests</h3> <p>The authors declare that they have no competing interests.</p> <h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="FPar2">Publisher’s Note</h3> <p>Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</p> </div></div></section><section data-title="Rights and permissions"><div class="c-article-section" id="rightslink-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="rightslink">Rights and permissions</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="rightslink-content"> <p><b>Open Access</b> This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (<a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" rel="license">http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</a>), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.</p> <p class="c-article-rights"><a data-track="click" data-track-action="view rights and permissions" data-track-label="link" href="https://s100.copyright.com/AppDispatchServlet?title=Properties%20of%20Zinc%20Oxide%20Nanoparticles%20and%20Their%20Activity%20Against%20Microbes&author=Khwaja%20Salahuddin%20Siddiqi%20et%20al&contentID=10.1186%2Fs11671-018-2532-3&copyright=The%20Author%28s%29.&publication=1931-7573&publicationDate=2018-05-08&publisherName=SpringerNature&orderBeanReset=true&oa=CC%20BY">Reprints and permissions</a></p></div></div></section><section aria-labelledby="article-info" data-title="About this article"><div class="c-article-section" id="article-info-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="article-info">About this article</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="article-info-content"><div class="c-bibliographic-information"><div class="u-hide-print c-bibliographic-information__column c-bibliographic-information__column--border"><a data-crossmark="10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3" target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3" data-track="click" data-track-action="Click Crossmark" data-track-label="link" data-test="crossmark"><img loading="lazy" width="57" height="81" alt="Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,<svg height="81" width="57" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g fill="none" fill-rule="evenodd"><path d="m17.35 35.45 21.3-14.2v-17.03h-21.3" fill="#989898"/><path d="m38.65 35.45-21.3-14.2v-17.03h21.3" fill="#747474"/><path d="m28 .5c-12.98 0-23.5 10.52-23.5 23.5s10.52 23.5 23.5 23.5 23.5-10.52 23.5-23.5c0-6.23-2.48-12.21-6.88-16.62-4.41-4.4-10.39-6.88-16.62-6.88zm0 41.25c-9.8 0-17.75-7.95-17.75-17.75s7.95-17.75 17.75-17.75 17.75 7.95 17.75 17.75c0 4.71-1.87 9.22-5.2 12.55s-7.84 5.2-12.55 5.2z" fill="#535353"/><path d="m41 36c-5.81 6.23-15.23 7.45-22.43 2.9-7.21-4.55-10.16-13.57-7.03-21.5l-4.92-3.11c-4.95 10.7-1.19 23.42 8.78 29.71 9.97 6.3 23.07 4.22 30.6-4.86z" fill="#9c9c9c"/><path d="m.2 58.45c0-.75.11-1.42.33-2.01s.52-1.09.91-1.5c.38-.41.83-.73 1.34-.94.51-.22 1.06-.32 1.65-.32.56 0 1.06.11 1.51.35.44.23.81.5 1.1.81l-.91 1.01c-.24-.24-.49-.42-.75-.56-.27-.13-.58-.2-.93-.2-.39 0-.73.08-1.05.23-.31.16-.58.37-.81.66-.23.28-.41.63-.53 1.04-.13.41-.19.88-.19 1.39 0 1.04.23 1.86.68 2.46.45.59 1.06.88 1.84.88.41 0 .77-.07 1.07-.23s.59-.39.85-.68l.91 1c-.38.43-.8.76-1.28.99-.47.22-1 .34-1.58.34-.59 0-1.13-.1-1.64-.31-.5-.2-.94-.51-1.31-.91-.38-.4-.67-.9-.88-1.48-.22-.59-.33-1.26-.33-2.02zm8.4-5.33h1.61v2.54l-.05 1.33c.29-.27.61-.51.96-.72s.76-.31 1.24-.31c.73 0 1.27.23 1.61.71.33.47.5 1.14.5 2.02v4.31h-1.61v-4.1c0-.57-.08-.97-.25-1.21-.17-.23-.45-.35-.83-.35-.3 0-.56.08-.79.22-.23.15-.49.36-.78.64v4.8h-1.61zm7.37 6.45c0-.56.09-1.06.26-1.51.18-.45.42-.83.71-1.14.29-.3.63-.54 1.01-.71.39-.17.78-.25 1.18-.25.47 0 .88.08 1.23.24.36.16.65.38.89.67s.42.63.54 1.03c.12.41.18.84.18 1.32 0 .32-.02.57-.07.76h-4.36c.07.62.29 1.1.65 1.44.36.33.82.5 1.38.5.29 0 .57-.04.83-.13s.51-.21.76-.37l.55 1.01c-.33.21-.69.39-1.09.53-.41.14-.83.21-1.26.21-.48 0-.92-.08-1.34-.25-.41-.16-.76-.4-1.07-.7-.31-.31-.55-.69-.72-1.13-.18-.44-.26-.95-.26-1.52zm4.6-.62c0-.55-.11-.98-.34-1.28-.23-.31-.58-.47-1.06-.47-.41 0-.77.15-1.07.45-.31.29-.5.73-.58 1.3zm2.5.62c0-.57.09-1.08.28-1.53.18-.44.43-.82.75-1.13s.69-.54 1.1-.71c.42-.16.85-.24 1.31-.24.45 0 .84.08 1.17.23s.61.34.85.57l-.77 1.02c-.19-.16-.38-.28-.56-.37-.19-.09-.39-.14-.61-.14-.56 0-1.01.21-1.35.63-.35.41-.52.97-.52 1.67 0 .69.17 1.24.51 1.66.34.41.78.62 1.32.62.28 0 .54-.06.78-.17.24-.12.45-.26.64-.42l.67 1.03c-.33.29-.69.51-1.08.65-.39.15-.78.23-1.18.23-.46 0-.9-.08-1.31-.24-.4-.16-.75-.39-1.05-.7s-.53-.69-.7-1.13c-.17-.45-.25-.96-.25-1.53zm6.91-6.45h1.58v6.17h.05l2.54-3.16h1.77l-2.35 2.8 2.59 4.07h-1.75l-1.77-2.98-1.08 1.23v1.75h-1.58zm13.69 1.27c-.25-.11-.5-.17-.75-.17-.58 0-.87.39-.87 1.16v.75h1.34v1.27h-1.34v5.6h-1.61v-5.6h-.92v-1.2l.92-.07v-.72c0-.35.04-.68.13-.98.08-.31.21-.57.4-.79s.42-.39.71-.51c.28-.12.63-.18 1.04-.18.24 0 .48.02.69.07.22.05.41.1.57.17zm.48 5.18c0-.57.09-1.08.27-1.53.17-.44.41-.82.72-1.13.3-.31.65-.54 1.04-.71.39-.16.8-.24 1.23-.24s.84.08 1.24.24c.4.17.74.4 1.04.71s.54.69.72 1.13c.19.45.28.96.28 1.53s-.09 1.08-.28 1.53c-.18.44-.42.82-.72 1.13s-.64.54-1.04.7-.81.24-1.24.24-.84-.08-1.23-.24-.74-.39-1.04-.7c-.31-.31-.55-.69-.72-1.13-.18-.45-.27-.96-.27-1.53zm1.65 0c0 .69.14 1.24.43 1.66.28.41.68.62 1.18.62.51 0 .9-.21 1.19-.62.29-.42.44-.97.44-1.66 0-.7-.15-1.26-.44-1.67-.29-.42-.68-.63-1.19-.63-.5 0-.9.21-1.18.63-.29.41-.43.97-.43 1.67zm6.48-3.44h1.33l.12 1.21h.05c.24-.44.54-.79.88-1.02.35-.24.7-.36 1.07-.36.32 0 .59.05.78.14l-.28 1.4-.33-.09c-.11-.01-.23-.02-.38-.02-.27 0-.56.1-.86.31s-.55.58-.77 1.1v4.2h-1.61zm-47.87 15h1.61v4.1c0 .57.08.97.25 1.2.17.24.44.35.81.35.3 0 .57-.07.8-.22.22-.15.47-.39.73-.73v-4.7h1.61v6.87h-1.32l-.12-1.01h-.04c-.3.36-.63.64-.98.86-.35.21-.76.32-1.24.32-.73 0-1.27-.24-1.61-.71-.33-.47-.5-1.14-.5-2.02zm9.46 7.43v2.16h-1.61v-9.59h1.33l.12.72h.05c.29-.24.61-.45.97-.63.35-.17.72-.26 1.1-.26.43 0 .81.08 1.15.24.33.17.61.4.84.71.24.31.41.68.53 1.11.13.42.19.91.19 1.44 0 .59-.09 1.11-.25 1.57-.16.47-.38.85-.65 1.16-.27.32-.58.56-.94.73-.35.16-.72.25-1.1.25-.3 0-.6-.07-.9-.2s-.59-.31-.87-.56zm0-2.3c.26.22.5.37.73.45.24.09.46.13.66.13.46 0 .84-.2 1.15-.6.31-.39.46-.98.46-1.77 0-.69-.12-1.22-.35-1.61-.23-.38-.61-.57-1.13-.57-.49 0-.99.26-1.52.77zm5.87-1.69c0-.56.08-1.06.25-1.51.16-.45.37-.83.65-1.14.27-.3.58-.54.93-.71s.71-.25 1.08-.25c.39 0 .73.07 1 .2.27.14.54.32.81.55l-.06-1.1v-2.49h1.61v9.88h-1.33l-.11-.74h-.06c-.25.25-.54.46-.88.64-.33.18-.69.27-1.06.27-.87 0-1.56-.32-2.07-.95s-.76-1.51-.76-2.65zm1.67-.01c0 .74.13 1.31.4 1.7.26.38.65.58 1.15.58.51 0 .99-.26 1.44-.77v-3.21c-.24-.21-.48-.36-.7-.45-.23-.08-.46-.12-.7-.12-.45 0-.82.19-1.13.59-.31.39-.46.95-.46 1.68zm6.35 1.59c0-.73.32-1.3.97-1.71.64-.4 1.67-.68 3.08-.84 0-.17-.02-.34-.07-.51-.05-.16-.12-.3-.22-.43s-.22-.22-.38-.3c-.15-.06-.34-.1-.58-.1-.34 0-.68.07-1 .2s-.63.29-.93.47l-.59-1.08c.39-.24.81-.45 1.28-.63.47-.17.99-.26 1.54-.26.86 0 1.51.25 1.93.76s.63 1.25.63 2.21v4.07h-1.32l-.12-.76h-.05c-.3.27-.63.48-.98.66s-.73.27-1.14.27c-.61 0-1.1-.19-1.48-.56-.38-.36-.57-.85-.57-1.46zm1.57-.12c0 .3.09.53.27.67.19.14.42.21.71.21.28 0 .54-.07.77-.2s.48-.31.73-.56v-1.54c-.47.06-.86.13-1.18.23-.31.09-.57.19-.76.31s-.33.25-.41.4c-.09.15-.13.31-.13.48zm6.29-3.63h-.98v-1.2l1.06-.07.2-1.88h1.34v1.88h1.75v1.27h-1.75v3.28c0 .8.32 1.2.97 1.2.12 0 .24-.01.37-.04.12-.03.24-.07.34-.11l.28 1.19c-.19.06-.4.12-.64.17-.23.05-.49.08-.76.08-.4 0-.74-.06-1.02-.18-.27-.13-.49-.3-.67-.52-.17-.21-.3-.48-.37-.78-.08-.3-.12-.64-.12-1.01zm4.36 2.17c0-.56.09-1.06.27-1.51s.41-.83.71-1.14c.29-.3.63-.54 1.01-.71.39-.17.78-.25 1.18-.25.47 0 .88.08 1.23.24.36.16.65.38.89.67s.42.63.54 1.03c.12.41.18.84.18 1.32 0 .32-.02.57-.07.76h-4.37c.08.62.29 1.1.65 1.44.36.33.82.5 1.38.5.3 0 .58-.04.84-.13.25-.09.51-.21.76-.37l.54 1.01c-.32.21-.69.39-1.09.53s-.82.21-1.26.21c-.47 0-.92-.08-1.33-.25-.41-.16-.77-.4-1.08-.7-.3-.31-.54-.69-.72-1.13-.17-.44-.26-.95-.26-1.52zm4.61-.62c0-.55-.11-.98-.34-1.28-.23-.31-.58-.47-1.06-.47-.41 0-.77.15-1.08.45-.31.29-.5.73-.57 1.3zm3.01 2.23c.31.24.61.43.92.57.3.13.63.2.98.2.38 0 .65-.08.83-.23s.27-.35.27-.6c0-.14-.05-.26-.13-.37-.08-.1-.2-.2-.34-.28-.14-.09-.29-.16-.47-.23l-.53-.22c-.23-.09-.46-.18-.69-.3-.23-.11-.44-.24-.62-.4s-.33-.35-.45-.55c-.12-.21-.18-.46-.18-.75 0-.61.23-1.1.68-1.49.44-.38 1.06-.57 1.83-.57.48 0 .91.08 1.29.25s.71.36.99.57l-.74.98c-.24-.17-.49-.32-.73-.42-.25-.11-.51-.16-.78-.16-.35 0-.6.07-.76.21-.17.15-.25.33-.25.54 0 .14.04.26.12.36s.18.18.31.26c.14.07.29.14.46.21l.54.19c.23.09.47.18.7.29s.44.24.64.4c.19.16.34.35.46.58.11.23.17.5.17.82 0 .3-.06.58-.17.83-.12.26-.29.48-.51.68-.23.19-.51.34-.84.45-.34.11-.72.17-1.15.17-.48 0-.95-.09-1.41-.27-.46-.19-.86-.41-1.2-.68z" fill="#535353"/></g></svg>"></a></div><div class="c-bibliographic-information__column"><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Siddiqi, K.S., ur Rahman, A., Tajuddin <i>et al.</i> Properties of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Activity Against Microbes. <i>Nanoscale Res Lett</i> <b>13</b>, 141 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Received<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2017-10-04">04 October 2017</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Accepted<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2018-04-16">16 April 2018</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Published<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2018-05-08">08 May 2018</time></span></p></li><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item c-bibliographic-information__list-item--full-width"><p><abbr title="Digital Object Identifier">DOI</abbr><span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value">https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-018-2532-3</span></p></li></ul><div data-component="share-box"><div class="c-article-share-box u-display-none" hidden=""><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Share this article</h3><p class="c-article-share-box__description">Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:</p><button class="js-get-share-url c-article-share-box__button" type="button" id="get-share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-external="" data-track-action="get shareable link">Get shareable link</button><div class="js-no-share-url-container u-display-none" hidden=""><p class="js-c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info c-article-share-box__no-sharelink-info">Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.</p></div><div class="js-share-url-container u-display-none" hidden=""><p class="js-share-url c-article-share-box__only-read-input" id="share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="select share url"></p><button class="js-copy-share-url c-article-share-box__button--link-like" type="button" id="copy-share-url" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="copy share url" data-track-external="">Copy to clipboard</button></div><p class="js-c-article-share-box__additional-info c-article-share-box__additional-info"> Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative </p></div></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading">Keywords</h3><ul class="c-article-subject-list"><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Zinc%20oxide%20nanoparticles&facet-discipline="Materials%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Zinc oxide nanoparticles</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Microorganisms&facet-discipline="Materials%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Microorganisms</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Antimicrobial&facet-discipline="Materials%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Antimicrobial</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Toxicity&facet-discipline="Materials%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Toxicity</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Mechanism&facet-discipline="Materials%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Mechanism</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Biodistribution&facet-discipline="Materials%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Biodistribution</a></span></li></ul><div data-component="article-info-list"></div></div></div></div></div></section> </div> </main> <div class="c-article-sidebar u-text-sm u-hide-print l-with-sidebar__sidebar" id="sidebar" data-container-type="reading-companion" data-track-component="reading companion"> <aside> <div class="app-card-service" data-test="article-checklist-banner"> <div> <a class="app-card-service__link" data-track="click_presubmission_checklist" data-track-context="article page top of reading companion" data-track-category="pre-submission-checklist" data-track-action="clicked article page checklist banner test 2 old version" data-track-label="link" href="https://beta.springernature.com/pre-submission?journalId=11671" data-test="article-checklist-banner-link"> <span class="app-card-service__link-text">Use our pre-submission checklist</span> <svg class="app-card-service__link-icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-small"></use></svg> </a> <p class="app-card-service__description">Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.</p> </div> <div class="app-card-service__icon-container"> <svg class="app-card-service__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-clipboard-check-medium"></use> </svg> </div> </div> <div data-test="collections"> </div> <div data-test="editorial-summary"> </div> <div class="c-reading-companion"> <div class="c-reading-companion__sticky" data-component="reading-companion-sticky" data-test="reading-companion-sticky"> <div class="c-reading-companion__panel c-reading-companion__sections c-reading-companion__panel--active" id="tabpanel-sections"> <div class="u-lazy-ad-wrapper u-mt-16 u-hide" data-component-mpu><div class="c-ad c-ad--300x250"> <div class="c-ad__inner"> <p class="c-ad__label">Advertisement</p> <div id="div-gpt-ad-MPU1" class="div-gpt-ad grade-c-hide" data-pa11y-ignore data-gpt data-gpt-unitpath="/270604982/springerlink/11671/article" data-gpt-sizes="300x250" data-test="MPU1-ad" data-gpt-targeting="pos=MPU1;articleid=s11671-018-2532-3;"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="c-reading-companion__panel c-reading-companion__figures c-reading-companion__panel--full-width" id="tabpanel-figures"></div> <div class="c-reading-companion__panel c-reading-companion__references c-reading-companion__panel--full-width" id="tabpanel-references"></div> </div> </div> </aside> </div> </div> </article> <div class="app-elements"> <div class="eds-c-header__expander eds-c-header__expander--search" id="eds-c-header-popup-search"> <h2 class="eds-c-header__heading">Search</h2> <div class="u-container"> <search class="eds-c-header__search" role="search" aria-label="Search from the header"> <form method="GET" action="//link.springer.com/search" data-test="header-search" data-track="search" data-track-context="search from header" data-track-action="submit search form" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="form" > <label for="eds-c-header-search" class="eds-c-header__search-label">Search by keyword or author</label> <div class="eds-c-header__search-container"> <input id="eds-c-header-search" class="eds-c-header__search-input" autocomplete="off" name="query" type="search" value="" required> <button class="eds-c-header__search-button" type="submit"> <svg class="eds-c-header__icon" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-search-medium"></use> </svg> <span class="u-visually-hidden">Search</span> </button> </div> </form> </search> </div> </div> <div class="eds-c-header__expander eds-c-header__expander--menu" id="eds-c-header-nav"> <h2 class="eds-c-header__heading">Navigation</h2> <ul class="eds-c-header__list"> <li class="eds-c-header__list-item"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://link.springer.com/journals/" data-track="nav_find_a_journal" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click find a journal" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Find a journal </a> </li> <li class="eds-c-header__list-item"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/authors" data-track="nav_how_to_publish" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click publish with us link" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Publish with us </a> </li> <li class="eds-c-header__list-item"> <a class="eds-c-header__link" href="https://link.springernature.com/home/" data-track="nav_track_your_research" data-track-context="unified header" data-track-action="click track your research" data-track-category="unified header" data-track-label="link" > Track your research </a> </li> </ul> </div> <footer > <div class="eds-c-footer" > <div class="eds-c-footer__container"> <div class="eds-c-footer__grid eds-c-footer__group--separator"> <div class="eds-c-footer__group"> <h3 class="eds-c-footer__heading">Discover content</h3> <ul class="eds-c-footer__list"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/journals/a/1" data-track="nav_journals_a_z" data-track-action="journals a-z" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Journals A-Z</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/books/a/1" data-track="nav_books_a_z" data-track-action="books a-z" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Books A-Z</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="eds-c-footer__group"> <h3 class="eds-c-footer__heading">Publish with us</h3> <ul class="eds-c-footer__list"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/journals" data-track="nav_journal_finder" data-track-action="journal finder" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Journal finder</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/authors" data-track="nav_publish_your_research" data-track-action="publish your research" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Publish your research</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/open-research/about/the-fundamentals-of-open-access-and-open-research" data-track="nav_open_access_publishing" data-track-action="open access publishing" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Open access publishing</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="eds-c-footer__group"> <h3 class="eds-c-footer__heading">Products and services</h3> <ul class="eds-c-footer__list"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/products" data-track="nav_our_products" data-track-action="our products" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Our products</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/librarians" data-track="nav_librarians" data-track-action="librarians" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Librarians</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/societies" data-track="nav_societies" data-track-action="societies" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Societies</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/partners" data-track="nav_partners_and_advertisers" data-track-action="partners and advertisers" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Partners and advertisers</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="eds-c-footer__group"> <h3 class="eds-c-footer__heading">Our imprints</h3> <ul class="eds-c-footer__list"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springer.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_Springer" data-track-action="Springer" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Springer</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.nature.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_Nature_Portfolio" data-track-action="Nature Portfolio" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Nature Portfolio</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.biomedcentral.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_BMC" data-track-action="BMC" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">BMC</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.palgrave.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_Palgrave_Macmillan" data-track-action="Palgrave Macmillan" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Palgrave Macmillan</a></li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"><a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.apress.com/" data-track="nav_imprint_Apress" data-track-action="Apress" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Apress</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div class="eds-c-footer__container"> <nav aria-label="footer navigation"> <ul class="eds-c-footer__links"> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <button class="eds-c-footer__link" data-cc-action="preferences" data-track="dialog_manage_cookies" data-track-action="Manage cookies" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link"><span class="eds-c-footer__button-text">Your privacy choices/Manage cookies</span></button> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/legal/ccpa" data-track="nav_california_privacy_statement" data-track-action="california privacy statement" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Your US state privacy rights</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://www.springernature.com/gp/info/accessibility" data-track="nav_accessibility_statement" data-track-action="accessibility statement" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Accessibility statement</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/termsandconditions" data-track="nav_terms_and_conditions" data-track-action="terms and conditions" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Terms and conditions</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://link.springer.com/privacystatement" data-track="nav_privacy_policy" data-track-action="privacy policy" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Privacy policy</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://support.springernature.com/en/support/home" data-track="nav_help_and_support" data-track-action="help and support" data-track-context="unified footer" data-track-label="link">Help and support</a> </li> <li class="eds-c-footer__item"> <a class="eds-c-footer__link" href="https://support.springernature.com/en/support/solutions/articles/6000255911-subscription-cancellations" data-track-action="cancel contracts here">Cancel contracts here</a> </li> </ul> </nav> <div class="eds-c-footer__user"> <p class="eds-c-footer__user-info"> <span data-test="footer-user-ip">8.222.208.146</span> </p> <p class="eds-c-footer__user-info" data-test="footer-business-partners">Not affiliated</p> </div> <a href="https://www.springernature.com/" class="eds-c-footer__link"> <img src="/oscar-static/images/logo-springernature-white-19dd4ba190.svg" alt="Springer Nature" loading="lazy" width="200" height="20"/> </a> <p class="eds-c-footer__legal" data-test="copyright">© 2024 Springer Nature</p> </div> </div> </footer> </div> </body> </html>